NUCLEAR

POWER PLANT
Proceedings
of a

CONTROL
Symposium
Prague, 2 2 - 2 6 January 1973

AND
INSTRUMENTATION
1973

Ч й /
IN T E R N A T IO N A L ATOM С S¡3 р Э Д

f N rn riY "i г, г М Г У У1ГММ|; 1 9 7 3

N U C LE A R POW ER P L A N T CON TRO L
AND INSTRU M ENTATION
1973
 T h e fo llo w in g States are M em bers o f the International A to m ic Energy A g e n c y :

A F G H A N IS T A N GUATEM ALA PANAM A

ALBANIA HA ITI PARAGUAY
ALGERIA H O L Y SEE PERU
ARGEN T IN A HUNGARY PHILIPPINES
A USTR ALIA ICELAND P OLA N D
AUSTR IA INDIA P OR TU G A L
BANGLADESH INDONESIA R O M A N IA
BELGIUM IRAN SAUDI ARABIA
BOLIVIA IRAQ SENEGAL
BRAZIL IRELAND 'SIERRA LEONE
BULGARIA ISRAEL SINGAPORE
BURMA ITA L Y S O U T H AFRICA
BYELORUSSIAN SOVIET IVORY C O A S T SPAIN
SOC IALIST REPUBLIC JA M A IC A SRI L A N K A
CAM EROON IAPAN SUDAN
CANADA JORDAN SWEDEN
CHILE KENYA SW IT ZE RLAN D
C H IN A K H M E R REPUBLIC SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
C O LO M B IA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF TH A IL A N D
C O S T A RICA K U W A IT TUNISIA
CUBA LEBANON TU RK EY
CYPRUS LIBERIA UGANDA
C Z E C H O S L O V A K SOCIALIST LIBYAN ARAB REPUBLIC UKRA INIA N S O V IET SOCIALIST
REPUBLIC LIECHTENSTEIN REPUBLIC
DENM ARK LUXEM BOU RG U N IO N OF SO V IET SOC IALIST
D O M I N IC A N REPUBLIC MADAGASCAR REPUBLICS
EC U A D O R M A L A Y S IA UN ITED K I N G D O M OF GREAT
E G Y P T , ARAB REPUBLIC OF M ALI BRITAIN A N D NORTHERN
EL S A L V A D O R M E X IC O IRELAND
ETHIOPIA MONACO UN ITED STA TE S O F AM ERICA
FINLA ND M OROCCO URUGUAY
FRANCE NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA
GABON N E W Z E A LA N D VIET-NAM
G E R M A N Y , FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGER Y U G O S L A V IA
GHANA NIGERIA ZAIRE, REPUBLIC OF
GREECE NORWAY Z A M B IA
P AK ISTA N

The Agency* s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA
held at United Nations Headquarters, N ew York: it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of
the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is "to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of
atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world".

Printed by the IAEA in Austria,

July 1973
 PROCEEDINGS SERIES

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT CONTROL

AND INSTRUMENTATION
1973

P R O C E E D IN G S O F A S Y M P O S IU M O N
N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N
H ELD BY THE
IN T E R N A T IO N A L A T O M IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y
IN P R A G U E , C Z E C H O S L O V A K S O C I A L IS T R E P U B L I C ,
22 - 26 J A N U A R Y 1973

IN T E R N A T IO N A L A T O M IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y
V I E N N A , 1973
N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T C O N T R O L A N D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N , 1973
I A E A , V I E N N A , 1973
S T I/P U B /3 4 1
 FOREWORD

N u cle ar p o w er has now b e co m e an accepted ec onom ical alternative

to conventional p o w er in m an y countries. T h e r e are at present 121 nuclear
po w er reactors in operation in 15 M e m b e r States of the Agency with a total
capacity of about 30 000 M W ( e ) , approximately 3 % of the w o r ld 's installed
capacity. It is expected that within the next 25 y e a r s , about half the
w o r ld 's electrical po w er req uirem ents will be m e t by nuclear reactors.
T h e advantages of and the need for diversification of energy so urces,
notto m ention time factors, often favour the introduction of-nuclear p o w er,
and m an y developing countries have already e m b a r k e d on nuclear p ow er
construction p r o g r a m s or are expected to m a k e firm décisions within the
next decade on their nuclear p o w er plans. T h e y are following m o r e
developed countries, m o ving fro m the stage w he re building nuclear p ow er
stations constitutes a fo rm of industrial experim ent to that w h e re nuclear
p o w er can be co m m e rcia lly exploited on the basis of firm econom ic criteria.
T h e International A tom ic E n e r g y A g en c y convened the S y m p o siu m on
N u c le ar P o w e r Plant Control and Instrumentation, held in P r a g u e , from
22 to 26 January 1 9 7 3 , as part of a continuing p r o g r a m of w o rk connected
with the introduction and operation of nuclear p o w er stations in its M e m b e r
States. T h is p r o g r a m has included the collection and compilation of in­
formation on operating exp erien ce, a series of coordinated r e s e a r c h pro­
g r a m s on reactor engineering, and the establishm ent of a standing working
group on nuclear p o w er plant control and instrumentation to prom ote the
exchange of information and to stimulate r e s e a r c h .
T h e P r a g u e m eeting provided an opportunity for an a ss e ss m e n t of the
latest experience in the design, operation and m aintenance of control and
instrumentation s y s t e m s , including the relevant safety and econom y aspects,
and stress w a s laid on prob lem are a s.
It is hoped that the proceedings of the s y m p o s iu m , w hich include the
panel d iscussio n s, will be useful to specialists in planning and im proving
nuclear p o w er p r o g r a m s and will encourage closer cooperation between
de sig n er s , u s e r s and operators.
T h e A g en c y w ishes to thank particularly the G o v e rn m e n t of the
C ze ch o slo va k Socialist Republic for acting as host and providing the staff
and facilities that contributed so m u c h to the success of the m eeting.
 EDITORIAL NOTE

T h e p a p e r s and d i s c u s s io n s in c o r p o r a t e d in th e p r o c e e d i n g s p u b lis h e d
b y th e In te r n a tio n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y a r e e d ite d b y th e A g e n c y 's e d i ­
t o r ia l s t a f f to th e e x t e n t c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y f o r th e r e a d e r ' s a s s i s t a n c e .
T he v i e w s e x p r e s s e d and th e g e n e r a l s t y l e a d o p ted r e m a in , h o w e v e r , th e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e n a m e d a u th o r s o r p a r t ic ip a n t s .
F o r th e s a k e o f s p e e d o f p u b lic a tio n t h e 'p r e s e n t P r o c e e d i n g s h a v e b e e n
p r in te d b y c o m p o s itio n typ in g and p h o t o - o ff s e t lith o g ra p h y . W ithin the l i m i ­
ta tio n s im p o s e d b y th is m e th o d , e v e r y e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a d e to m a in ta in a
h igh e d it o r ia l s ta n d a rd ; in p a r tic u la r , th e u n its and s y m b o l s e m p lo y e d a r e
to th e f u l l e s t p r a c t i c a b l e e x t e n t th o s e s ta n d a r d iz e d o r r e c o m m e n d e d b y th e
c o m p e te n t in te r n a tio n a l s c i e n t i f i c b o d ie s .
T h e a f fil ia t io n s o f a u th o r s a r e t h o s e g i v e n a t th e t i m e o f n o m in a tio n .
T h e u s e in t h e s e P r o c e e d i n g s o f p a r t i c u l a r d e s ig n a tio n s o f c o u n t r i e s o r
t e r r i t o r i e s d o e s n ot im p ly an y ju d g e m e n t b y th e A g e n c y a s to th e le g a l s ta tu s
o f s u c h c o u n t r ie s o r t e r r i t o r i e s , o f t h e ir a u t h o r it ie s and in s titu tio n s o r o f
th e d e lim ita tio n o f t h e i r b o u n d a r ie s .
T h e m e n tio n o f s p e c i f i c c o m p a n ie s o r o f t h e ir p r o d u c ts o r b ra n d -n a m es
d o e s n o t im p ly a n y e n d o r s e m e n t o r r e c o m m e n d a t io n on th e p a r t o f th e
In te r n a tio n a l A t o m i c E n e r g y A g e n c y .
 CONTENTS

Review Papers

Bilan des études et du développem ent des com posants du

contrôle- com m ande des centrales nucléaires —
Persp ectives à m o y e n term e ( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 1 )............................... 3
J. F u r e t
Notes on the A g e n c y 's activities in the control and instrumentation
of nuclear reactors (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 ) .............................................. 29
A. K e d d a r

N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T O P E R A T IO N S : E X P E R IE N C E
A N D T H O U G H T S F O R T H E F U T U R E (Session A )

O perating experience with the instrumentation of the Stade

N u cle ar P o w e r Station (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 ) ........................................ 57
D. von H a e b l e r
D isc u ssio n .......................................................................................................... 69
Operating experience with control and instrumentation system s
in C E G B nuclear p o w er plants (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2 ) ........................... 71
M . W . J e r v i s , F. D i x o n
E x p é r ie n c e de fonctionnement du contrôle-com m ande et de
l'instrumentation de la centrale nucléaire des M onts d 'A r r é e
( E L 4 ) (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /А - 3 ) ......................................................................... 89
F . D e c o o l , G. G o d e f r o y , P. L o u r m e
D isc ussio n .......................................................................................................... 110
Im portance and use of in-core vibration and p re ss u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s
to determ ine correct behaviour of p re ssure vessel internals
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 4 ) ........................................................................................ Ill
V . B a u e r n f e i n d , W . H. D i o , W . P i n k
D isc ussio n .......................................................................................................... 121
L e niveau d'a u to m a tism e et l'utilisation d'ordinateurs dans les
centrales nucléaires françaises en exploitation
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A- 5 ) ........................................................................................ 123
R . L a n g l a d e , R. L e r o y
L e s s o n s fr o m D u n g e n e ss 'B ' and other p o w er station com puters
( I A E A - S M - 168 / A - 6 ) ........................................................................................ 151
B. L o w e
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 158
Контроль герметичности первого контура в парогенераторах
на а т ом н ы х электростанциях с реактором водо-водяного типа
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /А - 12) ...................................................................................... 159
В . Л . А н т о н о в , B . C . Ж e р н о в , Б .Л .К и с е л е в ,
В . В . М а т в е е в , Н.В. Р ы ж о в , В . М. С к а т к и н
Си с те м а контроля герметичности оболочек твэлов реактора В В Э Р - 1
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / А - 13) ..................................................................................... 169
B.А. А к с е н о в , И.В. Батенин, Ю .А.Борисов,
Л.И. Г о л у б е в , В . П . К ру г л ов , С.Н. С а м о й л о в
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 174
E x p é r ie n c e acquise au d é m a r r a g e du réacteur rapide Rapsodie-
F o rtissim o sur les m e s u r e s de puissance et leur contrôle —
Adaptation au d é m a r r a g e de la centrale Phénix
(IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7 ) ........................................................................ ............... 175
J. G o u r d o n
Application of Pick ering experience to future C an ad ian nuclear
p o w er stations (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 ) ...................... .................................. 187
E . M . Y a r e m y , D .E . A n d e r s o n
D isc u ssio n ................................................................................................... .. 210
R e q u ire m e n ts for large nuclear pow er plants fro m the standpoint
of the u s e r (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 9 ) ................................................................ 213
U. H e i n i n g
D isc u s sio n ......................................................................................................... 217
Bilan d'utilisation des réactim ètres dans les centrales nucléaires
(I A E A - S M - 168 / А - 11 ) ................................................................. ................... 219
R. G a r i o d , E. Tournier, Vuong Quan Mai,
Y. P l a i g e

C O N T R O L O F T H E N U C L E A R P O W E R S T A T I O N (Session B )

L e controle, la c o m m a n d e et l'instrumentation de la centrale

nucléaire Ph énix (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / В -l) ..................................................... 231
A . B . C h a p e l o t , A. J e a n n o t , L . P r o u t e a u
Disc u ssio n .......................................................................................................... 253
A nuclear p o w er station control developm ent (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 2 ). . . 255
M. H. B u t t e r f i e l d
D ev elo p m ent of a controller with high availability for a nuclear
po w er reactor (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 3 ) ................................... ................... .. 265
P . G i o r d a n o , P . N o v e l l i , A. P u l a c c i
P r o c e s s com puter system s with high reliability and advanced
operator com m unication equipm ent for nuclear power, plant
application ( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 4 ).................................................................. 275
J.E.Lunde', K. N e t l a n d , T . P a l m g r e n ,
M. ( ^ v r e e i d e
Simulation studies of the optim al direct digital control of the
A - 1 reactor (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 6 ) ............................................ ................. 289
C. K a r p e t a , P. S t i r s k y , K . V o l f , S. R o u b a l
D ev elo p m ent and application of advanced concepts for nuclear
plant and core control (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 7 ) .......................................... 303
R . G r u m b a c h , B. B l o m s n e s . -
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 316
Application of m o d e r n control theory in nuclear p o w er
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / B- 8) ........................................................................... .. . . . . . 319
J. D . C u m m i n s , M . H . B u 11 e r f i e 1 d
Disc u ssio n ............................ ............................................................................ 335
T E C H N IQ U E S O F M E A S U R E M E N T S O F D Y N A M IC
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S (Session C )

R e v ie w P a p e r :

R e v ie w of m e a s u r e m e n t techniques for d y nam ic characteristics

( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / C - 0 ) .............................................. ......................................... 339
R .E . U h r i g
D isc ussio n ............................................ ............................................................. 342
Planning, p er fo rm in g , and interpreting frequency response tests
on p o w e r reactors. (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 ) ................................................... 343
T.W. Kerlin
D isc ussio n .......................................................................................................... 356
N o is e analysis and pseudostochastic perturbation techniques
for reactor p a ra m eter estimation (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 2 ) .................... 359
M . K o l b , M. A. R a s c h t i , E. R o b i n s o n , A. W e b e r
F re q u e n c y respo n se m e a s u r e m e n t s of the Gentilly nuclear reactor
d y n a m ics (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 3 ) ........... ...................................................... 373
K . J . S e r d u l a , J. D . K e n d a l l , P . M . C l o u t i e r ,
C.B. L a w r e n c e
D isc u s sio n .................................................................. ....................................... 395

S Y S T E M S A N D E Q U I P M E N T R E L I A B I L I T Y (Session D)

Estim ation p ro b lem s of safety system s (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - l ) ............. 399

P. K o v a n i c
D e s ig n for reliability of the two-out-of-three protective system s
with automatic testing and repair (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 2 ) .................... 4 09
E. Z o b o r
Reliability p ro b lem s through the use of com puters in reactor
protection system s (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 3 ) .............................................. .. 441
H. H o e r m a n n
D isc ussio n ......................................................................................................... 448
T h e quality assurance policy adopted by the C E G B for nuclear
control and instrumentation (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 4 ) ............................... 451
B .G . E l l i s , B .H . M a l i n s
D isc ussio n ........................................................................................ .. .............. 4 59
Application of acoustic em issio n techniques to m aterial
diagnostics (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5 ) ................................................................ 461
H. N a к a s a
D isc u s sio n ................................................................................... ...................... 478
Surveillance des réacteurs par les m éthodes de détection
d 'é m is s io n d'o n des de contrainte et de détection acoustique
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 6 ) ...................................................................................... 479
B . G a s c , E. G . T o m a c h e v s k y
D isc ussio n .......................................................................................................... 493
Ал горитм расчета надежности сложны х систем с точки зрения
зависимых отказов
( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / D - 9 ) ........................................................................................ 495
Б . К у к л и к , В . С е м е р а д , 3 . Хылек
A m élioration de l'im m un ité aux parasites des e n sem b les de
m e s u r e nucléaire à im pulsions (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7 ) ........................ 503
J. B u i s s o n
T h e design and use of high p erform ance s creen ed cables for
reducing electrical interference effects in neutron flux
m e a s u r in g channels (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 8 ) .............................................. 513
I. W ilso n , E.P. F o w ler
D isc ussio n .............................................................................................................. 524

D E T E C T I O N O F L O C A L I N C I D E N T S IN S O D I U M - C O O L E D
F A S T R E A C T O R S (Session E )

U se of a com puter to im p ro ve the safety of a fast reactor core

( IA E A - S M - 16 8 / Е - 1 ) ........................................................................................ 529
M . S. A u d о u x
D isc ussio n ......................................................................................................... 544
Boiling detection in the 20- to 50-kHz frequency range
(IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / Е - 6 ) ........................................................................................ 545
M . J. D u n n , M . J . O h a n i a n
Incipient core accident detection (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /E - 2 ) .......................... 557
K. M o c h i z u k i , M. M a t s u m i y a , K. N a k a m o t o ,
T. H o s h i , T. M i y a z a w a
D isc ussio n .............................................................................................................. 569
E x p e r im e n t s for developm ent of m ethods and sy stem s to
detect so dium boiling in an L M F B R (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /E - 3 ) ................ 571
M . F . E d e l m a n n , J. E h r h a r d t , H . M a s s i e r , K . V o g e l
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 585
A n in-core flow m eter for fuel failure detection and location
sy s t e m for the L M F B R (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /E - 4 ) ........................................ 587
K . M o c h i z u k i , M . M a t s u m i y a , T. H o s h i , K. O g u s h i ,
S. H a y a k a w a
Disc ussio n ......................................................................................................... 600
Studies to im p ro ve the response time of tem perature m e a s u r e m e n t
at the outlet of the L M F B R fuel subassem b ly
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /Е - 5 ) ........................................................................................ 601
K . M o c h i z u k i , K. N a k a m o t o , T . H o s h i , S. I i d a ,
T. N a g a n u m a
Disc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 612
Surveillance de l'étanchéité sodium -eau des générateurs de
vapeur chauffés au sodium par dosage de l'hydrogène —
Application industrielle au C G V S (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /E - 7 ) .................... 613
P . L e c o c q , L . L a n n o u , G. C. M a s s o n
D isc u s sio n ......................................................................................................... 633

T E M P E R A T U R E A N D F L O W M E A S U R E M E N T S (Session F )

D ev elo p m ent of the noise th er m o m ete r and its test as an in-core

tem perature detector (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /F - 1 ) ............................................ 637
H . B r i x y , R. H e c k e r , T. O v e r h o f f
Disc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 648
Correlation m e a s u r e m e n t s at the W W R - S M reactor
( IA E A - S M - 168 / F- 2 ) ........................................................................................ 649
D . P a l l a g i , S. H o r á n y i
D isc u s sio n .......................................................................................................... 657
Surveillance des tem pératures dans les centrales nucléaires
(T ih a ng e) (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /F - 3 ) .................................................................. 659
R. M o n t m a y e u r
P an el Session: Co-ordination n ece ss a ry fro m the conceptual
design stage of a control and instrumentation system to final
plant o p e r a t i o n ................................................................................................... 673

N E U T R O N F L U X M E A S U R E M E N T S (Session G )

С и с те м а контроля за распределением энерговыделения

в реакторе Р Б М К ( С К Р Э ) (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 0 0 )................................... 683
И.Я. Е м е л ь я н о в , Л.В. К о н с т а н т и н о в ,
В.В. П ос тни ков ,В .К . Д е ни с ов,В .Я . Гурович
О беспечение правильности измерений параметров нейтронных
полей в реакторах А Э С (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / G - 0 ) .......................................... 691
Э.Ф. Гарапов , А.Г. Инихов , С.С. Ломакин,
Г.Г. П а н ф и л о в ,В .И . П етров, П.С. Самойлов
N e w instrumentation for startup m e a s u r e m e n t s in P W R reactors
( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / G - 1 ) ........................................................................................ 699
A . J a n i k o w s k i , A. K o s y c a r z , A. K r z y c k i ,
A. R. O s t r o w s k i
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 708
E n s e m b l e de m e s u r e s neutroniques à grande dynam ique
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 2 ) ........................................................................................ 711
Y. P l a i g e , V u o n g Q u a n M ai
D isc ussio n ......................................................................................................... 716
Long-life ion c h a m b e r s and B F 3 counters for reactor
instrumentation and the in-situ testing of non-retractable pulse
fission counters (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 3 ) ..................................................... 719
A . G o o d i n g s , K. W . M c M i n n , I. W i l s o n
D isc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 732
M inicalculateur pour les m e s u r e s neutroniques dans un réacteur
nucléaire (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 4 ) .................................................................. 733
P. J о v e r
C o m p u t e r iz e d traversing in-core probe ( T I P ) system of the
D o d e w a a r d nuclear p o w er plant (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 5 ) ...................... 743
K. P. T e r m a a t
Disc u ssio n ......................................................................................................... 755
D evelo p m ent of the in-core neutron detectors for the
L M F B R (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / G-6) .................................................................... 757
K . M o c h i z u k i , K. M a t s u n o , S. S h i r a y a m a ,
A. S e k i g u c h i , A. T o r a i s h i
M e s u r e de flux de neutrons en réacteurs avec c h a m b r e s à
fission p our haute tem pérature et collectrons de cobalt
(I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G- 7 ) ........................................................................................ 769
E . B a c c o n n e t , G. D a u p h i n , J. D u c h ê n e ,
R. V e r d a n t
D ev elo p m ent and in-core application of self-powered neutron
detectors (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /G - 8 ) .................................................................. 783
P. G e b u r e c k , W . H o f m a n n , W . J a s c h i k ,
W . S e i f r i t z , D. S t e g e m a n n
D isc u ssio n ........................................................................... .............................. 801

D E T E C T I O N O F F A I L E D F U E L E L E M E N T S (Session H )

L e role de sécurité a ssuré par les installations de détection de

ruptures de gaines ( I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - l ) ................................................... 805
J. G r a f t i e a u x , F . V a s n i e r
Disc u ssio n ....................................... ............... .................................................. 816
Detection of failed fuel in a pressure-tube boiling light-water
reactor ( S G H W R ) (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - 2 ) ................................................. 819
A. G o o d in g s
D ela y ed neutron protection against melt-out in steel p ressure
vessel m a g n o x reactors (IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - 3 ) ............................... .. 831
L . K. B u r t o n , W . H . R . H u d d , J .P . L o n g w o r t h j
A. E. S o u c h , K. W i l k i n s
В ы б о р счетчиков для измерения зáпaздывaющиx нейтронов
при контроле повреждения тепловыделяющих элементов
(I A E A - S M - 168 / Н - 4 ) .................................................................. ..................... 843
3. М е л и ч а р , Я . М о р а в е к , Я. Л о п у ш и н с к и ,
Я . Р и н ц а р ж , А .Я н и к о в с к и
Обнаруж ение тепловыделяющих сборок с дефективны ми твэлами
после остановки реактора (I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / Н-5)..................................... 849
Е.А. Жеребин
D isc u s sio n ............................................................................... .......................... 857

C h a ir m e n of Sessions and Secretariat of the S y m p o s iu m ..................... 861

List of Participants .......................................................................................... 863
Author Index ............. ........................ . ............................................................... . 881
Transliteration L ist ........................................................................................ 883
Index of Preprint Sym bols ............... ............................................................... 885
R E V IE W PAPERS
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1

B IL A N DES ETUDES E T DU D E V E L O P P E M E N T
DES COMPOSANTS DU C O N T R O L E -C O M M A N D E
DES C E N TR A L E S NUCLEAIRES
P ersp e ctiv e s à m oyen term e

J. FURET
CEA, Centre d'etudes
nucléaires de Saclay,
G if-sur-Yvette, France

Etude d 'e n s e m b le

Abstract-Résumé

REVIEW OF RESEARCH A N D D EV EL O P M EN T W O R K O N C O N T R O L ELEMENTS FOR NUCLEAR POWER

S T A T IO N S - T H E M E D I U M -TERM PROSPECTS.
T h e author summarizes current developments in nuclear power station engineering throughout the world.
The course of this development in recent years is analysed with particular reference to economics, station
size (scale effects) and operational results. The role of control and instrumentation in present and future
development is examined in terms of economics (investment, price per kWh), availability, load factor (in
particular, potential output and constraints imposed by the grid), operating safety and the control and utilization
of fuel. Th e future of control and instrumentation is then analysed from the point of view of research and
development in areas where partial conclusions m ay be drawn and where problems still exist. The following
points are dealt with: (a) Kinetics and dynamics of the reactor core: the acquisition of neutron and thermal
data (reactivity, coefficients); research undertaken and methods likely to be used for spatial control; the
importance of methods of calculation and simulation; (b) the possible application of modern control
theories for determining how nuclear power stations should be equipped and operated (the disproportion
between the volume of research undertaken and practical applications is emphasized); (c) the effect of
using digital computers in monitoring and control systems: experimental results are presented to illustrate
the advantages and disadvantages of using computers; the merits of new systems are briefly considered,
particularly with reference to their use in safety systems; (d) the importance of measuring instruments for
monitoring and control, and the diagnosis of operating faults: the technological problems to be solved are
enumerated and the status of research on sensors is reviewed; and (e) the reliability and ease of maintenance
of monitoring and control equipment, and the effect of these factors on plant availability: new developments
in reliability analysis are reported and the factors which at present make it difficult to acquire useful
experimental data ( i .e . operational data) are particularly emphasized; test programs on every kind of com ­
ponent and the acquisition and analysis of operating experience are shown to be important factors in
establishing reliability. After reviewing the importance of human factors, the author concludes by analysing
how control and instrumentation influences and is influenced by the inevitable compromise between safety,
availability and economics in nuclear power stations.

BILAN DES ETUDES ET D U D EVELOPPEM ENT DES C O M P O S A N T S D U C O N T R O L E - C O M M A N D E DES

C ENTRALES NUCLEAIRES - PERSPECTIVES A M O Y E N TERME.
Le développement industriel actùel des centrales nucléaires â l'échelle mondiale est brièvement rappelé.
L ’évolution de ce développement depuis quelques années est analysée en insistant tout particulièrement sur
l'économie, l’effet de taille et les résultats obtenus. Le rôle et la place du contrôle-commande et de
l'instrumentation dans le développement actuel et futur sont alors examinés sur les plans de l'économie (in­
vestissement, prix du kW h), de la disponibilité, de l'exploitation (en particulier performances possibles
et contraintes imposées par le réseau), de la sécurité de fonctionnement, de la gestion et de l'utilisation du
combustible. L'évolution et les perspectives du contrôle-commande et de l'instrumentation sont ensuite
analysées sous les aspects études et développement dans des domaines où des conclusions partielles peuvent
être données et où des problèmes se posent encore. C ’est ainsi que sont alors abordés les points suivants:

3
4 FURET

a) Cinétique et dynamique du cœur de la chaudière nucléaire (c'est-à-dire le réacteur): solutions apportées

aux données physiques neutroniques et thermiques (coefficients de réactivité); études entreprises et solutions
envisagées pour le contrôle spatial; importance des moyens de calcul et de simulation, b) Apport possible
des théories modernes du contrôle pour la définition des équipements et l’exploitation des centrales nucléaires;
l’accent est mis sur la disproportion entre le volume des études entreprises et les applications connues,
c) Incidence de l ’utilisation des calculateurs numériques dans les équipements de contrôle-commande; les
résultats expérimentaux sont rappelés pour mettre en évidence les avantages et les inconvénients de cette
utilisation; les solutions nouvelles sont évoquées, ainsi que leur justification en particulier pour leur
utilisation dans les ensembles de sécurité, d) Importance de l'instrumentation de mesure pour le contrôle,
la commande et aussi le diagnostic des défauts en fonctionnement; les problèmes technologiques à résoudre
sont énumérés; l'état des études entreprises dans le domaine des capteurs est donné, e) Fiabilité des
équipements des ensembles de contrôle-commande, maintenabilité, incidence sur la disponibilité des
installations: l'effort des méthodes d'analyse nouvelles sur le plan de la fiabilité est indiqué mais les
difficultés qui empêchent actuellement de disposer de données expérimentales valables (c'est-à-dire de
résultats d'exploitation) sont particulièrement soulignées; pour la caractéristique fiabilité, l'importance
des programmes d'essais de composants de toute nature est mise en évidence, ainsi que l'expérience d'exploi­
tation, Après un rappel de l'importance des facteurs humains, la conclusion est axée sur la rôle du contrôle-
commande dans les compromis qui sont et seront toujours à faire entre sécurité, disponibilité et économie
des centrales nucléaires.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

L e contrôle- com m ande d'u ne centrale nucléaire ou de tout p r o c e s ­

sus est souvent d é n o m m é à juste titre "s y s t è m e nerveu x de l'installation
dont le centre est la salle de contrôle". C 'est de ce centre que partent
les o rdres de c o m m a n d e destinés aux différents com posants de la centrale
et c'est à ce centre qu'arrivent les informations qui permettent de prendre
les décisions qui ont une rép ercussio n im m édiate sur la m a r c h e de l'in s ­
tallation. O n conçoit alors l'im portance du rôle du contrôle- com m ande au
point de vue fonctionnement, sécurité, disponibilité et é co n o m ie . A u s s i,
lo rsq u'o n analyse le fonctionnement des centrales nucléaires (ou de tout
autre p ro c es su s), il est rar e qu'on ne soit pas conduit à faire intervenir
en dehors du rôle des équipes d'exploitation, celui du contrôle-com mande
ou tout au m o in s celui de plusieurs de ses so us- ensem bles. C 'est peut-
être ce qui explique l'intérêt que lui portent les équipes qui s'occupent de
l'étude, de la construction, de l'exploitation des centrales nucléaires, et
l'im portance qui lui est accordée dans les rapports d'exploitation, de
sûreté etc. . . c'est sans doute aussi ce qui explique l'im p ortance de la
participation à ce s y m p o s iu m de P r a g u e .

L'objectif fixé au contrôle-com m ande des centrales nucléaires

est : de contribuer (avec les autres com posants) à la production d ’ énergie
au m o in dre coût, d'é la bo re r les parades n éce ss a ir e s susceptibles de
limiter ou d'an nuler les conséquences d'incidents se produisant pendant
le fonctionnement, d 'a id e r les équipes d'exploitation en facilitant leur
tâche.

P a r conséquent le rôle et la place du contrôle-commande dans le

développem ent actuel et futur des centrales nucléaires doivent être
ex a m in é s sur les plans de : - l'économ ie (investissem ent), - l'exploitation
(p e rfo rm a n ces possibles), - la disponibilité et la sûreté. IL faut pour cela
souligner que la préoccupation essentielle actuelle, dans beaucoup de
pays où l'industrie nucléaire est m a je u r e , est avant tout la bonne m a r c h e
des centrales et leur é co n o m ie .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 5

A u s s i le bilan des études et du développem ent des sous- ensem bles

du contrôle- com m ande sera analysé ici en essayant de tenir le plus grand
compte des résultats d'exploitation. L 'a cc en t sera m is soit sur les con­
clusions partielles chaque fois qu'elles pourront être données, soit sur les
do m a in e s qui restent à a m é lio re r, soit sur les points où la confusion
règne e n c o r e.

C 'e st ainsi que seront succinctement p a ss é s en revue :

- la connaissance du m odèle qui sert à définir le contrôle-com-

m ande,
- l'apport des théories m o d e r n e s du contrôle,
- l'incidence de l'utilisation des calculateurs,
- l'im p o rtance de l'instrumentation et du traitement des signaux
fournis par les capteurs,
- le diagnostic des défauts,
- la fiabilité des com posants du contrôle- com m ande.

Avant de situer la place du contrôle- com m ande dans le développe­

m ent des centrales nucléaires sur le plan de l'é c o n o m ie , il n'est pas
inutile de faire quelques rappels sur les perspectives du développem ent
des centrales nucléaires et les résultats de l'exp érien ce de fonctionnement.

1. D E V E L O P P E M E N T E T E X P E R IE N C E D U F O N C T IO N N E M E N T
D E S C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S

C h acu n sait qu'il y a un peu plus de trente ans que le p re m ie r

réacteur nucléaire m is en oeuvre par l 'h o m m e 1 a fonctionné à Chicago
en n o v e m b r e 1942 et que ce réacteur était déjà contrôlé. П est important
de rappeler ce fait aujourd'hui au début de ce s y m p o s iu m consacré à la
c o m m a n d e et à l'instrumentation des centrales n uclé aires.

D e m ê m e qu'ilfaut a ussi rappeler que le p r e m ie r réacteur

nucléaire à avoir été couplé âunturbo- générateur (puissance 2 0 0 k W e ) a
été le réacteur a m é rica in E B R 1 (réacteur surgénérateur expérim ental)
et que cela n 'a pu avoir lieu que 9 ans après la divergence de la pile de
F e r m i . IL a fallu attendre encore quelques années après 1951, avant de
voir fonctionner des réacteurs nucléaires exp érim entaux à neutrons ther­
m iq u e s producteurs d 'é ne rg ie électrique, et on peut ajouter que par la
suite le d é m a r r a g e du développem ent industriel des centrales nucléaires
n 'a pas été très rapide (tout au m o in s dans beaucoup de p a y s ).

P a r contre depuis la 3 è m e conférence internationale sur l'utilisa­

tion pacifique de l'énergie nucléaire, c'est-à-dire 1 96 4, on peut dire que
le développem ent des centrales nucléaires a été considérable de par le

1 II s'agissait bien entendu de la pile FERMI. Depuis quelques semaines des ingénieurs du Commissariat
a l'Energie Atomique en France qui recherchaient l'origine d ’anomalies de teneur en Ï35U observées dans
quelques lots de minerais provenant de la carrière d'uranium d 'O K L O en République Gabonoise sont
arrivés â la conclusion qu'il y a un millard sept cent millions d'années une partie de la carrière était
spontanément le siège de réactions nucléaires en chaihe.
6 FURET

T A B L E A U I. R E P A R T IT IO N P A R PA Y S D E L A P R O D U C T IO N M O N D IA L E
C U M U L E E D ' E N E R G I E N U C L E A I R E E N J U I N 1972 (500 • 1 0 9 kW h)

Grande-Bretagne 4 3 ,7 %

Etats-Unis d'Amérique 29, 7 io

France 7 ,5 °jo

Italie 5 , 2 io

Rép. féd. d'Allemagne 4 ,7

Japon 3 ,4 %

Canada 2 %

Espagne 1 ,3 %

Suisse 1 ,1 %

Inde 1 %

Divers3 0 ,4 %

100 °}o

a Hors URSS et Rêp. dém . allemande.

T A B L E A U II. R E P A R T I T I O N P A R F I L I E R E S D E L A P R O D U C T I O N
M O N D I A L E C U M U L E E D ' E N E R G I E N U C L E A I R E E N J U I N 1972
(5 0 0 • 1 0 9 k W h )

Filière uranium naturel

graphite gaz 53 °j0

Filière uranium enrichi

eau légère type P 2 2 °!о

Filière uranium enrichi

eau légère type B 19 io

Autres filières 6 io

m o n de et qu'il est entré dans une phase industrielle très p o u s sé e. L a

production m ondiale cum ulée d'énergie électrique par les centrales n u ­
cléaires a dép assé le cap des 500 109 k W h au m o is de juin 1 9 7 2 . L a
répartition par pays et par filière est indiquée sur les tableaux I et II.

L'évolution du développem ent des centrales nucléaires dans la

période 1965 - 1 975 est m ar q u é e d'une part par la diminution très nette
du n o m b r e de filières, d'autre part par un effet de taille très m a r q u é
(installations de plus en plus puissantes).

A titre indicatif, les puissances des centrales nucléaires installées

et en fonctionnement dans le m onde sont indiquées par pays sur le tableau III
pour l'année 1971 (la situation prévue pour 1975 est aussi indiquée).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 7

T A B L E A U III. L E S C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S E N S E R V IC E D A N S L E
MONDE

1971 1975

Pays Nombre de Puissance Nombre de Puissance

centrales (M W e ) centrales (M W e )

Rép. d é m . allemande 1 70 2 770

Rép. fêd. d'Allemagne 11 2 294 19 8 373

Argentine 1 319 2 919

Belgique 1 11 4 1661

Bulgarie 0 2 880

Canada 5 1480 7 2490

Chine (Formose) 0 1 550

Corée du Sud 0 1 595

Espagne 3 1113 5 2113

Etats-Unis d ’Amérique 49 27 107 95 70190

France 10 2 701 12 3 821

Grande-Bretagne 33 7 459 38 10 534

Inde 4 780 5 980

Italie 3 607 5 1451

Japon 6 1728 13 6098

Pakistan 1 125 2 325

Pays-Bas 1 48 2 525

Suède 2 505 6 3 235

Suisse 3 1006 3 1006

Tchécoslovaquie 1 150 1 150

URSS 15 2 510 15 3 435

+12 5 800

Total 150 50 000 252 125 900

P o u r l'avenir à m o y e n t e r m e , il sem ble donc que l'ênergie

nucléaire s 'im p o s e ; pour l'avenir à long t e r m e une perspective se dessine
où le nucléaire deviendra, ve rs l'a n 2 0 0 0 , l'ênergie p r im a ir e dominante
(70 pour cent de toute l'ênergie produite, avancent les spécialistes), les
réacteurs du type "e a u légère" fournissant sans doute la part prépondérante
de la production, 20 à 25 pour cent de cette dernière étant a ssu ré e par les
surgénérateurs rapides qui auront fait leur apparition du point de vue
développement industriel à partir de 1 98 0, et dont les p r o g r a m m e s
d 'é q u ip e m e n t risquent alors (a n 2 00 0) d'être importants.
8 FURET

T A B L E A U IV . E V O L U T I O N D E S P U I S S A N C E S U N I T A I R E S D E S
C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S

Année Puissance
(M W e )

1972 800

1974 îooo a 1200

1985-1990 2000 a 2500

2000 4000

Il n'est pas inutile de souligner q u 'à m o y e n t e r m e le support du

développem ent du nucléaire s e r a l'électricité. L e s perspectives d'utili­
sation directe de la chaleur sem blent devoir rester en effet a ss e z limitées
et ne concerneront sans doute que de très grosses ou de très faibles uti­
lisations. D a n s beaucoup de pays, pour la production d'électricité, il est
envisagé de p a s s e r rap idem ent après 1975- 1976 à des p r o g r a m m e s 100
pour cent nucléaires et pour ces pays qui sont en général des pays indus­
trialisés, on peut m ê m e dire que l'énergie nucléaire est une nécessité.
L'évolution des puissances unitaires peut se calquer sur celle des groupes
turbo-générateurs (voir tableau IV ), 1 00 0 à 1 20 0 M W dès m aintenant pour
atteindre 4 0 0 0 M W en l'a n 2 0 0 0 avec un palier de 2 0 0 0 à 2 5 0 0 q u'on peut
situer entre 1 9 8 5 et 1 9 9 0 . P a r ailleurs, l'im portance croissante de la
gestion optimale des centrales et r ésea u x aura une rép ercussion de plus
en plus m a r q u é e sur le contrôle- com m ande des centrales nucléaires et
leurs p e r fo rm a n c e s .

S ur ce rappel des perspectives du développem ent des centrales

nucléaires qui, tel qu'il vient d'être présenté, ne sem ble concerner que
les pays d'u n niveau de développement industriel relativement élevé, il faut
faire une r e m a r q u e . E n effet, il est vraisem blab le q u 'à m o y e n t e r m e les
préoccupations des grands constructeurs devront aussi tenir com pte du
m a r c h é de construction de centrales nucléaires pour les pays en voie de
développem ent, pour lesquels les puissances unitaires plus faibles s e m ­
blent m ie u x adaptées à leur besoin. D 'o ù cette perspective de développe­
m ent de centrales nucléaires de "type m o d u la ire " où l'agen cem ent de
com posants fabriqués en grande série p er m e t de satisfaire à la construc­
tion de centrales de m ê m e type, m a is de p uissance différente. C e la peut
donc avoir dès m aintenant une r ép ercussio n sur la conception de certains
types de réacteurs nucléaires.

D u point de vue expérience de fonctionnement, celle relative en

particulier aux 500 10® k W h produits, on peut avancer qu'elle concerne
davantage des réacteurs de puissance plus faible que celle des réacteurs
des centrales en cours de développem ent et qu'elle sem ble à priori dis­
p e r s é e sur un n o m b r e important de types ou de filières.

N é a n m o in s en y regardant de plus p rè s, on peut constater que les

types de réacteu rs qui ont affirm é leur compétitivité au cours de s 5 d e r ­
nières années par e x e m p le , l'ont fait en général à partir de puissances se
situant dans la g a m m e de 4 00 à 500 M W e .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 9

2. PLA C E DU CONTROLE- COM M AN DE DANS LE D E V E LO P P E M E N T

D E S C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S

D u point de vue investissem ent, les équipem ents du contrôle-

c o m m a n d e ne représentent en général que quelques pourcents du prix
total de l'installation. Ce coût est bien entendu fonction du type de centrale.
U ne valeur m o y e n n e avancée pour les centrales prototype ou tête de série
est de l'o rd re de 5 pour cent. Po u r de nouveaux équipem ents, il n'est pas
r a r e de constater que dans le prix, la part études (prototype et tête de
série) augm entée de la part essais pour satisfaire à la qualification et à
la vérification des spécifications peut atteindre 50 pour cent (voir fig. 1).

L e coût de l'installation des équipem ents sur le site et des essais

à effectuer, avant la m ontée en p uissance, peut aussi représenter 40 à 50
pour cent du prix fabrication u s in e s. Cela explique l'orientation p e r c e p ­
tible depuis quelques années v e rs la préfabrication de sous- ensem bles en
usine, et v e r s la conception m odulaire des sous- ensem bles du contrôle-
c o m m a n d e de m a n iè r e à sim plifier, à écourter, les opérations de m ontage
sur le site et à réduire en particulier au m i n i m u m les opérations de
c â bla ge.

Il faut souligner que dans cet investissem ent initial, la part prix
des équipem ents contrôle-com m ande des circuits auxiliaires n'est pas
négligeable. Elle n'est peut-être pas toujours prise en com pte d'u ne
m a n iè r e précise au stade de la définition initiale, car cela n'est pas facile
en particulier pour les installations tête de série.

L 'e x p é r ie n c e m ontre aussi que l'o n n 'a c c o rd e pas a s s e z de poids

à l'effet de série pour le choix d'études et de développem ent de certains
m atériels et que le prix des m odifications "d e dernière m in ute" d e m a n d é e s
p ar l'exploitant, les c o m m is sio n s de sécurité,peuvent coûter très c h e r. Et
m alh e u r e u se m e n t peut-être, contrairem ent à d'autres com posants de la
centrale, il est toujours possible de m odifier certaines parties des sous-
e n s e m b le s contrôle- com m ande, voir m ê m e d 'e n ajouter.

F I G .l . Coût du contrôle-commande.
10 FURET

Enfin depuis quelques années on peut constater q u'a ve c l'a v è n e ­

m ent de l'utilisation des calculateurs dans le contrôle- com m ande, le coût
de la p ro g ra m m a tio n n éce ss a ir e est aussi à prend re sérieusem ent en con­
sidération.

M a l g r é ces r e m a r q u e s , on peut dire q u 'a u stade de l'inv estisse­

m ent initial, la part prix des équipem ents contrôle-com m ande n'est pas
déterm inante dans le choix des décisions à prend re pour la définition du
type de centrale. A u s s i les équipes qui ont la responsabilité des études, du
développem ent, de la m is e en oeuvre de ces équipem ents trouvent quelque­
fois qu'on ne tient pas a ss e z compte de leur a v is. E n effet, l'incidence du
contrôle- com m ande sur l'éc o no m ie est beaucoup plus m ar q u é e pendant la
vie de la centrale, c'est-à-dire pendant son exploitation. L a rép ercussion
du contrôle- com m ande sur la disponibilité de l'installation peut en effet
être importante, particulièrem ent aux cours des r é g im e s de fonctionnement
transitoire, pendant lesquels les probabilités d'incidents sont plus grandes,
et au cours de la r e m is e en service de l'installation après incident. L e s
e x e m p le s habituellement cités dans ce d om ain e sont : les instrumentations
de m e s u r e et les autom atism es qui permettent de m aintenir en p e r m a n en ce
la m a r g e de sécurité fixée sur la tem pérature gaine com bustible, quel
que soit le r é g im e de fonctionnement, la localisation rapide de l'élém ent
com bustible défectueux après incident de m an iè r e à pouvoir le r em p la c e r ,
la prévision d 'a n o m a lie s de fonctionnement de com posants (sur laquelle
nous reviendro n s), la p e r m a n e n c e de la réfrigération de secours du coeur
du réacteur pour toutes les configurations d'état de la centrale.

P o u r donner un ordre de grandeur du prix des indisponibilités, il

suffit de citer les producteurs d'électricité :
- le coût de l'arrêt d'u ne durée de 6 m o is d'u n e centrale de 500 M W e
peut s'élev er à 4 10^

- la diminution de 20 pour cent de la p uissance nom inale d'une

centrale de 1 100 M W e peut entraîher une perte par m an q ue à gagner de
6 10 $ par a n .

O n conçoit alors aisém ent que tout ce qui peut être fait du côté
contrôle- com m ande, pour ne pas pénaliser les arrêts des centrales, est à
r ech e rc h er et que le coût des études et du développement à entreprendre
peut être très rap idem ent rentabilisé.

C'est en particulier le cas des opérations d'entretien et de dé p an ­

nage en m a r c h e qui sont et doivent être de plus en plus re c h e rc h é e s , des
facilités d 'é ch a n g e à l’ arrêt de certains com posants, par ex e m p le les
capteurs (en particulier ceux situés dans le coeur).

Et si l'on insiste beaucoup ces dern ières années sur le confort

apporté par le contrôle-commande aux équipes d'exploitation (équipes de
quart), on n'insiste peut-être pas a ss e z sur le confort à apporter aux
équipes d'entretien. Je pense que les responsables de certaines opérations
d'entretien , ici présents, sont bien placés pour en tém o igne r.
 IA E A - SM - 1 6 8 / R - 1 11

3. C IN E T IQ U E E T D Y N A M IQ U E D E S R E A C T E U R S N U C L E A IR E S

L a connaissance du m odèle m athém atique qui sert à la définition

du contrôle-com m ande et des équipem ents qui le com posent n 'a ce ssé de
se perfectionner au cours du t e m p s , grâce d'u ne part aux résultats n o m ­
b reu x d'expérim entation et d'exploitation, et à l'augm entation des m o y e n s de
calcul d'autre part.

П est incontestable que les constantes physiques neutroniques sont

beaucoup m ie u x connues qu'il y a quelques a n n é e s. P a r ex e m p le, la vali­
dité du m odèle cinétique (réacteur point) est actuellement très bonne pour
la plupart des m ilieux m ultiplicateurs.

L e s coefficients de réactivité globaux, dont le rôle est si important

pour le "contrôle global" sont aussi m ie u x connus à la fois en r é g im e
statique et en r é g im e d y n a m iq u e . Beaucoup d'incertitudes dans ce dom aine,
en particulier pour les réacteurs .à neutrons rapides, ont été lev ée s.

L 'a m élio ratio n de ces connaissances a p e r m is une simplification

du contrôle du bilan de réactivité, une augmentation de la vitesse de libé­
ration de réactivité et de l'efficacité des b a r re s de contrôle. C 'e st ainsi
que l'incident de réactivité lié au retrait intempestif des b a r r e s de contrôle
n'est plus considéré c o m m e un accident aux conséquences graves pour la
plupart des réacteurs nucléaires de p uissance, et que la divergence à
partir d 'u n absorbant de contrôle dont l'efficacité est supérieure à 0 est
a d m is e a s s e z fr é q u e m m e n t. L a validité du m odèle de représentation
spatiale du coeur du réacteur doit par contre être a m é lio ré e. Cette r e p r é ­
sentation est en effet n é ce ss a ir e pour les coeurs à neutrons therm iques
de grandes dim ensions de p uissance supérieure ou égale à 500 M W e et
pour lesquels des instabilités spatiales de répartition de flux neutronique,
et par conséquent de p uissance spécifique, risquent de conduire à des
limites de tem pérature inadm issibles sur les gaines d'é lém en ts c o m b u s ­
tibles, c'est-à-dire à des "points chaud s” . C e s instabilités de répartition
de flux neutronique peuvent être aggravées par la destruction locale de
l'em p o iso nn em en t xénon, destruction en grande partie fonction (en p re m iè re
appro xim atio n) de la p uissance spécifique.

Ce risque'¿'instabilité spatiale" est d'autant plus probable que la

p uissance globale du réacteur varie à la suite de modifications de position
de b a r re de contrôle pour suivre des variations de charge im p o s ée s par le
p r o g r a m m e de fonctionnement de la centrale: d é m a r r a g e , arrêt, variations
de charge r é s e a u e t c . . .

Cela explique que la m is e au point d 'e n s e m b le s de régulation s p a ­

tiale se soit avérée délicate et longue sur plusieurs types de réa cteu rs.
C e s instabilités de p uissance se produisent alors soit dans le sens axial,
soit dans le sens rad ial. D e s différences importantes sur la répartition .du
flux neutronique évaluée et m e s u r é e ont pu m ê m e dans certains cas être
constatées. A u s s i l'étude du contrôle coeur de la répartition de puissance
devra sans aucun doute être encore am élio rée pour les coeurs de très
gros vo lu m e (puissance supérieure à 1200 M W e ), pour lesquels des insta­
bilités spatiales à la fois axiale et radiale sont à en v is a g er . D u point de
12 FURET

FIG. 2 . Amélioration de l'étude de la définition de la régulation spatiale.

vue sécurité et é conom ie, il est important que des études fines de s im u ­
lation puissent alors être entreprises à partir de m o dèle s m àthém atiques
plus com plets pour définir d'u ne m an ière p ré cise , d'u n e part les e n sem b les
de régulation spatiale, d'autre part les limites des p r o g r a m m e s de fonc­
tionnement dans les phases transitoires. L e s m o y e n s de calcul et de s im u ­
lation tels que les calculateurs hybrides sem blent bien adaptés pour ces
études,à condition,bien sûr, que la validité du m odèle m athém atique soit
am éliorée et cela avec l'aide de l'application des théories de l'automatique
m oderne.

Cette am élioration des "m o d è le s co e ur" se fera aussi (voir fig. 2)

grâce à l'am élioration des connaissances physiques du com portem ent Su
com bustible en r é g im e d'accident. Cela entraîhe en général la m is e en
oeuvre de p r o g r a m m e s expérim entaux importants, dont le but essentiel
actuel est par ex e m p le : l'étude de la fusion plus ou m oin s importante du
com bustible, la connaissance du proc essu s donnant lieu à sa propagation,
à la valeur de l'én ergie é m is e , les causes initiatrices plus ou m oins
connues pouvant être le bouchage partiel ou total des canaux de r éfrigéra ­
tion. IL s'agit, c o m m e on le sait, de p ro b lèm es physiques com plexes qui
sont d'actualité et dont la solution apportera une aide importante à la m is e
au point de m o dèle s susceptibles de ren dre com pte des phénom ènes,tout
au m o in s jusq u'à la destruction gaine, ce qui est suffisant bien entendu,
pour l'étude du contrôle interne coeur.

4. A P P L I C A T I O N D E S T H E O R I E S M O D E R N E S D E L 'A U T O M A T I Q U E
A U C O N T R O L E D E S C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S

L 'é tude de l'application des théories m o d e r n e s de l'automatique

pour le contrôle des réacteurs a fait l'objet d'efforts importants depuis de
n o m b r e u s e s a nn ée s, par des équipes préoccupées davantage de r echerch e
appliquée dans le d o m ain e de l'autom atique, que de projets de réacteur.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 13

T A B L E A U V. A P P L IC A T IO N D E S T H E O R IE S M O D E R N E S DU
C O N T R O L E A U X C E N T R A L E S N U C L E A IR E S

Difficultés Validité des simplifications

Validité des modèles

Résultats ¿ ’experience (hors simulation) faibles

• Justification Economie

Augmentation de la puissance

Diminution des marges de sécurité

Augmentation du rapport nombre de centrales nucléaires /

nombre de centrales classiques

E n effet, le débouché de ces théories m o d e r n e s ne sem ble pas

im m éd ia t pour le contrôle des centrales, tout au m o in s celles en cours
d'exploitation ou de construction. Pourtant l'objectif fixé s'est bien p ré ci­
sé : optimisation de la distribution du flux neutronique dans le coeur, bien
entendu pour une m eilleure utilisation du com bustible et avec une a u g m e n ­
tation de la sûreté de fonctionnement - adaptation de la p uissance du r é a c ­
teur à la d e m a n d e du r é s e a u de m a n iè r e à suivre au m ie u x les variations
de charge i m p o s é e s .

L a difficulté d'application au contrôle des réacteurs des théories

m o d e r n e s de l'automatique en particulier celle de la c o m m a n d e optimale,
si souvent citée, est sans doute liée à la validité des simplifications faites,
telles que l'extension de la linéarisation à des systèm es qui ne le sont p a s.
Et l'on retrouve ici cette difficulté de la validité du m o dèle déjà évoquée
p r é c é d e m m e n t (voir tableau V ). C 'est sans doute la raison pour laquelle de
gros efforts d'études sont faits pour le développem ent des m éthodes d 'id e n ­
tification de p ro c essu s en ligne; elles sont b a sée s en général avec raison
sur l'observation des signaux d'entrée et de sortie et non pas sur l'excita­
tion libre du systèm e (la m éthode de l'excitation fréquentielle ou im pulsion­
nelle n'étant pas d'application facile dans le cas des centrales).

O n peut constater que la plupart des études ont été faites au m o y e n

de simulations et il sem ble que le seul p r o g r a m m e expérim ental concernant
ces "m é t h o d e s évoluées de contrôle optim al" se déroule sur le réacteur de
H alden en N o r v è g e . C e s concepts de contrôle avancé sont pourtant appliqués
dès m aintenant à d'autres p ro c essu s (on peut citer en particulier le
contrôle des engins spatiaux).

L e besoin ne sem ble pas s'être m anifesté très tôt pour les centrales
n uclé aires. U n des freins possible est aussi la difficulté d'intégration des
calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s dans les boucles de régulation du contrôle-com ­
m a n d e par e x e m p l e . A u s s i il est vra ise m bla b le que les concepts de contrôle
avancé se développeront avec l'utilisation de calculateurs n u m é riq u e s pour
le contrôle direct. A u stade actuel, o n peut donc dire que beaucoup d'efforts
14 FURET

d'études restent à faire sur le plan expérim ental avant que les théories
m o d e r n e s de l'automatique soient appliquées au contrôle des centrales
n u clé aires. Cet effort d'étude n'est pas à négliger, car ce besoin peut se
m anifester d'autant plus rapidem ent que le n o m b r e et la puissance des
centrales nucléaires interconnectées iront en augm entant.

5. R O L E D E L 'I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N D E M E S U R E P O U R L E
C O N T R O L E , L A C O M M A N D E E T L E D IA G N O STIC D E S D E F A U T S

L 'im p o r t a n c e de l'instrumentation de m e s u r e , source d 'in fo r m a ­

tion indispensable pour le contrôle et la c o m m a n d e ,e s t étroitement liée à
l'augm entation des p uissances n om inales, des puissances spécifiques, des
ren d e m e n t s, à une m eilleure utilisation du com bustible et à l'am élioration
de l'exploitation et de la disponibilité.

O n peut souligner que fréq u e m m en t, par habitude, l'effort d'étude

et de développement a été plus m a r q u é pour les m e s u r e s nucléaires que
pour les m e s u r e s th er m o d y n a m iq u es , bien que leur rôle soit fondamental
pour les réacteurs de puissance.

L a m eilleure utilisation du com bustible obtenue par l'a u g m e n t a ­

tion des puissances spécifiques im p ose une augmentation du n o m b r e de
m e s u r e s th erm iq ue s ou nucléaires à proximité du coeur, voir m ê m e de
plus en plus à l'intérieur du coeur. Cet a ccroissem en t du n o m b r e de
m e s u r e s est systém atique, il est proportionnel à la fois à la puissance
nom inale et à la p uissance spécifique. O n peut dire q u'approxim ativem ent
pour une centrale nucléaire, plus de la moitié des m e s u r e s sont des
m e s u r e s de tem pérature par therm ocouples affectées au bloc r éacteu r.

Po u r le coeur du réacteur, il sem ble qu'il soit de plus en plus

indispensable de disposer d'inform ations concernant la répartition s p a ­
tiale de la puissance et du flux neutronique en r é g im e de fonctionnement
nom inal et transitoire. L a m e s u r e directe des tem pératu res combustible
serait bien entendu la m eilleure source d'inform ation, m alh e u r eu se m e n t
les difficultés technologiques limitent cette possibilité aux élém ents
"in s t r u m e n t é s " de m o in s en m oin s n o m b r e u x .

A u s s i le plus souvent, ces tem pératu res com bustible sont déduites
indirectement d'autres m e s u r e s , et cela n'est pas toujours satisfaisant.

P o u r les capteurs destinés aux m e s u r e s neutroniques et ceux d e s ­

tinés aux m e s u r e s th er m o d y n a m iq u es à proxim ité ou dans le coeur du
réacteur, ce sont surtout les conditions d'environnem ent qui posent le plus
de p ro b lèm es technologiques à r é s o u d r e .

P o u r les capteurs neutroniques, c'est en général la tenue en t e m ­

pérature qui limite les caractéristiques. L e s résultats obtenus pour la
m e s u r e de flux neutronique élevé dans des débits d'exposition aux r a y o n ­
nem ents y élevés sont tels que de plus en plus la durée de vie de ces
capteurs tend à être surtout limitée par la con som m ation des m atériaux
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 15

sen sibles. L e s conditions d'installation et de déplacem ent m écan iq ue de ces

capteurs leur im posent aussi de nouvelles caractéristiques : tenue au choc,
aux vibrations, tenue p a ss a g èr e à des rayonnem ents dont l'intensité est
supérieure aux valeurs nom inales p ré vu es.

P o u r les capteurs th e r m o d y n a m iq u e s , en particulier les t h e r m o ­

couples, l'évolution de leur fidélité (précision de m e s u r e ) sous irradiation,
l'évolution de l'isolem ent et la diminution dans certains cas de leur cons­
tante de t em p s sont les caractéristiques qu'il sem ble encore souhaitable
d 'a m é lio re r.

P o u r l'e n s e m b le de ces capteurs, l'im pératif de l'éc o n o m ie est une

durée de vie égale à celle de la centrale, ce qui à l'heu re actuelle n'est
pas toujours réalisable, aussi ce qui est im posé est au m o in s une durée de
vie compatible avec le t em p s qui sépare les interventions n o rm a le s d 'e n ­
tretien.

L e s causes déterm inantes actuelles de la limitation des p erfor­

m a n c e s , en particulier de la fiabilité des sous- ensem bles de m e s u r e
instrumentation, sem blent être les p er fo rm a n c e s (fiabilité) des capteurs
et de leur câble a sso cié . L'exploitant qui attache en général une grande
im portance à ces équipem ents sem ble souhaiter non pas un effort d'études
du côté circuits, so us- ensem bles, com posants électroniques m a is plutôt
du côté définition, organisation des en sem bles de m e s u r e , durée de vie
dans les conditions d'exploitation (voir figure 3). Et pour cela, il est
indispensable que les conditions d'installation de l'instrumentation, que
l'utilisation des signaux électriques de sortie soient envisagées dès le
stade du projet. E n effet, l’incidence économ ique peut être plus im p o r ­
tante sur le plan de l'installation et de l'exploitation.que sur le plan de
l'investissem ent initial. P a r ailleurs, il faut souligner que l'instru m en ta­
tion actuelle n'est pas toujours bien adaptée aux équipem ents de traitement
d'inform ations, en particulier aux calculateurs. Cela peut être le cas à la
fois de l'instrumentation associée aux capteurs qui délivrent des signaux
sous fo r m e analogique (therm ocouples, c h a m b re s d'ionisation fonctionnant
en courant, e t c . . . ) et de celle de type analogique associée à des capteurs
qui délivrent des signaux sous fo rm e num ériq ue (détecteurs type com pteurs
ou c h a m b re à fission). Cette adaptation est n é ce ss a ir e car lorsqu'elle n'est

TRAITEMENT
CONNECTEUR CONNECTEUR SIGNAUX DE PRESENTATION

AMELÍORATÍONS
F I G .3 . Améliorations à apportera l'instrumentation.
16 FURET

pas faite, elle entraîne l'utilisation d'équipem ents supplémentaires, qui

sont favorables à l'apparition de pannes d e 'm o d e c o m m u n 'e t défavorables
à l'é c o n o m ie . Po u r les m e s u r e s neutroniques, l'augm entation des étendues
de m e s u r e rec h e rch ée depuis toujours p erm et actuellement de dim inuer
quelquefois le n o m b r e de détecteurs nucléaires ; pour les m e s u r e s ther­
m o d y n a m iq u e s , on assiste à un déplacem ent des étendues de m e s u r e ve rs
des valeurs plus élevées, surtout pour les m e s u r e s de tem pérature et de
p re ssio n .

L a diminution du n o m b r e de types de réacteurs devrait conduire

à court t e r m e à favoriser la standardisation et la norm alisation de l'in s ­
trumentation, tâche entreprise depuis de n o m b r e u s e s années à l'échelle
nationale et internationale.

L e n o m b r e d ’arrêts intempestifs pendant les p re m iè r e s années de

fonctionnement des nouvelles installations montrent que le plus so uve nt,
non seulem ent les conditions d'installation de l'instrumentation pendant
la construction ne sont pas toujours satisfaisantes, m a is que de plus les
m éthodes d 'e s s a is avant d é m a r r a g e ne sont pas toujours des plus efficaces.
L e s règles de l'art des conditions d'installation, a s s e z souvent fantaisistes,
devront être p r é c isé e s . L e s m éthodes d 'e s s a is quantitatives et non qua­
litatives de vérification de la susceptibilité aux parasites sont à a m é lio re r.
D a n s ce do m ain e, le développem ent de m éthodes de m e s u r e s plus scien­
tifiques est à intensifier. E n effet, ces m éthodes doivent perm ettre aussi
de m ie u x définir les structures des câbles, des connecteurs, les p ro c é ­
du res de m ontage de r a c co rd em en t si souvent r é c la m é e s par les équipes
chargées de la construction.

L e p ro b lèm e du tri, de l'utilisation, du traitement, de la p ré se n ­

tation des signaux fournis par l'instrumentation de m e s u r e se pose tou­
jours quel que soit le type de réa cteu r. L a priorité d'acquisition par
l'opérateur de l'inform ation la plus importante en cas d'incident est à
r e c h e r c h e r . A cet égard, il faut souligner l'im p ortance que peuvent avoir
les études de fonctionnement et l'apport qui peut être fourni par l'e x p é ­
rience d'exploitation.

A u s s i, il est n o r m a l que la définition des solutions actuelles en

cours de développem ent pour les centrales en cours de construction soit
prochainem ent m o difié e. L'évolution de la définition de l'instrumentation
est surtout m a r q u é e par l'é c o n o m ie , c'est-à-dire une m eilleure utilisation
du com bustible, la dim inution des m a r g e s de sécurité et une m eilleure d is ­
ponibilité. P a r conséquent, les études, le développem ent et l'utilisation de
sous- ensem bles de calcul de m a r g e de sécurité couplés à plusieurs cap­
teurs de nature différente seront de plus en plus fréquents. Cela est indis­
pensable pour la m e s u r e précise de la m a r g e de sécurité et l'am élioration
de la disponibilité. C 'est à partir de ces seuls sous- ensem bles de calcul
de m a r g e de sécurité que seront élaborées les actions correctrices, ce qui
p erm ettra de d im in ue r le n o m b r e de leurs ordres de c o m m a n d e s et par
conséquent leur taux intempestif d'apparition (voir fig. 4).

U ne utilisation très importante des signaux fournis par les sous-

e n s e m b le s de m e s u r e est la surveillance en exploitation des com posants de
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 17

CC Ш - -m — i — ACTION

© c la­ - m — ?— ou
CORRECTRICE

ve 0- -Ш}— ñ -

rc H- CALCULATEUR ACTION
MARGE
CORRECTRICE
© c la­

ve B - C : CA PTEUR
A : A M P L IF IC A T E U R
S : DECLENC HEUR
A S E U ÍL

F I G .4 . Evolution de l'instrumentation de mesure.

la centrale, le contrôle de leur intégrité quel que soit le niveau de puissance,

c'est-à-dire la détection des défauts naissants qui peuvent les affecter.

L e s m éthodes des diagnostics de défauts sont bien entendu la rg e ­

m ent co m plé m entaires des études de fiabilité et il n'est pas surprenant de
constater que les équipes chargées de l'exploitation, d e là sûreté leur a c c o r ­
dent de plus en plus d 'im p o r t a n c e . Elles font en général appel à une analyse
fine des signaux fournis à partir de capteurs, d'où l'intérêt d 'e s s a y e r de
coordonner les études qui s 'y rapportent avec celles relatives à l'instru­
m entation. O n les englobe quelquefois, ce qui est n o rm a l, dans le dom aine
d'études relatives aux théories du traitement du signal. L e but à atteindre
est bien connu. P a r ex e m p le pour des com posants coeur tels que les a s s e m ­
blages com bustible, il s'agit tout sim p lem ent de détecter, localiser, c a r a c ­
tériser le développem ent d'u ne rupture de gaine ; donc il faut non seulem ent
identifier le défaut m a is évaluer son évolution en fonction du tem ps et aussi
définir la vigilance vis-à-vis de ce qui est tolérable.

O n se rend compte que l'interprétation, l'utilisation de l'in fo r m a ­

tion disponible, la décision à prend re alors par l'équipe d'exploitation sont
les parties les plus difficiles.

D o n c pour aug m en ter l'efficacité des m éthodes de diagnostic, il

faut leur a sso cier l'ex p érien ce d'exploitation (voir tableau V I). E n effet, les
inform ations relatives aux défauts doivent être situées dans le cadre du
fonctionnement de la centrale, leur interprétation pourra ainsi largem ent
bénéficier des incidents p a s s é s . C 'e st ce qui p erm et d 'a v a n c e r , à l'heure
actuelle, q u 'u n grand n o m b r e d'incidents survenus dans le circuit p rim air e
des réacteu rs nucléaires auraient pu être détectés à tem p s, par une m e i l ­
leure utilisation et interprétation des signaux fournis par les capteurs.

L e s perspectives qui se dessinent à l'heu re actuelle sem blent dues

aux possibilités d'application des théories du traitement du signal qui par
analyse du bruit associé au signal permettent d'ajouter à la sim ple m e s u r e
d'u n e grandeur physique d'autres informations supplém entaires : par
ex e m p le le spectre de densité de puissance du bruit électronique associé
18 FURET

T A B L E A U V I. A M E L IO R A T IO N D E S M E T H O D E S D E D IA G N O S T IC
DE DEFAUTS

Choix et emplacement des capteurs t

+ Instrumentation de mesures /

+ Théorie du traitement du signal ^

+ Organes de traitement temps réel

+ Programmes de calcul temps différé -*■

+ Expérience d'exploitation f

- Diagnostic défauts de composants

Détection du défaut

Localisation du défaut ^ Sens de

l’amélioration
Evaluation de l'évolution du défaut
à apporter
Vigilance et décision à prendre

au signal m e s u r e .neutronique, la com posante utile contenue dans un signal

fortement bruitê, l'instant d'apparition d 'u n p hén om ène dont la présence
est aléatoire, des variations de fréquence,des r ésonan ces. L'in fo rm a tio n
sem ble aussi plus riche pour le diagnostic,lorsque des corrélations, des
intercorrélations sont faites entre signaux obtenus à partir des capteurs
neutroniques, therm iq u e s, et de m e s u r e s de contraintes. Cela
est actuellement facilité grâce à l'utilisation d 'o r g a n e s de traitement du
type corrélateurs, tra n sfo rm e u rs de F o u r r ie r, d'utilisation sim ple et
susceptibles m ê m e de fonctionner en tem ps rée l. M a lg r é l'annonce pério­
dique au cours de réunions de spécialistes de la très grande utilité de
l'application des théories du traitement signal, pour le fonctionnement des
centrales nucléaires, les résultats obtenus par les équipes d'exploitation
paraissent encore limités, ils concernent d'ailleurs le plus souvent des
réacteurs exp érim entaux de Centres d 'E t u d e s N u c lé a ir e s .

O n peut souligner que pour les centrales en fonctionnement par

ex e m p le , les résultats les plus significatifs relatifs à l'analyse fine des
fluctuations c h a m b r e s neutroniques en vue du diagnostic du com portem ent
des structures coeuj; ont été obtenus sur la centrale de T R I N O -
V E R C E L L E S E en Italie. C 'e st l'analyse des bruits acoustiques qui sem ble
avoir retenu davantage l'attention des équipes d'exploitation, analyse faite
le plus souvent avec des m o y e n s sim ples dans le d o m ain e de fréquence
de 800 H z à 1 5 0 0 0 H z . Sur plusieurs installations, cette analyse a p e r m is
la détection de vibrations a no rm ale s de structures, bris de pièces en
circulation dans le circuit p r im a ir e , détériorations m in e u re s d'o r g a n e s
liés à la réfrigération du circuit p r im a ir e . L 'in fo rm ation liée au bruit
acoustique sem ble plus crédible à l'exploitant que celle liée au bruit
neutronique et cela s'explique.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 19

1
M E M O ÎR E O RG ANE 1

DE DE 1
S IG N A TU R E * TRAITEM ENT M ISSIO N
TEM PS REEL " SU R V E ILLA N C E
1
1

----------- Ш
C E N TR E DE •H - T R A ÍT E M E N T

C ALC U L TEM PS DÍFFER E

4~h
E X P L O IT A T IO N (E Q U IP E DE O U A R T )- M IS S IO N

EXPLOITAT ION (E Q U IP E D 'E N TRETIEN - D iAG N O STiC

CHEF D 'E X P L O IT A T IO N -----------------------

S P E C IA L IS T E T R A IT E M E N T SIGNAL л

ACTIO N SUR

DECISION ^C O M P O S A N T S

F IG .5 . Ligne d'action nouvelle du contrôle-commande.

E n effet, la bonne oreille du "r o n d i e r " peur ren dre dans certains cas
le m ê m e service que l 'e x a m e n de l'évolution des signatures spectrales
stockées dans la m é m o ir e d 'u n calculateur. Ce constat ne doit pas dé co u­
r a g e r les équipes qui s'occupent d'études fines de diagnostic, car ces
études seront sans aucun doute une ligne d'action intéressante nouvelle
pour les sous- ensem bles instrumentation du contrôle-commande (voir
figure 5) ; eux seuls peuvent en effet perm ettre une surveillance continue
et centralisée de tous les com posants de la centrale. Cette m issio n
surveillance n'est pas nouvelle, les équipes d'exploitation le savent bien.
P a r contre, la m is s io n diagnostic de défauts à partir de l'instrumentation
de m e s u r e ira sans aucun doute en se développant, m ê m e si elle doit
conduire au développem ent d 'u n appareillage aux p er fo rm a n c e s encore plus
p o u ssé es, m ê m e si le traitement de l'inform ation disponible doit se faire
en tem ps différé ; l'enjeu sur le plan de l'é c o n o m ie , de la disponibilité et
de la sûreté est en effet trop important.

6. I N C I D E N C E D E L 'U T I L I S A T I O N D E S C A L C U L A T E U R S N U M E ­
R IQ U E S D A N S L E S E N S E M B L E S D E C O N T R O L E - C O M M A N D E

Cette utilisation des calculateurs n u m é riq u e s dans le contrôle-

c o m m a n d e est apparue dès 1 96 0 essentiellem ent pour le traitement d 'in ­
form ation afin d 'a s s u r e r la fonction de centralisateur de m e s u r e s . Elle
s'est en effet vite im p o sée le n o m b r e de m e s u r e s â traiter dépassant
facilem ent le chiffre de 1 000 à partir de puissances de l'o r d re de 100 M W e ;
l'exp érien ce d'exploitation en est en général très satisfaisante.
20 FURET

L'utilisation de calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s pour la réalisation d 'a u ­

to m a tism es est par contre apparue beaucoup plus tard aux environs de
1967 - 1 9 6 8 . P o u r cette utilisation, on a m ê m e pu constater a s s e z souvent
une certaine m éfiance aussi bien de la part des équipes chargées d'études
de projet que celles chargées de l'exploitation. Et encore r é c e m m e n t
dans certaines r é u n io n s de spécialistes, la question suivante était posée :
calculateur n u m é riq u e dans le contrôle, pour quoi faire ?

A u s s i à l'h eu re actuelle, a ss e z r a r e s sont les installations où le

calculateur a ss u r e entièrem ent la fonction contrôle- com m ande. N é a n ­
m o in s pour les a u tom atism es on peut citer la réalisation de logique p r o ­
g r a m m é e pour les séqu.ences de m is e en service de m a t é rie ls . P o u r la
régulation, on peut citer l'intervention du calculateur en'tnaftre opérateur"
sur l'ajustem ent des points de consigne des boucles de régulation (réali­
sées en général en technique analogique), son utilisation soit en guide
opérateur, soit avec intervention directe sur les b a r r e s de contrôle pour
la régulation spatiale, lorsque cette dernière s 'im p o s e .

П s em b le que certains exploitants fam iliarisés avec son utilisation

pour les automates séquentiels de d é m a r r a g e et d 'arrêt et pour la r é g u ­
lation générale de la centrale considèrent ap rè s expérience que son
em ploi est indispensable pour perm ettre des interventions rapides d 'a c ­
tions correctrices en cas d'incident et ceci tout particulièrem ent pour les
centrales dont les réacteu rs nucléaires ont une puissance spécifique élevée
et une inertie therm ique faible.

L 'e x p é r ie n c e actuelle de l'utilisation des calculateurs n u m é riq u e s

est basée sur l'exploitation d'installation au m o y e n de calculateurs dits
"c e n t r a u x " en général a s s e z puissants (capacité m é m o ir e rapide
2 4 0 0 0 m ots de 2 4 bits - capacité m é m o ir e tam bour 100 000 m ots) et
systém atiquem ent doublés.

D u point de vue disponibilité, cette structure centralisée peut

entraiher la paralysie du contrôle-com m ande en cas de pannes de calcu­
lateurs (voir figure 6), car en y regardant de plus p rè s, la redondance
d 'o r d r e 2 annoncée au stade du projet et rappelée dans les rapports de
sûreté n'est pas toujours strictement r éa lisé e. Cette structure centralisée
pose des p ro b lè m e s de m aintenance en m a r c h e , limite les possibilités de
tests des p r o g r a m m e s m o d ifié ^ au cours de l'exploitation de la centrale.

P a r ailleurs, l'évolution rapide de l'inform atique d'u ne part et

de la technologie électronique d'autre part im posent la refonte de l 'e n ­
s em b le calculateurs au cours de la vie de la centrale. Il est très diffi­
cile d 'e n v is a g er alors c o m m e pour les autom atism es câblés, une refonte
partielle échelonnée sur plusieurs années sans arrêt de longue durée,
d'o ù , par conséquent, une incidence non négligeable sur l'é c o n o m ie .

L a fiabilité de l'Unité centrale est en général satisfaisante, celle

des périphériques en particulier électrom écaniques l'est beaucoup m o in s .
L e s pannes de m atériels sont bien entendu liées aux pannes bien connues
de certains com posants : relais, scrutateurs, condensateurs électro­
ch im iq ues, sem i- conducteurs (m a l utilisés).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 21

A C Q U IS IT IO N DES MESURES INTER FACES

IN T E R F A C E S D E N T R E E S U N IT E C EN TR ALt S O R TIES P E R IP H E R IQ U E S

M ATERIELS
"“ (COMPOSANTS
C E N TR ALE)

O PERATEU R

M A T E R IE L S
* (COMPOSANTS
C E N T R A LE )

• PROBAB'lLiTE D APPARITION DE PANNES DE MODE COMMUN

Й S O U S- E N SE M B LE S DONT LA FIABILITE EST A AMELÍORER

F I G .6 . Expérience d'exploitation de l'utilisation des calculateurs numériques.

L e tri des informations fournies en r é g im e de routine, ou en

r é g im e d'incident, d e m e u r e un p rob lèm e m a l réso lu . L e journal de bord
du chef de quart r e m p la c é par l'im p r im a n te rapide n'est certainement
pas la bonne solution. Cela conduit en général à la production de beaucoup
de papier a s s e z p eu consulté, en r é g im e de routine, par les équipes d 'e x ­
ploitation et parfois au blocage de la tra n sm issio n d'inform ations utiles
en cas d'incident.

L'utilisation des calculateurs est encore très discutée pour r é a ­

liser les fonctions de sécurité ou le contrôle et la c o m m a n d e de certaines
fonctions vitales. Pour ces de rn ières et en particulier la réfrigération de
seco u rs, on peut supposer que les o rdres de c o m m a n d e opérateur conti­
nueront à avoir priorité sur les ordres de c o m m a n d e calculateur, cela
com pte tenu de l'exp érien ce d'exploitation paraît d'ailleurs raisonnable.

P a r contre la réalisation de "fonctions de sécurité" au m o y e n de

calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s se fera sans doute à m o y e n t e r m e et tout parti­
culièrem ent dans les centrales nucléaires où l'on rec h e rc h e r a à réduire
la m a r g e de sécurité. D a n s ce cas en effet, l'élaboration et la m e s u r e de
cette m a r g e de sécurité doivent se faire, c o m m e on l'a déjà dit, avec
précision, le calculateur n u m é riq u e p erm et d'atteindre la précision r e c h e r ­
chée dans des configurations différentes. P a r ailleurs, il est particuliè­
rem en t bien adapté aux m e s u r e s répétitives, aux modifications a u to m a ­
tiques de seuils en fonction de p a ra m è tre s extérieu rs. C'est ainsi que son
utilisation s'est avérée indispensable dans les e n s e m b le s de détection
de rupture de gaines pour les réacteurs graphite ga z, à la suite d'incident
ayant conduit à une pollution localisée du coeur. D e m ê m e qu'un traite­
m ent élaboré par calculateur des m e s u r e s tem pérature du fluide réfr i­
gérant à la sortie des canaux p erm et seul de mettre en évidence des
incidents locaux de réfrigération à l'intérieur du coeur (voir tableau V II).

L'évolution de l'utilisation des calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s dans le

contrôle perceptible est celle qui conduira sans doute à l'abandon, à m o y e n
t e r m e , d'u ne structure centralisée avec gros calculateurs pour aller v e rs
la m is e en oeuvre de petits calculateurs spécialisés.
22 FURET

T A B L E A U V II. E X P E R I E N C E D E L 'U T I L I S A T I O N D E S C A L C U L A T E U R S
DANS LE CON TROLE

Traitement de beaucoup de mesures avec précision (températures, activités canaux)

Traitement des seuils (TOR)

Mise en service des matériels

Tests automatiques de bon fonctionnement des équipements

Ajustements points de consigne des régulations - Guide opérateurs

Essais des matériels avant mise en service de la centrale

Coût de la programmation

Panne aléatoire de programme

Entrées des informations en provenance des capteurs

Dialogue opérateur calculateur

Communication opérateur, composants de la centrale

Maintenance et modification des équipements pendant l'exploitation

Evolution trop rapide de la technologie (PB des rechanges)

Tendance â augmenter la passivité des opérateurs, surabondance d'informations

P a r ailleurs, la présentation des informations aux opérateurs

évoluera sans aucun doute. P o u r juger d'u ne situation et prendre rap id e­
m ent une décision, l'opérateur doit disposer d'inform ations "c la ir e s et
p r é c is e s ", il faut qu'il puisse c o m p r e n d r e , il faut aussi qu'il puisse agir et
ne pas être contraint à rester passif devant le déroulem ent a n o rm al de
s éq ue nc e s.

D e s interfaces nouvelles et m ie u x adaptées "calculateurs opérateurs"

sont sans doute n é c e s s a ir e s . B ie n entendu le coût de la p ro g ra m m a tio n
r estera encore une charge importante, à m o y e n t e r m e , il sem ble bien que
l'effet de série p erm ettra seul en grande partie de la d im in u e r . M a is il
faut ajouter que cet effet de série peut facilem ent être r e m is en cause, par
des m odifications,ou des adaptations qualifiées de"mineures'.'

E nfin, il faut indiquer une des possibilités de l'utilisation des cal­

culateurs n u m é riq u e s dans le contrôle qui n'est peut être pas a ss e z souli­
gnée, car elle sem ble m argin ale par rapport à l'exploitation de la centrale:
il s'agit de la conduite des essais des gros m atériels avant leur m is e en
s e r v ic e . П n'est pas rare de plus en plus de voir arriver sur le site très
t6t ces calculateurs qui ne serviront au contrôle-commande que beaucoup
plus tard . D a n s cette période une bonne utilisation sem ble en être faite :
m is e au point des p r o g r a m m e s de fonctionnement, conduite et dépouillement
des es s a is , test de bon fonctionnement, évaluation expérim entale de la
fiabilité.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 23

7. R E P E R C U S S IO N S D E S E X A M E N S D E S U R E T E SUR L A D E F IN IT IO N
DU CONTROLE-COM MANDE

D ep u is plusieurs années m aintenant, les e x a m e n s de sûreté par des

c o m m is s io n s , des groupes A D - Н О С des o r g a n is m e s internationaux se sont
développés, à un point tel quelquefois que le p re m ie r com posant fourni par
le constructeur de centrale est le "R a p p o r t de Sécurité p r é lim in a ir e ". Б.
sem ble que les décisions p rises au cours de ces e x a m e n s qui se situent
au niveau projet, début de construction, m is e en service ne conduisent pas
le plus souvent à une économ ie des investissem ents initiaux, c'est-à-dire
diminution des équipem ents ou simplification des installations.

L e bilan des décisions p rises est bien entendu difficile à faire et

on se contentera ici de souligner les r ép ercu ssio n s sur l'en se m b le
contrôle- com m ande qui nous ont sem blé les plus importantes et qui ont
tendance à se généraliser :

- L 'a m élio ratio n de la protection contre les radiations du local salle

de contrôle afin de perm ettre une possibilité de contrôle après incident,
la création quelquefois d'u ne salle de contrôle auxiliaire qualifiée de
repli, où seules en général des possibilités d'a rrê t de l'installation sont
prévues ainsi que des c o m m a n d e s des circuits auxiliaires "v it a u x ".

- L 'au gm entatio n des sources d 'é ne rg ie électrique de secours peuvent

aller jusqu'à l'augm entation du n o m b r e des diesels, ou à l'installation
d'u n e ligne d'alimentation électrique supplém entaire sur le site afin de
pouvoir r e m é d ie r à la perte d'alimentation de la plupart des auxiliaires
de la centrale, en cas de perte du transform ateur de d é m a r r a g e .

- Une séparation géographique plus systém atique des câbles destinés

aux sous- ensem bles de m e s u r e de contrôle, de ceux destinés aux sous-
en s e m b le s de sécurité.

- L'am élio ratio n des dispositifs de test de bon fonctionnement des

e n s e m b le s de sécurité afin de perm ettre si possible, celui des capteurs.

- L'am élio ratio n de la sensibilité de détection pour les m e s u r e s

effectuées sur le circuit p r im a ir e , l'augm entation du n o m b r e d'entrées dans
les e n s e m b le s de sécurité et dans l'e n se m b le de c o m m a n d e de la réfrigé­
ration de s ec o u rs .

- L'am élio ratio n de la fiabilité des indicateurs de position des b a r re s

de contrôle.

D u côté simplification, il est peut-être utile de m entionner :

- L a suppression d'a u to m a tis m e s en particulier dans le d om ain e des

m a n o e u v r e s de basculem ent des sources d'alimentation de secours et la
c o m m a n d e de la réfrigération de s e c o u rs .

- L e r e m p la c e m e n t de certains périphériques de calculateurs par des

enregistreurs du type analogique.
24 FURET

E nfin, il faut m entionner l'incidence des décisions des c o m m is sio n s

de sécurité sur les équipes d'exploitation contrôle- com m ande qui peut se
traduire par l'augm entation de l'effectif de quart et l'am élioration de son
niveau technique. Ce qui est loin d'être négligeable pour le bon fonction­
n em ent du contrôle- com m ande et de la centrale.

8. F IA B IL IT E D E S E Q U IP E M E N T S D U C O N T R O L E - C O M M A N D E

L e développem ent de la m éthode d'an aly se de la sûreté des c e n ­

trales nucléaires établie sur des bases probabilistes afin d 'e s s a y e r de
définir quantitativement un critère de risque, conduit à rem ettre en relief
une caractéristique importante des équipem ents des e n s em b les de contrôle -
c o m m a n d e (et tout particulièrement ceux qui font partie des e n s e m b le s de
sécurité) à savoir la fiabilité, c o m m e si elle avait été oubliée par des équipes
ch argées de l'étude et du développem ent des centrales nucléaires, alors
qu'elle est (ou qu'elle doit être) c o m m e chacun sait, une de leur p ré o ccu ­
pation p e r m a n e n t e . C o m m e n t en effet pouvoir c o m p a r e r sur le plan de
l'éc o no m ie différents types de centrales sans tenir com pte de leur facteur
de charge, c'est-à-dire de leur disponibilité, par conséquent de la fiabilité
de leurs com posants et en particulier de celle des e n s em b les du contrôle -
com m ande. Ce n'est pas en effet p arce que les "b a n q u e s de do n n é es " ,
pour em p lo y e r une ex p ressio n à la m o d e , ne sont-pas bien fournies et ne
sem blent pas donner satisfaction aux équipes qui s'occupent de calculs de
p annes, qu'il faut co nsidérer que les équipes qui ont la charge de l'étude et
du développem ent des e n s e m b le s de contrôle-com m ande ne se préoccupent
pas a s s e z de cette caractéristique fiabilité. D 'a ille u r s , la prédiction de
pannes (ou le tem p s m o y e n de bon fonctionnement) est plus précise lo rs­
qu'elle s'applique à un grand n o m b r e de com posants ou d'équipem ents
identiques. C 'e st la r aison pour laquelle, l'instrum entation, les équipem ents
de contrôle, les équipem ents d'alimentation électrique ont été les p re m iè r e s
parties de l'installation d 'u n réacteur nucléaire pour lesquelles des études
de fiabilité aient été entreprises d'une m an iè r e systém atique.

IL est peut-être souhaitable de faire quelques r e m a r q u e s sur le

bilan de ces études, de ces évaluations et de leur évolution possible,
compte tenu de l'exp érien ce d'exploitation.

P o u r a ss u r e r dans le tem ps la disponibilité avec une certaine

probabilité des équipem ents du contrôle-com m ande n éc e ss a ir e s à la bonne
m a r c h e du réacteur et à la sécurité, la redondance et le secours ont
surtout été utilisés. L'évaluation précise pour certaines fonctions de l'uti­
lisation d 'u n seul équipem ent pour satisfaire du point de vue fiabilité à
la probabilité de panne fixée a r ar e m e n t été faite.

IL est important que des efforts soient faits dans ce s en s, d'une

part pour l'é c o n o m ie , d'autre part pour la simplification des installations.
L a redondance qui a été et qui est peut-être encore trop utilisée pour les
équipem ents du contrôle de la chaudière nucléaire et qui ne l'est peut-être
pas suffisam m ent pour les équipem ents du contrôle de la partie production
d 'é n e rg ie , a m is en évidence l'im portance des pannes de m o d e c o m m u n qui
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 25

T A B L E A U VIII. G U ID E D E L A F IA B IL IT E

La simplification des équipements diminue les probabilités de panne

de mode commun et le prix du contrôle-commande

La redondance des équipements augmente les probabilités de panne

de mode commun et le prix du contrôle-commande mais peut
améliorer sa disponibilité

La diversité des équipements diminue les probabilités de panne

de mode commun et la disponibilité du contrôle-commande
mais augmente son prix

La probabilité de panne d ‘un équipement n'est jamais nulle

La probabilité de panne de mode commun dépend beaucoup

de la structure de l'installation, de l'organigramme de
fonctionnement et des détails de fabrication et d'installation
des matériels

peuvent p aralyser le fonctionnement d'équ ipem ents redondants (voir

tableau V III). Il sem ble qu'il soit difficile de prévoir ces pannes de m o d e
c o m m u n par l'utilisation de p r o g r a m m e s d'analyse gérés par calculateurs
scientifiques. L'effort à faire se situe en effet du côté études de définition
des m atériels, construction, installation, m is e en oeuvre et vérification
et non pas du côté études théoriques d'analyse, q u'on a peut-être trop
tendance à développer.

P o u r com battre la panne de m o de c o m m u n , on a suggéré peut-être

trop hâtivement le r e m è d e de "la diversité" : propriété de réaliser la
fonction de m a n iè r e s différentes. C 'e st ainsi que la tendance est de r e c o m ­
m a n d e r la diversité pour les m atériels qui constituent les e n s em b les de
m e s u r e pour les équipem ents destinés à a ss u r e r les actions correctrices
e t c . . . Cette diversité devrait se limiter strictement aux fonctions les
plus délicates du contrôle- com m ande, car elle conduit d'u ne part à réduire
l'effet de série favorable à l'éc o no m ie et d'autre part à dim in uer la d is ­
ponibilité. . . Cet effet de série est prépondérant non seulem ent sur le prix
du m atériel, m a is aussi sur la garan tie que peut donner le constructeur
relativem ent à la spécification fiabilité ex igé e. B ien entendu, la spécifi­
cation fiabüité ne peut pas être une caractéristique supplém entaire d e m a n ­
dée au constructeur, sans grande incidence sur le p rix . Pour l'évaluer,
pour la garantir, des études et des essais sont n é c e s s a ir e s .

P a r ailleurs, l'apport de l'exp érien ce d'exploitation est fondamental

en particulier pour préciseï; sur l'équipem ent de série en exploitation
n o rm a le , l'évaluation des probabilités de pannes faites au niveau prototype
ou tête de sé r ie. H est incontestable qu'à l'heu re actuelle cette expérience
d'exploitation n'est pas très bien utilisée,par les équipes qui s'occupent au
stade du projet de l'étude et de la définition de nouveaux équipem ents.

H est regrettable que cette expérience ne soit pas toujours m ie u x

connue. L'effort à faire se situe sans doute au niveau prise d'inform ations,
26 FURET

FIG. 7. Amélioration et utilisation des banques de données fiabilité.

et là il faut r e m a r q u e r que ce n'est pas l'inform ation globale qui est inté­
ressan te, m a is l'inform ation de "détail" (voir figure 7). P o u r la fiabilité
cette information est à re c h e rc h e r au niveau du technicien qui entretient
et qui dépanne le m até riel. C 'est en grande partie lui qui peut le plus
correctem ent et le plus efficacem ent alim enter cette "b a n q u e de d o n n é es ",
afin de la ren dre de plus en plus utile.

P o u r l'instant, on peut avancer que l'apport des études de fiabilité

(sur le plan de l'analyse) n 'a pas été aussi bénéfique q u'on l'aurait souhaité
sur le plan de la disponibilité. Po u r une partie importante des équipements
de contrôle- com m ande, à savoir les e n s em b les de sécurité, cela est
confirm é pendant les p r e m iè r e s années de fonctionnement des nouvelles
installations par le taux d 'arrêt intempestif trop élevé, q u'on constate
systém atiquem ent dans tous les pays quel que soit le type de réacteur.

P a r ailleurs, r a r e s sont les cas où ces études d'a n aly se d 'e n s e m ­

bles ou de sous- ensem bles de contrôle-com m ande ont entralhé une s i m ­
plification des s y s t è m e s , c'est-à-dire la suppression de m atériels ou de
co m po sants, jugés inutiles ou surabondants pour satisfaire les critères
i m p o s é s . Enfin avec l'utilisation des calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s une nouvelle
catégorie de panne est ap parue, c'est celle qui ne concerne pas le m atériel,
les co m po sants, calculateurs m a is le p r o g r a m m e . Elle est en général
difficile à m ettre en évidence et quelquefois plus difficile encore à corri­
ger . M a lg r é toutes les possibilités de tests automatiques pour lesquels
le calculateur n u m é riq u e sem ble très bien adapté, la panne aléatoire de
p r o g r a m m e est toujours possible, elle doit être toujours en visa gée . L e
grand soin apporté aux es s a is de p r o g r a m m e avant m is e en fonctionnement
p erm e t h e u re u s e m e n t a s s e z souvent de la détecter et de la co rrig e r. L a
difficulté dans la période d 'e s s a is est de pouvoir sim uler toutes les con­
figurations d'état de la centrale. Cela est d'autant m o i n s facile, il va
sans dire, pour une centrale prototype que pour une centrale de série.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -1 27

L'effort fait actuellement consiste à limiter les conséquences p r é ­

visibles de telles pannes à la fois sur les com posants de la centrale et
sur l'e n s e m b le des p r o g r a m m e s calculateurs. H y a pour les
calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s une approche nouvelle d'évaluation de la fiabilité,
dont les constructeurs auront à se p réoccuper d'autant plus vite que ces
calculateurs seront utilisés, c o m m e on l'a dit, à m o y e n t e r m e , à la fois
dans les e n s e m b le s de contrôle direct et les e n s e m b le s de sécurité.

C O N C L U SIO N

Ce bilan rapide des études et du développem ent du contrôle-

c o m m a n d e des centrales nucléaires qui vient d'être fait m et en relief
quelques r em ar q u e s, quelques questions qui vra ise m bla b lem en t seront
r e p ris e s et discutées au cours de ce s y m p o s iu m .

Je vo u dra is, pour conclure, insister sur le rôle du facteur h u m a in,

les c o m p r o m is à faire et l'apportde l'exp érien ce d'exploitation. L a place
et le rôle du facteur h u m a in sont à souligner dans le développem ent du
contrôle- com m ande des centrales nucléaires et cela à tous les stades :
étude, construction, vérification, exploitation, m aintenance, dépannage,
inspection e t c . . . L e s opérateurs doivent être considérés,et cela pour de .
n o m b r e u s e s années en co re, c o m m e faisant partie des e n s e m b le s de
contrôle- com m ande. E n effet, m ê m e si des pannes d'équ ipem ent ou des
incidents sont encore im putables à des e r r e u r s h u m a in e s , il ne faut pas
oublier que le cerv eau h u m a in est encore plus puissant que n 'im po rte quel
calculateur n um é riq ue , sa capacité de m é m o ir e , de raiso nn em en t, de dé ci­
sion doit être utilisée le plus efficacem ent. Cela devrait être un des buts
du confort m is à la disposition des opérateurs au m o y e n des calculateurs
et c'est la raison pour laquelle des actions m anuelles doivent toujours être
encore m is e s à leur portée.

L 'e x p é r ie n c e de l'exploitation des centrales nucléaires, c o m m e

d'ailleurs celles d'autres p ro c essu s,est là pour rappeler en effet que des
situations d'incidents, pour lesquelles seuls les opérateurs hu m a in s sont
à m ê m e d 'e n v is a g er rapidem ent les conséquences et de décider des m e s u r e s
les plus efficaces à prend re pour les com battre, sont toujours probables
pendant la vie de la centrale. L e s décisions à prendre les plus efficaces
pour la sûreté et l'éc o no m ie dans des situations a n o r m a le s de fonction­
n em ent ne peuvent être m is e s en oeuvre uniquem ent à partir d 'a u t o m a ­
t ism e s , pour lesquels, par principe, toutes les configurations d'état n'ont
pas pu être p ré v u e s . L 'e x p é r ie n c e de l'initiative hu m a in e prouve dans le
d o m ain e du contrôle-com mande, c o m m e dans bien d'autres d'ailleurs, que
les efforts faits pour la form ation, l'entraîhem ent, sont très bénéfiques
et ne représentent pas toujours les investissem ents les plus coûteux.

A u stade actuel du développem ent des centrales nucléaires, il

sem ble important d 'a m é lio r e r le c o m p r o m is fait ou à faire entre sûreté,
disponibilité et é co n o m ie . L e s difficultés de rech e rch e de ce c o m p r o m is
sont bien apparentes dans les choix à faire pour la définition du contrôle-
c o m m a n d e . L e s équipes qui participent aux réunions de travail d'avant-
projet ou de projet, où des décisions sont p rises pour orienter ou fixer
ces choix,le savent bien.
28 FURET

P o u r la sûreté et en particulier pour la protection des biens et des

p erso n ne s, la chaudière nucléaire est la partie la plus importante de la
centrale ; pour la disponibilité, c'est bien entendu tous les com posants de
la centrale qu'il faut co n sidé re r. L e s e n s em b les du contrôle-com mande
qui permettent des liaisons étroites entre tous ces com posants inter­
viennent à la fois sur la disponibilité et la sûreté. Po u r satisfaire aux
critères im p o s é s ,q u i ne sont pas d'ailleurs toujours bien définis, il y a des
r isq ues à prend re et à évaluer, il y a aussi à faire intervenir des aspects
techniques, des aspects non techniques. Et si les conclusions des études
de sûreté qui sont de plus en plus précises peuvent apporter une aide dans
le choix des c o m p r o m is , l'exp érien ce du fonctionnement depuis plusieurs
années des centrales nucléaires est sans aucun doute l'aide la plus im p o r ­
tante et la plus efficace. IL y a actuellement une expérience très en rich is­
sante accum ulée par les équipes d'exploitation dont il faut faire bénéficier
au plus vite les équipes chargées d'études de projets et de construction,
car cette expérience hélas n'est pas toujours bien connue et bien utilisée.
C 'est la raiso n pour laquelle j'invite les exploitants de centrales
nucléaires à intervenir fréq ue m m en t dans les discussions qui auront lieu
au cours de ce s y m p o s iu m . L e u r avis est en effet très important pour les
choix à faire de la définition des e n sem bles du contrôle-com m ande des
futures centrales nucléaires.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2

NOTES ON THE A G E N C Y 'S ACTIVITIES

IN THE CONTROL AND INSTRU M ENTATION
O F N U C LE A R REACTORS

A . KEDDAR
International A tom ic Energy Agency,
Vienna, Austria

Abstract

NOT ES O N T H E A G E N C Y 'S A CTIV ITIES IN T H E C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N O F N U CLEA R REACTORS.

In addition to the technical assistance of the Agency to the developing countries in the field of reactor
control and instrumentation through fellowships, projects and research contracts, the Agency recently
(March 1971) established a program for the control and instrumentation of nuclear power plants. This paper
deals with some problems encountered and some results obtained since the establishment of the Working Group
on Nuclear Power Plant Control and Instrumentation (NPPC1). Some comments and suggestions are added
when necessary.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e P a n el on Instrumentation for N uclear P o w e r Plant Control, held

fro m 17 to 21 N o v e m b e r 1969 in V ienna, w a s the first m eeting organized
by the I A E A on this subject. T h e n u m b e r of countries (16) and the n u m b e r
of people (35) participating, and the considerable enthusiasm shown during
the m eeting s, indicated that this topic is one of grow ing im portance for the
developm ent of nuclear p o w er plants and that international collaboration
would be very beneficial. O n being requested to r e c o m m e n d a suitable
p r o g r a m of activities for the A g en c y w hich could serve to facilitate exchange
of information and experience in nuclear p o w er plant control and instrum enta­
tion, the P a n el w a s un a n im o u s in r e c o m m e n d in g to the I A E A that it set up
a standing W o r k in g G r o u p to cover the whole field of nuclear p o w er plant
control and instrumentation.
A s this field is diverse and covers a n u m b e r of topics that need to be
studied in considerable depth, as well as having aspects that involve the
co-ordination of specialist a re a s, the P a n el envisaged that the W o r k in g
G r o u p would n eed to hold specialists' m eetings so that these specialist a reas
can be discussed effectively and in detail by those people actively engaged.

2. W O R K IN G G R O U P

In July 1 97 0, the A g e n c y im p lem ented the P a n el r eco m m e n d a tio n and

established a standing W o r k in g G r o u p on N u cle ar P o w e r Plants Control and
Instrumentation ( N P P C I ) to facilitate an exchange of views and experience
betw een specialists. T h e p r im a r y functions of the W o r k in g G ro u p are
(a) prom oting the exchange of technical information on national p ro g ra m s
and n e w developm ents; (b) identifying p rob lem s of practical interest and
stimulating and encouraging co-ordination of r e s e a r c h developm ent efforts;
(c) proposing and co-ordinating the organization of m eetings; (d) assisting

29
30 KEDDAR

the I A E A in carrying out activities relevant to the A g en c y p r o g r a m ; and

(e) serving as a m e a n s to dissem inate information on p rog ress to the
A g enc y M e m b e r States.
T h e W o r k in g G r o u p covers closely related p rob lem areas in reactor
engineering.

2. 1. M e m b e r s and observers

T h e W o r k in g G r o u p has 1 5 ^ m e m b e r s representing the following

countries: B e lg iu m , C a n ad a , C S S R , D e n m a r k , F r a n c e , F e d e r a l Republic
of G e r m a n y , H u n g a r y , Italy, Japan, N o r w a y , Spain, S w ed e n , the United
K in g d o m , the United States of A m e r i c a , the U S S R ; 11 o bservers rep re sent­
ing Argentina, B r a zil, B ulgaria, K o r e a , Poland, R o m a n ia , Y ugoslavia
and Po rtugal; -and five m e m b e r s representing the following organizations:
N E A , E U R A T O M , IE C , IF A C , IA E A .
It is a s s u m e d that each m e m b e r of the W o r k in g G r o u p will inform the
scientific s e c r e t a r y 1 at least once a y e a r of the current w ork and progress
m a d e in his particular country. It is also understood that he will c o m m u n i ­
cate such information and results only to the extent perm itted by the
appropriate authorities concerned.

3. . R E S U L T S

3. 1. W o r k in g G r o u p M eetin g fr o m 15 - 19 M a r c h 1971

T h is first m eeting indicated the w id e s p re a d interest in the subject, the

rapid p ro g ress m a d e , and the n ew concepts and requirem ents that are
being put fo r w ar d in N P P C I .
T h e principal part of the m eeting w a s related to the practical experience
acquired in control and instrumentation and the actual p ro blem s encountered
in achieving better reactor p er fo rm a n ce and safe operation. E m p h a s is w a s
laid on the technological, industrial and econom ic aspects rather than on
philosophical and conceptual ones. T h e papers presented w e r e significantly
different fro m those presented at the P a n el in N o v e m b e r 1969, in that they
dealt m o r e with experience and with the instrumentation and control
p ro b lem s that actually exist rather than with the dogm atic and philosophical
aspects of control and instrumentation a n d /o r just the enum eration of
instrumentation and control us ed y ears ago. All the papers are to be found
in the Pr o cee d in g s on N u c le ar P o w e r Plant Control and Instrumentation2 .
M o r e o v e r , the W o r k in g G r o u p w a s called upon to define those p roblem
areas of current interest that should be taken up in specialists' m eetings
organized by the A gency, taking into account review s and publications
issued by the A gency.

1 Mr. A.Keddar, Division of Nuclear Power and Reactors, IAEA, Vienna.

2 Published by the IAEA, Vienna, in 1971, in its Panel Proceedings Series.
 IAEA -S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 31

3. 2. Relations with other organizations

Relationship with other organizations such as I E C , E U R A T O M ( C E C ) ,

N E A and IF A C connected with the N P P C I w e r e discussed.
T h e general feeling w a s that each organization w a s very interested in
the n ew W o r k in g G ro u p and its appropriate inclusion of both control and
instrumentation. T h e s e organizations desire to collaborate with the
present W o r k in g G r o u p and they ex p r es se d the w ish to organize jointly so m e
m eetings and to see the A g enc y represented at their own m eetings. In
view of the long history of relations between the A g enc y and I E C and N E A
there w a s no need to establish any n ew m ach in ery for collaboration on
N P P C I.

C R E S T ( N E A Co m m ittee on R eactor Safety Technology): C R E S T has

discusse d m ethods of predicting the failure rate of com ponents. T h is is
of interest to the W o r k in g G r o u p concerning reliability of instrum ents and
control equipm ent. It is k no w n that C R E S T docum ents are usually available
only to O E C D countries and not generally available for world-wide distri­
bution. T h e I A E A w a s asked to investigate, through its representatives
on the C o m m ittee, how co-ordination of activities and interchange of
docum ents relevant to the topics of mutual interest could be achieved.

I E C (International Electrotechnical C o m m is s io n ): Detailed discussions

arose regarding the possibility of overlap betw een the activities of the
W o r k in g G ro u p and the I E C Com m ittee S C 4 5 A dealing with reactor
instrumentation. T h e I E C is m ain ly concerned with creating standards
for equipm ent that can be us ed on an international basis. It w a s felt that
the W o r k in g G r o u p should be m ainly interested in formulating the present
and future p ro b lem s involved in the control and instrumentation of nuclear
p o w er plants, and the relative m erits of different m ethods for their solu­
tion, and that it could well leave to the I E C the creation of standards. T h e
W o r k in g G r o u p would w e lc o m e close co-operation with the I E C and requested
that the A g en c y should be represented at the m eetings of the I E C Com m ittee
on Re a cto r Instrumentation.

I F A C (International Federation of Autom atic Control): This o r g a n iza ­

tion deals with all aspects of automatic control including its application and
its theory. It w a s reco gn ized that, in the past, I F A C had held separate
sessio ns of its m eetings on the automatic control of nuclear reactors and
nuclear p o w er plants. W ith the creation of the W o r k in g G r o u p , it w a s felt
that it should be responsible for meetings dealing exclusively with nuclear
plants but that the I F A C should be encouraged to hold m eetings w h e re the
opportunity arose to co m p a r e and contrast the m ethods and techniques us ed
in nuclear plants with those in other industries. It w a s felt that collabora­
tion and co-ordination with I F A C should be sought, including the attendance
by the secretary of the relevant I F A C m eetings.

3. 3. W o r k in g G r o u p M eetin g fr o m 5 to 8 April 1972

At the opening, it w a s indicated that the A g e n c y 's sponsorship of the

W o r k in g G r o u p w a s b a s ed on the recognition of the vital role that control
and instrumentation play in nuclear p o w er, and therefore the A g en c y w a s
32 KEDDAR

ve ry interested in a well-planned, relevant p ro g ra m of activities by the

W o r k in g G ro up . P a s t operating experiences and future developm ents,
which w e r e clearly two important aspects of such a p r o g r a m , w e r e review ed.
T h e second W o r k in g G r o u p M ee tin g dealt with:

(a) R e v ie w of national developm ents in nuclear p o w er plant control and

instrumentation

V e r y short papers w e r e presented, covering recent developm ents in

various countries concerning control and instrumentation, including data
p ro c essing and the use of com puters for control.

(b) I A E A co-ordinated r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on d y na m ics and digital com puter

control of p o w er reactors

Distribution of information sheets on this p r o g r a m w a s m a d e to the

participants at the W o r k in g G r o u p M eeting. It w a s felt that this p r o g r a m is
compatible with the activities of the W o r k in g G r o u p and that m o r e in fo r m a ­
tion on how it is developing would be desirable. T h e following is a s u m m a r y
of this p ro g ra m :
Current nuclear p o w er reactors require optimal control to m eet the
im p o s e d req uirem ents for safe and econom ic operation. T h e various
p ro c es se s and feedbacks taking place in the reactor (considered as a
system with spatially distributed p a ra m eters) m a k e these requirem ents
rather difficult to fulfil both rapidly and optimally. F o r this rea so n the
on-line digital control can be the only satisfactory solution to this problem .
O n the other hand, the introduction of the digital control requires solving a
n u m b e r of p ro b lem s related to reactor d y nam ics, control theory and
instrumentation. S o m e of the p rob lem s to be dealt with are:

1. Identification of the object of control, in this case the nuclear po w er

station. T h is can be done both by experim ental and theoretical approaches,
taking into account the type of the p o w er reactor and the p ro c esse s taking
place. T h e m athem atical m o del w hich will be the result of such an identifi­
cation p ro cess will serve as the basis for the design of the control system .
2. Control system synthesis represents one of the m a jo r p rob lem s in
the on-line digital control. T h e r e can be different approaches to solve this
pro b lem . O n e of the m ost attractive is through the de-composition of the
object of control and the construction of a n u m b e r of hierarchical control
levels. Inter-level connections m u st be solved in an optimal w a y by using
the principles of the m o d e r n control theory.
3. In-core instrumentation and interface equipm ent can be regarded
as the contribution fro m the technical side to the solution of on-line digital
control p ro b lem s. Together with its developm ent, the instrumentation
requires adequate testing and calibration.
4 . Off-line experim ents on operating reactors can point out the
inadequacy in the solution of the above-mentioned p ro b lem s and indicate
the w a y to solve them . F o r this reason it can be considered as the final
step in the p ro c es s of digital control developm ent.

(c) Specialists' M eetings (see S u m m a r y , Ap p en dix I)

In accordance with the r eco m m e n d a tio n m a d e by the W o r k in g G r o u p

m e m b e r s , four of the p rop osed N P P C I Specialists' M eetin gs have been
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -2 33

held to date, and are outlined in the S u m m a r y at the end of this paper.
T h e r em ain in g p ro p o sed and r e v ie w e d Specialists' M eetings are listed
below in the o rder in w hich it is r e c o m m e n d e d that they be held. Note
should be taken that the titles w hich follow are to be altered and precisely
specified in conjunction with specific interest of the specialists concerned.

1. N o n- N u clear M e a s u r e m e n t s A sso ciated with Vital Functions of the

N u c le a r B oiler M onitoring and Control System
2. R eacto r Safety System
3. E x p e r ie n c e and Develop m ent in the U s e of C o m p uters in the
Operatio n of N u c le a r P o w e r Plants
4. Spatial Control P r o b le m s
5. Control R o o m D e s ig n and Criteria for D e g r e e of Autom ation
6. U s e of Simulation for Control System Developm ent
7. P o w e r R eacto r N o is e Analysis

(d) T ra in in g course

T h e Scientific Secretary provided information on a proposed training

course on N P P C I to be held in 1974 in Southeast A s i a and the F a r Ea st.
A m o n g developing countries of these regions, India, the Republic of K o r e a
and Pak ista n have already e m b a r k e d on nuclear p o w er construction p r o g r a m s
while the Philippines, Singapore and T hailand m a y be expected to m a k e
firm decisions within the next few y e a r s concerning their nuclear p o w er plans.
A basic need of these countries as they e m b a r k on their nuclear p o w er
p r o g r a m s is the training of staff, operating and m aintenance personnel at
various levels and in different aspects of the technology. T ra in in g is
essential not only be ca use of the novelty of the technology in these countries
but also be ca use of the high standards of design safety and construction
req uired of nuclear p o w er plants.
Th is course is designed for working-level engineering and technical
staff activity engaged in the control and instrumentation of nuclear p o w er
plants, by personnel w h o help to ensure the safe operation of a reactor
at its optim um p o w e r level through efficient design and m aintenance of the
safety and supporting s y s tem s. T h e objectives are:

(1) T o prom ote the establishm ent of a h a rd core of qualified e n g in eer ­

ing and technical personnel that will ensure the safe and optim um
p er fo rm a n c e of the nuclear p o w er plants entrusted to their care.
(2) T o provide participants with advice, and to prom ote the exchange
of exp erience, on im p r o v ed techniques and m ethods for m e a s u r in g ,
handling and testing nuclear p o w er plant p a ra m e t e r s for control
and safety purposes.

A final decision on specific topics for the courses is being deferred

pending official approval of the course. T h e W o r k in g G r o u p has w e lc o m e d
this project and could assist in contacting possible lecturers fro m their
respective countries.

4. COMMENTS

In view of the em p h a sis show n tow ards dealing with the engineering
and operational p ro b lem s involved in c o m m is sio n in g and operating nuclear
34 KEDDAR

p o w er stations, it would be m ost helpful if future m eetings could be

attended by m o r e representatives fro m the com panies actually building
nuclear p o w er plants and fro m the utilities who use them . This will surely
help in obtaining proper insight into the pertinent p rob lem s and actual
experience in order to im p ro ve the p er fo rm a n ce and safety of p o w er stations.
T h e co-operation of all organizations interested in nuclear pow er plant
control and instrumentation in order to achieve close collaboration would
be m ost w e lc o m e . T h is will avoid duplication or overlapping of m eetings
on the s a m e subject and will contribute to a wide and beneficial exchange of
information.

P A N E L D IS C U SS IO N

C O - O R D IN A T IO N N E C E S S A R Y F R O M T H E C O N C E P T U A L D E S IG N S T A T E
O F A C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N S Y S T E M T O F IN A L
P L A N T O P E R A T IO N

It is very difficult to suggest a panel discussion on the overall topic

of control and instrumentation of nuclear p o w er stations. It is hoped that
the panel discussion appearing in these P r o c e e d in g s 3 will shed light on the
adequate p ro c edu re of collaboration betw een all the interested personnel
in nuclear p o w er stations and be of help to all the participants for their
individual and daily tasks.
T o stimulate the discussion, so m e basic co m m e n ts are given h ere:
T h e competitive position of nuclear p o w er plants and the rising p o w er
d e m a n d in a certain n u m b e r of developing countries have m a d e it n ece ssa ry
for these countries to consider the introduction of nuclear p o w er into their
electricity generating sy stem s. N u cle ar p o w er has b e c o m e m o r e w id es p re a d
and even m o r e attractive recently following the steep rise in prices and
transportation costs of fossil fuels since so m e countries are grossly deficient
in indigenous energy reso urces and rely m ain ly on im ported oil. T h e
advantages of, and the n eed for, diversification of energy sources, and
also the tim e factor, would favour nuclear p o w er in s o m e countries. M a n y
developing countries have already e m b a r k e d on nuclear p o w er construction
p ro g ra m s or are expected to m a k e firm decisions within the next decade
concerning their nuclear p o w er plans. T h e y are following the experienced
countries, m o v in g fr o m the stage w h e r e the building of nuclear p ow er
stations constitutes a fo rm of industrial experim ent to a state w h e r e c o m ­
m e r c ia l exploitation of nuclear p o w er is b a s ed upon eco no m ic criteria.
T h e p ro g ress of nuclear p ow er has not been without the inevitable
troubles often faced w h e n plants involve a n ew technology. E a c h generation
of nuclear stations has had considerable p ro b le m s in the initial y e a r s, but
the valuable lessons learned have been responsible for significant i m p r o v e ­
m ents in the basic design and operating p rocedu res for the n e w plants which
n o w are co m in g on-line and are expected to be m o r e reliable and to have
greater availability, m atching conventional plants.

3 At the end of Session F .

 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 35

In fact, the electric p o w e r generation bra n ch of the nuclear area is

m o r e concerned about standards, com m unication reliability, instrum enta­
tion and control req uirem ents. Facility design p ro b lem s; the principles
of application of s y s t e m s, equipm ent and m ate ria ls; and p ro b lem s con cern ­
ing quality a ssu ra n c e, tests and in-service inspection techniques,
standards, personnel qualifications, the role of the operator, "hum an-
e r r o r " effects, reliability of data collection all s e e m , in addition to other
p ro b lem s, to be practical aspects that should be jointly studied.
T o resolve s o m e of the present m a jo r safety p rob lem s now facing
industry, several important institutional and control objectives m ust be
m et, and com m unication between designers and operators could be
im proved.
It is important that reactor suppliers and equipment m anufacturers
should m a k e great efforts to en sure that designers and operators m eet the
high standards of engineering, m anufacturing and control required. This
is n e c e s s a r y to guarantee a high degree of overall p e r fo rm a n c e of nuclear
stations.
N u cle ar p o w e r institutes should have a m o r e active role in the f o r m a ­
tion of standards and a direct participation in p ro g ra m s concerned with
solving p ro b lem s.
A publicized p r o g r a m should be established not only through conferences
and s y m p o sia but also through' periodically published revie w s. T h e need for
standards, information transfer and feedback and n e w instrumentation and
control s y stem s to m eet present and proposed safety requirem ents should
be satisfied. N o w instrumentation and control requirem ents for plant design
construction and operating phases have b e c o m e m u c h m o r e sophisticated.
T o solve the m a jo r safety considerations facing industry, the important
instrumentation and control needs should be m et by im p rovem en t and by
ren ew al. D e s ig n e r s , m anufacturers and operators as well as licensing
authorities are involved in this task.
T h e designer should have sufficient applicable design experience to
design the instrumentation and control system s of a nuclear p o w er station
by introducing certain design features that produce genuine technical or
adm inistrative operating reliability to alleviate p ro b lem s.
O n the other hand, the m an ufacturer is obliged not only to realize
an o ptim um reactor system with a high p erfo rm a nce but he should also find
a c o m p r o m is e betw een reactor operation, w hich will be norm ally supported
by the plant ow n ers throughout the plant life, and the risk to the environm ent
as far as the population is concerned.
T h e operator should have sufficient practical operating experience to
understand and appreciate fully the necessity for control and protection
sy stem s. H e should facilitate the release of information on operating e x ­
perience with respect to the reactor system s and com ponents. In particular,
engineering techniques depend on operating experience and not only on labo­
ratory tests. T h e practical application of such techniques depends also on the
operator requesting the m an ufacturer for the widest possible standardiza­
tion of system s and com ponents.
L ice n sin g authorities (or safety experts) should m a k e gradual efforts
to determ ine the tolerable risks involved in various design basis accidents.
T h e licensing authority should be involved right from the planning stage
in the design and construction of plant com ponents and system s, on the
basis of a practical reliability study carried out in the p o w er plant; this
36 KEDDAR

p rocedure could bring to light deficiencies and reveal req uirem ents that
are important and often decided upon following expensive and duplicate
experim ents at public cost.
In spite of the actual reliability techniques obtained for m ak in g a better
decision at different stages in design, m anufacturing and operation,
difficulties still arise w hich can be partly redu ced through co-operation
be tw e en design ers, operators and safety experts.
Reliability is understood differently by designers and operators with
respect to the design and operation of control and instrumentation system s
for nuclear p o w er stations. T h er efo r e, design ers, m an ufacturers and
operators should co-operate m o r e in order to (1) appreciate fully the
p ro b lem s of nuclear p o w er station operation; (2) to realize satisfactorily
an o ptim um reactor system with high p e r fo rm a n c e ; and (3) to understand
fully the reaso ns of design engineers' decisions.
N o doubt the tem p o r a r y additional difficulties arising fr o m the in c r e a s ­
ing size and p o w er density of nuclear p o w er stations, and also from the
p ro b lem s r ais ed by interested environm entalists, will eventually be o v e r ­
c o m e by m o r e accurate environm ental instrumentation. Im p ro v em en ts in
the design of safety and protective sy stem s, in the operation, m aintenance
and testing of control and instrumentation sy stem s, and in u sin g n ew tech­
niques, will help achieve greater continuity of plant operation, while s a fe ­
guarding the health and safety of the public and nuclear p o w er plant p e r ­
sonnel and the safety of the nuclear p o w er plant equipm ent.

SUM M ARY

F O U R S P E C IA L IS T S ' M E E T IN G S
O R G A N IZ E D B Y T H E W O R K IN G G R O U P O N
N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N

1. F IR S T S P E C I A L I S T S ' M E E T I N G : E X P E R I E N C E S IN T H E U S E O F
C O M P U T E R S IN T H E O P E R A T I O N O F N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T S
(held 28-29 October 1971 in B r u s s e ls , B elg iu m )

T h is m eeting w a s attended by 28 participants fr o m B e lg iu m , D e n m a r k ,

F r a n c e , the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , H u n g a r y , Italy, Japan, K o r e a ,
the Netherlands, N o r w a y , S w ed e n , the United K in g d o m , the United States of
A m e r i c a , N E A , and C E C (C o m m is s io n of the E u r o p ea n C o m m u n itie s).
Although m a n y countries have plans for applying on-line com puters to
nuclear p o w e r plants, and while m an y of these are in operation, there is a
lack of information on actual operating experience and feedback of the
realization of the potential advantages of com puter system s.
T h e m a in topics d iscu sse d here are:
(a) Advantages of com puter-based system s
(b) S o m e difficulties experienced
(c) N e w developm ent
(d) C o m p u ter sy stem reliability and availability.
 IAEA -SM-168/R-2 37

1. 1. Advantages of com puter- based system s

T h e advantages associated with continuous automatic surveillance of

the plant b y data-logging and -processing are n ow accepted as virtually
essential for nuclear plants. It is also b e c o m in g generally agreed that
s o m e fo rm of special a la r m display and p ro c essing is also n e c e s s a r y with
the print-out of a la rm s in chronological order for subsequent analysis.
T h e exploitation of cathode-ray-tube ( C R T ) displays is an important step
in providing the operator with facilities required for a la rm s and data and
in m o st countries these are being adopted by the u s e of com puter-based
system s.
T h e advantages of "post-incident" or "event- recall" logging to provide
a r ec o r d of events before and during plant incidents are now recognized
and u s e is m a d e of com puters with d r u m or disc storage to provide this
facility. In s o m e installations this has been extended by the u s e of m agnetic
tape r e c o r d e rs to give a ve ry detailed history of the exposure of the fuel
and critical item s of plant during its life so that this can be related to
fatigue life and failure m e c h a n is m s .
Digital com puters can be u s e d for direct digital control to replace co n ­
ventional analog m ethods with a considerable saving in capital cost,
particularly w h e r e large n u m b e r s of control loops are involved, e. g. in the
U K gas-cooled reactors. Direct digital control also facilitates the applica­
tion of m o d e r n control theory and the realization of this is being investigated
particularly at H a lde n though it is not yet clear if it will yield significant
practical advantages.
In s o m e nuclear p o w er plants provided with com pu ters, it has been
found that the com puters have been m o st useful in assisting the c o m m is s io n ­
ing of the m a in plant. T h e capability for computation gives them a con­
siderable advantage over data loggers or pen r e c o r d e rs , and by the p r o ­
vision of sim ple off-line p r o g r a m s p r o c e s se d experim ental results can be
m a d e available to the c o m m is sio n in g tea m s at an earlier stage than would
be possible by other m ethods.

1.2. S o m e difficulties experienced

1. 2. 1. Diagnostic software

Apart fr o m the disappointment of so m e u s e r s caused by the late

delivery of h a r d w a re and software, a general feeling still exists that the
standard of m aintenance required for com puters represents a problem .
Th is em p h a s ize s the n eed for effective off- and on-line fault diagnostic
p r o g r a m s to find the faults and a sim ple m e a n s for putting the equipment
back into operation after repair; but such p r o g r a m s are not always readily
available.

1. 2. 2. D r u m s and discs

O f the faults occurring in the h a r d w a r e , m a n y arise from d r u m s and

discs, w hich appear to be w e a k points in the system s. S o m e system s
w h ic h em ploy duplicate cp u's also have redundant d r u m s and discs.
Gen erally , neither d r u m s nor discs w e r e entirely satisfactory fro m the
point of view of reliability. C o m m o n p rob lem s included sensitivity to dust,
38 KEDDAR

absolute tem peratures, and tem perature changes of m o r e than 2 d e g C / h —

also head crashes on discs. T e m p e r a t u re and dust p rob lem s w er e
aggravated w h e re sealed and p r e s s u r ize d disc units w e r e not being used.
T h e U K and U S A p re ferred discs, for large system s but the G e r m a n s planned
to continue with d r u m s .

1. 2. 3. Software faults

T h e existence of latent software errors w hich can appear unexpectedly

r e m a in s a m atter for concern in vital on-line system s exercising control.
H o w e v e r , there is always a p erm an en t proportion of usable non-corruptable
software w hich gradually im p roves with tim e. T h e conclusions to be draw n
are the advantages of using proven software and operation of the system
for a long period under non-vital conditions before being us ed for important
control tasks. T h e r e is little know n of the subject of software reliability
and this m erits investigation.

1. 3. N e w developm ents

1. 3. 1. Colour cathode-ray tube

T h e n ew techniques w hich are being introduced and on w hich experience

is b e c o m in g available include the use of colour C R T displays, multiple p r o ­
ce sso r a rr a n g em en ts , and com puters in reactor safety system s.
Four-colour C R T are u s e d at H a ld e n (N o r w a y ) for experim ental purposes
and colour w a s already extensively being u s e d in the U S A (and p resu m ably
Can ad a) and w a s available in Japan. O p erators w e r e said to like it even
if, technically, the information presentation w a s no better, and the c o m ­
m e r c ia l equipm ent u s e d has adequate reliability.

1. 3. 2. Multiple com puter system s

T o increa se the reliability of com puter system s, redundancy is p r o ­

vided and this can be introduced at a n u m b e r of different levels ranging
fr o m com ponents through sub- systems to complete p ro c es so r s. H o w e v e r,
it is possible for core stores and other p ro c e s so r sub-units to com m unicate
within a given p ro c es so r , and redundancy can be provided at this level
with a n u m b e r of core stores and input/output units connected by a n u m b e r
of highw ays. D e s ig n experience is be c o m in g available and experim ental
results will soon b e c o m e available, but the c o m m e r c ia l viability and
advantages of the p ro c es so r sub-units c o m p a r ed with switching complete
p ro c e s so r s have yet to be proved. E x p e r im e n t s are being m a d e with a d e ­
centralized m o dular p ro c es so r ( D E M P ) at H alden (N o r w a y ), in w hich p r o ­
c e sso rs co m m u nica te with a c o m m o n core store bank via a duplicating
m e m o r y bus and input/output via a duplicated I / O bu s. T h is m odular
approach co m plem ents the m odular software system and s how s p ro m ise of
better p er fo rm a n c e and utilization of the h a r d w a re , particularly under
partial operational conditions. M anufactu rers in other countries are w o r k ­
ing along sim ilar lines.
T h e use of m ini- com puters to m onitor selected system p ara m eters
independent of (or filtering information for) a central com puter s e e m s of
interest but so far no experience is available.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 39

1. 3. 3. Operator- com puter com m unication

In addition to the visual displays to the operator, the com puter requires
a m e a n s of m an u a l input, and various s c h e m e s using push-buttons, keyboards
and eight pens have be en u s ed . H o w e v e r , investigation of the best a r r a n g e ­
m ent continues and the ideal solution is not yet obvious.

1. 3 . 4 . U s e of com puters as reactor safety system s

Until recently com puters have not been involved in safety, and completely
independent w ir e d logic automatic protection system s have be en provided
for the reactor. H o w e v e r , in principle, digital com puters can provide the
data acquisition, pro cessing , logical operations and trip output involved
in safety sy stem s for the automatic protection of nuclear reactors. C o m ­
puters appear to have econom ic and technical advantages w h e re large
n u m b e r s of trip p a ra m e t e r s are involved, and w h e re trip transducer out­
puts have to be p ro c es se d and are interrelated in a com plex fashion r e ­
quiring m o r e than sim ple logic. C o n tem p o ra ry com puter h a r d w a r e and
software techniques do not specifically em bo d y features currently provided
in conventional hard- wired safety system s and these features are co n ­
sid ered essential both by utilities and by L ice n sin g Authorities. C o n s id e r ­
able w o rk is required before com puters rea ch this level, and experim ental
observation of their p er fo rm a n ce , under a variety of representative
circum sta nce s, will be n e c e ss a ry to satisfy the conditions under which
com puters can be relied upon for the protection of nuclear reactors.

1.4. C o m p u ter system reliability and availability

In almost all m o d e r n nuclear p o w er plants an on-line com puter system

fo rm s an important part of the control and instrumentation s c h em e.
T h e consequences of a com puter sy stem b r e a k d o w n are:

(a) L o s s of confidence of the operators if it does not provide an

adequate service
(b) H igh m aintenance costs
(c) L o s s of electrical generation revenue if the non-availability of the
com puter affects plant output.
Item (c) is the m o st important econom ic factor w hich can be ass e ss ed .

T h e acceptability of the availability figures depends very m u c h on

the reliance placed on the com puter in station operation.
T h e figures w e r e difficult to co m p a r e be c a u s e of different m ethods of
calculation, different sy stem configurations, operating conditions,
m aintenance a rr a n g em en ts , and a ss e ss m e n t periods.
F r a n c e and B e lg iu m quoted availability figures around 9 9 % , peripherals
being the m a i n cause of the trouble. In N o r w a y the availability at H alden
during the last quarter of 1 97 0 w a s 99. 7 5 % , but in Ja p a n trouble with d r u m
and core stores had redu ced s o m e figures to just over 9 0 % .

1.5. Conclusions

A s p o w e r reactors and associated system s b e c o m e m o r e com plex, the

functional req uirem ents of control system s can also increa se in complexity,
40 KEDDAR

leading to m o r e com plex control functions and techniques to allow a reactor

to operate n ea re r m a x i m u m safety limits.
It can be expected that, in all future nuclear p o w e r plants, at least
one p ro cess com puter will be installed.
C o m p uter application to nuclear p o w er plants confirm s the continuous
developm ent and expansion in the use of digital on-line com puters, although
only a few nuclear plants operate with com puters at present.
In the future, com puters are expected to be assigned even m o r e tasks
and a w id er scope be c a u s e of the encouraging results and technological
im p ro v em en ts achieved. In addition to p er fo rm in g tasks directly connected
with operation quality, the com puter m a y m a k e a valid contribution towards
the m ost eco nom ic m a n a g e m e n t of the p o w er station. T h is has be en shown
in the data p ro c essing that perm its the reliability of the m a in com ponents to
be a s s e s s e d , and perm its accounting of the exposure of com ponents present
in the reactor in large n u m b e r s and subject to replacem ent, such as fuel
a ss e m b lie s, in-core instrumentation, and control rods. It is also expected
that m o r e w o rk on com puter system s should continue for production, safety
a s s e s s m e n t and reliability r eq uirem ents, and analysis.

2. S E C O N D S P E C IA L IS T S ' M E E T IN G : IN S T A L L A T IO N A N D
C O M M I S S I O N I N G P R O B L E M S IN T H E I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N O F
N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N T S (held 19-21 Ja nua ry 1972 in
W infrith, United K in g d o m )

T h e participants r e v ie w e d and discussed p rob lem s of electrical

interference in the instrum ent s y stem s and their solution; m an a geria l
aspects of plant installation and co m m issio nin g; technical m ethods of
m in im izin g installation and co m m issio n in g p ro b le m s; and the effect of
vibration and m icrop hony on sen so rs, electronic equipm ent and cables.
T h e m eeting w a s attended by a total of 37 participants and 12 observers
fro m B e lg iu m , D e n m a r k , F r a n c e , the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , Japan,
the N eth erlands, N o r w a y , Portugal, the United K in g d o m , the United States
of A m e r i c a , Y ugo sla via and C E C (C o m m is s io n for E u r o p e a n C om m u nities).

2. 1. R e v ie w of the p ro b lem s produced by electrical interference in

instrumentation s y s t e m s, and of the solutions adopted in the
United K in g d o m

It w a s pointed out that the p rob lem s of electrical interference w er e

particularly serious in nucleonic detectors b e cause, for a variety of reasons
besides those associated with interference susceptibility, signal levels
tend to be low w h e n detectors are sited. T h e p ro b lem w a s m a d e w o r s e by
the fact that s o m e devices had to operate into wide bandwidth and w e r e ,
therefore, particularly sensitive to interference. T h e r e fo r e , the U K had
e m b a r k e d on a p r o g r a m designed to e x a m in e the m e c h a n is m by w hich inter­
ference enters sy stem s. It w a s stated that the source of the difficulties
w a s traced to disturbance of the earth's structure, including the building,
its bonding and everything else associated with it. H e n ce , one part of the
U K p r o g r a m has concentrated on the role of the earth's structure in inter­
ference and on the size of the currents w hich can be introduced in cables
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 41

connected betw een different parts of the structure. M ethods are being
developed to simulate earth disturbances and they have proved to be m ost
useful in co m m issio n in g and in diagnosis w ork.
T o s u m m a r i z e , it can be stated that earth disturbances are important,
particularly in system s with long cables; multiple earthing can reduce the
earth's interference in s o m e cases but is not always advantageous; cable
resonance can be significant in determ ining the level of current in the cables,
connectors, s cre en s, equipm ent housing and rocks. F o r m ost p o w er supply
system s of up to 4 1 5 V , 3-phase earth-induced currents can re a c h 108 per
r m s at the signal cable resonan ce; for higher voltage system s of 11 k V and
m o r e , current levels can be higher, but the use of lead-sheathed p o w er
cables and attention to load-earthing arrang em en ts is beneficial; and
r eso nan ces can be controlled to so m e extent by the choice of earthing and
by the use of inductive loading on the cable s creen s. T h e position of
m a x i m u m current in a long run of cable can also be controlled in this w a y
and m a y be important for an individual connector. T h e level of screened
pick-up due to electrical switch intransients can be calculated with r e a s o n ­
able accuracy, in m o st situations by using equivalent circuits and data on
the p er fo rm a n c e of the equipm ent cables. Such calculations perm it the
designer to choose the layout, types of cable, the m ethod of earthing and the
distributions of gain in a channel to produce freedo m from interference.
M o d els can be built and tested in the laboratory. Eq uip m ent is often s e n si­
tive to interference in unexpected w a y s , e. g. 100 m A a nd / or signals of
several volts can be produced in poorly scre en ed or u n s c re en ed cables
and pairs. Th is can easily be checked by suitable tests — earth disturbances
can be induced in an insulation to check whether an instrumentation channel
is free fro m interference and, if not, to diagnose the cause of trouble. Side
tests also reveal badly fitted s cre en connectors and cables and any signifi­
cant d a m a g e to cables. T h e scre en ed recov ery techniques us ed in such
testing can b e of great interest. T h e s e points w e r e derived fr o m , and are
of particular interest to, u s e r s of nucleonic equipm ent but can apply to
other instrumentation devices.

2.2. D i s c u s s ion on electrical interference aspects of cables, connectors

and equipm ent design

T h e screening efficiency of instrument cables could be specified in term s

of a transfer im p ed ance for various types of cables (single and double and
solid sc re en ed as well as su p ersc re en ed). It s e e m s that in good cables the
effects of interference currents produced tended to cancel out. T herefo re,
d a m a g e to the braid of a good cable leads to effects apparently out of p r o ­
portion to the d a m a g e inflicted.
T h e price of short lengths of su p ersc re en ed cable would be prohibi­
tively high. But it w a s stated that in the U K orders for 500 to 600 m of
s u p er sc re en ed cable had been p urcha se d at very reasonable prices and that,
as know ledge of the properties of cables spread, production w a s increasing.
W ith r eg a r d to the level of interference, which w a s tolerable on reactor
plants, the suggestion w a s m a d e that, while good screen ing efficiency w a s
n e c e s s a r y during c o m m is sio n in g and shutdown, it w a s less important w he n
the reactor w a s at p ow er. T h e responsibility for cable specification w a s
left to the reactor designers. It w a s pointed out that one subsidiary
42 KEDDAR

advantage of good, anti-interference cables w a s that the n u m b e r of the p e n e ­

trations into any containment vessel could be reduced. T h e head amplifier
could be positioned outside the vessel. In the U S A , triaxial cables are
frequently u sed . Co-axial cables had been found quieter on s o m e occasions
but triaxial leads w e r e u s ed on detectors. This is current practice in the
U K on the grounds that it w a s essential to guarantee only single-point
earthing on the centre, co-axial section. It w a s particularly true for high-
tem perature system s in the U K and contrasted with U S practice in which
high-temperature cables tended to be co-axial.

2. 3. D isc u s sio n on m ethods us ed for interference m e a s u r e m e n t and

analysis a nd related aspects of plant com m issio nin g

T h e following statements on electrical interference experience in the

c o m m is sio n in g of p o w er plants w ere m a d e :

(1) "E a r t h grounding" — one should ask what kind of earthing is n e c e s ­

s a r y in any given m e a s u r e m e n t channel. In so m e cases a single connection
had be en used betw een the instrumentation in earthing system s and the
reactor earthing grid.
(2) It is important to en sure that the frequency response of any filter
us ed and of the sy stem as a whole is optim ized. Isolation amplifiers are
useful w h e n different parts of an instrumentation system happen to be con­
nected to two different earthing grids.
(3) It is helpful to use separate paths for p o w er and for signal cables.
(4) B a lan c e d signal tran sm issio n paths are also of use. Pu lse t ra n s ­
fo r m e rs could be us ed in this respect but w e r e not satisfactory for low-
level signals. H o w e v e r , so m e reservations about the two-line cancellation
m ethod could be m a d e since one m ust guarantee the s a m e paths for the
signal and the "b u c k in g " cables. This could only be achieved within limits.
Although a parallel channel noise cancellation and the bucking techniques
w e r e u s e d in the fields of nuclear engineering and com m unication and data
tra n sm issio n in space r esea rch , it w a s still considered that these m ethods
w e r e really versions of a sim ple balance cable and that a different technique
should be us ed for nuclear engineering.
(5) F o r signal tra n sm issio n over long paths, it is advantageous to w ork
at high im p e d a n c e s. Such im p ed ances limit the current w hich can be p ro ­
duced by interference. Screening is also important, and can be of two basic
types, n am ely one w hich em ploys m agnetic m aterials to reduce the m agnetic
field at the sensitive w ire , and one in which the conducting m aterial such
as copper is u s ed to do the s a m e thing by skin effect.
(6) S o m e m ethods of flux m e a s u r e m e n t w e r e m o r e sensitive to inter­
ference than others and w h e n trouble w a s encountered it w a s som etim es
possible to change the technique em ployed. Alternatives m entioned w ere
the so-called neutron therm opiles (therm ocouples surrounded by u r a n iu m
and u s e d to m e a s u r e neutron flux), m iniature ion c h a m b e r s and self-powered
detectors. P r o b l e m s of obtaining satisfactory wide- range, dy nam ic range
exist.
(7) C a ble termination is important to avoid r esona n ces. T h e tech­
nology em p lo yed follows standard R F m ethods.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 43

T h e p ro b lem s of scaling encountered in data-handling sy stem s, which

w e r e built on to p o w er stations, could have interference producing serious
difficulties, while the individual testing techniques m entioned above could
not be applied for eco no m ic reasons.

2.4. M a n a g e ria l aspects of plant installation and co m m is sio n in g

T h is sessio n w a s opened by a p aper fro m Bechtel stating two objectives

about organizing a startup, and relating the direct experience obtained in
the solution of unique p ro b lem s. T h e schedule detailing individual activities
is derived fr o m the interface d ia g r a m and m a y run to six or seven revisions
over the course of the job. O v er rid in g consideration is given to answ ering
the question concerning what is required to operate this plant satisfactorily
and safely. T h e schedule applies to individual system s and m e a n s that
engineering staff m ust identify the com ponents of such s y stem s for testing.
In the U K , a network technique is u s e d for individual activities together
with an overall network and a schedule of control site w ork. In Bechtel,
use w a s m a d e of sub-networks w hich w e r e m a d e up by the site engineers
on the job. T h e alternative to the d ia g r a m and schedule combination w a s
a m an ua l, but the production of such a m an u a l would be too com plex to
justify it. W ith r eg a r d to the relationship between B echtel and its suppliers,
the supplier is involved in the c o m m is sio n in g trials, is present at the
hand-over, and is also expected to sort out his own p rob lem s during the
installation phase. N o p ro b lem s w e r e encountered in the fo r m of salary
and w age competition betw een sub-contractors.
A n I E E E paper, "Standards on installation, inspection and testing r e ­
quirem ents for instrumentation and electric equipm ent during the
construction of nuclear p o w er generating stations", w a s presented. It
pointed out that term inology p rob lem s exist and that the standards are not
yet complete. Differences betw een I E E E docum ents and I E C documents
in the U S A w e r e pointed out. I E E E centres are us ed w h e re they exist and
otherwise I E C ones are em ployed. H o w e v e r , one should not forget that the
paper presented by I E E E is an industrialized standard and is not related
to governm ent requirem ents.
In addition, it w a s felt that the docum ent s e e m e d very valuable and a
sim ilar one would be ve ry useful in the U K . T h e docum ent could be im p roved
if it c o m m e n ted on the difficulty of controlling security keys during c o m ­
m issio ning, and of ensuring that the correct n u m b e r of keys are, in due
course, handed over. O n e w a y out of the key difficulty w as to use a single
m ixture solution already adopted on occasion by the U K .

2.5. D isc ussio n on technical m ethods of m in im izin g installation and

co m m is sio n in g p ro b lem s

Since, in the U S A , the sale of nuclear p o w er plants is on a non-turnkey

basis, a need w a s felt for "g e n e r a l guidelines for tests of instrumentation
of control equipm ent during the construction and start-up of the nuclear
steam s supply s y s t e m s " 4 . E q uip m e nt w a s sold in what m ight be called
"k it" fo rm and it w a s important that a utility engineer should initiate the

4 IEEE Standard Installation, Inspection and Testing Requirements for Instrumentation and Electric
Equipment during the Construction of Nuclear Power Generating Stations, Rep. IEEE/JCNPS A H .3 (1971).
44 KEDDAR

correct series of tests. T h e paper contains points w hich do not relate to

non-nuclear plants and also guidelines w hich are not in the appropriate
I E E E specifications; this paper is a Bechtel co m pan y docum ent and, as
such, is issued for the guidance of that c o m p a n y 's cu stom ers. It is not a
national or international standard.
T h e C o m m o n w e a lt h E d is o n C o m p a n y 's N u cle ar P o w e r Plants p er fo rm
two sets of tests, n am e ly constructional tests and pre-operational tests.
A point is m a d e of ensuring that experience gained on one station is fed
to other stations of a sim ilar type. T es ts in com puter routines m ust be
designed and paid for very early in the design/constructional p ro g ra m .
T es ts m ust be designed to simulate realistic fault conditions; for exam ple,
loss-of-power tests ought to involve the rem o v a l of p o w er fro m the entire
station. Re-testing m u st be carried out after m aintenance to eliminate
m aintenance- induced faults.
T h e difficulties associated with the loss of multiple units w e r e
e m p h a s ize d ; in spite of that it w a s felt that tests of this type should be done
in the future.

2. 6. T h e effect of vibration and m icrophony on sensors,electronic

equipm ent and cables

F r o m the U S A it w a s reported that internal vibration within a reactor

core has be en e x a m in e d by a noise analysis technique. T h is w a s done by
cross-correlating the output fro m an in-core ionization c h a m b e r with
p a ra m e t e r s such as p u m p current, p re ss u r e , and tem perature in hot and
cold legs. N o excessive core vibration w a s found and this conclusion w a s
supported w h e n the fuel w a s r e m o v e d and ex a m in ed visually.
In F r a n c e , a high-temperature detector w a s tested on the Phénix
reactor. T h e device w a s to operate at 6 0 0 °C by using an integral m in eral
insulated cable w hich w a s not electrically insulated fr o m the reactor core.
A s u p er sc re en ed cable w a s also u s e d to connect the term inal to the e le c ­
tronic equipm ent. N o p rob lem s with vibration w e r e encountered on pulse
detectors, but a difficulty arose with certain long ionization c h a m b e r s ,
the p ro b lem lying within the c h a m b e r itself. E x p e r im e n t s w er e perform ed
with a long (200- m ) polythene cable on d. c. c h a m b e r s . Graphited anti­
m icro p h o ny versions w e r e u s ed and no difficulty w a s encountered with
m icro p h o ny , even on period m eter system s w hich are n orm ally very
sensitive.
H o w e v e r , it w a s pointed out that m in e r a l insulated cables w e r e very
good fro m the m icrop hony aspect but that they w er e prone to d a m ag e by
vibration. T h u s , use of a m in era l insulated„cable for low-m icrophony
reaso ns m a y lead to physical brea k a ge caused by excessive stress at an end.
W ith r e g a r d to the p ro b lem s involved in sealing cables and connectors
against hum idity, the use of "high- K silicon g r e a s e " to fill voids w as
m entioned by the U S A . M ention w a s also m a d e of a purge of dry nitrogen
w h ic h w a s often useful in clearing m oisture fro m voids in penetrations, this
p ro cedu re bein g carried out fr o m time to tim e rather than on a continuous
b asis. Hum idity tends to be a shutdown p ro b lem because the humidity in
a w ater reactor environm ent causes condensation to occur as soon as the
plant cools.
A lso , there w a s s o m e reservation about the use of grease since it could
provide a surface upon w hich dirt would be trapped. Con cernin g test
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 45

p ro cedu res for penetrations, it w a s stated that penetrations tended to be a

c o m p r o m is e betw een electrical and chem ical req uirem ents and that they
are designed on the basis of experience.

2.7. Conclusions

T o s u m m a r i z e , this m eeting had:

(1) Highlighted the difference in outlook betw een countries on the

question of interference. In the U K interference can be largely eliminated
by design, the r e m a in d e r being m e a s u r e d , therefore ensuring that it is not
a factor in instrumentation sy stem s. In other countries, particularly in
the U S A , few real p rob lem s exist and those that do are dealt with on the
spot. Po ssibly this' difference is caused by individual safety philosophies.
(2) Studied installation and co m m is sio n in g m ethods fro m both the
h a r d w a r e and the m a n a g e m e n t points of view: T h e I E E E guidelines could
be closely studied and m a y be im p roved . T h e amount of paper- work in ­
volved in c o m m is sio n in g is e n o r m o u s ; thus, it could be redu ced through
an inc rea sed understanding of the principles involved.
(3) Dealt with vibration and m icro p hony : It s e e m s that the U K w o r ries
m o r e about it than other countries. A g ain , it m a y be a question of philo­
sophy and a self-im posed p ro b lem in the U K . Although it appears that not
m u c h d a m a g e to equipm ent and plant by vibration has occurred in the
past, it is clearly a p ro b lem to be borne in m in d .
(4) Thought that such a m eeting could be repeated in the future because
it had p ro v ed to be very valuable.

3. T H IR D S P E C IA L IS T S ' M E E T IN G : A N A L Y S IS O F M E A S U R E M E N T S
T O D I A G N O S E P O T E N T I A L F A I L U R E S (held 10-11 Ap ril 1972
in R o m e , Italy)

GENERAL

T h e M eetin g w a s attended by a total of 34 participants and 12 observers

fro m B e lg iu m , B ra zil, C a n a d a , Czechoslovak ia, D e n m a r k , F r a n c e , the
F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , H u n g a r y , Italy, Japan, the Netherlands,
P oland, R o m a n ia , Spain, S w e d e n , the United K in g d o m , the United States of
A m e r i c a , U S S R , Y ugo sla via and C E C (C o m m is s io n for E u r o p ea n
C o m m u n itie s).
T h e supervision of nuclear p o w er plants already in operation has been
e m p h a s iz e d during recent y e a r s . Surveillance and inspection techniques
represent the essential m e a n s to diagnose potential failures, thus ensuring
high reliability and op tim um m aintenance.
T ech n iq u es and system s adopted for surveillance or inspection of
nuclear p o w er plants differ fr o m those us ed in conventional stations m ainly
b e c a u s e of the p re se n c e of radiation; in general, this additional factor
creates p ro b lem s of accessibility w hich can be solved by the use of remote-
control equipm ent. O f course, s o m e failures in the techniques exist, e. g.,
in the case of non-destructive tests, the pre se nc e of radioactivity reduces
the possibility of using nuclear techniques, and the developm ent of other
techniques such as ultrasonic or m ag netic m ethods w a s encouraged. On
46 KEDDAR

the other hand, the p resence of ionizing particles of radiation allows very
refined m ethods to be set up, not only for the control, m ainly b a s ed on
neutron m e a s u r e m e n t s , of the correct p e r fo rm a n c e of the reactor in the
various ph ases, but also for a timely detection of incipient abnorm al
conditions such as radioactivity sam pling of p ro c ess fluids or plant effluents.
T h e h arm o n io u s use of the various system s available not only allows the
safe operation of the nuclear p o w er plant but also provides im p roved p e r ­
fo rm an ce of an entire plant and its m a in com ponents.

3. 1. G e n e r a l principles for supervision of p o w er plants

3. 1. 1. P o w e r plant m onitoring during operation

T h e subject w a s introduced by especially outlining the principles of

relating neutron noise signals to the m o v em en t of reactor vessel internals
in light-water reactors:

(1) T h e reactivity effect appears w h e n relating m o v em en ts between

core and absorber rods (preferably vertical m o v em en ts);
(2) T h e effect of fast neutron attenuation concerns the thickness of the
w ater layer betw een the core (the neutron source), and the io niza­
tion ch a m b er.

T h e other important possibilities for detecting vibration p hen o m e na

involve the use of accelero m eters and p re ss u r e tran sd ucers, the latter
enabling the p r e s s u r e fluctuations, w hich are caused by the vibration, to
be m e a s u r e d . H o w e v e r , the difficulty of calculating the sensitivity of this
m ethod should be stressed. T h e im portance of p o w er sen so r location
(with respect to the sources to be detected) and the general p ro b lem of
interpreting p re ss u r e noise signals with respect to the large amount of
information (peaks in the spectra) appearing in these signals w e r e ex a m in ed
T h e two m a in aspects of applying vibration-m easuring techniques to
turbines are:

(1) T h e reproducibility of signals is only good for 5 m in , 10 m in , or

m a x . up to 1 h (the situation might be better for m a c h in e s us ed
in nuclear p o w er plants because of steady operation at high p ow er);
(2) T h e diagnosis of failure by m e a s u r in g the outside vibration had
so far yielded no results.

In the United K in g d o m the im portance of acoustic m e a s u r in g techniques

for fast sodium reactors is stressed. A c c eler o m eter s and strain gauges
had been us ed successfully for a certain tim e during operation; they w e r e
installed on the p re ss u r e vessel head to detect m a jo r oscillation of the
internals, and s e e m particularly adequate for detecting abn orm al conditions,
such as the p re se nc e of loose pieces, of important com ponents in the
p r im a r y circuits. In the U S A the m a in vibrations can be m e a s u r e d with all
sensors inside and outside the vessel, thus gaining useful experience. O f
co u rse, the interpretation posed p ro b lem s. In s o m e p o w er reactors the
sensors w e r e left inside the p re ss u r e vessel, but so far no direct c o r re la ­
tion has be en p e r fo rm e d between these sen sors and the external instrum enta
tion. T h is is planned for Indian Point, w h e re a cross-correlation between
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -2 47

strain gauges on the core barrel and the external nuclear sen sor will be
p e r fo rm e d . In this context, the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y explained
recent results of m e a s u r e m e n t s in the Stade N u c le ar P o w e r Station, w hich
had been done by S ie m e n s and the L R A . It w a s possible to correlate the
pendular m o v e m e n t of the core barrel (as m e a s u r e d by special strain gauge
sen so rs inside the vessel) and the external neutron flux signal. With
reg a r d to the m e a s u r e m e n t of the vibration in the reactor vessel internals,
and the im portance of this kind of investigation in the light of reactor safety,
it could be said that, be ca use of previous experience, a m e a n s is being
sought to acquire better knowledge of the operational behaviour of the plant.
If this know ledge can be im p r o v ed (e. g. by supervision of the vibration
behaviour, or by loose-part monitoring) it is possible to detect failures
in the Stade N u c le ar P o w e r Station. T h u s , this kind of m e a s u r e m e n t m ust
be seen as an additional m aintenance tool to reduce lost tim e of the plant,
especially in the light of long-term operation.
Interesting results with respect to the signature approach w e r e obtained
in the U K . A portable accelerom eter system w a s us ed to detect vibrations
on the prototype A G R . W h e n investigating the vibrations of the control
m e c h a n is m the "n o r m a l " spectru m s how ed a sharp peak w hich can be related
to the blo w er blade passing frequency. A faulty control m e c h a n is m show ed
a b ro a d ban d noise, especially between 200 and 600 H z . It is worthwhile
noting that, by w eekly com parative m e a s u r e m e n t s , it w a s possible to
observe the p ro g ress of the d a m a g e . At this point again the principal
p ro b lem of the signature approach in m a n y cases m a k e s it very difficult
to conclude fro m variations of the spectra (abnorm al spectra) what is really
going on in the plant.

3. 1. 2. Plant m onitoring w h e n the reactor is shut down

T h e m a in subjects dealt with in this session concerned stress-wave

em issio n , fuel failure detection system s and reactor com ponents' inspection
during shutdown.

3. 1. 2. 1. Stress-wave em iss io n techniques: It is considered that the s t r e s s -

w a v e e m iss io n technique is adequate for hydraulic tests of p re ss u r e vessels
but not yet sufficiently tested for surveillance during reactor operation
be c a u s e of the difficult environm ental conditions. T o o v e rc o m e background
noise p ro b le m s, m e a s u r e m e n t s above 500 k H z and anticoincidence tech­
niques are suggested. T h e use of sound-wave guides and of transducer
biasing is also r e c o m m e n d e d .
Furth er experience is needed to develop reliable transducers which
can stand the difficult environm ental conditions of an operating reactor.
Special low-noise electronics have be en developed. T ests are continuing
and so far results look p ro m isin g; acoustic transducers appear to pick up
flaws before they are detectable fro m ultrasonic inspections. T h e acoustic
system s allow a good location of the faults with triangulation techniques.
H o w e v e r , it w a s stressed that w o r k carried out on brittle m aterials,
i. e. with strong signals, is different w hen done with stainless steel; things
b e c o m e m o r e difficult and this is particularly true for fault location, which
is very important. Detection without fault location m a y be suspect because
of spurious background. F re q u e n cies of 200 k H z are suggested. M a n y
doubts exist concerning the u s e of w ave guides.
48 KEDDAR

3. 1. 2. 2. R eactor com ponents inspection during shutdown: In F r a n c e a

system of finding objects inside a sodium reactor by using ultrasonic
scanning techniques is used. T h e definition obtained depends very m u c h
on the shape of the object but the sensitivity is quite good. C e r a m ic
piezoelectric-type sen sors are used.
In the U K , experience w a s acquired concerning underw ater inspection
of reactor com ponents by using T V c a m e r a s y s tem s, introscopes, ultra­
sonics and tape reco rde rs.
In Italy experim ents w e r e p e r fo rm e d on inspection techniques in gas
and w ater p o w er reactor internals with the use of T V c a m e r a s , borescop es,
ultrasonics, etc. Video-tape reco rding w a s widely u sed , and special
rem o te positioning and m ach in ing tools had to be developed.

3. 2. M e a s u r e m e n t techniques and signal elaboration

In the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , experience has been gained with

various in-core neutron detectors at L in gen B W R . Particular em p hasis
w a s placed on self-powered neutron detectors — van adium , rhodium and
cobalt detectors. A satisfactory p erfo rm a n ce has been observed for m o r e
than tw o y e a r s . Theoretical investigations indicate that interesting results
can be expected fr o m the use of e r b iu m and hafnium as emitter m aterial.
E x p erim en ta l verification is n ow un der way.
In-core cobalt detectors are u s e d in safety system s at Pick ering (Canada)
as back-up to external ion c h a m b e r s . Cobalt detectors are also us ed for
spatial control. E x p er ie n c e with v a n a dium detectors indicates that they
are not viable — especially w h e n a com puter brea k s down. Z ir c o n iu m and
platinum g a m m a detectors are u s e d in Gentilly reactors; zirconium has
given s o m e p ro b le m s; platinum is the m ost encouraging detector.
In the U K , acoustic transducer design for stress-wave analysis, includ­
ing com positions, dim ensions and frequencies, is used. L o g amplifiers
a re u s ed for extending the dy nam ic range. Acoustic em iss io n technology
is being developed, including triangulation s y s tem s, correlating findings
to conventional N D T techniques. At this stage m in o r defects cannot be
differentiated fro m m a jo r ones.
In F r a n c e acoustic system s are being developed for detecting sodium
voids. A large change in level has been observed with the onset of boiling
with only m in o r changes in frequency spectra. E x p e r im e n t s in Rapsodie
and Ph é n ix sub- assem blies indicate feasibility.
In the U K an acoustic boiling detector will be us ed in the safety system
of the Prototype Fast R eacto r ( P F R ) being built at Do un rea y, following trials
in the D F R .
W ith r eg a r d to the surveillance instrument developm ents in the United
States of A m e r i c a , the following points should be noted:

Vibration surveillance: E x p e r im e n t s on nuclear noise m e a s u r e m e n t s

for core vibration, m etal impact detector using a ccelerom eters and
vibration surveillance with external accelerom eters w e r e carried out.

Acoustic surveillance: Capabilities of (W ) instrumentation — tra n s ­

ducers and electronics, m e a s u r e m e n t s at E B O R , San Jo sé and
triangulation capabilities — w e r e covered. T h e objective is to develop an
on-line m onitoring system for nuclear p o w er plant p re ss u r e boundary.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /R -2 49

Radiation surveillance: G r o s s fuel failure detection and coolant

activity m onitoring w e r e developed.

3. 3. Signal analysis and interpretation

T h e increasing use of sophisticated analysis, especially using com puters,

for reactor supervision, ranging fro m frequency analysis, correlation
techniques especially to allow for spatial effects, stability analysis, finally
to a m o r e p recise description of events by tim e analysis, w e r e discussed.
In the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , the m e a s u r e m e n t of statistical
fluctuations on-line to detect deviations early enough to prevent reactor
d a m a g e is u sed , and experience has s how n m a n y worthwhile applications.
T h e general m ethod of application required three developm ents — a theo­
retical m o del, reliable instrum ents, and on-line m onitoring. In K a r lsr u h e ,
a 100-point digital correlator w a s u s ed for auto- and cross-correlation
analysis. W ith a com puter accepting 1000 points, the fast F o u r ier tra n s ­
fo r m w a s us ed to obtain low-frequency p o w er spectra, with the presentation
of amplitude and phase on C R T s . L ate r developm ents included com puter
inspection of c o r re lo g r a m s and spectra, and digital frequency analysis. At
present, magnetic-tape recordings are being m a d e on the K W O reactor for
subsequent analysis as part of a system s evaluation.
In the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y , m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e , using
cobalt detectors, to investigate the spatial dependence of flux fluctuations
at the L in g e n ( K W L ) and H a lde n Boiling W a t e r R e a cto rs. In the K W L the
detector w a s m o v e d axially in a centrally placed thimble and the fluctuations
analysed on a real-time correlator. T h e r m s noise varied axially, in c r e a s ­
ing linearly up to the m iddle of the core and then r em ain in g constant; at the
core inlet, h o w e v e r , the noise w a s exceptionally high. T h e s e results
sh o w ed that a sim ple point m o del cannot be applied in a large water-cooled
reactor. In the H B W R a series of coherence function m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e
m a d e betw een pairs of detectors placed axially and radially across the core;
the coherence function could be m e a s u r e d accurately enough by a sim ple
correlator — the polarity correlator.
In the U K an analysis of the h y drody nam ic stability between flow channels
of the prototype S G H W reactor w a s carried out. T h e a ss e ss m e n t w a s m a d e
fr o m flow noise recordings taken fr o m Venturi m eters in the inlet feeders
to two high-power channels. T h e recordings w e r e analysed off-line; the
spectral density curves displayed a resonance at 0. 75 H z , the auto­
correlation functions took the fo r m of a d a m p e d oscillation. A stability
analysis, a s s u m in g a linear system , s how ed that the stability threshold
w ould be determ ined from the ze ro of the log-decrement of the auto­
correlation function. T h e m e a s u r e d log- decrements w e r e plotted as fu n c ­
tions of channel p o w er and co m p a red with a reactor hydraulics m odel,
coded as "s p l o s h ". F r o m the agreem ent, the reactor code w a s u s e d to
obtain a design for the channel flow resistance w hich avoided the instability.
Finally, a brief revie w of analysis techniques u s e d on Italian reactors
w a s given at the M eeting. In the frequency dom ain , the spectral density
or cross-spectral density w a s p e r fo r m e d either on-line by a real-time
analyser or off-line fr o m m agnetic tape recording with com puter analysis
b a s e d on the fast F o u r ie r tran sform . T h e interpretation of results w a s
illustrated fro m experience of the T r in o Reactor. C o m p arativ e m e a s u r e ­
m ents betw een sen so rs taken at various plant conditions w e r e u s e d to deduce
50 KEDDAR

reactor behaviour. T h u s , oscillation of the core w a s deduced fro m a 180°

phase lag betw een neutron flux c h a m b e r s , placed at opposite sides of the
reactor, and this deduction w a s supported by other evidence.
T h e value of com plex analysis to gain insight into the cause of devia­
tions fr o m design conditions in a variety of reactors w a s shown. T h e s e
analyses had been carried out off-line but, by using digital com puters,
capability of m a k in g the analysis on-line would soon generally exist. T h u s ,
the techniques m a y be expected to play an increasingly important role in
reactor supervision.

4. F O U R T H S P E C IA L IS T S ' M E E T IN G : NUCLEAR POW ER PLANTS

C O N T R O L A N D I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N (held 30 N o v e m b e r -
1 D e c e m b e r 1972 in K jeller, N o rw a y )

T h is M ee tin g w a s attended by a total of 42 participants from Austria,

C a n a d a , D e n m a r k , Finland, F r a n c e , the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y ,
Italy, Y ugo slavia, N o r w a y , Poland, S w ede n, the United K in g d o m and the
United States of A m e r i c a .
T h e following w e r e the m a in items un der discussion:

Reliability data for control and protection system s

Application of reliability analysis for assurance of plant protection
system s
Application of reliability analysis for im p roved plant availability.

T h e open discussion procedure adopted proved to be useful in permitting

effective exchange of opinions between the participants. T h e following notes
are intended to convey s o m e of the facts and context of the discussions.

4.1. Reliability data for control and protection system s

T h is session w a s conducted as a free discussion b a s e d on the C h a ir m a n 's

introduction. It w a s thought appropriate to inquire w hy reliability data
for control and protection system s is needed. T o a n s w e r this question,
a list of the principal reasons can be quoted.

(1) T o avoid endangering people it is n e c e ss a ry to ensure an acceptably

high p e r fo rm a n c e reliability in the equipm ent u s e d in a nuclear p o w e r plant
to prevent such h a za r d s arising. This is the safety system , and it is in the
design, installation and operation of these system s that reliability data
obtained fr o m earlier system s can be u s e d to advantage, essentially to
redu ce or avoid the reliability limitations of the earlier ones.
(2) T o m eet the increasingly stringent licensing rules being applied
to nuclear plant it is n e c e ss a ry to justify and dem onstrate logically the
safety and reliability of a s y s tem at the design stage. In this respect,
m athem atical argum en ts are m o r e powerful than intuitive ones or argum ents
b a s ed on experience. T o present m athem atical argum ents it is n ece ssa ry
to have data, which is a m enable to statistical analysis.
(3) S ev er e econom ic penalties arise fr o m unscheduled plant shutdowns
due to equipment failure. Such a failure m a y be due to the fail-safe protec­
tion sy stem design, and a h a za r d m a y not arise because of such failure.
N everth eless, the protection system design should take into account this
cost penalty.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 51

(4) N e w designs of highly rated reactors, especially those w hich will

need m ultiplexed equipment for safety protection and control purposes, are
presenting the system designer with n ew reliability p rob lem s in that he
needs to k no w the predicted p er fo rm a n c e of the various types of equipment
w hich are available to h im as units for incorporation in his system design.

In using the data a designer m ust satisfy him self that it is derived from
sources of k no w n integrity, that it is obtained fro m a sufficiently large
sa m p le to be statistically sound and, probably m ost important, that it is
appropriate to his p ro b lem . In this respect he m a y n eed to apply significant
weighting to the data to reconcile its original environm ent to that of his
n e w design. H e will obviously encounter difficulty in doing this because
s o m e of the reliability information available to h im will not specify the
details of the environm ent in w hich it w a s derived. T h e r e is, perhaps,
a need to include the sam p le environm ent in predictive calculations for
reliability a ss e s s m e n t s , although how this can be done is not known.
T h e p recise m ethods of obtaining reliability data vary widely betw een
organizations and within them . T h e originator usually records it as a
seco ndary function of his w o r k without kno w in g its purpose and without
appreciating its implications. P r o c e s s in g and classification procedures
vary and m a y degrade the value of the information. T h e principal reason
for these limitations is the in crea sed cost of m a k in g it a single-purpose
activity; invariably it fo r m s part of the m aintenance procedures and is
ve ry m u c h a seco ndary consideration. If by a change in the procedures
m o r e extensive data in a standardized format can be obtained, then its
overall value for prediction and a ss e ss m e n t purposes could be significantly
enhanced.
T h e r e is clearly a limit to the accuracy of prediction b a s e d on history
and, as no two successive designs can ever be precisely the s a m e , m u c h
of the responsibility for the proper p erfo rm a n ce of a control and protection
system m ust rest with the designer w ho, using the best statistical data
available plus his ow n judgem ent and that of other exp erien ced engineers,
m ust choose the best c o m p r o m is e solution to his problem .
Contributions m a d e by the participants fro m the F e d e r a l Republic of
G e r m a n y , N o r w a y , the United States of A m e r i c a , D e n m a r k and the United
K in g d o m supported the view that the data sources w e r e inadequate and
often m isleading. M r . R u n g e (D e n m a r k ) o bserved that even though this
w a s so, it w a s still a useful basis for m a k in g com parison s between proposed
alternative system s.
T h e general opinion w a s that there is a definite need for m o r e p recise
and detailed operational data than is currently available and that it should
include information about the plant conditions un der w hich the equipm ent in
question w a s operated. It w a s a greed that reliability data im p ro v ed in this
w ay would have enhanced value to the designers and a s s e s s o r s of n ew
system s.
Participants fr o m ea ch of the countries represented at the M eeting
w e r e asked five questions about their national use and opinion of reliability
data. T h e questions w e r e :

(1) Is it u s e d by designers?
(2) Is it satisfactory?
(3) If it is unsatisfactory, then in what respects?
52 KEDDAR

(4) W h a t changes or im p ro vem en ts should be m a d e ?

(5) Is an international and interchangeable fault reporting system
feasible and desirable?

Not all the questions w e r e answ ered, but those a n s w e r s r eceiv ed w hen
s u m m a r i z e d indicated that the U S A and the U K w e r e actively using relia­
bility data for design and a ss e ss m e n t, and that the m ajority of other
countries w er e beginning its use and w ishe d to extend its application. T h e
u n anim o us opinion w a s that the origin of the data w a s so diverse and
unspecific as to m a k e its value questionable in m a n y ca ses, and that the
limited n u m b e r of system sa m p le s available to individual acquisition net­
w o r k s w a s so limited that the resultant statistics w e r e of doubtful accuracy.
T h e changes or im p ro vem en ts suggested in response to question 4 w e r e
that the overall quality of the original data should be im p r o v ed and that it
should cover all the equipm ent operating conditions. Also, this data should
be available in a c o m m o n form at irrespective of its origin.
T h e a n s w e r to question 5 w a s almost unanim ous in w elc o m in g an inter­
national reliability data system . T h e r e w e r e reservations about its
feasibility, m ainly because of the c o m m e r c ia l interests of s o m e data sources,
the differing licensing authorities' standards of data acceptance, and the
difficulty of establishing a greed m ethods of obtaining and presenting data.
Despite these difficulties the opinion e m e r g in g fr o m the specialists'
M ee tin g is that a reco m m e n da tio n should be m a d e , for consideration by the
I A E A , that s o m e fo r m of international reliability data reporting system
would help to im p ro ve the safety and reliability of nuclear p o w er plants.

4. 2. Application of reliability analysis for a ssura nc e of plant protection

system s

T h e com puter has c o m e to stay in safety s y s tem s. Since the techniques

are fairly n e w and not yet definitely established, the licensing authorities
are reluctant to let the com puter replace conventional instrumentations.
It is hoped that c o m m o n m o d e failures will be red u ced by using c o m ­
puters for automatizing the checking. T hough s o m e h u m a n element failures
m a y be elim inated this w a y , others are only m o v e d to different areas such
as the software.
Software s e e m s to be a touchy point. It s e e m s as if the techniques for
proving p r o g r a m s to be correct have not yet penetrated to the reliability
field. Until that has ocurred software is rightfully suspect. C o m p uter
h a r d w a re is accepted as reasonably reliable.
T o accept com puter safety system s they m ust be thoroughly tested
before being put into operation.
C o m p u ter s are natural extensions of conventional sy stem s; but the
rep lacem ent of these system s by com puters should be cautious and gradual.
T o operate a reactor close to its p o w er limits, the protection system s
m ust be ve ry reliable.
T h is high reliability can only be achieved by system s w hich fulfil the
assum ptions for the reliability calculations, i. e. the system s m ust be truly
independent through redundancy and diversity. It is important to en sure that
this independence continues in the operating phase, including m aintenance
and other causes for c o m m o n - m o d e failures, in order to m aintain the high
reliability.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /R - 2 53

T h e r e is a n eed for a system atic approach in the presentation of designs

and data to the licensing authorities, to facilitate com m unication.
C o m m o n - m o d e failures are difficult to handle and will r e m a in so for a
long tim e.
T h e r e is an increasing interest in the handling of multi-phase generation.
T h e im portance of taking m aintenance and test p rocedures into account
at the design stage w a s em p h a size d .
T h e open ends are the software, the co m m o n - m o de failures and
standardization.

4.3. Application of reliability analysis for im p r o v ed plant availability

P r o c e s s com puters have b e c o m e standard com ponents of large nuclear

p o w er stations and are, to various de gree s, u s e d for evaluation, supervision,
and control. T h e incentive is that im p r o v ed plant reliability, im p ro ved
plant p er fo rm a n c e and better fuel utilities can be obtained.
T h e extent to w hich p rocess com puters are applied varies widely from
one reactor type to another. F u r t h e r m o r e , it differs according to the views
of the individual m anufacturers and utilities and is influenced by the attitude
of licensing and safety authorities.
A n important future aspect of an extensive degree of com puterization,
i. e. w h e r e all essential plant functions are handled by com puters, is
co m puter sy stem reliability. It is noteworthy that high reliability is not
only a req uirem ent in relation to direct digital control ( D D C ) applications
but is of almost equal im portance for appropriate supervision and a la rm
sy stem s in a station w he re a m i n i m u m of conventional pick-up instrum enta­
tion has be en provided in the control r o o m . T h e D E M P (decentralized
m o dular p ro c ess com puter), w h o s e operational and applications features
are being investigated within the r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m of the O E C D H alden
reactor project, w a s described. It w a s stated that for several reasons of
technical and econom ical quality, this type of system , so far, appears to
p o ss es s p ro m isin g control applications but it has apparently not been subject
to any intensive efforts within other organizations.
A m ethod to analyse the consequences of the possibilities of h a r d w a re
failures in m ulti-com puter system s w a s described. T h e analysis can be
divided into three partly independent steps: A n availability analysis of the
com puter; a cost evaluation of the com puter tasks; and, finally, a. c o m b in a ­
tion of the two analyses to achieve an er r o r cost function. T h is function is
a m e a s u r e of the expected loss of task p e r fo rm a n c e during a tim e period.
It can be u s e d in the selection of p r o g r a m allocation and strategy upon
failure. A sensitivity analysis can b e p e r fo rm e d to find w ea k links in the
p roposed com puter and p r o g r a m structure.
A w e a k n e s s of the m ethod is that it does not take into consideration the
m o r e positive m erits of the system . F u r t h e r m o r e , the price of the
com puter system , the price of p r o g r a m m in g , and the co m p a riso n betw een
co m puterized and conventional control, are not included. H o w e v e r , the cost
function m ight be a part of a m o r e total cost-benefit analysis.
Another w e a k n e s s of such an analysis is that it does not include software
reliability and h u m a n er r o rs during operation. Such aspects are, how ever,
p re su m a b ly rather com plicated to quantify.
T h e D E M P has been chosen for its simplicity and for the price ranges
of m o d u la r s, be c a u s e the multiple system s are considered com plex. The
54 KEDDAR

D E M P is in its final phase of completion. T h e next stage will be simulation,

application and p er fo rm a n c e experim ents.
T h e general opinion is that com puterized control will increase relia­
bility by using m o d u la r s . T h e m aintenance of the whole equipment will also
contribute to increasing the reliability.

4.4. Conclusion

G e n e r a l opinion underlined the following points:

(1) T h is M ee tin g w a s significantly different from the C R E S T Specialist

M eetin g of 197 1;
(2) T h is M eetin g w a s of great interest and help to the participants;
(3) A n international reliability data collection on control and instrum enta­
tion aspects (including data banks etc, ) is r e c o m m e n d e d to help
im p ro ve the safety and reliability of nuclear p ow er plants;
(4) O w i n g to the im portance of the application of reliability, a
specialists' m eeting is r e c o m m e n d e d for 1974 with the s a m e title
as this one.
(5) T h e Scientific Secretary gave a survey of the C R E S T M eetin g on
T h e Applicability of Quantitative Analysis of C o m p le x System s
and N u c le a r Plant in its Relation to a Safety A s s e s s m e n t (1971).
N U C LE A R P O W ER P L A N T O PERATIO NS: E X P E R IE N C E
AND THOUGHTS FOR THE FU TU RE

(Session A)

i
 Chairmen

Papers A -1 to A -6
A -12 and A -13: D.E. ANDERSON (Canada)

Papers A -7 to A -11: F. VELONA (Italy)

I
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1

O PE R A TIN G E X P E R IE N C E WITH
THE INSTRU M ENTATION OF THE
STADE N U C LE A R POW ER STATION

D. vonHAEBLER
Siemens AG, Erlangen,
Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

OPERATING EXPERIENCE W I T H T H E IN ST R U M E N T A T IO N OF T H E S T A D E N U CLEA R POWER S T A T IO N .

The Stade instrumentation is a further development on that installed at the Obrigheim nuclear power
station. It contains many improvements regarding long life availability of measuring systems, better
supervision of core parameters and an extended reactor protection system. The slider elements, which
now incorporate the ex-reactor neutron flux detectors and make detector replacement possible at full load,
have proved themselves completely. Regarding in-core instrumentation, the new Aeroball measurement
system for the discontinuous measurement of the exact neutron flux or power distribution has performed
excellently. The dynamic reactor protection system taken over from Obrigheim again proved completely
reliable. In future plants, the active safety functions dealing, for example, with primary coolant leaks
will be initiated by the dynamic system, and not by a standard static system, as used in Stade. Better
matching of safety limits to actual plant limits will in the future lead to the use of protection criteria based
on more extensive plant measurements. The process computer has been implemented for the first time in
Stade as a dual unit. This approach will not be pursued further since, in the meantime, a larger computer
has become available. The program package R E A D A T , which provides a standard solution for both the
nuclear programs and the operating logs, has operated entirely satisfactorily, and will be used without
modification in subsequent plants.

SUMMARY

T h e instrumentation of the 6 0 0 - M W (e ) nuclear p o w er station at Stade

in the north of the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y is a continuation of the
line established by that installed in the 3 4 0 - M W (e ) O b r ig h e im reactor.
W h il e basically the O b r ig h e im instrumentation system s w e r e retained,
later operating experience w a s incorporated, n e w provisions of the
sup erviso ry bodies w e r e m e t and, as a result of the change-over in p o w er
supplies fr o m 2 20 V a. c. to 24 V d. c. , so m e n ew instrumentation series
w e r e installed. R e a l changes w e r e m a d e p rim arily in the neutron flux
instrumentation, both in and out of the core. A fter s o m e sm all im p r o v e ­
m e n t s , all instrumentation system s are operating completely satisfactory.

1. GENERAL

T h e reactor at the Stade nuclear p o w er station [1] went critical on

8 J a n u a r y 197 2, proving tests w e r e conducted fr o m 25 M a r c h to the
3 M a y 1 9 7 2 , and the plant w a s taken over by the cu stom er on the
19 M a y 197 2. B e fo r e the proving test period, extensive investigations
w e r e carried out. Since take-over the p o w er station has operated at
practically constant 1 0 0 % load. T h e availability up to the end of Sep. 1972
w a s 86. 7 % of the possible full-load capacity.

57
58 von HAEBLER

T h e heat generated in the p re ss u r ize d w ater reactor is transferred

to four steam - generators, w hose steam drives a saturated-steam turbine.
T h e p r im a r y plant is contained in a safety containment, which is accessible
during operation. T h e control ro o m contains a 10-m-long control console,
with additional data displayed via two electric typewriters and a cathode-
ray display unit. In the adjacent com puter r o o m , a high-speed printer
lists the p ro c es se d nuclear m e a s u r e m e n t s . In the control ro o m , the
console and control panels are laid out using plug-in m o du la r units.

2. O U T - O F - C O R E N E U T R O N F L U X M E A S U R E M E N T S [2]

T h e detectors m ounted external to the core cover the complete range

fr o m start-up to nom inal full load. T h e ir signals are in-put to the reactor
protection system . In contrast to O b r ig h e im , the detectors are ex c h a n g e ­
able during full reactor operation. T h e slider elem ents which ca r ry the
detectors m o v e inside guide-tubes (Fig. 1), w hich end at a termination
box m ounted above the reactor in an accessible ro o m . T h e m echan ical
elem ents fo rm ing this system have been fully proven by operation.
In the start-up pulse range it is advantageous to m ount the p r e ­
a m plifiers in the slider trains carrying the proportional counters. H o w ­
ever, the quality of the p ream plifiers them selves had to be perfected.
T h e output signal w a s increased to round 1 V and, to secure a better o v e r ­
lap with the intermediate ran ge, the resolution w a s im proved. A n initially
o bserve d tem perature dependence of the background noise w a s eliminated
by the exchange of so m e elements.
T h e interm ediate range, with two logarithmic and one linear (with
switchable ranges) indicators, has no particular noteworthy features.
In each of the four power-range m e a s u r e m e n t locations, four long
ionization c h a m b e r s are a rra n g ed one on top of the other. T h e output

L+M

L = POWER RANGE
M = INTERM EDIATE RANGE
I = PULSE RANGE

FIG. 1. Neutron flux measurement ex-core.

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 59

fr o m these four detectors are added and put on to the reactor protection
system as the m e a s u r e d a verage reactor p o w er . H e r e , the dependence
of the signal on the p r im a r y coolant tem perature of approxim ately 1 % / d e g C
w a s confirm ed. A s a result of the averaging effect, the influence of the
control-rod positions on the indicated p o w er is slight: approxim ately 1. 5 %
at half insertion of the com plete bank. H o w e v e r , the insertion of only
those four rods im m ediately adjacent to the m e a s u r e m e n t location caused
er r o rs of so m e -20%. Both these influences a re corrected by the so-
called "t h e r m a l follow-up" com pensation, by which the coolant tem perature
rise a c r o ss the reactor, m e a s u r e d in all four coolant loops, is used as
an automatic long-term correction to the neutron flux signal. T h e azim uthal
resolution in the p o w e r range is good, i. e. skew core p o w er distribution
w a s clearly identified.
Read-off fr o m the four individual indicators of the ionization c h a m b e r s
in one m e a s u r e m e n t position should reproduce the axial fo r m factor and
the offset factor betw een upper and low er core halves. B e c a u s e of their
distance fr o m the core and the axial length of the c h a m b e r s , the form
factor w a s 20 to 3 0 % sm aller than in reality. T h e offset factor h o w e v er
can be reliably seen, and is proportional to that determ ined by aeroball
m e a s u r e m e n t s , even though only half as large.

3. I N - C O R E I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N [3]

T h e in-core instrumentation (Fig. 2) includes an aeroball system with

32 m e a s u r in g p ro b es, and attached to each probe one thermocouple for
coolant channel outlet tem perature m e a s u r e m e n t . In addition, Stade has

FU EL ELEMENT r CONTROL ROD POSITION

INSTRUMENTED ROD PLATE

FU EL ELEMENT
ROD SHAFT

FIXED DETECTORS A ERO BA LL SYSTEM

DISTRIBUTION OF IN-CORE PROBES

FIG. 2. Neutron flux measurement in-core.
60 von HAEBLER

36 fixed neutron flux detectors, located in six positions, each with six
axially stacked detectors. Cabling and aeroball lead tubes are brought
out through the reactor lid through nine instrumentation ports.
T h e new aeroball m e a s u r e m e n t system [4] for the on-demand exact
m e a s u r e m e n t of the neutron flux or p o w er density distribution (F ig. 3)
h a s, right fr o m its initial installation, p e r fo rm e d very well. T h e processing
of the m e a s u r e m e n t s is done using the station com puter; 8 m in after the
start of the 3-min activation, a complete print-out, with extrapolation
fr o m the 32 instrum ented fuel-element positions over the com plete 157-fuel-
elem ent co re, is available. T h e aeroballs, w hich contain vanadium as
indicator m aterial, a re 1. 6 m m diam . , and travel in 2-m m-i. d. guide-
tubes. T h e y take s o m e 8 s to travel the 45 m betw een the reactor and the
m e a s u r in g table. T h e guide-tubes m u st be absolutely grease- free; there­
fore, the aeroballs a re treated with m olykote. T h e activation of the
aeroball co lum n is scanned in the m e a s u r e m e n t table (F ig .4 ) by 30 sequentially
sam p led counter-diodes, each of which is connected for 1 s to the counter.
T h e calibration of these diodes by a n interposed 60C o source, could be
m a d e better than 0. 5 % erro r. M e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e within short time
intervals of each other at the s a m e reactor condition showed repetitions
of better than 0. 5 % . Since the charge-sensitive am plifier showed itself
to be extraordinarily stable, the drift correction now m a d e in the com puter
can be omitted in future plants. In the period betw een the com m issio nin g
in J a n u a r y 1972 and O cto be r of the s a m e y ea r , so m e 600 m e a s u r e m e n t s have
be en p e r fo r m e d (F ig s 5 and 6). T h e only incidents have been a chlorine
ingress through the air- pressure supply unit and the failure of a few
m agnetic ball stops, w hich have been replaced.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 61

MEASURING BAR

B A LL GUIDE TUBES
TO REACTOR

MEASURING T A B L E WITH
AM PLIFIERS

AIR CONDUITS
TO V A LV E SUPPORT
A BCD

FIG. 4. Aeroball measuring device.

T h e fixed in-core instrumentation consists of 18 m iniature fission

c h a m b e r s of United States m anufacture and 18 n-|3-detectors (self-powered)
of Sw edish m an ufacture. T h e m iniature fission c h a m b e r s represent a
special developm ent, in that the s a m e c h a m b e r s used for long time in
B W R s have a n o. d. of 6 m m . B e c a u s e of the lack of space in the P W R core,
c h a m b e r s with 3. 8 m m o. d. w e r e installed in Stade. W h ile these detectors
beh aved w ell at first, with the exception of a so m e w hat too great a loss
of sensitivity, all but two failed during O ctober as a result of a short
circuit, apparently in the detector itself. It is p r e s u m e d that the high
tem peratures at the internal electrodes, coated with 235U , led to physical
distortion.
T h e n-jS-detectors that w e r e selected w e r e of the type with cobalt
em itters supplying a prom pt signal (Table I). T h e y a re 3. 5 m m o. d.
and 21 c m long. A t full load, they deliver so m e 4 X 1СГ7 A . T w o of the
18 detectors failed shortly after installation, p re su m a b ly by the cable
being broken. T h is w a s attributable m o r e to careless handling than to
the device itself. T h e other detectors are still perform ing satisfactorily.
T h e i r resistance — initially between 1 0 6 and 1 0 11 Г2 — is n o w between
105 and 109 Г2. T h e i r loss in sensitivity is around 3 to 3. 5 % . A p rocessing
of the signals following a reactor shutdown showed full load com ponents
of round 1 1 % , arising fr o m g a m m a flux, and of around 3. 5 to 4 % , arising
f r o m 60C o . T h e output as a function of time a gree d with the out-of-core
instrumentation. T h i s type of detector has now been proved, and we
intend to em ploy it in future plants.
PKISUhESSI-'«ÜTO<OLL
62
von HAEBLER

FIG. 5. Power density distribution during commissioning test.

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 63

FIG. 6. Power density distribution after 179 full power days.

T h e in-core instrumentation is well suited to determ ining incorrect

operation of individual rods (F ig. 7). Incorrrect insertion of a sym m e tric
rod bank will tem porarily strongly influence the offset factor, even if the
end position of the inserted bank is not always determ inable. T h e average
value indicated by the six fixed detectors of one position agree well with
that m e a s u r e d by the aeroball system . T h e calibration of the stationary
detectors for burnup correction is achieved by printing out after an aeroball
m e a s u r e m e n t run fro m a particular com puter p r o g r a m the required
potentiometer settings for each amplifier.
T h e therm ocouples, n o rm a l nickel/chrome-nickel with 3. 2 m m o. d. ,
have their outputs printed out by the com puter. T h e y are all perform ing
satisfactorily.
P e r h a p s a few w o r d s should be added concerning the sensitivity of the
entire nuclear instrumentation to disturbances. T h e am plifier panels
m u s t be m ounted with insulation and connected via one point to the en viron ­
m e n t ze ro potential. Pu lse and differential am plifiers with large band-
widths m ust be additionally shielded within the panels. D istu rban ces,
w hich are induced on to signals going to the com puter, m ust not cause
a current scan to be terminated. T h e running of the signal leads of the
out-of-core p o w er range channels in copper tubing is superfluous.
64 von HAEBLER

T A B L E I. S I G N A L C O M P O S I T I O N F O R S E L F - P O W E R E D D E T E C T O R S IN'
H^O R E A C T O R S

Signal composition (°Jo)

Neutron sensitivity y-sensitivity
Type of detector ( A /( n /c m 2 • s)) (A/(R/h))
After 2 yr
and reactor [Manufacturer's data] [Manufacturer’s data]
New detector at 5 x 1013
Measured values Measured values
n /c m 2 * s

Vanadium-51

(n, ye) prompt 5 ^ 5 [ 0 . 1 3 x lCf20] [ 4 .8 X 10"1T]

У 100
(n, S) 3. 8 min 95 J 93
0 .9 x l O '20 5. 8 x 10'17
(y. e) 7 7

Rhodium -103

(n, ye) prompt

f 0. 7 min 71
86 Г 100 60
[ 2. 44 X lO-20] [4 X 1 0 '"]

7 J
(n’ 6 ) l 4 . 4 m i n
5
1 .8 2 X l O '20
(У.е) 2 2

Cobalt-59

(n, ye) prompt 100 л 85

[ 3 .7 XlO"21] [4. 8 X10"17]
(n,B) 5. 2 yr 0 I 100 12

(zn, 6) 1. 6 h 0 J 3
3 .7 X l O '21 5. 8 X l O " 17
(У. e) 12 12

4. C O O L A N T L O O P IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N

T h e coolant loop instrumentation w a s supplied for the first time with

24- V d. c. , as a consequence of w hich the voltage drop along the feeders
m a d e it n e c e ss a ry to install s o m e additional conductors. Since the planned
strain gauge transm itter series w a s not available for p re ss u r e and
differential p re ss u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s at the tim e, B arton cells had to be
u s e d once again. F o r tem perature m e a s u r e m e n t s in the p r im a r y coolant
loops, w hich h ad ca used considerable trouble in O b r ig h e im , a com bination
of therm ocouples as actual transducers and resistance t h er m o m ete rs w a s
installed with success. T h e resistance t h er m o m ete rs m e a s u r e exactly
the tem perature of the cold junction and im prove the overall a c c u r a c y to
s o m e 0. 5 °C erro r. T h e coolant tem perature differences, m e a s u r e d a cr o ss
the reactor and u s e d as a correction to the neutron flux m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
lead to e rro rs in loops without circulation because of cold w ater stratification.
T h e y m u st therefore be switched out during no-load operation.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 65

A ER O B A LLP R O BE
= QUADRANT NUMBER
0% +5% +7%

n , nn/ x ; 19.77
m)- "30/”i^ S

•10.73%
1 1 2 l 3 l 4 i 5 l 6 l 7 l 8 19 |10|11|12113|14|15I

FIG. 7. Radial power density distribution after rod drop.

5. R E A C T O R P R O T E C T IO N

T h e cover of the reactor protection system including the implem entation

of special safety criteria w a s , in contrast to O b r ig h e im , extended to
actuate, besides reactor shutdown, not only the e m e r g e n c y core cooling
sy s tem , but also those protection functions w hich c o m e into operation
following disturbances on the secondary side [5]. A s the system logic,
the dy nam ic safety system , which operates with pulse trains, w a s taken
over unchanged. T h is system reacts to all conceivable e r r o r s , by tripping
the safety function (F ig. 8 ). It has also been thoroughly proven and has
been u s ed to trip all those m ech a n ica l safety com ponents that m a y be
operated in any case without reducing safety. O n ly for those plant items
for w hich this w a s not the case w a s the safety trip signal fo r m e d statically.
A m eth o d w a s im p lem en ted that allowed a detailed test of the safety
system output signals. B y operating a test button in the reactor protection'
panel, each output signal can be sim ulated. P u m p s and valves so switched
will in fact then operate.
In accordance with stricter official req uirem ents, redundant circuits
etc. in the safety system w e r e spatially separated. A ls o for this reason,
each redundant p r e s s u r ize r water-level m e a s u r e m e n t received its own
level tube. In contrast to O b r i g h e im , pow er w a s supplied via rectifiers
to two 24- V batteries, and fed with diode decoupling fr o m these to the four
redundant protection sub- system s. T h is system has also not given rise
66 von HAEBLER

FROM MEASURING TRANSDUCER

FIG. 8. Reactor protection system with pulse scheme logic.

to any disturbances. T h e complete safety system has again dem onstrated

its high reliability. A few p roblem s arose during the co m m issio n in g —
e. g. , about 10 of the 100 isolation am plifiers failed because a stray
voltage w a s connected to their secondary sides. F iv e of the approxim ately
150 trip bistables had to be replaced because of drift and a few relays in
the trip section because of incorrect diode polarity. Not a single printed
circuit card fro m the approxim ately 200 has had to be replaced.
T o secure a trouble-free com m issio nin g period, it appeared n ece ssa ry
to undertake check-out of the com plex circuits, in particular the reactor
protection system , eventually with special sub- assem bly checks in the
w o rksh o p before despatch to the site. C h e ck s at site in all m e a s u r e m e n t
devices as they w e r e received, including cheks on m e a s u r e m e n t ranges
and calibration, have been m o r e than justified.

6. R A D IA T IO N M O N IT O R IN G

In radiation m onitoring, there is increasing interest in isotope

identification. F o r sam pling, an additional m e a s u r e m e n t channel w a s
installed, with g e r m a n iu m crystals and multichannel analyser to provide
a high-resolution 7 -spectrum. P r o c e s s in g using the station com puter
and an isotope identification p ro g ra m will be in operation by the beginning
of 1973. T h e n o rm a l scintillation counters provide a n additional possibility
for spectrum determination.
 IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 1 67

A t the p ro c es s system s activity m e a s u r e m e n t points, 3-in. X 3-in.

scintillation counters are installed, which project into containers with
especially easily decontam inable lining. H o w e v e r , tests show that for
detectors outside the container the sensitivity will only be slightly reduced,
the shielding considerably m o r e effectively fo r m e d and decontamination
m u c h facilitated. T h e calibration of the m e a s u r in g devices with standard
containers could be directly transferred without difficulty fro m the
laboratory investigations to the plant.
F o r the first tim e, a m e a s u r e m e n t point in the station drain w a s r e ­
quired at Stade for m onitoring drain water. U sin g a scintillation counter,
a detectable limit of approxim ately 10 "6 (uCi/ cm 3 w a s attained, at a b a c k ­
ground separation of 5 ст. T h e air-vent m e a s u r e m e n t points do not m e r e ly
indicate levels, but initiate a "vent closure" on excessive activity. B e c a u s e
of the official requirem ent on the covering of the operating range with
the high dose-rate ran ge, an im p ro ved large a re a counter tube with a
considerably extended m e a s u r e m e n t range had to be installed for the n o rm a l
operating range.
B e c a u s e of the extrem ely sm all n orm al values of around 0. 04 m R / h
in all accessible a re a s (also inside the containment) the m onitoring of
dose-rates is achieved by use of counter tubes. S o m e I- cham ber units
a re installed for the range 0. 5 X 10 "3 to 10 3 R / h and therefore also cover
the high dose-rate range. Door- fram e- m onitoring for detecting personal
contamination h as proved reliable and time-saving.

7. P L A N T C O M P U T E R [ 6]

A t the tim e of planning, the S ie m e n s 305 , with a 16 К w orkin g store,

w a s the largest p ro cess com puter available. Since this m ach in e, taken
in the context of the extent and the forced segm entation of the p r o g r a m m in g ,
would not have been able to handle the physics p r o g r a m s sufficiently
rapidly on the sim ultaneous occu rren ce of disturbance and switching
signals, a second central p ro c es so r w a s connected in parallel. Originally,
the second com puter w a s intended exclusively for the nuclear and t h e r m o ­
dy nam ic p r o g r a m s w hich, together with their extensive data fields, w e r e
located on a large-capacity disc, and the first com puter w a s intended for
the conventional m onitoring functions, in particular the logging functions.
T o gain field experience with the operation of a dual p ro c es so r system ,
the organization of the p r o g r a m s w a s later changed to allow, in the event
of a disturbance, each com puter to replace the other to so m e extent (Fig. 9).
T h is has already proved to be advantageous following disturbances and
m a k e s m aintenance possible without interruption of com puter operations.
T h e data transfers and system organization on the other hand d e m a n d ed
a large part of the w orkin g store m a d e available by the use of the two
co m puters. M o r e o v e r , the dual-processor concept increased the difficulties
in co m m is sio n in g the com puter plant. H o w e v e r , these starting-up
p ro b lem s w e r e o v e rc o m e in time and it w a s fully available for the c o m ­
m issio n in g of the p o w er station. T h e availability during A u g u s t /S e p t e m b e r 1972
of each p ro c e s so r w a s 9 8 % , with a joint down-time of less than 1 m in /m o n t h .
T y p ical failures w e r e (1) loss of the air-conditioning plant, (2) inter­
ruptions to p r o g r a m runs caused by er r o rs in soft-ware organization, and
(3) operator erro rs.
68 von HAEBLER

DRUM STORE DISC STORE

< z >

COMPUTER 1 COMPUTER 2 T
ON-LINE PROGRAMME REACTOR PROGRAM |
DATA COMPILATION FOR REACTOR FAULT AND SWITCHING LOG REACTOR
PROGRAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

в
FAULT AND SWITCHING LOG REACTO R. ON FAILURE OF COMPUTER 1

В
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL DATA LINK UNIT

V
PROCESS SIGNAL
in-out CONTROL
1
HIGH-SPEED
PRINTER

FIG. 9. Process computer with dual processor concept.

T h e conventional p r o g r a m system M A D A M , including the disturbance

and switching logs, plant variable logging, the disturbance analysis
p r o g r a m and the operating logs proved during the c o m m is sio n in g phase
to be of such assistance that the com m issio nin g of m a jo r com ponents w a s
postponed w h e n the com puter w a s not fully operational.
T h e nuclear p r o g r a m s , grouped together in the p r o g r a m m i n g system
R E A D A T , have now been standardized and with only slight data changes
are applicable to each reactor size. T h e system includes the determination
of the p o w er density distribution in the core by p ro c essing the aeroba.ll
system data, the calculation of the therm al reactor p o w er with heat
balance, and of the coolant channel factors and D N B - v a lu e s , the calculation
of the axial fuel-element burnup, the calibration of the fixed in-core
detectors, the logging and supervision of the control rod positions and
the released activity balanced (vents, drains). It w a s possible to c o m m is sio n
this p r o g r a m without difficulty in a relatively short time.
In general it can be said that, preparatory to the installation of the
com puter co m plex, an error- free m atch betw een plant com ponent
characteristics and com puter p r o g r a m suitability and operating m o d e s
is d e m a n d ed . T h e m a i n part of the w o r k m u s t be given to this, and
req uires a whole a r r a y of parallel-working departm ents to be com m itted to it.

8. C O N C L U SIO N

T h e experience gained at Stade h a s been taken into account in the

design and planning of the two 1 2 0 0 - M W (e) nuclear p o w e r stations
Biblis A and B . F o r the fixed in-core detectors, only n-3-detectors
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 69

with cobalt em itters are used. T h e coolant loop instrumentation, in

particular that for the p r im a r y coolant p u m p s , has been som ew hat reduced.
Static logic w hich had still be en used to s om e extent in the reactor safety
system has been com pletely replaced by the dy nam ic system and thereb y,
above all, the expenditure for routine testing has been further reduced.
A S ie m e n s 306 with 48 К w o rkin g store has been included as the station
com puter. W it h these changes, the instrumentation of this reactor type
can be view ed as having been extensively standardized.

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] Atomwirtsch. (1971) 578-614 (12 papers by different authors describing the Stade nuclear power
station).
[2] van HAEBLER, D . , "Neutron flux measurement of the reactors of Wiirgassen and Stade", Instrumentation
for Nuclear Power Plant Control, Tech. Rep. Series 119, IAEA, Vienna (1970).
[3] GRÜNER, W . , von HAEBLER, D . , KLAR, E . , H O F M A N N , W . , "D ie Weiterentwicklung der Kern-
instrumentierung von Druckwasserreaktoren", Tag. Ber. 219 der Reaktortagung des DAtF und der K T G ,
Bonn, 30 Mar. - 2 Apr. 1971.
[4] SPILLEKOTHEN, G . -H. , S C H M ID , P ., "Das Kugelmesssystem Stade", Tag. Ber. 352 der Reaktortagung
des DAtF Hamburg, 11-14 April 1972.
[5] B A C H M A N N , G. , HELLMERICHS, K . , ROLF, F . , "Reaktorschutz beim Kemkraftwerk Biblis” ,
Tag. Ber. 337 der Reaktortagung des DAtF, Hamburg, 11-14 Apr. 1972.
[6] FREYMEYER, P ., Prozessrechner ffir Kernkraftwerke, Atomwirtsch. 16 (1971) 524.

DISCU SSION

J . E . . L U N D E : It would be particularly interesting if you could indicate

the part played by the in-core instrumentation in the automatic control
system of the plant.
D . von H A E B L E R : T h e aeroball system provides a picture of the
m o m e n t a r y state of the reactor during activation of the balls. A picture
of this type can be obtained ev ery 10 m inutes if n ecessary . T h e fixed
in-core detectors will be connected to the flux distribution control system
of the 1 2 0 0 - M W (e ) reactors. T h is is not n e c e s s a r y in sm aller reactors.
B. S. P R A B H A K A R : Y o u m ention that the s u m m a t e d output fro m the
four long ionization c h a m b e r s goes to the reactor protection system . H o w
are radial flux profile changes taken into account?
D . von H A E B L E R : In the p o w e r range of interest the radial flux
distribution is ve ry flat after a short burnup time. T h e control-rod in ­
sertion p r o g r a m operates in such a w a y that the radial flux distribution
is not disturbed.
G . V A N R E I J E N : Y o u m entioned three different system s of in-core
instrumentation. In the conclusions it is stated that in the Biblis plants
the fixed in-core detectors included only n-/3 detectors and no ionization
c h a m b e r s . D o you also intend in the future to use the aeroball system ?
D . von H A E B L E R : A e ro b all system s will be installed in all future
plants. F i x e d n-/3 detectors will be installed in all reactors with a
capacity of m o r e than 900 M W ( e ) ; in sm a ller reactors they will be fitted
only w h e n the plants are designed for load following. F is s io n c h a m b e r s
will no longer be used.
G . V A N R E I J E N : Might w e perhaps he ar something fro m other
participants about experience with n-/3 detectors in their countries?
70 von HAEBLER

D . E . A N D E R S O N (C h a ir m a n ): Ca n ad ian experience with self-powered

in-core detectors has been very successful. V a n a d iu m detectors w er e
installed in the Doug las Point reactor for m onitoring purposes in 1965.
Pick ering utilizes about 30 cobalt detectors for both reactor control and
protection at w idely dispersed points in the reactor. T h e m u c h larger
B r u c e reactor utilizes about 50 vanadium and 50 platinum detectors for
bulk p o w e r control, p o w er m ap p ing and reactor protection. A s our reactors
increase in size, the role played by this type of detector will b e c o m e even
m o r e important.
L . V . K O N S T A N T I N O V : In the Soviet U nion, too, self-powered in-core
detectors have proven ve ry successful. T h is type of in-core instrumentation,
with various emitter m aterials (R h, A g , V , etc. ), has been under study
in actual reactor conditions since 1961. After sufficient operating
experience had be en obtained self-powered detectors w e r e used in p o w er
reactors as sen so rs for neutron flux m ap p in g system s. T h e B elo y a rs k
N u c le a r P o w e r Plant w a s the first to be equipped with system s of this
type, so m e 100 self-powered detectors being installed in each reactor.
A t N o vo vo ro n ezh the p o w er reactors a re being equipped with self-powered
detectors too. E a c h of the two 1 0 0 0 - M W (e ) L e n in g r a d N u cle ar P o w e r Plant
reactors, w hich are currently under construction, has about 2 00 fixed
self-powered in-core detectors for continuous neutron flux m ap p ing through
the core. Self-powered in-core detectors are therefore widely used in
the Soviet U nion , and it is a s s u m e d that all future p ow er reactors will
incorporate them.
R . M . B A L L : T o m y knowledge, at least 17 reactors in the United
States of A m e r i c a have been fitted with som e 360 self-powered in-core
detectors each. In 1966 B a b c o c k & W ilc o x tested such detectors in a
boiling-water reactor and have since developed calibration techniques
and obtained other characteristic information showing them to be very
satisfactory.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2

O PERATING E X P E R IE N C E W ITH CONTROL

AND IN STRU M EN TATIO N SYSTEM S IN
CEGB N U C LEAR POW ER PLA N TS

M .W . JERVIS
Central Electricity Generating Board,
Cheltenham, Glos

F. DIXON
Central Electricity Generating Board,
London,
United Kingdom

Abstract

OPERATING EXPERIENCE W IT H C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N SY STEM S IN CEGB N U CLEA R POWER

PLANTS.
A large proportion of the world’ s electricity generation from nuclear reactors has been produced in
United Kingdom plants and all these are fitted with control and instrumentation systems which include
automatic data processing or computer systems. This has allowed considerable experience to be accumulated
of many aspects of the operation of such systems, including difficulties and reliability actually obtained in
service over some years. The paper briefly describes the systems in service in CEGB "Magnox" reactor power
stations and of some systems now being tested for CEGB and U K A E A power plants not yet in service. Operating
experience with the control and instrumentation s y s te m s at the working stations is discussed and comments made
on the design and performance and desirable extensions, particular reference being made to the use of new
techniques such as computers and cathode-ray tube display systems. Availability figures over extended periods
of operation of computers in service and the types of failure are reported. The results of tests at works and site
are discussed for the other nuclear power station computer systems, with reference to methods of defining
acceptance criteria and some difficulties which have occurred with these systems. An approach to quantifying
the cost penalties associated with non-availability of control and instrumentation is described. Experience at
Wylfa Nuclear Power Station has demonstrated that computer systems can be satisfactorily specified and that
they can be successfully installed and operated.

1. INTRODUCTION

C.E.G.B. nuclear power stations have now produced over 150 million
MWh of electrical energy and a considerable amount of experience has been gained
in the operation of control and instrumentation systems on these stations.
Some general information was given in a 1969 NUCLEX Paper(l)and computer
performance data was reported in a I.A .E .A . Specialist Group Meeting Paper (2).

The scope of the present paper includes the eight "Magnox" (MK 1)
stations, listed in Table I,, and information from these is reported. No "AGR"
(MK 2) stations are yet operational but some of their computer systems are
already installed and working and references to early test results are included
in the paper.

The application of the control and instrumentation equipment

involved can be classified as:-

(a) Process measurement, e .g . temperature, pressure, flow,

chemical composition.

71
72 JERVIS A N D D IXO N

(b) Nuclear measurements, e.g. external flux, burst can

detection (B .C .D .).

(c) Automatic protection.

(d) Closed loop systems, e.g. reactor and boiler control.

(e) Computers and data logging.

Some reliability figures collected on this type of equipment are

reported and comments made on its performance with special reference to its
relation to reactor outages, causing loss of generation.

2. EFFECTS OF CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION (С. & I . ) FAILURES

The main effects of inadequate performance of control and instrumenta­

tion equipment are failure to provide automatic protection, excessive
expenditure in maintenance, reduction in plant efficiency or forced outages
of generating plant.

In C.E .G .B. the records of automatic protection do not show any

cases of the systems failing to work when called upon to do so and the
excessive maintenance and loss of station efficiency are difficult to
quantify. In the case of reactor outages the position is clearer and sources
of failure can be recognised. The situation is summarised in Table II for
the period 1963 to 1971.

TABLE I

C.E.G.B. OPERATING NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS

Year first Station3

Name of station reactor output
commissioned ( M W s .o .) b

Berkeley 1962 276

Bradwell 1962 300
Hinkley Point ' A 1 1965 500
Trawsfynydd 1965 500
Dungeness 'A 1 1965 550
Sizewell 1965 580
Oldbury 1968 600
Wylfa 1971 I I 80
a Design figures
b s.o. = sent out
 1 A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2 73

TABLE II

SOURCES OF REACTOR FORCED OUTAGES

FOR MAGNOX STATIONS LISTED IN TABLE I

Control and Instrumentation

Burst Other
Period Control Safety Other
Can Sources
Rod Circuit Instru­
Detection
Systems Systems mentation
Systems

1963 - 21 8 9 5 166
1968 (10$) (3.8*) (4.3$) (2.4$) (79.5$)
inclusive

1969 8 1 0 0 31
(20$) {2.5%) 00$) (0$) (77.5$)

1970 8 0 1 1 28
(21$) (0*) (2.6$) (2.6$) (73.8$)

1971 6 0 3 0 26
{ 17. 2%) (0$) (8.6$) (0$) (74.2$)

The following sections discuss the details of the performance of

the various control and instrumentation systems. The relationship within
C.E.G.B. and with the other organisations concerned with С. & I . equipment
performance is illustrated in Figure 1.

Since 1968 the numbers of forced outages because of reactor plant

other than control and instrumentation have fallen somewhat and the original
good performance of the С. & I . equipment has only changed slightly.

J. CONTROL ROD SYSTEMS

During the period covered by Reference (1), i .e . up to 1968,

control rod system failures caused 21 outages (10$ of total reactor outages),
five of the 21 outages were caused by mechanical latch failures, the other
l6 by electrical failures. Of the latter five were caused by switching supply
failures, four by contacts, contactor or relay faults, three by control
switches/button faults, one by a cable fault and three by equipment (generators,
rotary amplifier) faults. Table II shows the outage figures for 1969 to 1971
and the pattern of failures has been similar to that for the period up to 1968 .
Of the 22 outages, four were caused by mechanical latch failures, ten by
electrical failures and eight by equipment (generator, rotary amplifier) faults.

The maintenance schedule for control rod systems includes regular

tests, the periodicities of which have been extended in the light of operating
experience. The schedule now calls for each control rod actuator to be over­
hauled every eight years with drop tests in-situ every two years. Contactors
have a six monthly functional check and overhaul every two years, protective
circuits associated with the functional check every two years and neutron
flux and temperature interlock channels are tested as for safety circuit
equipment, not greater than three months between tests.
74 JERVIS A N D D IX ON

CENTRAL ELECTRICITY GENERATING BOARD HEADQUARTERS

FIG. 1. CEGB nuclear control and instrumentation performance and reliability information flow organization.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / A - 2 75

It is to be noted that up to 1968 (1 ) one q u a r t e r of the reactor

outages c l a s s i f i e d as due to operator actio n (a lm o s t 5$ of all reactor forced
outages) w ere a s s o c ia t e d w it h control rod system s reflec tin g the regu lar
operator p a rtic ip a tio n re q u ired in th is se c tio n of the p lan t.

4. S A F E T Y C IR C U IT SYSTEM S

D u r in g the p erio d covered by R efe ren ce (l), i .e . up to 1968 , safety

c ir c u it faults caused 8 outages (3 .8 $ of total reactor o u t a g e s ). Three o f the
seven statio n s had no outages fo r t h is class of plant. A ll eig h t safety
c irc u it faults 'f a i l e d s a f e '. F iv e of the o u ta ges were caused by contactor
co il failu res. Two outages w ere the result of eq u ip m en t failu res (o n e a rate
of change of pressure and the other a gas c irc u la to r speed m easurem ent fa u lt ).
There w as one outage due to a w irin g fault. Sin c e 1968 there has been only
one further outage when two g u a rd lin es trip p ed sp u rio u sly .

Over the last ten years the extent and co m p lex ity of s a fe ty c ir c u it
system s have in c r e a s e d w ith tem perature p ro te ctio n b e c o m in g a m ore d o m in a n t
param eter. A uto rese ttin g tem perature trip am p lifie rs have been w id e ly
in tro d u c e d fo r sector tem perature p ro te ctio n . In later statio n s coolant flo w
p ro te ctio n is p ro v id e d by gas c irc u la to r rate of change of speed d e v ic e s and
auto rese ttin g shutdow n a m p lifie rs have been used for excess neutron flu x
p ro te ctio n . Changes have b e e n m ade from 's i n g l e 2 out of 3 ' lo gic to h ig h e r
orders of lo g ic , e .g . 'd o u b l e 2 out of 3' w it h cross- arm am m eters and sw itc h e s/
buttons to fa c ilita te testing.

The o rig in al m a xim um p e r i o d for proof testin g and calib ratio n of

sa fety c ir c u it eq u ip m en t a llo w e d u n d e r the site lice n se was three m onths an d
n early all statio n s have now a d o p t e d the three m onths p e r io d ic ity . T h is
proof testin g and calib ra tio n is a contin u o u s task w h ic h dem ands c o n sid era b le
m a in te n a n c e effo rt. S o lid state m a gn etic d ev ic es ("L a d d ie s ") w ere used
instead of relays fo r the O ldbu ry sa fety c ir c u its and there has not been a
sin g le failu re. Because of the contin u o u s flip flo p nature of these dev ices
and t h e ir in h er en t re liab ility the O ldbury safety c ir c u it e q u ip m en t proof
testing p erio d is extended to six m onths fo r the w in te r p erio d s.

TABEE III

T Y P I C A L S A F E T Y C I R C U I T E Q U IP M E N T F A I L TO D AN G ER FAULT RATES

E q u ip m e n t U n it M ean T im e Betw een F a ilu re s

Tem perature T rip A m p lifie r Юбо (1 9 0 :4 1 ,5 0 0 ) x 103 h

(F ix e d level)

Tem perature T rip A m p lifie r 73 ( 32: 230 ) x 10 З h

(A u to r e s e t )

Neutron Flux Shutdow n A m p lifie r 98 ( 42: 300 ) x 103 h

(F ix e d lev el)

Neutron F lu x Log A m p lifie r 1112 ( 20: 4 ,0 0 0 ) x 103 h

(P e r io d and F ix e d lev el)

(95 % C o n fid e n c e lim its in brackets)

 76

TABLE IV. STATION REACTOR SAFETY CIRCUIT E Q U IP M E N T PERFORMANCE AND R E L IA B IL IT Y

RETURN 1 SEPTEMBER 1971 TO 31 AU GU ST 1972

Number of failures revealed by:

Request/ Routine Routine

Into No. No. Maintenance No. Safe/ inspection proof calibration
Operating Safe Unsafe
Unit service in of calibration of unsafe ¡ maintenance tests tests
hours MTBF M TBF
year service spares tolerance failures failures
(%>

-sb« o

otqdon

- sm o
uops
oiqdoa

otqdoa
-рвйэа
-рвйэа
-рвлЗэа

U0T1B
i
Neutron flux

Counter
Fission countei 1965 6 52560
Head amplifier 1965 6 20 52560
1 , 1

COtOCO
Counter 1965 6 20 1 1 52560 52560

*-»
Log

i
Ion chamber 1965 6 52560
Polarizing unit 1965 6 52560
Log power and period 1965 6 5 3 3 52560 14185
Head amplifier 1965 6 20 1 52560 52560
llli-HI

i со iH i
Switch unit 1965 6 52560

to (О n «5 <N
JERVIS A N D D IX O N

SPA
'

Ion chamber 1965 18 157680

Polarizing unie 1965 18 5 157630
Shut-down amplifier 1965 18 1 48 44
I Tf

- 157680 3285

i i œ i
......................................................................

аз Ц Л H
Desk pot 1965 6 52650
1

Temperature
1
Temperature amplifier unit (Sector) 1965 1 7 5 473040 78840 473040
54
Matrix push bunons 1965 1 162 1419120
,H 1

Matrix logic relays 1965 162 1419120

colite

-Ф11СО
1 О

Servo rate amplifier 1965 12 1 6 3 105120 17520

Rate of pressure change

i
|

dp/dt switches 1965 12 105120

СЧ
Gas circulator speed
^

Circulator speed trip unit 1965 8 0.3 4 4 70030 17520

I I

Photo head 1965 16 (excl. lamp 104160

rH rj<
■

failure)
........................................................

I
i

Maxtrix push buttons 1965 24 210240

1
Guard-line (G/Ij equipment
Maintenance shorting switches 1965 42 - - - 367920
I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2
77
78 JERVIS A N D D IXO N

TABLE V

REACTOR 'UNSAFE' FAILURE EXCESS CALIBRATION TOLERANCES

Parameter/Equipment Tolerance

Temperature : Zero Margin Trip Point +10°C

Fixed Level and Auto Reset Excess Margin Trip Point +10°C
Amplifiers Margin Indication -10$ F.S.D .a
Slow Up Reset Rate + 20$

Neutron Flux:
Counters ) Log Ranges Ligh Level Trip Point + \ Decade
D.C. Log and Period Meters ) Linear Ranges Trip Point +20$
Shut down Amplifiers ) Period Trip Point + 20$

Rate of Change of Pressure Individual Station Figure

Gas Circulator Speed Zero Margin Trip Point + 2$

Reset Rate +30$

Others + 20$

a F.S. D. = full-scale deflection

Of the reactor outages classified as due to operator action (1), four

outages arose during the routine three-monthly proof tests of the safety
circuit equipment. Since 1968, two further outages have occurred during
routine testing óf safety circuit equipment which makes a total of six for
the period 1963 to 1971. In view of the multiple operations involved in these
proof tests, this low figure demonstrates that the discipline during testing
is effective.

Typical equipment 'fa il to danger1 fault rates are given in Table II I

and a station reactor safety circuit equipment performance and reliability
annual return is shown in Table IV.

Details of faults are now being returned on a more precise basis

and classified (as shown in Table IV) in accordance with the 'Catastrophic'
and 'Degradation' failure definitions of BS 4200 Part 2 19 671. In addition,
Just as catastrophic failures include excessive deviation in characteristics
(tolerances) reactor 'unsafe' failures are now to Include those cases where
tripping functions are prevented or inhibited to an extent and in a direction
which would reduce the probability of the protection operating should a
dangerous reactor fault condition arise. The reactor unsafe failure excess
calibration tolerance figures now being adopted for all C.E.G.B. stations are
given in Table V.

With the adoption of this more precise classification of failures it may be

possible to justify an extension of the safety circuit equipment proof test
calibration periodicity.

1 BS4200:1967 British Standard Guide on the Reliability of Electronic

Equipment and Parts Used Therein.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / A - 2 79

5. ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES

During the period covered by Reference (1), i .e . up to 1968, unit

auxiliary system electrical supplies faults have caused five outages (2.4%
of total reactor outages). Two outages resulted from essential supplies
failures, two resulted from control rod system supplies failures and one resulted
from a gas circulator supplies failure. Similar outages have occurred since
1968.

6. BURST CAN DETECTION (B .C .D .) SYSTEMS

Considering the nature of this equipment and the continuous duty

demanded of it, the performance has been generally satisfactory. Failure of
the B .C .D . system for specified or sustained spurious alarm signals require
the operator to act in accordance with the operating rules and shut down the
reactor. During the period covered by Reference (1), i .e . up to 1968, 4.3$
of all reactor outages were for B .C .D. failures. Of the nine outages three
were caused by precipitator failures due to moisture in the coolant gasj the
remaining six were caused by an electrical plug connection fault, a wiring
fault, two selector valve faults, sample connections through standpipe
assembly fault, compressor pipework fault and a compressor by-pass flange
joint fault. Since 1968 there have been two reactor outages because of
spurious alarm signals and two outages were due to precipitator faults.
Table VI shows a station performance return for B .C .D. precipitators and
rate meters for a three-year period.

In some stations the B .C .D. equipment has been simplified from

that initially installed. Where differential level alarms were provided
they have been abandoned in favour of a close set absolute alarm, which
gives a more positive alarm indication to the operator. When setting up
the photomultiplier operating point it has been found better to adjust the
photomultiplier voltage to give 0 /Ü sensitivity, rather than attempt to
set the operating point on a plateau obtained with an artificial source.

One station which had cause to suspect a damaged channel gas sample
pipe developed a technique of inserting an inflatable bung at the channel

TABLE VI

STATION BURST CAN DETECTION PRECIPITATORS AND RATEMETERS

PERFORMANCE RETURN 1 SEPTEMBER 1968 TO 31 AUGUST 1971 a

Equipment Number of defects during period

1968/1969 1969/1970 I 97O /I 97I

Precipitators
Solenoid valves 7 20 23
Actuators and mechanisms 32 24 10
Wires 9 6 6

Ratemeters 12 29 25

aN.B. This station reported no photomultiplier failures,

but this is not typical for all power stations.
80 JERVIS A N D D IX O N

sample point and then subjecting the pipework to vacuum and checking for
in-leakage. The pipe was also blown through to check for restriction or
blockage.

Checking the correct indexing of the primary selector valves is

relatively easy when commissioning, but can be a problem once the reactor
has operated at full power. Several stations have developed techniques for
activating the sample gas at the chargepan/channel tapping point.

The systems embrace continuously operating mechanical valves and

precipitator mechanical moving parts together with electronic counting
equipment and inevitably the maintenance requirements are high. The valve
selector drive is usually CO2 operated so that loss of this supply affects
all B .C .D . indications and the system is thus very dependent on a reliable
C02 supply.

7. MEASUREMENTS OP MOISTURE IN COOLANT GAS

The loss of generation and long-term effects caused by boiler tube

leaks are important factors in reactor operation. Experience with the
measurement of moisture in reactor coolant gas and the techniques adopted for
boiler and tube leak detection vary considerably between operating stations.
A detailed review and comparison of experience equipment and techniques
including latest developments has been made.

The infra-red gas analyser, although a useful trend indicator, has

been found to be unsuitable for absolute measurement; an improved electrolytic
hygrometer is to be preferred on grounds of reliability and low maintenance
costs.
Most U . K . Magnox stations have a normal moisture content in
reactor coolant gas of less than 10 ppm (wt). Two stations (including the
Windscale A .G .R .) have a level of JO to 90 ppm (wt). A.G.R. conditions are
expected to be about 200 - 250 ppm (wt) moisture concentration which demands
good sensitivity at high moisture levels with short response times.

The differential method of measurement developed by Hinkley Point 'A'

requires neither long term stability nor matching characteristics. The basic
technique involves comparing moisture level signals from individual detector
systems of any two boiler circuits and backing off to obtain a null-reading.
The gas samples to the two detectors are then crossed over. If both gases
have the same moisture content there will be no deviation from the null point,
but if one gas is wetter than the other, a deviation is observed which is
equivalent to double the actual differential. Amplitude of deviation is
proportional to leak rate and direction of deviation indicates which of the
two boilers is leaking. By switching pairs of boilers in this way, the
leaking boiler can be located and isolated and thus prevent a reactor shut­
down.
During the period covered by Reference (1), i .e . up to 1968,
boiler leaks have accounted for 4 outages (1.9$ of total reactor outages).
These were the result of tube failures. Since 1968 there has been
one further reactor outage because of a boiler tube failure.

8. A U T O M A T IC C O N T R O L O F R E A C T O R TE M PERATU RE

Considerable experience has been gained at Berkeley Power

Station where sector rod auto-control has been in operation since 1964. Fault
studies indicated that protection was needed against an uncontrolled sector
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / A - 2 81

control rod. w i t h d r a w a l du rin g reactor start- up and at pow er. M o d ific a tio n s
to m eet t h i s req u irem en t in clu d ed neutron flux and tem perature in te rlo c k s ,
r e - a llo c a tin g the fu el elem en t tem perature p ro te ctio n on a sector b a s is , and
the rep lace m en t of fixed level tem perature trip am p lifie rs w it h auto reset
a m p lifie rs .

Apart from tem perature in stab ility control there are d is tin c t
o p e ratio n a l advantages in b e in g ab le to effect lo cal d e - ratin g and su bse q u en tly
return to level tem perature across the reactor, and to effect these changes
q u ick ly an d w ith o u t any general lo ss of tem perature other than in the area of
local d e- ratin g. T h is fa c ility is a featu re of the sector system s of control
w h ich have been used.

P rio r to the in tro d u c tio n of auto - contro l, refu e llin g in the m o re

h ig h ly rated areas of a B erk eley rea cto r req u ired a general tem perature t
red u ctio n w ith a resultant loss of output of 12 M W (e ). W ith lo c al d e- ratin g
w hen o p e ratin g on auto- control the eq u iv ale n t loss of output is only about
3 M W (e ). Local d e- ratin g also fa c ilita te s the se rv ic in g of control rods.

Other e c o n o m ic advantages a r ise from the a b ility o f the sector auto­

control system to react q u ick ly to sudden distru ba n ces even o f q u ite large
m a g n itu d e. For exam ple, ap p ropriate c om p en sation can be m ade at Berk eley
fo r the tak in g of a b o iler in to or out of c irc u it, the testin g o f m a in gas
v alves and a gas c irc u la to r trip .

E x p e rie n c e o b ta in e d from later statio n s w here au to m atic sector

control is in op e ratio n c o nfirm s the B e rk e le y ex p erien c e that th is eq u ip m en t
w orks sa tisfa c to rily and has proved v irtu ally esse n tia l in c o n d itio n s of
large p o s itiv e tem perature c o efficien ts.

9. DATA LOGGERS

A ll the e a rlie st n u clear power statio n s were fitte d w it h fixed

program d a t a loggers fo r tem perature and B .C .D . lo g g in g and alarm purposes.
In general these have g iv en satisfa cto ry se rv ic e, w ith only one reactor
tem perature scanner fault c au sin g a reactor outage in the perio d I 963 t o
1971.
At B radw ell, the first of the C .E .G .B . nuclear statio n s , the pro blem
of o b ta in in g spares and the m a in t e n a n c e effort req u ired , to g e t h e r w it h new
data disp lay re q u irem en ts, have recently Ju stifie d the in s ta lla tio n of a
com puter b a s e d system t o replace the o rig in al logg er. In this, c o n n e c t io n it
is im p o rta n t to note that the changeover w as fa c ilita te d by a c o n v en ien t
m a rsh allin g c u b ic le arrangem ent. For future system s, it is co n sidered
im p o rta n t to d esig n w ith rep la ce ability in m ind, because situ atio n s sim ilar
to B radw e ll w ill occur as eq u ip m en t becom es obso lete. R eplacem ent can be
ju stifie d because of d iffic u lty o f m a in t e n a n c e , or by the w is h to e x p lo it new
fa c ilitie s p r o v id e d by m odem system s.

10. O N - L IN E C OM PUTER SY STEM S

1 0 .1 General

The C .E .G .B . nuclear power statio n s at w h ich com puters are in fu ll

o p eratio n are O ldbury - on - Sevem and W y lfa . The system s for H in k ley P o int ' B 1,
Dungeness 'B 1 and H a r tle p o o l are w o rk in g on site but not y e t m o n it o r in g w o r k in g
pla n t on a large scale and the Heysham sy stem is in m anufacture.

D e s c r ip t io n s of these system s have been giv en e l s e w h e r e , (2 , 4 ,)

in c lu d in g the a p p lic a tio n of cathode ray tube d isp lay s, an¿ th e ir
82 JERVIS A N D DIXO N

performance up to 1971 has already been reported (2). References to descriptions

are given in sections 10.2 - 10.5. No further descriptions are given in this
paper but to assist comparison, failure information given in Reference (2) has
been repeated in this paper and also brought up to date.

10.2 01dbury-on-Severn

A description of the system is given in Reference (7). Although

there is no redundancy of central processor units (cpu), power generation has
not yet been lost through computer breakdown; operation of the plant without
the analyser, however, is difficult.

Details of hardware faults during the period 1 August 1970 to

30 September 1971 are given in Table VII.

TABLE V I I

O L D B U R Y P O W ER S T A T I O N COMPUTER SY ST E M F A IL U R E S
1 AUGUST 1970 TO 30 SEPTEM BER 1971

No. of Sy ste m down

Type of Faults
fau lts tim e (h)

P r in te d C irc u it Board in cpu 5 253

A dju stm en t to drum e l e c t r o n i c s 5 70

P r in te d c ir c u it board in drum 1 5
c irc u it

Scanner p rin ted c ir c u it board 1 10

faults

Drum faults 1 106

A ir C o n d itio n in g failu re 4 36

Total 17 480

A v ailab ility of System 95.3$

The availability figure quoted in Table VII takes no account of

the fact that on numerous occasions all four cathode ray tubes (crt's) were
not available together. If these are taken into consideration the estimated
availability of the whole system is of the order 92$ - 93$.

During the period 1 October 1971 to 30 September 1972 there have

been faults on the central processing unit involving ljg- hours of outage and
on the drum 1-g hours of outage. The total down time was 15 hours corresponding
to an availability of 99. 83$.

10.3 Wylfa

A description of the system is given in Reference (8 ).

The computers have proved highly reliable. The scanner equipment

suffered initial difficulties because of the type of relay but these have now
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2 83

been overcom e by a change of relay type. The plant m ounted t r a n s d u c e r s /

tran sm itte rs m ea su rin g pressure, tem perature, flo w , etc. have a h ig h d e fe c t
rate m a in ly due to t h e ir unsu itability for the local h o stile en v iro n m en t.
T h is poo r p erfo rm an ce o f t r a n s d u c e r s /t r a n s m i t t e r s w h ich is common t o m any
C .E .G .B . power statio n s (b o t h n u c l e a r and con v en tio n a l) is h ig h lig h te d w here
there is a com puter installed , because it is in to lerant of in co rrec t in fo rm a tio n
from the plant.

N ev e rtheless the W ylfa com puter system as a w hole has alw ay s been
av a ilab le when r e q u ir e d fo r c o m m issio n in g tests and h a s run c o n tin u o u sly sin ce
m i d - 19 6 9 . The num ber o f fau lts has been very lo w . Each has caused a program
stop, q u ick ly restored by iso la tin g the f a u l t y eq u ip m en t an d m a n u ally
re sta rtin g .

D etails o f hardw are fau lts du rin g the p erio d 1 January 1970 to
31 August 1972 are g iv en in T ables V III and IX .

W ith the redundancy in the system none of the hardw are failu re s in T a ble IX
resulted in a system outage. System a v a i l a b i l i t y was however reduced because
of tim e lo st due to other causes, e .g . softw are pro blem s, random stoppages,
etc.

1 0 .4 H in k ley P o in t 'B '

System d e s c r ip t io n s and prelim inary re lia b ility fig u res c o llected

are giv en in R efe ren ces (9 ) and (1 0 ), the re lia b ility fig u res b e in g co n sisten t
w it h p r e d ic tio n s based on com ponent counts.

1 0 .5 Dungeness 'B 1, H artlepoo l, Heysham

The system fo r Dungeness 'B ' desc rib ed in R eference (1 1 ) is und erg o in g
site trials and re lia b ility ex p erien c e is reported in R efe ren ces (1 2 ) and
(1 3 ). The eq u ip m en t fo r H artlep oo l has been deliv ered to site and the Heysham
system is in w orks, so th a t it is not yet p o s sib le to report r e lia b ility
e x p erien ce.

TABLE V I I I

WYLFA POWER S T A T I O N COM PUTER S Y S T E M E Q U IP M E N T F A ILU R E S

(M E C H A N I C A L F A U L T S , e .g . ON F L E X O W R IT E R S AND IN P U T
D E V I C E S , A R E E X C L U D E D ), 1 JANUARY TO 3 1 AUGUST 1971

D is p la y
Com puters H ig h w a y s Drum s Scanners
C on troller

Dry jo in ts 3 Power sup p ly 1 T ra n sisto r 1 Tra n sisto r 11 T ra n sisto r 1

T ra n sisto rs 6 R ela y contact 1 Heads 6 R ela y s 3

R elay 1 D io d e s 4 Power S u p p ly 1
Contact

Total Lost Tim e 1 7 .5 h. A v ailab ility o f System 99*88$

84 JERVIS A N D D IXO N

TABLE IX

W YLFA POWER S T A T IO N COM PUTER S Y S T E M E Q U IP M E N T F A IL U R E S

(M E C H A N I C A L F A U L T S , e .g . ON F L E X O W R I T E R S AND IN P U T
D E V IC E S , ARE E X C L U D E D ) 1 SEPTEMBER 1 9 7 1 T O JL A U G U S T 1 9 7 2

D isp la y
Com puters H ig h w a y s Drum s Scanners
C o ntro ller

T ra n sisto rs 2 None T ra n sisto rs 4 T ra n sisto rs 2 Tra n sisto rs 5

Shorted M a ladjustm ent 1 C ap acito rs 2 D io d e s 2

Connector 1

R elay contact P o ten tio m eter 1 Transfom er 1 C ap a cito rs 1

a
Heads 3 In terp o se CR Tubes 18
R elays 1
a
Reed R elays 48

Total Lost tim e 3 .1 h

etc j A v ailab ility o f System 99- 96$
(S o ftw a re , random stoppages,

a Som e w e a r - o u t failu res in clu d ed

11. G EN ER A L C O N C LU SIO N S F O R MKL (M A G N O X ) ST A T IO N S

(i) In the last ten years the C .E .G .B . has exp erien ced a pro gressio n
through eig h t pow er s t a t io n s of in c r e a sin g reacto r cap a city and the
attendant advances in С. & I. system s tow ards cen tralised control.
Control pro blem s h av e increased w it h the advances m ade in reactor
d esign but the o bjec tiv es of safe, reliab le a n d m ore p r e c i s e control
o f n u clear pla n t at an e c o n o m ic p ric e have been a c h ie v e d .

(ii) Safety c ir c u it system s have becom e m ore ex te n siv e a n d m o re

co m p licated, but the s t r in g e n t re q u irem en ts of the site lice n se s
are bein g sa tisfied through w ell d is c ip lin e d m a in te n an c e a c tiv itie s.
The record of perfo rm an ce of the system s is ex celle n t.

(iii) W ylfa has shown t h a t w ith a u to m atio n techniq u es an d com puters,

cen tralised control is a viab le p r o p o s itio n and c an a c h ie v e the
c o n sisten t, p rec ise m o n ito r in g and control o f nuclear p lant to
the close m a rg in s of o p e ratio n in h e r e n t in the d esig n o f m odern
plant.

(iv ) In general, dev ices w i t h m o v in g parts req uire the m ost m a in t e n a n c e

and t h is a p p lie s p a r t ic u la r ly to B .C .D . p re c ip ita to rs, pen
recorders and ele c tric ty p ew rite rs. M otor g en e rato rs for in stru m e n t
su p p lies can be tro u ble so m e, because of poor voltage and freq u en cy
re g u la tio n .

(v ) D efects in electro n ic eq u ip m en t o f t e n occur due to h ig h a m b ien t

tem perature and the air c o n d itio n in g or v en tilatio n has, in m any
cases, been fo u n d to be inadequate. P lan t m ounted in stru m e n ta tio n
has also giv en poor r e l ia b il it y because of h o stile en v iron m en t
w it h in a d e q u a te p ro te ctio n of se n s it iv e d ev ic es.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2 85

(v i) E lec trica l in terferen c e has not been a severe pro blem though
sp ec ial p recau tio n s have had to be taken fo r nucleo nic eq u ip m en t.
Com puters and d a ta lo g g ers have r e la tiv e ly severe 50- Hz series and
common m ode rejectio n sp e c ific a tio n s and, though these may p o s s i b l y
be u n n ecessa rily strin g en t, th e y have preven ted tro uble from t h i s
source.

12. CHANGES MADE IN FUTURE С . & I. SYSTEM S AS A R E S U L T O F E X P E R IE N C E

The Mk I I (A G R ) statio n s all use С. & I. system s g iv in g cen tralised

control based on com puters. The W y lfa system h a s been expanded w it h the
com puter u s e d to a greater extent fo r d irec t d ig ital control of p lan t. The
fo llo w in g are som e t e c h n i q u e s w h ich h ave been adopted fo r the Mk I I (A G R )
reactor system s as a resu lt of the Mk I (M a g n o x ) statio n s' ex p erien c e.

(i) In alm o st all e lec tro n ic eq u ip m en t, so lid state dev ices and
p rin ted c irc u itry have replaced th e rm io n ic valve e q u ip m en t.
Although the latter has g iv en a very satisfacto ry perfo rm an ce,
it is expected that the so lid state e q u ip m en t w i l l g iv e a
usefu l redu ctio n in m a in t e n a n c e . S ilic o n se m i- c o n d u c t o r
com ponents p e r m it ' o p e r a t i o n at h ig h e r tem peratures than the
older g erm anium types.

(ii) In the Mk I I reactors a 50- Hz sup p ly i s used for control rod

actuators in p lace o f the low frequen cy system s used in the Mk 1
reactors. The sup p ly system is m uch s i m p l e r , allo w s a clear
sep a ratio n of control and trip fu n c tio n s and so m any o f the
d iffic u ltie s reported in th is paper w ith low frequen cy su p p lies
sh o u ld be a v o id e d , though the m ec h an ic al d esig n of the actuator
is m ore co m p licated .

(iil) The fu el sh e a th in g of the Mk I I (A G R ) fuel is stain less steel

in stead o f m agnox an d so t h e B .C .D . req u irem en ts are differen t
and do n o t re q u ire au to m atic contin u o u s su rv eilla n ce of all
fu el c hannels and a b u lk m easurem ent is acceptab le w ith a
m anually operated in d iv id u a l channel in v estig atio n system . These
enable a c o n sid e ra b le s im p lific a tio n to be m a de though th e b a sic
p r in c ip le is the sa m e as in t h e .M k 1 a n d m o v in g w i r e p r e c ip ita to r s
are still used. However, the e lec tro n ic e q u ip m en t is fully
tra n sis to ris e d and has an Im p ro v ed perfo rm an ce together w ith an
exp ected h ig h e r re lia b ility .

(iv ) E le c tro ly tic or v a r ia b le im pedance d ie le c tric type m o is tu r e in

c oolant m ea suring eq u ip m en ts are bein g used instead o f the
in fra red a n a ly se r m ethods. However, it is too ea rly to know if
these m ethods w i l l be com pletely satisfacto ry though t r i a l s m a de
so far are en c o u ra g in g .

(v ) Chart recorders fo rm a heavy lo ad on th e pow er statio n in stru m e n t

m a in t e n a n c e departm ents. In the m ore recent statio n s these are
used in m uch s m a l l e r n u m b e r s , t h e ir du ties bein g taken over by
on - lin e com puter system s. The l a t t e r have ty p ew rite rs w h ic h ,
alth o ugh they also re q u ire co nsiderable m a in te n a n c e , a r e used in
system s w it h au to m atic changeover to standby.

(v i) A t te n t io n is b ein g g iv en to the e lim in atio n of in s tr u m e n ts u sin g

m o v in g p a r t s , p a rtic u la rly slid e w ire s, e .g . stra in gauge type
pressure tran sm itte rs are preferred to types u sin g resista n ce
slide w ire s .
86 JERVIS A N D D IXO N

(v ii) R ig id q u a lity assurance control is ap p lie d to reactor the rm o co u p les

(v iii) V ib ratio n levels at transducers, e .g . in steam p i p e s , are bein g

in v e stig a te d so t h a t transducers can be chosen w hich w ith sta n d
the en v iro n m en tal c o n d it io n s . T h is sh o u ld reduce the h ig h failu re
rate of resista n ce therm om eters now exp erienced in som e plants.

(ix ) C able contractors are not g iv en access to the in tern a l parts of

actuators and co n n ectio n s are m ade t o a term in al block in a
w aterproof cover. T h is sh ould av o id dam age w h ich ten d s to occur
du rin g c ab lin g of actuators.

(x ) Im p ro v ed s h ie ld in g of p la n t m ounted t r a n s d u c e r s /t r a n s m i t t e r s
ag ain st local en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s is bein g p ro v id e d .

(x l) The exp erien ce g a in e d from o il and coal fired power statio n s is

b e in g in te g r a te d w it h that from n u c l e a r statio n s, because many
o f the pro blem s are id en tica l. A common s y s t e m of en v iro n m en tal
and g e n e ral type testin g is ap p lie d to С. & I. eq u ip m en t
co m m e rcia lly av ailab le and an approval schem e is operated w ith
a list of approved eq u ip m en t w h ic h is sp e c ifie d f o r new power
statio n s . T h is approval system n ec essitates w ritin g Product
S p e c ific a tio n s ag ain st w hich eq u ip m en t is evaluated and ap proved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors ack n o w led g e the a s s is ta n c e g iv en by a l l the C .E .G .B .

nu clear pow er statio n In s tr u m e n t E n g in e e r s who h e l p e d to p r o v id e data
reported in th is paper and in p a r t ic u la r to M r. E. P r ic e , T raw sfy n y d d Power
Statio n , fo r h elp fu l d iscu ssio n and c o n trib u tio n s.

Thanks are due to the Central E le c t r ic it y G en eratin g Board fo r

pe rm iss io n to p u b lish th is paper.

REFERENCES

(1 ) D IX O N , F „, S IL V E R L E A F , D .J ., WEEKS, R .J .,
"A n A n a ly s is of the A vailability of the C .E .G .B .'s N u c lea r
Power S t a t io n s ".
NUCLEX 1969 T e c h n ic a l M e e tin g 1 /1 October, 1969.

(2 ) J E R V I S , M . W . , " O p e r a t i n g E x p e r i e n c e w i t h Com puters u s e d

so m e U . K . N u c l e a r P o w e r P l a n t s " . P a p e r P L 4 8 1 / 4 IA E A
Sp ecialist M e e tin g , B russels, October, 1971.

(3 ) JE R V IS , M .W ., "O n - lin e Com puters in Power S t a t i o n s ",

I .E .E . R e v ie w s Paper. 6711 С, V 119 N0. 8R , August, 1972.

(4 ) JE R V IS , M .W ., "O n - lin e Com puters in C EG B N u c l e a r Power

S t a t io n s ". Paper OLC- 2 "A p p lic a tio n of O n - lin e C om puters
to N u c le a r R e a c to r s ". E N A E /O E C D C onferen ce P u b lic a tio n
Sa n d fjo rd , Norway, Septem ber, 1968.

(5 ) JE R V IS , M . W . ," C r t D is p la y s of Graphs in C EG B P o w e r S t a t i o n s " .

IEE "D is p la y s " C o nferen ce, Septem ber, 1971.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-2 87

( 6) JE R V IS , M .W ., and B U T T E R F IE L D , R .J . "T h e Use of A lp ha - N u m eric

Crt D isp lay s in CEG B P o w e r S t a t io n s ". IE E C onferen ce on
"M a n - C o m p u t e r In t e r a c t io n ", Septem ber, 1970.

(7 ) PATTERSON, D ., "A p p lic a tio n of a C om p u terised A la r m - A n a ly s is

System to a N u c lea r Power S t a t io n ". Proc. I .E .E . Paper 5669C,
12 Decem ber, 1968, p .1 8 5 8 .

( 8) WELBOURNE, D. "A la r m A n a ly s is and D isp la y at W ylfa N u clea r

Power S t a t io n ". Proc. I .E .E . , Paper 5624C, V o l .1 1 5 ,
N ovem ber, 1968. p .1726.

(9 ) M A K IN , J .E . SH IR R A , J .M . "D ig it a l Com puter A p p l ic a t i o n to

AGR S y s t e m s ". N u clex 69 C onferen ce, B asel, October, 1969.

(1 0 ) S H IR R A , J .M ., BULL, M .G ., "A H ig h Security C om puter System fo r

N uclear Power P la n t M o n it o r in g and C o n t r o l". Nuclex 72
C onferen ce, B asel, October 1972. T e c h n ic a l M e e tin g 1 0 /1 7 .

(1 1 ) CAM ERON, A .R . , "T h e O n - lin e D ig ital Com puter System fo r the

Dungeness "B " N u clear Power Statio n " Paper 0LC- 12.
"A p p lic a t io n of on - lin e Com puters to N u clear R e a c to r s ",
E N E A /O E C D C onferen ce P u b lic a tio n S a n d fjo rd Norway,
Septem ber, 1968.

(1 2 ) LOW E, B. "R e lia b ility E xp erien ce on Dungness 'B * N u clea r Power

Statio n Data P ro cessing System R 2 1 ".
Paper PL 4 8 1 /P 6 IA E A S p ec ialist M e e tin g , B russels, October 1971.

(1 3 ) LOWE, B. "L e s s o n s from Dungeness ’B 1 and o th er p o w e r statio n

c o m p u t e r s ", I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 6, these P ro ceedin gs

(1 4 ) M c P H IE , J .M ., "T h e D evelopm ent of R ea ctiv ity Control System s

fo r Gas C o o led R e a c to r s ". Nuclex 72 C onferen ce, B asel,
October 1972. T e c h n ic a l M e e tin g 1 0 /1 .
 IAEA-SM-168/A-3

E X P E R IE N C E DE FO N CTIO N NEM EN T
DU C O N T R O L E -C O M M A N D E E T DE
L'IN ST R U M E N T A T IO N DE L A C E N TR A L E
N UCLEAIRE DES MONTS D 'ARREE (EL4)

F. DECOOL* G. GODEFROY**, P. LOURME*

Centrale nucléaire des Monts d ' Arrée,
La Feuillée, France

Abstract-Résumé

OPERATING EXPERIENCE W I T H T H E M O N IT O R IN G A N D C O N T R O L S Y S T E M A N D W I T H TH E IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N
OF T H E M O N T S D'AR REE N U CLEA R POWER S T A T IO N (EL4).
The EL4 monitoring and control system is characterized by a high degree of automation which, at the
same time, affords operators the possibility of intervening in the functioning of the equipment at different levels.
The paper presents technical and financial appraisals of the three components of this system: centralized data
processing designed for surveillance and management, electronic analog control circuits and cabled logic
circuits in the form of static relays. The results are highly satisfactory and confirm the value of this type of
automation for power-station operation.
The second section of the paper deals with the instrumentation, which consists of three systems: the flux
measurement system, based on 120 neutron-electron converters (in commercial operation) ; the conventional
neutron measurement circuits; and the quick-response gas-temperature gauges at the outlets of certain
channels.
On the whole the EL4 instrumentation and in particular the monitoring and control system can be regarded
as successful.

EXPERIENCE DE F O N C T IO N N E M E N T D U C O N T R O L E - C O M M A N D E ET DE L 'I N S T R U M E N T A T IO N DE LA
CENTRALE NUCLEAIRE DES M O N T S D 1ARREE ( E U ) .
Le contrôle-commande d'E L 4 se caractérise par un automatisme très élaboré ménageant toutefois aux
opérateurs la possibilité d ’ intervenir a différents niveaux dans la conduite des matériels. Le mémoire dresse
le bilan technique et financier du fonctionnement des trois parties de cette installation: le traitement
centralisé des informations chargé de la surveillance et de la gestion; les circuits de régulation analogique
électronique; les circuits de logique câblée sous forme de relayage statique. C e bilan est très positif et
confirme l ’ intérêt pratique de cette conception de l ’ automatisation de conduite d ’ une centrale.
La seconde partie de l'exposé traite de l’ instrumentation, qui comprend trois dispositifs: l'installation
de mesure de flux a base de 120 convertisseurs neutrons-électrons, installation en exploitation industrielle; les
chaînes de mesures neutroniques classiques; les mesures de température de gaz a réponse rapide disposées à
la sortie de quelques canaux.
Dans l'ensemble l ’ instrumentation et surtout le contrôle-commande d ’ EL4 peuvent être considérés
com m e une véritable réussite.

1. EXPERIENCE DE FONCTIONNEMENT DU CONTROLE-COMMANDE

D 'E L4

Le con trôle-com m an de d'E L4 se ca ra ctérise par un automatisme très

élaboré ménageant toutefois aux opérateurs la possibilité d'intervenir â
différents niveaux dans la conduite des circu its ou des m atériels.
Cette conception a ssocie étroitement:
- un ensem ble de traitement numérique des inform ations assurant également
la gestion des circu its de production et d'évacuation d'énergie,

* Commissariat a l’ énergie atomique.

* * Electricité de France.

89
 ТРАПКМ К NT CENTRALISÉ D'lNRDftHATlON I I BLOC P Q IN C IP A L
90
DECOOL et al.

S
j

w
4

с
3

э
Й

о
О
-a

_8

аÜ
-g

«4
0
.0»

82

о
1

o>
-

FIG.l. Schéma d ' organisation du contrôle-commande EL4.

 IAEA-SM-168/A-3 91

— des circu its de régulation analogique-électronique,

— des circu its de logique câblée sous form e de relayage statique.
La description des équipements de contrôle-com m ande d'EL4 a fait
l'o b je t de com munications antérieures [ 1, 2] . La figure 1 en schém atise
l'organisation . Nous ne nous y étendrons pas, le but du présent m ém oire
étant d'en d re s se r le bilan actuel d'exploitation.

1 .1 . Comportement du systèm e de traitement centralisé d'inform ation (TCI)

P ièce m altresse du contrôle-com m ande le systèm e TCI permet:

— la scrutation de 4000 inform ations tout ou rien permettant de d iscrim in er
deux événements survenant à 0, 1 s d'intervalle,
— la scrutation de 1200 voies de m esure analogique toutes les 0, 6, 6 ou 60 s
avec com paraison avec des seuils préaffichés,
— la sortie d 'ord res numériques ou analogiques v e rs le relayage ou les
équipements de régulation en fonction des résultats de cette scrutation,
des demandes ou des consignes des opérateurs.
Il com prend essentiellem ent les éléments suivants (fig. 2):
— 2 calculateurs (UC 1 et 2) du type CAE 530,
— 2 tambours magnétiques (ТВ 1 et 2),
— 2 systèm es de détection séquentielle d'événem ents (DSE 1 et 2),
— 1 ensem ble de scrutation des entrées analogiques a ssocié â 2 con vertisseu rs
analogiques numériques (CAN 1 et 2),
— 1 ensem ble de comptage de détection de rupture de gaine avec relayage
de commande et 2 cadenceurs a ssociés (CAD 1 et 2),
— des lignes d'entrée et de sortie numériques â circu its de commande doublés,
— 1 platine et 1 cla vier d'appel,
— 2 lecteurs perforateurs rapides,
— 1 imprimante d'enregistrem ent rapide (1ER),
— 9 machines â écrire ,
— 1 imprimante journal de bord.
A l'exception des tambours tous les élém ents doublés sont commutables
automatiquement en cas de défaillance de l'un d'entre eux.
Une telle défaillance ne perturbe donc pas le rôle que joue le TCI dans
la surveillance et la conduite de l'installation. Elle est désignée sous le
nom d'indisponibilité partielle dans les statistiques d'incidents présentés
ci-a p r è s .
L'indisponibilité totale, au contraire, ne perm et plus au TCI de jouer
son rôle et oblige l'op érateu r à reprendre la conduite de la centrale en
manuel tout en le privant de la plupart des inform ations.

1 .1 .1 . Analyse statistique des interventions

Nous avons recen sé les pannes et les interventions volontaires ayant

entraîné une indisponibilité partielle ou totale du TCI au cours de la période
de vingt m ois s'étendant du 1er janvier 1971 au 31 août 1972.
Le tableau I cla sse les pannes constatées en fonction de la nature du
com posant défaillant.
Le tableau II perm et d 'a p p récier la fiabilité du systèm e, qui ne
s 'e s t montré défaillant, réacteur en puissance, que durant 2, 82 %0 du temps
en 1971 et 0, 37 %o en 1972 (8 m ois). A ce sujet il faut rappeler que la m ise
92 DECOOL et al.

-eff
e l ' l l В
gI Ц11
23Иtí . 3 .2
“О û_
"й 3 5 д «So
= E " '° <3
z
«
Z
t
^ 0

synoptique du traitement centralisé des informations (T C I).

ui
Э
a

d
<
tO

Schéma
FIG.2.
 IAEA-SM-X68/A-3 93

TABLEAU I. FREQUENCE DES PANNES EN FONCTION DE LA

NATURE DES COMPOSANTS DEFAILLANTS
P ériod e du 1er janvier 1971 au 31 août 1972

Composant défaillant Pannes récentes

Semi-conducteur 15

Capacité 6

Mauvais contact connecteur "1 13

Soudure sèche j

Relais 5

Fusible 3

Divers 3

Total 45

Remarques:

Les pannes dues aux fusibles peuvent être assimilées à des pannes par mauvais contact (échauffement
anormal du fusible et du porte-fusible).
Il n'apparaît pas de sensibilité particulière aux parasites.
Les pannes sur matériel électromécanique (machines a écrire, imprimante) ne sont pas recensées dans
ce tableau.

TABLEAU II. STATISTIQUE DES INDISPONIBILITES TOTALES

P ériod e du 1er janvier 1971 au 31 août 1972

1972
1971
(8 mois)

Heures de marche réacteur 4837 4616

Indisponibilités totales (en marche et à V arrêt) (h)

sur défaut 23, 85 2 ,1
volontaires 214 ,4 5 7 4 ,1 5

Indisponibilités totales réacteur en marche (h)

sur défaut 1 3,7 1 ,6
volontaires 0 ,2 0 ,1
total 13, 9 1 ,7

Indisponibilités totales réacteur en marche

rapportées au nombre d ’ heures de marche
du réacteur ( % o )
sur défaut 2 ,8 0 0 ,3 5
volontaires 0 ,0 2 0 ,0 2
total 2 ,8 2 0,37

Remarques:

En 1971: 18 indisponibilités totales dont 6 réacteur à l'arrêt (5 dont 3 à l ’ arrêt se sont produites sur
. impossibilité de reprise par commutation, une unité centrale étant volontairement a l’ arrêt).
En 1972 : 3 indisponibilités totales dont 1 réacteur à Г arrêt.
94 DECOOL et al.

TABLEAU III. STATISTIQUES DES INDISPONIBILITES PARTIELLES

P ériod e du 1er janvier 1971 au 31 août 1972

1972
1971
(8 mois)

Heures de marche réacteur 4837 4616

Indisponibilités partielles
(réacteur en marche ou a 1* arrêt) (h)
sur défaut 74, 8 2 8 ,7 5
volontaires 995, 5 609,50
total 1070,3 638,25

Indisponibilités partielles
comparées au nombre d'heures
de marche du réacteur ( % )
sur défaut 1 .6 0 ,6
volontaires 21 13
total 2 2 ,6 1 3,6

TABLEAU IV. PERIODICITE ET DUREE DES INTERVENTIONS DE

MAINTENANCE SUR LE MATERIEL

Intervalle
entre Durée Conséquences pour
Matériel
maintenances (h) l ’ installation
(mois)

Calculateur 2 50 Défaut 1/2

Tambour 3 50 Défaut 1/2

D SE (Détecteur
2 30 Défaut 1/2
séquentiel d'événements)

Cadenceur 3 30 Défaut 1/2

Echelles de comptage Perte DRG

12 10
DRG A faire à l'arrêt de la centrale

Auto-contrôle 4 30 Arrêt complet

Lignes de sortie
4 10 Défaut 1/2
(circuits de commande)

Circuits de commande
6 10 Arrêt complet
machines à écrire

Machine à écrire
3 100 Sans incidence
mécanique

Circuits de commande
6 10 Arrêt complet
imprimante rapide

Mécanique imprimante
1 5 Sans effet
rapide

Conversion analogique
3 30 Défaut 1/2
numérique
 1AEA-SM-168/A-3 95

au point du TCI n'a pu être achevée qu'en 1971, la centrale ayant été
arrêtée d'août 1968 â début 1971 pour rem placem ent des générateurs de
vapeur avant m êm e d 'avoir atteint sa puissance nominale. L'année 1972
par contre peut être considérée com m e une année courante d'exploitation.
Le tableau III met en évidence l'in térêt q u'offre un systèm e doublé
pour lim iter les indisponibilités totales.
L e tableau IV p ré cis e la p ériodicité et la durée des opérations systém ati­
ques de maintenance. Ces interventions sont â l'orig in e de la plupart des
indisponibilités partielles.
L es histogram m es des indisponibilités p artielles ou totales, volontaires
ou sur défaut, pour les années 1971 et 1972 (8 m ois) sont représentés sur
les figures 3 et 4.

1 .1 .2 . C om m entaires sur les difficultés rencontrées sur le m atériel

depuis 1967

L es principales difficultés rencontrées depuis la m ise en se rv ice ont

pour origine les causes suivantes:

Clim atisation. L 'utilisation de sem i-conducteurs au germanium oblige à

maintenir l'installation entre 19 et 22°C. En dehors de cette étroite plage de
tem pérature, et en particu lier au-delà de 24°C, on note l'apparition de
pannes. La clim atisation de la salle où est installé le m atériel a dû être
ren forcée pour éviter ces incidents.

Défauts de réalisation. De nom breuses pannes sont dues â de mauvais

sertissa ges de broch es de connecteurs, à des «w rappings» lâches ou â des
soudures sèches sur les circu its im prim és. Le trop faible espacem ent des
b roch es de certains connecteurs est également criticab le. Au total, près
de 30% des pannes sont attribuables à ces déficiences de construction.

Défaillances d'élém en ts. La plupart des défaillances de sem i-conducteurs

sont dues à un fonctionnement trop p rès de leurs caractéristiques lim ites. Il
faut souligner com bien la recherch e de ces pannes est m alaisée.
L es condensateurs électrochim iques vieillissen t. Nous avons dû
rem placer tous les condensateurs de filtrage des alimentations au bout de
5 ans. Ceux des cartes de circu its im prim és devront l'ê tr e après 7 ans
de s e rv ice.
La résistan ce de contact des barreaux de commutation u tilisés pour la
permutation des organes doublés (24 barreaux â 48 contacts) devient trop
élevée si le barreau reste plusieurs mois sans fonctionner.
L es machines à é cr ir e couplées au calculateur (à barres ou â boucle)
sont d'un entretien délicat. Il ne peut être envisagé de les faire fonctionner
plus de 4 ans sans révision com plète chez le constructeur.

Organisation proprem ent dite du systèm e. Une sérieu se im perfection

du systèm e réside dans une trop grande dépendance entre aux de certains
éléments doublés, DSE (détecteur séquentiel d'événem ents) en particu lier.
Il est d ifficile d'intervenir sur un élément sans conséquence sur l'autre.
A un niveau plus élevé, il est m alaisé de supprim er totalement l'en voi
d 'o rd res du systèm e vers l'installation, ce qui ne facilite pas le dépannage.
96 DECOOL et al.

HEURES T C I . 1971 - INDISPONIBILITÉS RAOTIELLES SUИ OËRftUT

45

JO

LA. M
T C I . 1971. INDISPONIBILITÉS TOIAIÉS SUR DÉFAUT

j dont réocleur en puissance

-S

î> J — p— M A M J PSJ

F IG .3 . Indisponibilités sur défaut.

 IAEA-SM- 168/А-З 97

H eures
T C I . 1972 . INDISPONIBILITÉS P A R T IE U ES VOLONTAIRES
(O U 1-1- e u 3 1 . 1 0 )

.100

-50

6 J
T C I. 197 2 - IN D ISPON IBILITÉS TOTALES VOLONTAIRES
50 ¿DU 1 - i - e u 31.10)

Si
-M о Й
U E
L Í - J Г *~1 -I W I P

150 TCI . 1971. INDISPONIBILITÉS PABTIELLES VOLONTAIRES

.100

.SO

0 J S

T C I . 1971. INDISPONIBILITÉS TOTALES VOLONTAIRES

J50

jg

0 J А - Г

FIG .4 . Indisponibilités volontaires.

98 DECOOL et al.

Commutations intem pestives. On constate que certains défauts tels

que des am orçages sur des m atériels annexes entraînent par ém ission de
signaux parasites des commutations d'élém ents doublés qui ne sont pas en
cause.

1 .1 .3 . Coût de la maintenance

L 'investissem en t initial et le coût de fonctionnement d'une installation

de ce type sont des élém ents d'appréciation aussi importants que la
fiabilité lo rs q u 'il s'a git de p orter un jugement sur son intérêt.
Le tableau V regroupe ces éléments de 1967 â 1972. On notera la
stabilisation du coût annuel de fonctionnement v ers 4% du montant de
l'in vestissem en t en francs constants.

1. 1 .4 . A m éliorations pouvant être apportées à un systèm e de ce type

Compte tenu du rôle essentiel joué par un systèm e de ce type dans la

surveillance et la gestion de l'installation il serait souhaitable d'en a ccroître
encore la fiabilité et d'apporter plus de facilités pour son entretien.

TABLEAU V. INVESTISSEMENT ET COUT DE FONCTIONNEMENT DU

SYSTEME (HORS TAXES)

1. Etudes, achat et mise en place du système.................. 91 2 0 000 F

soit en «francs 1 9 7 1 » 11400000 F

2. Coût de fonctionnement

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Contrats de main­
tenance ou d ' assis­ 562000 670 000 265 000 241000 244 000 207 000a
tance technique

Personnel de la 2 agents 4 agents 4 i agents 4 ¿agents 4 agents 5 agents

centrale 76 000 149 000 183 000 202 000 198 000 239 500

Pièces de A la charge du
12 000 10 000 10 000 35 000b
rechange constructeur

Total (francs courants) 638000 819 000 460 000 453 000 462 000 481500

Total (francs
800 000 980 000 510 000 475 000 462 000 4815 00
constants — 1971)

Fonctionnement .
; --- :------ ( % ) 7 8 ,6 4 ,4 4 ,1 4 4 ,2
Investissement

Evolution
1 1,22 0 ,64 0 ,5 9 0,58 0 ,6 0
(base 1 en 1967)

a Le cout des contrats d ' assistance technique sera divisé par 4 en 1973 compte tenu de la haute qualification
acquise par le personnel de la centrale.

b En 1972 les pièces de rechange comprennent exceptionnellement Г achat d ’ une machine a écrire neuve et
la révision en usine de 5 autres.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-3 99

Au stade de la conception les am éliorations suivantes pourraient être

retenues. La plupart sont relatives aux p ossibilités de commutation. Leur
coût sera it m odeste à notre avis.

Détecteur séquentiel d'événem ents (DSE). En fonctionnement normal

les deux DSE sont ra ccord és au calculateur en ligne (un en pilote, un en
vérificateu r). En cas de défaillance d'un DSE le calculateur en ligne
n'exploite plus que le DSE opérationnel.
Il eut été souhaitable de pouvoir com m uter l'un quelconque des DSE
sur le calculateur en attente. Outre les facilités de dépannage cette
disposition serait du plus haut intérêt pendant la phase de dém arrage de
la centrale, le systèm e en attente constituant a lors un poste d 'essa i très
utile.

Organes de so rtie . Pour des raisons sim ilaires il eut été souhaitable
de pouvoir com m uter l'une ou l'autre des machines â é cr ir e ou l'im prim ante
rapide sur le calculateur en attente.

Système d'acquisition des m esu res. Comme le montre la figure 2 le

systèm e se ca ra ctérise par les dispositions suivantes:
— les con vertisseu rs analogiques-num ériques et les circu its de commande
de scrutation sont doublés et com m utables, mais non les relais de
scrutation;
— le s résultats de la conversion sont écrits sur le tambour en ligne et lus
ensuite par le calculateur; cette disposition perm et la sortie d '«h istoriqu es»
en cas d'évolution anormale d'une m esure.
La perte des m esures étant un incident très gênant pour l'exploitation,
la sûreté de fonctionnement pourrait être nettement am éliorée en rendant
possible, en cas de besoin, la liaison directe du systèm e de conversion au
calculateur.
L'utilisation d'un petit calculateur de secou rs capable de fournir les
inform ations essen tielles (températures des canaux) constituerait une autre
solution relativem ent peu coûteuse.

D ispositifs de commutation. L 'em p loi de commutateurs statiques

perm ettrait de s'a ffran ch ir des défauts de commutation en registrés avec
les barreaux m écaniques. Il perm ettrait plus facilem ent de découpler
parfaitem ent les différents éléments entre eux.

1 .2 . Comportement des circu its de régulation analogique-électronique

Les équipements de régulation utilisent plus de 80 élém ents m odulaires

de calcul analogique: éléments com parateurs con sign e-m esu re, intégrateurs,
dérivateurs, pondérateurs, e tc ., rassem blés par fonctions. Le câblage
est très sim ple.
Ces éléments assurent, outre la réalisation d'une cinquantaine de boucles
élém entaires d'asservissem en t, la régulation d'ensem ble de la centrale.
C e lle -c i est basée sur cinq boucles principales:
— la boucle de régulation depuissance neutronique (oupilotage),
— la boucle de régulation de débit du gaz,
~ la boucle de régulation detem pérature du gaz,
— la boucle de régulation d'alimentation en eau des échangeurs,
— la boucle de régulation dep ression de vapeur.
100 DECOOL et al.

L es points de consigne des régulations de puissance et de température

du gaz sont fixés par l'opérateu r mais con trôlés en perm anence par le TCI
qui effectue les correction s et donne éventuellement les ordres de repli en
fonction des disponibilités de m atériel et des anom alies ou incidents.
Le m atériel a été installé en 1966. Mais là encore en dépit d 'e ssa is â
blanc très com plets la m ise au point n'a pu être achevée qu’ en 1971, La
régulation d'alim entation en eau des échangeurs a d 'ailleu rs été profondé­
ment m odifiée en 1970 du fait du rem placem ent de ces échangeurs.

TABLEAU VI. CHAINES DE REGULATION D'EL4: ANALYSE DES

INTERVENTIONS

1. R E GULAT ION D E PILOTAG E

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Maintenance systématique Essais 2 2 1 2 2

Interventions diverses Essais 4 1 1

Incidents

2 et 3. R E G U L A T IO N S D E DEBIT ET DE TEMPERATURE G A Z (SOUFFLAGE)

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Maintenance systématique Essais 2 3 1 1 2 1

Interventions diverses Essais 2 3 2 1

Incidents 1 1 2

Incidents:
1968: 1 déclenchement d ’ une soufflante sur mauvais critère de couplage.
1971: 1 chute de barres sur réduction de puissance a 1 M W /s à la suite d ’ un mauvais réglage de la
régulation.
1972: 1 chute de barres au cours d ’ une intervention sur capteur de débit gaz (erreur humaine),
1 chute de barres sur défaut d ’ élaboration d ’ une consigne température gaz.

4. R E G U L AT ION D E PRESSION VAPEUR

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Maintenance systématique Essais 1 1 1

Interventions diverses Essais 4 1 2

Incidents 3 1 4

Incidents:
1968: 2 défauts de fonctionnement de vanne réglante (sans conséquence),
1 perte de la consigne de pression vapeur (ouverture soupapes).
1971-1972: 3 pompages du turbo-alternateur (origine du défaut mise en évidence la troisième foiS),
1 à-coup sur turbo-alternateur (origine inexpliquée),
1 à-coupsur consigne de pression vapeur (origine du défaut mise en évidence).
 IAEA-SM-168/A-3 101

T A B L E A U V I. (suite)

5. R E G U L A T ION D ’ A L IM E N T A T IO N EN E A U DES ECHANGEURS

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Maintenance systématique Essais 1 1

Interventions diverses Essais 1 1 Modification 2

Incidents 1 1 1

Incidents:
1967: 1 blocage de vanne d'alimentation petit débit (sans conséquence).
1971: 1 chute de barres par suralimentation des échangeurs au cours d ’ un essai de perte de mesure
de débit d'eau.
1972: 1 blocage de vanne d ’ alimentation (sans conséquence).

6. AUTRES R E G U LAT ION S (12 CHAINES SIMPLES)

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Maintenance systématique Essais Par­ Par­ Géné­

tielle tielle rale

Interventions diverses Essais 3 5 3

Incidents 1 1 5

Incidents :
1967 1 grippage de vanne réglante de dégageur (sans conséquence).
1968 1 déclenchement des réchauffeuis d ’ eau (sans conséquence).
1971 1 déclenchement du groupe turbo-alternateur par niveau très haut condenseur (mesure erronée),
3 déclenchements du groupe sur défaut de régulation du niveau condenseur (loi d ’ ouverture des
vannes réglantes à modifier),
1 limitation de puissance sur défaut de régulation du réchauffeur d 'ea u (réglage d'un e vanne
réglante a reprendre au régime nominal).

1 .2 .1 . Analyse statistique des interventions

L e m atériel de régulation provient de 3 constructeurs et com prend

environ 500 éléments dont:
— 34 b locs d'alimentation
— 100 b locs am plificateurs
— 82 b locs fonctions (intégrateur, dérivateur, som mateur, etc. )
— 47 déclencheurs
— 50 capteurs divers
— 100 relais
— 34 vannes réglantes.
Le tableau VI totalise par boucles de régulation de 1967 â 1972:
— le s opérations de maintenance systématique,
— les interventions diverses: dépannages, m odification,
— les incidents.
102 DECOOL et al.

L es incidents ayant entraîné une perte de production sont au nombre de 7:

— 3 chutes de b arres,
— 4 déclenchements du groupe turbo-alternateur seul.
Cinq de ces incidents sont survenus en 1971 pendant la phase des essa is
de montée en puissance.

1 .2 .2 . D ifficultés de dépannage

Le m atériel n'étant pas doublé, les maintenances en marche ne sont pas

faciles et demeurent l'exception . Le m atériel de régulation doit donc être
extrêm em ent fiable, une défaillance même brève pouvant avoir des con sé­
quences fâcheuses. Jusqu'à présent le com portem ent d'ensem ble est
satisfaisant.
L es incidents ou anom alies sont souvent dus à une panne fugitive d'un
élément. La rech erche de la cause de l'incident est d ifficile et nécessite
la m ise en place de m esures ou d'enregistrem ents tem poraires destinés â
«p ié g e r» le défaut. Dans ces conditions il est fréquent que le même incident
se reproduise plusieurs fois avant que l'élém en t défectueux soit mis en
évidence et rem placé.
Le dépannage proprem ent dit de l'élém en t défectueux en atelier est
encore plus d ifficile, son fonctionnement au banc s'obstinant généralement
à dem eurer co r re c t. Certains éléments demeurent plusieurs m ois «en
observation» sur le banc d 'essa i avant de ré v é le r leur point faible.
Dans ce domaine de gros progrès restent â faire pour que les con stru c­
teurs acceptent de fournir les procédures de contrôle (points tests, valeurs
à con trôler, etc. )

1 .2 .3 . Coût de maintenance

L 'en sem ble des chaînes de régulation, études com prises, a coûté
1 930 000 F hors taxes en 1966 (soit 2 500 000 F actuels). Ce montant
relativem ent faible ne com prend pas les vannes réglantes.
Deux agents ont été affectés en permanence â la maintenance en 1967 et
1968, ainsi qu'au redém arrage en 1971. Actuellem ent il suffit d'un agent
travaillant à m i-tem ps sur le m atériel — Coût 2 5 000 F en moyenne pour
1972.
Le coût des p ièces de rechange s'é lè v e à 69 000 F en 6 ans, soit en
moyenne 13 000 F par an. En fait ce chiffre com prend les éléments
rem placés susceptibles d 'être rem is en état.
L e coût annuel de la maintenance est maintenant de l'o r d r e de 38 000 F,
soit 1, 5% de l'investissem en t.
Ce chiffre est susceptible de s 'é le v e r en 1973, le rem placem ent systém a­
tique des condensateurs électrochim iques équipant les éléments devenant
souhaitable.

1 .2 .4 . E fficacité des chaînes de régulation

Bien que le s chaînes de régulation soient nom breuses et com plexes,

leur m ise au point s 'e s t effectuée dans de bonnes conditions, en particu lier
grâce à un p réréglage satisfaisant obtenu au moyen d'un fonctionnement
«â blanc» avant dém arrage initial avec l'aide d'un simulateur analogique.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-3 103

(T) Baisse de 260 ¿ 130 MWtb

â 5 MW p a r Secondc-

E s s a i d u - 1 4 - 1 2 .1 3 7 1

<>

400c 5001 6001

FIG. 5. Effet des réductions automatiques de puissance sur les températures au cœur.
104 DECOOL et al.

L e fonctionnement actuel est très satisfaisant et les incidents ra re s .

L es p erform an ces sont rem arquables. On peut citer:
— vitesse des turbosoufflantes: statism e inférieu r â 10 tou rs/m in , nouvelle
vitesse de consigne ra lliée en moins de 3 s pour des écarts demandés
de plusieurs centaines de tou rs/m in,
— échelons de 10% de débit en moins de 5 s,
— amplitude des variations de température â la sortie des canaux, de 10 â
12°C lo rs d'une réduction de puissance thermique de 260 â 190 MW avec
un gradient de 5 M W /s, ou de 260 â 125 MW avec un gradient de 1 M W /s
(fig. 5).

En résum é, les chaînes de régulation d'E L4 offrent une stabilité de

fonctionnement ou une régularité dans les évolutions program m ées vraim ent
exception n elles.

1 .3 . Relayage statique

L es équipements de relayage statique sont constitués de plaques

im prim ées débrochables montées en arm oires.
Chaque plaque im prim ée constitue un module chargé de résoudre une
fonction logique com plexe. Ces fonctions sont répétitives d'un circu it à
l'autre et en nombre relativem ent réduit. Le relayage de chaque circu it
est ainsi réa lisé â partir de 18 types de plaques gravées.
Au total le relayage assure la commande de 380 m oteurs et 270 vannes
â l'a id e d'environ 4000 plaques im prim ées.
Le nom bre de plaques en rechange est de 200. Il est plus que suffisant,
le dépannage d'une plaque sur banc de test étant aisé et rapide.

1 .3 .1 . Statistique des interventions

L es défauts ont toujours pour origine la défaillance d'un com posant et

entraînent le rem placem ent de la plaque correspondante puis sa rem ise en
état.
Années 1969 1970 1971 1972
Nombre de plaques dépannées 17 23 47 31 en 8 m ois

Aucun incident sérieux n'est imputable â une défaillance du relayage

statique.

1 .3 .2 . Coût de la maintenance

L e coût du relayage statique, études com p rises m ais raccordem en t et

essa is exclus, a été de 5 000 000 F environ en 1966 (6 400 000 F actuels).
Le coût annuel de la maintenance est de 25 000 F (un agent â m i-tem ps
et quelques com posants), soit 0, 4% de l'in vestissem ent.

En conclusion, le bilan de fonctionnement du relayage statique d'E L4

est extrêm em ent satisfaisant. Cette technologie a perm is de ré a lis e r un
con trôle-com m an de bien adapté aux conditions d'exploitation de la centrale.
La com plexité de ce con trôle-com m ande n'aurait d 'ailleu rs pas perm is
la même réalisation en relayage électrom écanique.
 IAEA-SM-168/А-З 105

2. EXPERIENCE D'EXPLOITATION DE L'INSTRUMENTATION D'EL4

2 .1 . C onvertisseurs neu trons-électrons

2 .1 .1 . D ispositif utilisé
L es m esures de flux dans le réacteur EL4 sont assu rées â partir de
120 sondes à neutrons au vanadium (collectron s).
L ors de la construction, un p rem ier groupe de 30 sondes et de 30
com pensateurs a ssociés a été fixé longitudinalement sur 8 tubes de fo rce
côté eau lourde.
D 'autre part, dix puits de m esure de flux par irradiation de fil de
nickel ont été répartis dans la cuve. L es résultats excellents obtenus avec
le groupe de collectron s ont conduit à abandonner le procédé de m esure par
fil et à p la cer en 1969 un deuxième groupe de 90 sondes — dont 50 munies
de com pensateurs — dans ces dix puits de m esure également en eau lourde.
Tous ces com pensateurs et sondes aboutissent à un coffret de r a c c o r ­
dement disposé au-dessus du réacteur, à proxim ité des m écanism es de
com mande des b arres de con trôle.
Le traitement des inform ations fournies par les sondes est sem i-
automatique. La scrutation est demandée par l'op érateu r et la sortie
des inform ations s'effectu e en cla ir sur une imprimante Friden et sim ultané­
ment sur une bande p erforée â 8 canaux assim ilable par le calculateur
IBM 1130 assurant les divers calculs d'exploitation de la centrale.
L'étalonnage des sondes a été fait â p artir d'une dosim étrie de
détecteurs au cobalt. Elle a perm is de s'a ffran ch ir des distorsions de flux
provoquées en haut du réacteur par le passage des câbles de raccordem ent
des sondes et de définir les coefficients des sondes co rrig é e s de la
com pensation. L es courants de com pensation des sondes non munies de
com pensateurs sont calculés â partir des com pensateurs les plus p roches.
Depuis le redém arrage d 'a vril 1971 la répartition spatiale du flux dans
EL4 est suivie exclusivem ent à p artir de cet ensemble de 120 sondes au
vanadium.

2 .1 .2 . Avantages
Le dispositif de m esures de flux par collectron s est utilisé pour:
— l'évaluation rapide et p récise de la puissance neutronique et le recalage
périodique des cham bres classiques de m esure de flux: l'ex p érien ce
montre qu'un contrôle mensuel de cette m esure de puissance à l'aid e d'un
bilan thermique com plet suffit amplement; le dispositif à collectrons
perm et ainsi des gains de temps considérables;
— les calculs d'évolution du com bustible: les résultats des m esures de flux
par collectron s sont introduits dans le code de calcul d'évolution du
com bustible, ce qui perm et d 'op tim iser l'utilisation de chaque grappe
dans le réacteur;
— l'évaluation des perturbations apportées par une m odification loca le du
chargement ou par l'introduction tem poraire d'une barre de contrôle, etc.

2 .1 .3 . Fiabilité

La fiabilité des sondes au vanadium est excellente et a p rio ri nous

n'avons pas à envisager leur rem placem ent pendant la durée de vie de la
106 DECOOL et al.

centrale. Cette opération serait d'ailleurs parfaitem ent réalisable sur les
90 sondes du deuxième groupe. Mais il ne saurait en être question pour
les 30 p rem ières fixées sur les tubes de force .
Nous n'avons décelé aucun signe de vieillissem ent ou de dégradation
des sondes après 450 jours de fonctionnement à la puissance nominale.
Seules 7 sondes donnent depuis leur m ise en place un signal anormal;
l'é c a r t par rapport aux prévision s est attribué â un défaut interne dont il
est tenu compte dans les calcu ls.

2. 1 .4 . Inconvénients

Le seul inconvénient des sondes au vanadium réside dans leur temps

de réponse relativem ent long (5 min), rançon d'une longévité rem arquable.
Mais cet inconvénient est mineur sur un réacteur affecté â la production
d'énergie et fonctionnant en règle générale en centrale de base.

2 .1 .5 . Conclusion

L 'exp érien ce EL4 montre que les sondes à neutrons à temps de réponse
long constituent un moyen industriel, c 'e s t -à -d ir e p ré cis et fiable, de
surveillance de la répartition spatiale de flux dans le cœ ur.
Dans le cas d'un réacteur de grande taille, un traitement continu des
signaux fournis par les sondes perm ettrait de d éceler rapidement toute
distorsion de flux dangereuse pour les éléments com bustibles.

2 .2 . Chaînes de m esures neutroniques

2 .2 .1 . D escription

L es m esures neutroniques sont assurées au moyen de:

— 3 chaînes logarithm iques (de 5 â 500 MW) u tilisées en régulation de
pilotage jusqu'à 5 MW,
— 3 chaînes linéaires dites LINI (de 0 à 50 MW) u tilisées en régulation de
5 à 45 MW,
— 3 chaînes linéaires dites LINII (de 0 à 300 MW) utilisées en régulation
de 45 â 260 MW.
Le capteur de chaque chaîne est constitué par une chambre' d'ionisation
com pensée type CC.C2B fournissant un courant de 10"4 A â 260 MW. Le
traitement du signal est réa lisé à l'aid e d'ensem bles électroniques classiques
tran sistorisés fournissant un niveau de puissance pour les 9 chaînes, et un
temps de doublement pour les chaînes LOG et LINI.

2 .2 .2 . Expérience d'exploitation

L es interventions sur les chaînes de m esures neutroniques sont de

trois types:

Interventions sur pannes. Extrêmement rares elles sont au nombre de

6 depuis novem bre 1967:
— 2 transistors défectueux
— 1 fusible grillé
— 1 mauvais contact
 IAEA-SM-168/А-З 107

— 1 fil coupé au niveau d'un connecteur

— 1 plaque de régulation 24 V défectueuse.
La parfaite insensibilité aux parasites m érite d'être soulignée. Elle a
été obtenue grâce à une séparation très poussée des câbles de m esure et de
puissance et à un bon m aillage des circu its de m asse (chaîne du z é ro m esure).

Dérive due au vieillissem en t des cham bres CCC2B. La tenue des

cham bres d'ionisation com pensées est nettement m oins satisfaisante. Soum ises
â un flux neutronique de l'o r d r e de 1010 n/ cm 2 • s et â un flux gamma de 104
à 105 ra d /h elles sont sujettes à une dérive importante, nécessitant des
correction s de gain tous les 8 à 10 jours.
La durée de vie de ces cham bres va rie de 2 à 12 m ois, réacteur â pleine
puissance, dans les conditions de flux p récitées, ce qui est nettement
insuffisant.
A titre d 'essa i, en m ars 1972, les cham bres ont été rem ontées de
30 à 40 cm dans leur puits de façon â réduire de 35% environ le flux neutroni­
que auquel elles sont soum ises. Cette opération s 'e s t traduite par un net
ralentissem ent de la dérive, au prix d'une perte de sensibilité négligeable.
En collaboration avec un constructeur un nouveau type de chambre est
en expérimentation dans le réacteur. Nous espérons qu 'il donnera sa tis­
faction et perm ettra d'élim in er le seul point faible des chaînes de m esures
neutroniques d'E L4.

V ieillissem en t des câbles coaxiaux entre chambre et préam plificateur.

Bien qu'aucune anomalie de fonctionnement ne leur soit attribuable, ces
câbles sont rem placés systématiquement en même temps que les cham bres,
l'isola n t étant toujours retrouvé n oirci et cassant, même après 2 m ois de
se rv ice.
C eci tient sans doute au fait que nous utilisons du câble ordinaire,
solution qui s'a v ère plus économique tout com pte fait que l'em p loi de coûteux
câbles spéciaux. Certaines portions du câble sont exposées à un flux gamma
de 105 à 5 • 105 rad/h.

2 .2 .3 . Conclusion

A l'exception des cham bres d'ionisation, dont le com portem ent devrait
être am élioré, la fiabilité de l'en sem ble des chaînes de m esures neutroniques
est excellente. ■
Il faut souligner qu'à ce jou r aucune chute de barres intem pestive n 'est
attribuable à une défaillance quelconque de ces chaînes de m esure.

2 .3 . M esures de température de gaz à réponse rapide

Chaque tubulure de sortie de gaz de canal est équipée d'un therm ocouple
disposé dans un doigt de gant, à 3 ou 10 m suivant les cas de l'extrém ité
chaude du train de cartouches. Les 216 m esures d'exploitation co rre sp o n ­
dantes font l'o b je t d'une scrutation rapide (0, 6 s) mais par construction leur
temps de réponse n 'est pas négligeable.
L es therm ocouples de gaine u tilisés pendant les essais de dém arrage
ont dû être retirés après quelques m ois de fonctionnement industriel, leur
présen ce étant incom patible avec le renouvellement du com bustible en m arche.
 108
DECOOL et al.

F I G .6. Schéma du dispositif de mesure de température d'exploitation par épée chaude.

 IAEA-SM- 168/А-З 109

L 'analyse des variations rapides de température survenant lo rs des

tran sitoires rapides de soufflage â puissance nucléaire constante a montré
que les m esures d'exploitation ne perm ettraient pas d 'a ssu rer â temps la
protection du cœ u r contre les excursions de température correspondant
aux défauts de soufflage.
Pour a m éliorer cette protection nous avons donc été conduits â mettre
au point, puis à installer au début de 1971, des m esures de température de
gaz à réponse rapide à la sortie chaude de 4 canaux.
Ces dispositifs, dénommés m esures de température d'épée chaude
d'exploitation, réutilisables après toute opération de manutention effectuée
sur le bouchon, ont été déjà décrits [ 3] . Il s'agit de deux therm ocouples
ch rom el-a lu m el de 1, 5 mm de diamètre montés dans le bouchon du canal,
les sondes proprem ent dites étant fixées sur la tige de l'é p é e de chargement
à 30 cm de l'ex trém ité chaude du train de cartouches.
L e bouchon devant être retiré lors des manutentions sur le canal, la
transm ission des signaux se fait par l'in term éd iaire de contacts annulaires
m âles et fem elles, la partie fem elle étant solidaire du bouchon et la partie
mâle disposée sur une canne am ovible (fig. 6).
Ces m esures de température à faible constante de temps sont u tilisées
dans les chaînes de sécurité (sécutité du type 2 /3 à partir de 3 canaux
différents, le quatrième étant disponible pour la manutention).
L es essa is com paratifs avec therm ocouples de gaine ont perm is de
v é r ifie r la bonne rapidité de réponse du dispositif sur transitoire de
soufflage.
A près 20 m ois de fonctionnement en puissance, incluant sur chaque
canal 7 retraits de sonde et de bouchon pour renouvellement de com bustible
et environ 8 retraits de sonde seule pour autres interventions, aucune
anomalie de fonctionnement n'a été constatée au niveau des équipements
s e m i-fix e s (sondes et lignes de transm ission dans le bouchon). P ar contre,
les connecteurs m âles am ovibles se sont révélés assez fra giles; 5 rép a ra ­
tions sur fil coupé ou mauvais contact ont dû être faites. Mais la sécurité
2 /3 a toujours été assurée.

CONCLUSION

L'autom atisation du contrôle-com m ande des réacteurs nucléaires est

encore fréquem m ent con troversée. A la souplesse de conduite qu'elle
procu re s'op p ose la crainte d'indisponibilités répétées impliquant l'a rr ê t
de l'installation ou du moins son fonctionnement dans des conditions peu
sûres.
Notre expérience d'exploitation prouve que cette crainte n 'est pas
ju stifiée. L'organ isation du contrôle-com m ande d'E L4 est incontestablement
une réussite. Son efficacité, sa fiabilité et son faible coût d'entretien
militent en faveur de l'adoption de systèm es de ce genre.
D 'autres constructeurs n'ont d 'ailleu rs pas hésité â franchir un pas de
plus en incorporant sous form e de program m es dans le calculateur p ro p re ­
ment dit les dispositifs classiques de régulation.
La gestion manuelle de réacteurs â faible inertie thermique ou à
grande puissance spécifique par unité de volume de cœ ur est d'ailleu rs
difficilem ent concevable, la décision en cas de perturbation devant être
p rise quasi instantanément sous peine de déclenchement.
110 DECOOL et al.

Toutefois, la généralisation de la gestion des centrales nucléaires par

calculateur implique un sérieux effort com m ercia l de la part des con stru c­
teurs d'unités de calcul et de périphériques a sso cié s. Ils devront en effet
s'en gager à a ssu rer la fourniture des éléments éventuellement défaillants
durant les 20 â 30 ans de durée de vie des centrales. Cet écueil supprimé,
l'autom atisation des centrales pourra se développer en toute sécu rité.
L 'exp érien ce réa lisée sur EL4 en apporte une preuve.

REFERENCES

[1] M A R T IN O T , G . , JA CQ U IN , J. C . , LEROY, C . , « L e contrôle-commande de la pile E L 4 » ,

Heavy-Water Power Reactors (C .r . Coll. Vienne, 1967), AIEA, Vienne(1968) 905-24.
[2] M A R T IN O T , G . , «Utilisation de calculateurs numériques dans la gestion d 'u n automatisme complexe
particulier de la Centrale nucléaire E L 4 » , C .r. Coll. ENEA sur l'emploi des calculateurs couplés
aux réacteurs nucléaires (Sandefjord, sept. 1968) session IV, p .411-35.
[3] LOURM E, P ., «Justification et réalisation des mesures de température d ’ exploitation à l'intérieur des
canaux du réacteur E L . 4 » ( C . r . groupe d'étude, Vienne, nov.1969), AIEA, Vienne (1970), publ.
IAEA-119 (sur microfiches seulement).

DISCUSSION

G. VAN REIJEN: You say that neutron detectors of the "co lle ctro n "
type, which have a long response time, can be used fo r rapid detection of
any flux deterioration lik ely to have an adverse effect on the fuel elem ents.
I should have thought that fo r this purpose detectors with a fast response
would be n ecessary.
F. DECOOL: Flux distortions due, fo r example, to spatial instability,
faulty insertion of a control rod e t c ., can give rise to an abnormal fuel-
element tem perature. When the cans are of steel o r zirconium , however,
the increased tem perature does not usually entail any immediate hazard.
Flux distortion monitoring can be effected, in m y opinion, by means of a set
of neutron probes with a response time of a few minutes, e. g. vanadium
p rob es. The main advantage of this system is that the probes have a useful
life as long as that of the pow er station, so that they can be installed
permanently during the construction of the rea ctor core.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-4

IM PORTANCE AND USE OF IN-CORE

VIBRATIO N AND PRESSURE M EASUREM ENTS
TO D ETERM INE CORRECT BEHAVIOUR
OF PRESSURE V E SSE L INTERNALS

V. BAUERNFEIND
Laboratorium fiir Reaktorregelung und
Anlagensicherung, Garching,
Technische Universitat München, Munich

W. H. DIO, W, PINK
Siemens AG, Erlangen,
Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

IM P O R T A N C E A N D USE OF IN-CORE VIBRATION A N D PRESSURE MEASU REM ENTS T O DETERMINE

CORRECT BEH AVIOU R OF PRESSURE VESSEL INTERNALS.
As is commonly known, during operation the internals of the reactor pressure vessel perform vibra­
tions excited by the coolant flow. At present information for solving these problems is obtained by
investigations of the type performed at the Stade Nuclear Power Plant by Siemens A G in cooperation with
the LRA Garching. These investigations included both the motion measurements of core internals at
significant positions and the pressure fluctuation measurements at various locations of the reactor coolant
system. By statistical methods of evaluation (correlation analysis) the fluctuations can be investigated
with respect to their importance as forcing function for the flow-induced motion of the reactor internals.
In interpreting the experimental results it was possible to estimate the intensity and the direction of
propagation of the pressure fluctuations. By using noise analysis the correlation between the signals
of the driving forces (pressure fluctuations) and those of motion, can be demonstrated. In addition, the
models under consideration should be confirmed by applying a theoretical transfer function in comparing
with the measurements.

driving
F (jw )
forces

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

As is com m only known, the internals of the rea ctor pressu re vessel
experience vibrations during operation which are induced by the coolant
flow. This - in addition to determining their strength in operation -
necessitated further investigations concerning their dynamic behaviour.
Up to now the alternating stress amplitudes of severa l internals have
been calculated by means of the vibration values measured during the
cold and hot functional period. Type and magnitude o f the driving
dynamic fo rc e s must be determined in ord er to be able to predeterm ine
these s tress amplitudes.
The evaluation of our experim ental data has shown that the periodic
p ressu re fluctuations induced by the coolant pumps are the m ost im ­
portant driving fo rc e s fo r certain pressure v e sse l internals. As a

111
112 BAUERNFEIND et al.

special case we dem onstrate the p ossibility for finding the magnitude
and the direction of this fo rce by using spectra measurem ents of the
coolant p ressu re. At present it is not possible to predeterm ine the
p eriodic pressu re fluctuations owing to the lack of a suitable m odel for
the pumps.
Later it w ill be shown that other internals are excited within the
range of their natural frequencies by wide-band m echanism s produced
chiefly by the coolant flow. In this case it w ill be difficult to predict the
resp on ses. The analysis, how ever, o f our experim ental results indicate
that such motions at the natural frequency can also be detected in the
fluctuations of p ressu re signals. Follow ing this, first an example is
given where one can observe and control the motions of certain core
internals by m easuring and evaluating the wide-band parts in the spectra
of pressu re fluctuations.

2. SPECIAL PROBLEMS

The STADE Pow er Plant, which was built on the low er Elbe and
began to produce power in February 1972, has a Siemens pressu rized
water rea ctor with therm al power of 1900 MW(th) and an overall output
of 630 MW(e). The heat which is produced in the co re is dissipated by
four parallel coolant circu its with a total m ass flow -ra te of 44 000 t/h .
The coolant pressu re is 157 atm and its tem perature at the co re outlet,
is about 315°C. During the cold and hot functional test period (hereafter
called pre-operation al test) extensive vibration m easurem ents were
ca rried out on the core internals at different operation conditions by
Siemens AG in co-op era tion with the Laboratorium für Reaktorregelung
und Anlagensicherung (LRA). The m easurem ents showed that the
amplitudes of vibrations of the pressu re v e sse l internals were appreciably
below the design lim its. On that basis it was possible to furnish p roof of
the strength of the internals during operation. In addition to this it was
intended to obtain better knowledge of the dynamic behaviour of com plex
structures such as the core internals through extensive instrumentation
and the numerous record ed signals. T h erefore, in addition to meeting
safety requirem ents, the evaluations have been continued and extended
at the LRA to include pressu re as w ell as other signals using the available
methods of correlation analysis.
As is the case with all vibration system s, the main question is that
of excitation o f the core internals. Many m echanism s contribute to this
p roblem , such as p ressu re fluctuations generated by the coolant pumps,
variations of flow velocity (e.g., vortex-shedding, turbulences, cavita­
tions) or the m echanical coupling to other moving components. To in­
vestigate this problem , the pressu re fluctuations in the rea ctor cooling
system of the N uclear Pow er Plant STADE (KKS) were m easured and
thoroughly analysed.
Figure 1 shows the positions of the p iezo e le ctric p ressu re trans­
ducers located at four different places in the rea ctor cooling circu it.
PO l and P02 are the transducers in the inlet and outlet pipes of loop 2.
Using gauges P 08 and P07 the pressu re fluctuations were m easured in
the ring gap on the level of the low er core support structure and in a fuel
element somewhat below its head. Of the other numerous transducers
 IAEA-SM-168/A-4 113

FIG. 1. Pre-operaüonal test - position of sensors.

POl -P 08: Pressure transducers
G 0 3 - G 0 5 : Vibration velocity sensors of core support structures
A12V- A 15V: Absolute displacement sensors pressure vessel
R11R/T, R12R/T: Relative displacement sensors pressure vessel/core barrel.

only the detectors G02 to G04 shall be referred to as they registrated

the vibration v elocity of the low er core support structure in its centre
and at the edge. It should be mentioned that internal instrumentation
which is able to resist high p ressu re, flow -ra tes and tem perature, has
to be used.
To give an im pression of the structure of these signals, Fig.2 shows
the pow er spectral density (PSD) of the pressu re fluctuations in the inlet
of loop 2 (P O l) for different tem peratures. The PSD of the vibration
velocity G04 for a tem perature of 260°C is also demonstrated. When one
looks at the resulting spectra of pressu re and motion signals, the clo se
relationship between the two can be im m ediately recognized. In addition
to the determ inistic (periodic) components observed in these spectra,
wide-band stochastic parts can be found. It w ill now be verified that the
determ inistic parts are generated by the rotating pumps. Their bandwidth
114 BAUERNFEIND et al.

F (Hz)

FIG, 2. K KS pre-operational heating test with four pumps. Pressure fluctuations inlet loop POl; vertical
motion lower support plate G 0 4 V .
 IAEA-SM-168/A-4 115

is sm all and their frequency is independent of tem perature. The statistic

parts of the p ressu re signals originate in ch a ra cteristic vibrations of
certain internals and of other components in the coolant circu it. Because
of the properties of m aterials and the coolant, which change according to
tem perature, the statistical spectra parts are dependent upon temperature
in resp ect to frequency and amplitude.
Experim ents conducted for determ ining the direction o f propagation
o f p ressu re fluctuations and the part they play in the excitation of vib ra ­
tions, shall of cou rse begin with investigations of the periodic co m ­
ponents of the spectrum since their place of origin can be p re cise ly
determ ined and their intensity is very large com pared with the w ide­
band spectra parts.

D eterm inistic pressu re fluctuations

As an example let us take the peak at 75 Hz. From the beginning this
frequency was associated with the perturbations caused by the reactor
coolant pumps, since they have 1500 rpm and 3 blades. This interpreta­
tion could be confirm ed by the following procedu re. Assuming a certain
direction of the propagation of pressu re perturbations, we are able to
evaluate the distance o f the transducers by means o f the cr o s s-p o w e r
spectral density (CPSD) of different pressu re signals in relation to their
phase shift and the propagation velocity of pressu re fluctuations in the
coolant. By com paring the values determined in this manner with the
real geom etric distances (m etres in brackets, F ig.3), one can easily
ascertain the direction and the way of propagation o f pressu re fluctuations.

P08 B04V = 3.3 m

12.4 m
P01 B0«V = 11.9 m

FIG. 3. KKS pre-operational test, propagation of pressure fluctuations 75 H z. Phase shifts of the pressure
signals and their calculation as the distances between the sensors. Figures in parentheses mean real sensor
distances.
116 BAUERNFEIND et al.

In Fig.3 this p ro ce ss is applied to the p eriodic perturbance of 75 Hz.

It shows that this fluctuation is generated in the pumps and propagates
via inlet and outlet pipes into the reactor v e sse l p ressu re. The velocity
of the coolant flow is of no relevant influence to the propagation of the
p ressu re fluctuations, as was expected.
In the signal of the motion of the low er co re support structure the
same frequency of 75 Hz is detected, which correlates w ell with the
p ressu re. Taking into account the phase shift between p ressu re and
a cceleration (B04V) by com paring the estimated distances with the real
distance in the rea ctor, we found further p roof that these periodic
p ressu re fluctuations excite the low er core plate to the forced oscillation
o f 75 Hz.
Using the maximum pressu re fluctuations of 75 Hz (measured in the
ring gap between the core b a rrel and the p ressu re v e sse l at the level of
the low er core plate) as the excitation function for the tran sversal flexure
mode of the low er core support structure, we evaluated its maximum
amplitude and com pared it to the corresponding maximum motion value
o f our m easurem ent. This calculation has been made, using a m odel
with a single degree of freedom because the influence o f the higher
flexure m odes on the calculation of the maximum amplitude could be
neglected in this case. In our example we used values m easured during
the p re-operation al test period with unloaded and loaded co re .
The result of calculation for the maximum amplitudes at 75 Hz
conform ed w ell with the m easured values. In this connection it could be
shown analytically that, in the pre-operation al tests with and without
co r e , different motion amplitudes o f the low er core support structure
appear. Our calculations show this tendency if we use the measured
intensities of the pressu re fluctuations as the excitation fo rc e s and if we
con sider the influence of the modified m ass which changes the natural
frequency of the system and therefore also the frequency of response.
A m ore accurate review of the results o f our m easurem ents according
to this m odel was not p ossible. The reason for this is that the maximum
amplitudes o f the v ertica l motion of the low er co re support structure
w ere so sm all that they were below the proportional lim it of the m easu re­
ment range but still above the lowest sensitivity threshold of the installed
transducers.
It was shown in previous investigations that one can explore the p ro ­
pagation of the p ressu re fluctuations caused by the rea ctor pumps by
means of the signals of some pressure transducers installed in the
rea ctor coolant system . In addition, the origin of the perturbations could
be confirm ed and their effect as excitation fo rce s for the motion o f the
low er core support was also pointed out. Where the statements con ­
cerning the quantitative influence of the p ressu re fluctuations on the
m otion o f the low er core support structure w ill also be confirm ed by
further m easurem ents at other rea ctors, it is possible to reach con clu ­
sions about this motion from a knowledge o f the intensity and frequency
of p ressu re fluctuations.

Statistical pressu re fluctuations

Though the intensity o f those parts of p ressu re signals which exhibit

a statistical character, are sm all com pared with the p eriodic ones
 IAEA-SM-16 8/A -4 117

during stationary operation, in general they may not be neglected when

determ ining maximum motion amplitudes of certain internals. N ever­
th eless these parts have also supplied significant inform ation which shall
be given in the following investigations of the signals.
The power spectral density functions o f the inlet p ressu re and the
v elocity of the vertica l motion of the low er core support structure
(F ig .2) are very sim ila r, as we have seen in form er investigations. In
those functions is found a vast range of statistical parts of spectra without
any significant peaks between 45 and 75 Hz.
The coherence function o f these signals (F ig.4) shows the clo se
relationship between p ressu re and m otion also in this frequency range.
It has even a significant peak o f 50% at 58 Hz, although, as analytical
investigations show ,'th e low er core support structure itself does not
have an eigenvalue at this frequency. A lso for the 58-Hz frequency the
com parison o f the phase o f different p ressu re fluctuation signals with
the geom etrica l distances of the corresponding transducers perm it one
to determ ine the propagation direction and thereby the sou rce of these
perturbations (F ig .5). A ccording to our calculations this pressu re flu c­
tuation is produced between P08 and P 0 7 , apparently in the low er region
o f the core b arrel. Thus, the good correlation between the pressu re
and the m otion signal of the low er core support structure is explained.
Fu rth erm ore, F ig .5 shows that the perturbances propagate in both
direction s to the inlet and outlet loops of the rea ctor p ressu re vessel.
Investigation of signals record ed during shutdown operation of the
re a cto r coolant pumps gives very interesting additional inform ation.
In F ig .6 the power spectral densities of the vertical motion signal of the
low er core support structure and that o f the p ressu re signal of the inlet

FIG. 4. K KS pre-operational test: PSD support structure motion. Coherence pressure fluctuations -
support structure motion.
x = coherent function; □ = power spectral density.
1 18 BAUERNFEIND et al.

STEAM
COOLANT GENERATOR

P08 P07 = (5.35m)

5 35 A m
PÛ8 « = - y - Î Î . 2 » 1.8 m

phase = 0 °î

P08 B04V = 1.4 m

FIG. 5. KKS pre-operational test - propagation of pressure fluctuations 58 Hz. Phase shifts of the signals
and their calculations as the distances between the sensors. Figures in parentheses mean real sensor distances.

MOTION OF THE LOWER CORE SUPPORT

STRUCTURE G03V IN L E T PRES SUR E POl

Hz

FIG. 6. KKS pre-operational test - 4 pumps shutdown test.

 IAEA-SM-168/A-4 119

flow are shown as functions of time after shutdown. In contrast to the

signals of the stationary operation, one ob serves large resonances in
these spectra, which appear with advancing time at even decreasing
frequency points. Corresponding to the decreasin g rotation and blade
speed o f rea ctor coolant pumps, the intensity of the perturbations should
dim inish proportionally to the square of the frequency. H owever, the
reason fo r the behaviour observed is that, with the decreasin g blade
speed the p eriodic excitation passes through that range of the spectrum ,
which at first showed only random parts, and excites the components
b rie fly to vibrate with their natural frequencies as mentioned before.
The resonances appear at those spectra points, which had appeared in
stationary operation by a good correlation of the p ressu re signals them ­
selves o r w ell correlated pressu re and motion signals, points which had
however no rem arkable peak in the autopower spectral density.
A s an example for this let us con sider the range around 58 Hz.
A fter shutdown o f the pumps, one finds at the same time in the spectra
o f p ressu re and m otion, strong increasing amplitudes in this frequency
range. This behaviour can be explained by considering the feedback from
the com pon en t's motion on pressu re as shown schem atically in F ig .7.
In this connection a coupling of the motion of severa l internals by the
p ressu re could also be assumed. The occu rren ce of such a resonance
peak in the response o f a component can be demonstrated by means of
the tran sfer function G (jw) of a sin gle-m ass system as shown in the
same figure.

Iapd

IG (j

GAIN

G (ju)>= -

"(ft)

Ф(ш)=-агс ta n ----------- —
V Hin*

FIG. 7. Pressure fluctuations and motions of internals in a reactor vessel, w - sec"1.

120 BAUERNFEIND et al.

In connection with this feedback effect from the motion of the internals
on p ressu re a m odel should be created to d escribe the m echanism s of
that feedback. But the system , having many degrees o f freedom , of such
com plex structures, and the influences of each component on the others,
make this difficult. This was also a reason fo r the fact that the 58-Hz
frequency was found in the spectra of severa l internals and could not be
traced back to a certain component through the m easurem ents taken at
the Stade plant. As previou sly mentioned, however, the natural frequency
of the low er core support structure could be excluded.
We consider the main achievement from this investigation to be
the p ossibility of observing variations of the natural vibrations of certain
components in the spectra of the pressu re fluctuations.

3. SUMMARY

The investigations d escribed pointed out that the vibrative amplitudes

of certain rea ctor internals could be pre-determ ined by means of the
determ inistic p ressu re fluctuations, once their intensities and frequencies
w ere known and after certain dynamic ch a ra cteristics of the system had
been evaluated by analysis or experim ents. While the main excitation
frequencies of these pressu re fluctuations are still known, based on e x ­
p erien ces from the dynamic pressu re m easurem ents at several plants, this
is not true fo r their intensities, chiefly because of the lack of a suitable
coolant pump m odel.
The main task of the investigations is to establish a theoretical basis
in ord er to dispense subsequently with the in -co r e measurement of
those motions which are indirectly a ccessib le with the aid o f the pressu re
signals. Thus, the somewhat difficult in -co r e m easurem ents can be sim plified.
F u rtherm ore, ways and means have been shown for locating by t r i­
angulation the sou rce o f w ell-correla ted spectral areas, with the aid of
phases o f different p ressu re signals. In addition, the measurement of
the p ressu re fluctuations also give inform ation about the natural frequencies
of certain internals. Thereby, we have a chance to recogn ize changes
o f the vibrative behaviour of some components by means of w ell-correla ted
spectral parts of the pressu re fluctuations. In this connection the m easu re­
ments during shutdown operation of the rea ctor coolant pumps and the
analysis of the wide band parts of the signals' spectra are very important.
In general, p ressu re fluctuations seem to be very suitable for in­
vestigating and controlling the vibration behaviour of the p ressu re v e sse l
and its internals, since at certain frequency ranges they represent the
excitation fo rc e s and in other areas the response to the movements of the
com ponents. H owever, these pressu re signals cannot be easily inter­
preted because of their double role. Much work rem ains to be done in
this field.

REFERENCES

[ 1] KNÓDLER, D . , RUF, R . , Schwingungsuntersuchungen an den Kerneinbauten des K W O , Atomwirtschaft 13

(Nov. 1968) 535.
[2] BASTL, W . , D IO , W . H . , Zur Analyse von Rauschmessungen an H 2O-Druckwasser-Reaktoren (Unter-
suchungen am KWO-Reaktor) Tagung uber Schwíngungserscheinungen im Inneren der Druckgefásse von
Leichtwasser-Reaktoren in Mol, Belgien (Dec. 1970).
 IAEA-SM-168/A-4 121

[3] PINK, W . , D IO , W . H . , K IM , J . D . , STOLBEN, H . , Untersuchungen der Kerneinbauten des K K W

Stade zum Nachweis der Betriebsfestigkeit, Reaktortagung 1972, Hamburg (April 1972).
[4] BASTL, W . , W A C H , D . , D IO , H. D . , H A A S , W . , Nachweis von Pendelbewegungen des Kembehalters
im Neutronenflussrauschen, Atomwirtschaft (May 1972) 263.
[5] BASTL, W . , Recent Developments in Measurement Techniques, Data Processing and Reliability
Investigations with Respect to Power Reactor Plants, 2nd Meeting IAEA Working Group NPPCI Rome,
April, 1972.
[6] H A W IC K H O R S T , W . , Auswertung von Schwingungsmessungen an einem Druckwasserreaktor mit
einem hybriden Rechenprogramm, Diplomarbeit am Lab. Reaktorregelung und Anlagensicherung
(Feb. 1972).
[7] Sena, Trino Problems Analyzed, Nucleonics Week (Aug. 1968).

DISCUSSION

J. GOURDON: What were the maximum tem perature, frequency and

p ressu re of your tran sducers?
V. BAUERNFEIND: The maximum operating temperature of the
transducers was m ore than 260°C; the maximum operating pressu re was
about 160 atm. The natural frequency of these pressu re transducers is
65 kHz, but the cu t-off frequency for our m easurem ents was 1.25 kHz,
corresponding to the speed o f the m agnetic-tape re co rd e r.
J.E. LUNDE: I wonder whether one of the authors could comment
on the incentive for continuous o r very frequent m onitoring of in -co r e
vibrations. Secondly, I wonder whether it is felt that there are problem s
associated with such possible p ractical applications of this type of on-line
plant-perform ance monitoring by means of either analog o r digital
computing equipment.
D.E. ANDERSON (Chairman): Whether you can do something and
whether it is desirable to do it are two v ery different m atters. The paper
presented by M r. Bauernfeind indicates that the authors' consideration
o f this technique has not gone as far as the question of continuous m onitoring
and that it would most probably be used for initial p roof-testin g and p eriodic
inspection.
My reaction to this question is that it might w ell re fe r to the kind of
situation where one is tempted to use instrumentation and control system s
to make up fo r shortcom ings in m echanical design. A sound m echanical
design of v e s s e l internals with adequate m argins should make continuous
monitoring superfluous.
W.H. DIO: Let me stress that basic resea rch work is being devoted
to the dynamic behaviour o f p re s su r e -v e ss e l internals and the fo rc e s to
which they are subject. In this context, o f cou rse, we are also seeking
ways of accom plishing on-load surveillance of internals. In addition,
we are considering ways of utilizing the noise signals from other detectors,
e.g. neutron d etectors, outside the p ressu re vessel.
At present we see no rea l reason for continuous m onitoring, but if
manufacturers or operators see a need for it, it should be possible to
develop surveillance methods on the basis of these fundamental investiga­
tions. In principle, it should not be difficult to apply our methods with
the help of an on-line p ro ce ss com puter program o r even with special
analog equipment.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5

L E NIVEAU D 'A U T O M A T ISM E

E T L 'U T IL ISA T IO N D'ORDINATEURS
DANS LES C EN TR A L ES NUCLEAIRES
FRANÇAISES E N E X P L O IT A T IO N

R. LANGLADE* R. LEROY**
Electricité de France,
France

Abstract-Résu mé

LEVEL OF A U T O M A T I O N A N D USE OF C O M P U T E R S A T TH E FRENCH NU CLEA R POWER S T A T IO N S CURR ENTLY

IN OPERATION.
The authors compare the advantages and disadvantages of three representative systems by considering the
following nuclear power plants: The Chooz station, which has a conventional system very like that of fossil-
fuelled plants; Unit 2 at Chinon, where a centralized computer system does most of the information processing
and performs a limited number of control functions; Unit 2 at Saint Laurent, where a central computer with
stand-by performs almost all the control and information processing functions. The authors give some data on
the costs of running each system, going on to consider for each system the corresponding aggregate of automatic
information processing equipment and other facilities available to the operating staff. Experience has shown
that the introduction of centralized computer systems does not fulfil all the hopes of the operators. Maintenance
and the replacement of defective components and obsolete assemblies therefore present serious problems. The
authors consider various solutions, but uncertainties remain concerning the nature of these solutions and the
costs involved.

LE N IV E A U D ’ A U T O M A T I S M E ET L ’ U T ILISA TIO N D 'O R D IN A T E U R S D A N S LES CENTRALES NUCLEAIRES

FRANÇAISES EN E X P L O IT A T IO N .
Les auteurs effectuent une analyse comparative des avantages et inconvénients de trois systèmes représen­
tatifs en se référant aux centrales nucléaires suivantes: la centrale de Chooz, pourvue d ’ un système traditionnel
très voisin de celui qui équipe les centrales thermiques classiques; là tranche 2 de Chinon, où un système
centralisé d'ordinateurs assure l'essentiel de la fonction de traitement de l ’ information et un certain nombre
de fonctions de commande limitées; la tranche 2 de Saint-Laurent, équipée d ’ un ordinateur central doublé
assurant la quasi-totalité des fonctions de commande et de traitement de l'information. Des indications
partielles sur les coûts de fonctionnement de chaque dispositif sont également données.
Le thème suivant est développé: A chaque système correspond une structure adaptée des automatismes
du traitement de l ’ information et des moyens mis a la disposition du personnel de conduite. Il ressort de
l'expérience que la mise en œuvre de systèmes centralisés sur ordinateurs ne donnent pas aux exploitants tout
le confort espéré; ainsi, la maintenance des composants, leur remplacement ou le remplacement d ’ ensembles
atteints d ’ obsolescence posent des problèmes préoccupants. Des. solutions sont examinées en vue de faire face
a une telle situation mais des incertitudes subsistent quant a leur nature et leur coût.

EXPOSE L IM IN A IR E

E L E C T R IC IT E DE FRANCE ex p lo ite des cen trale s é q u ip ées d 'a u t o m a ­

tism es de com m ande et de su rv eilla n ce tra d itio n n e ls . Il fau t entendre par
là que la c o n d u ite est assurée en général par un Chef de bloc qui a g it sur
des têtes de séquence ou sur les p o in ts de co n sign e et conserve la haute
m a in sur le fo n c tio n n em en t du m a t é r i e l de l 'u n i t é de p ro d u ctio n .

* Division «A u t o m a tism e », Paris.

* * Centrale de Chinon, Avoine.

123
124 LANGLADE et LEROY

TABLEAU I. CENTRALES NUCLEAIRES FRANÇAISES

P u is s a n c e M ise en
Tranche № Filière
nette s erv ic e

MARCOULE G2 Gaz gra p h ite 4 0 M W (e ) 1959

n it n
G3 40 M W (e ) 1960
Il II
C H IN O N 1 70 " 1961
n
2 и n 200 " 1965
n и n 480 "
3 1967
CH00Z P .W .R . 246 " 1967
M ON TS D 'A R R E E EL 4 Eau lourde 70 " 1967
S A IN T - L A U R E N T 1 Gaz g ra p h ite 480 " 1969
M II
2 Gaz g ra p h ite 515 " 1971

BUGEY 1 Gaz gra p h ite 480 " 1972

II d isp o se à cet effet des in fo r m a t io n s n é cessaires et suffi

santes à la c o n du ite im m é d iate.

Les sé c u rité s sont traité es en a u to m atism e d ire c t doublé par une

p o s sib ilité d 'a c t i o n m a nuelle.

E n fin c ertain s ap p areils s p é c ia lis é s d é liv ren t des in fo rm a tio n s

co m p lé m en ta ires destin é es à des études tec h n iq u es, à l 'a n a l y s e des in cid en ts
ou à l 'é l a b o r a t i o n de statistiq u es.

Comme il se d o it, notre E t a b lis se m e n t a effectué des ex p é r ie n c e s

d 'u t i l i s a t i o n de systèm es faisa n t appel à des tec h n o lo g ies de p o in te. Nous
d isp o so n s ain si d 'u n large é v e n tail de systèm es allant j u s q u 'à l 'u t i l i s a t i o n
d 'u n o rd in a te u r central pour assu rer les fo n c tio n s de su rv eilla n ce et de
com m ande d 'u n e u n ité de p ro d u ctio n . C 'e s t notam m ent le cas, p o u r les centra­
les brû lant des com b u stib les f o s s i l e s , de la tranche 2 de S A IN T - O U E N (2 5 0 M W (e ))
dont les processus sont com m andés et contrSlés en to t a lit é par un calcu la­
teur S .D .S . 910.

Dans le d om aine des centrales n u c lé aires, nous d isp o so n s d 'u n e

gamme an alogue.

Nous rappelons q u 'E .D .F . ex p lo ite seule ou e n liaiso n avec d 'a u ­

tres o rg an ism es les centrales nuclé aires classées par ordre d 'a n c i e n n e t é
dans le table au I.

Nous nous proposons d 'e f f e c t u e r une étude c o m p arativ e de l 'a u ­

t o m a t is m e de com m an de et de su rv eilla n ce de tro is d 'e n t r e elles en in sis­
tant notam m ent sur la phase de m ise en serv ice et sur l 'e x p é r i e n c e
d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n .

Nous avons retenu les un ités su iv an tes :

1) La C entrale de CH00Z pourvue d 'u n systèm e tra d itio n n e l très v o isin de ce­
lu i qui é q u ip e les centrales the rm iq u es c lassiq u es.
 LAEA-SM-168/A-5 125

2) La tranche 2 de C H IN O N où u n en se m ble de tro is o r d in a te u r s dou b lés assure

l 'e s s e n t i e l de la fo n c tio n de traitem e n t de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n , une fo n c tio n
de com m ande (la* r é g u l a t i o n sp a tia le du réacteur) et une fo n c tio n de sécu­
rité (c h u t e de barres liée à une fo rte évo lutio n des sig n a u x de d é tectio n
de rupture de g a in e ).

3) La tranche 2 de S A IN T - L A U R E N T - d e s - E A U X é q u ip ée d 'u n o rd in a te u r central

d o u b lé assurant la q u a s i- to ta lité des fo n c tio n s de com m ande et de traite­
m ent de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n .

N o tre c h o ix s 'e s t porté sur les tranches précédentes car les

co n c ep tio n s et la tech n o lo g ie de com m an de et su rv eilla n ce adoptées pour cha­
cune d 'e l l e s ne sont pas à proprem ent p arler des prototypes ; chacune d 'e n ­
tre elles a pu b é n é fic ie r au m o in s de l 'e x p é r i e n c e d 'u n e ré alisa tio n v o isin e
m ise en oeuvre an té rieu rem en t.

Nous exam in ero n s su c ce ssiv em en t :

1 - La nature des processus et le p r in c ip e des m oyens de com m ande et de

su rv eilla n ce

2 - L 'e x p é r i e n c e ac q u ise au cours de la m ise en serv ic e et en ex p lo itatio n

en co n sid é ran t :

a) La phase de m ise en serv ice

b) Les taux de pannes et les in cid en cesdes auto m atism es s u r le com porte­
m en t ou la disp o n ib ilité du m a t é r i e l p rin c ip a l

c) Les su jé tio n s de m a in t e n a n c e

d) Les pro blèm es posés par le rem p lacem en t descom posants oud e s systèm es
devenus o bsolescents.

3 - Nous effectueron s en d e r n ie r lie u un b ilan des tro is types d 'a u t o m a t i s ­

m es, de leu r ad ap tatio n aux processus com m andés et des avantages ou in ­
c o n v é n ien ts des calcu lateurs u tilisé s dans la com m ande ou la su rv eil­
lan ce d ire c te des processus.

Il c o n v ien t nous se m b le - t - il de co n sidé rer l 'a u t o m a t i s m e et le

traitem e n t de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n comme u n e des tro is com posantes d 'u n systèm e bou­
clé sur le processus, les deux autres com posantes étant c o n stitu ée s par le
m a tériel d 'u n e part et les agents d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n d ’ autre part.

Le c h o ix d 'u n n iv eau d 'a u t o m a t i s m e effectué dès la phase in itia le

de l 'é t u d e d 'u n e in s ta lla tio n dont les processus sont r e la t iv e m e n t b ien connus
résultera d 'u n c o m p ro m is entre les facteu rs su iv an ts :

- Un b i l a n éco n o m iq u e entre les coûts des in v estissem en ts et les coûts actua­

lisé s des dépenses de fo n c tio n n e m e n t en y incluant les effets des in d isp o n i­
b ilité s t o t a l e s ou p a r t i e l l e s

- Une recherche de la co m p lém en ta rité m axim ale des agents de c o n du ite et des
systèm es auto m atiq ues com pte tenu des q u a lité s propres à chacun d 'e u x et du
souci d 'o b t e n i r un c o nfort accru pour les hommes en les déchargeant au m a xi­
mum d e s travaux c o n tra ig n a n ts.

No tre étude s 'e f f o r c e r a de rester centrée sur ces aspects.

 126
LANGLADE et LEROY

FIG. 1. Schema de la centrale de Chooz.

 IAEA-SM-168/A-5

FIG.2. Schema de la centrale de Chinon 2,

127
1 28 LANGLADE et LEROY
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 129

I. DESCRIPTIONS

1 .1 . Les in sta lla tio n s de p ro d u ctio n d 'é n e r g i e - D e sc rip tio n s o m m a ir e

Les systèm es d 'a u t o m a t i s m e s et de su rv eilla n ce ne peuvent être

traités indépendam m ent des systèm es com m andés ; leu r co m p lé m en ta rité perm et de
réaliser des fo n c tio n s élé m en taires p lus ou m o in s co m p lex es ; l 'e n s e m b l e de ces
fo n c tio n s concourt à la ré alisatio n de la fo n c tio n glo b ale de l 'u n i t é de pro­
d u c tio n d 'é n e r g i e é le c tr iq u e . Ces c o n sid é ratio n s nous con d u isen t à effec tu er
une desc rip tio n som m aire des in sta lla tio n s retenues pour cette étude : cette
d escrip tio n est illu stré e par les figu res n" 1, 2 et 3.

1 .1 .1 . La cen trale de CHOOZ (C e n t r a le F ran co - B elg e) a été m ise en

serv ice en 1969. Elle com porte :

a) Un réacteur à eau sous p r e s s io n ( P .W .R .) u tilis a n t comme co m bu s tible

l 'U r a n i u m en rich i à en v iro n 3 ,5 % en isotope 235.

Le m odérateur est co n stitu é par le flu id e de r e fr o id is s e m e n t ; il

s 'a g i t d 'e a u naturelle à une p re ss io n v o isin e de 150 k g f /c m 2;

b) Quatre échangeurs de ch a leu r p ro d u isa n t au total 1600 t /h de vapeur

sèche à 34 k g f /c m 2 e ffe c tif s et 242 ° C .

La c irc u la tio n forcée est assurée par 4 m oto pom pes de 1 MW.

c) Le groupe turbo- alternateur 3 000 t r /m in - P u iss a n c e brute 2 5 8 MW.

Un c irc u it de contournem ent de 150 t /h perm et de désurchauffer et

d 'e n v o y e r d irec tem en t au condenseur un d é b it de v a p e u r de 140 t /h .

1 .1 .2 . La tranche n° 2 de C H IN O N a été m ise en se rv ic e en 1965. Elle com porte :

a) Un réacteur à u r a n iu m naturel d 'u n e p u issan ce the rm iq u e de 850 MW.

Le flu id e de tran sfert de ch a leu r est du C O 2 sous la p r e s s io n de

26 k g f /c m 2 sortant du réacteur à la tem pérature de 410°C . Le soufflage est as­
suré par 4 m o to - so ufflantes de 9 , 2 MW d e p u issan ce u n itaire.

b) Quatre échangeurs de ch a leu r com prenant au total 96 élém ents et pro­

du isan t : 680 t /h de v a p e u r à 3 2 k g f /c m 2 3 40°C (c irc u it H .P .),
370 t /h de v a p e u r à 8 k g f /c m 2 340°C (c ir c u it B .P .).

c) Deux groupes tu rbo - altern ateu rs de 1 0 0 MW a l i m e n t é s en tête par la

vapeur haute p r e s s io n (H .P .) et en aval par la vap eu r basse pres­
sio n (B .P .).

Deux détendeurs d é surchauffeurs de 40 t /h (v a p e u r H .P .) et de 20

t /h (v a p e u r B .P .) p erm ettent un contournem ent du groupe aux faib les ré g im es de
m arche ou sur déclenchem ent.

NOTA :

La c irc u la tio n d u C 0 2 <ians le réacteur est dans le sens c o n v e c tif ;

cette d isp o sitio n perm et un r e fr o id is s e m e n t su ffisan t du réacteur sur arrêt de
soufflage et chute d e 'b a r r e s .
 130
LANGLADE et LEROY

F IG .4. Centrale de Chooz — Diagramme de contrôle-commande.

 IAEA-SM-168/A-5
131

FIG. 5. Centrale de Chinon 2 — Diagramme de contrôle-commande.

 132
LANGLADE et LEROY

F I G ,6, Centrale de Saint-Laurent 2 — Diagramme de contrôle-commande.

 LAEA-SM-168/A-5 133

1 .1 .3 . La tranche n° 2 de SAINT-LAURENT a été mise en service en 1 9 7 1 .

C 'e s t p r a tiq u e m e n t une dup lic atio n de la tranche n" 1 m ise en ser­
v ice en 1969.

E lle com porte :

Un réacteur du type intégré com prenant dans une même e n c e i n t e

- le réacteur
- les échangeurs
- les m o b ile s des v en tilateu rs sou fflage.

C ette d isp o sitio n c o n du it à faire c irc u le r le gaz c a r b o n iq u e de

re fro id isse m e n t dans le sens a n ti- c o n v e c tif; cette o p tio n in terd it l 'a r r ê t si­
m u ltan é de toutes les so u fflan tes que ce so it en m arche ou a p r è s chute de bar­
res. La s é c u r ité "s o u ffla g e " qui en résulte ne peut accepter aucune d éfaillan ce
dans toute la v ie de la cen trale et cet im p é ratif est à l 'o r i g i n e pour p a r tie
de la c om p lexité générale de l 'i n s t a l l a t i o n .

1 .2 . Les a u to m atism es de sé c u rité de c o n du ite et de traitem e n t de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n

Le diag r am m e des fo n ctio n s d 'a u t o m a t i s m e s , de c o n du ite et de sur­

v eillan c e est donné dans les fig u res 4, 5 et 6.

Ces fo n c tio n s do iv en t être exam in é es dans le contexte d 'u n e com plé­

m en ta rité des actio ns auto m atiques pures et des ac tio n s m anuelles des agents
de co n d u ite.

Chacune peut être caracté risé e par son n iv e a u fo n ctio n n el et tech­

n o lo giq u e .

1 .2 .1 . La sécurité

Le n iv e a u de la sé c u rité est d é te rm in é par les risq u es d 'a c c i d e n t s

de personne et le coût des m a té riels d é tru its o u e n d o m m a g é s . Ce coût a deux
com posantes e s s e n tie lle s : le coût de l a ré p a r a tio n et lecoût de l ' é n e r g i e de
rem p lacem en t ; ce d e rn ie r trop souvent so u s- estim é peut attein dre des sommes
co n sid é rab les (20 m illio n s de francs pour un arrêt de six m o is d 'u n e tranche de
5 0 0 MW e n p é r i o d e c r it iq u e ).

a) Les sé c u r ité s du 1er ordre sont :

- la sé c u rité du r é a c t e u r

- le risq u e d 'é c l a t e m e n t du groupe turbo- générateur

- 1 1i n c e n d i e
- le défaut de g r a is s a g e du groupe turbo- générateur.

En p rin c ip e , les sé c u rité s sont traité es en au to m atism e d irec t et

aveugle, caracté risé par des chaînes courtes, sim p les, de la plus haute fiab i­
lité tant e n m a tiè r e de m a tériel d 'a u t o m a t i s m e que de d isp o sitifs de secours ;
la fiabilité de la fo n c tio n est accrue par une redondance de systèm es to tale­
m ent in d é p e n d a n ts ; l 'a c t i o n du personnel de c o n d u ite est p o s sib le dans tous
les cas ; c 'e s t une redondance e sse n tie lle q u i, comme les autres, d o it être to­
talem ent in d é p e n d a n te tant au n iv e a u de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n (c a p te u r , traitem e n t de
l 'i n f o r m a t i o n ) q u 'à celui de la com m ande (c ir c u it de com m ande j u s q u 'à l 'a c t i o n -
n e u r ) . Dans c e rtain s cas, c 'e s t une des seules e ffica c es (in c e n d ie ).
134 LANGLADE et LEROY

b) Les sé c u r ité s du 2e ordre

Elles portent sur les a u x ilia ir e s v itau x (t u rb o - so u ffla n te s, grou­

pes d 'a l i m e n t a t i o n des générateurs de v a p e u r , p o m p es du c irc u it p rin c ip a l)
m a is dont le coût et la durée de ré p a r a tio n seront p lus faib les ou a u r o n t une
in c id e n c e ré d u ite sur la p ro du ctiv ité de l 'u n i t é .

NOTA : U n au to m atism e in d isp en sa b le à la c o n d u ite dont l 'a v a r i e entraîne une

une im m o b ilisa tio n p ro lo n gée de l 'u n i t é est à tra ite r sur le plan des
s é c u rité s comme les sé c u r ité s du 1e r ordre.

Les sé c u r ité s du 2e ordre sont le plus p o s s ib le traité es en auto­

m a tis m e s directs. Une redondance par l 'a c t i o n du personnel de co n du ite est pos­
sib le. Le p r in c ip e de l 'i n d é p e n d a n c e de cette actio n redondan te d o it être
retenu.

c) Les s é c u r ité s du 3e ordre

E lles portent sur du m a tériel de faib le coût, sans in cid en ce sur

la d isp o n ib ilité de la tranche. Su iv an t le cas ces m atériels com porteront des
sé c u rité s d irec tes av e u gles ou n 'e n com porteront aucune.

Les fo n ctio n s de sé c u r ité s des tranches de CHOOZ, C H IN O N 2 et

S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 tien n en t c o m p te des p r in c ip e s qui précèdent.

Dans tous les cas les sé c u rité s du 1er ordre sont effectuées par
des rela y ag es électro m a g n é tiq u es.

La fiab ilité des systèm es est assurée par les redondances qui ap­
p a raissen t dans ce qui su it.

1) A la centrale de CHOOZ

Les sé c u r ité s "c h u t e s de barre" sont traité es en lo giq u es 2 /3 et

dans c ertain s cas 2 /4 ; les sé c u r ité s "g r o u p e t u r b o - a lt e r n a t e u r "s o n t en lo ­
giq ue 1/ 2 .

Dans tous les cas elles sont réalisées en relayag e é lectro m ag n é ­

tiq ue .

Des boutons d 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e assurent une sé c u rité d irecte

indé p endante.

2) A la centrale de C H IN O N 2

Les s é c u r ité s sont traité es de la même m a n i è r e q u 'à CHOOZ. Toute­

fo is la s é c u r ité "D é te c tio n rupture de g a in e " qui est co m p lexe dans les cen­
trales gaz grap hite est effectu ée à p a rtir d 'i n f o r m a t i o n s données par le
systèm e de calculateurs. C 'e s t dans cette centrale la seu le fo n ctio n de sécu­
rité assurée par c alculateur. Elle est do u b lée p a r une détectio n de rupture de
g a in e g é n é rale donnant des in fo r m a tio n s pour un arrêt d 'u r g e n c e .

3) A la centrale de S A IN T - L A U R E N T

Les fo n c tio n s de sé c u rité sont assurées à la fo is par le systèm e

des deux calculateurs en lo g iq u es 2 /3 et par des lo giq u es tr a it é e s en relay ag e
é lec tro m a gn é tiq u e fo n ctio n n a n t en parallèle, d iffé rée s de quelques dixièm es
de seconde.
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 135

La s é c u rité de rupture de g a in e est assurée comme à C H IN O N 2 à

p a rtir d 'i n f o r m a t i o n s issu es des calculateurs. E lle est doub lée égalem ent par
une sé c u rité de rupture de g a in e g é n érale.

Dans cette centrale, la sé c u rité p rio ritaire est le m a in tie n en

s e rv ic e d 'a u m o in s une so ufflante. Cette fo n c tio n est assurée par d iv ers d is­
p o s itifs de secours (q u a t r e c irc u its a u x ilia ir e s com prenant chacun une chau­
d iè re, un groupe a u x ilia ir e et les m atériels annexes) dont le fo n c tio n n e m e n t
est p ilo té par les calculateurs. Ces d e rn ie rs assurent la su rv eilla n ce du sys­
tè m e et la s é c u r ité in d iv id u e lle de chaque so u fflan te. T o u tefo is, l 'o r d r e
d 'a r r ê t d 'u n e turbo- souffia n te d o it être c o n firm é par le chef de bloc duquel
dépend en d é fin itiv e la sé c u rité glo b ale.

1 .2 .2 . Les auto m atism es de com m ande

Les a u to m atism es de com m ande' c o m p r e n n e n t les auto m atism es lo giq u es

et les au to m atism es an alo g iq u es .

Le n iv eau de ces auto m atism es est fo n c tio n de la c om p lexité du sys­

tèm e com m andé, de la nature des techn o lo g ies u tilisa b le s et de ses lim ite s.

Il est caracté risé par la part re la tiv e des a c tio n s restant au

personnel de c o n du ite dans toutes les phases de l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n et notam m ent
les phases c ritiq u e s (d é m a r ra g e s ou in c id e n t s ), ce qui a une in cid en ce sur la
c o n c ep tio n des salles de com m ande dont la p r é s e n ta tio n est sig n ific a tiv e du
degré d 'a u t o m a t i s a t i o n .

- Les auto m atism es lo giq u es réalisen t des séquences p lu s ou m o in s com ­

p lex es .

Leur n iv eau est caracté risé par le degré de c o o r d in a tio n au to m atiq u e

des séquences ou a c t i o n s a u to m atiq u es.

- Les auto m atism es an alog iq u es in terv ien n en t dans les boucles de régula­
tio n .

- Les au to m atism es lo giq u es sont réalisés en relayag e é lec tro m a gn é tiq u e à

CHOOZ et C H IN O N 2.

A St- LAURENT, l 'a u t o m a t i s m e est c on stitu é par les lo g iq u es program ­

m é es des calculateurs qui attaquent d irec tem en t des sous- séquences ré alisé es en
relayag e é lectro m a g n étiq u e.

Dans cette cen trale , il est fait usage d 'u n traitem e n t "A N A T O R " par
c o m p a raiso n program m ée d 'u n e grandeur à des sé ries de seu ils. Cette disp o sitio n
perm et une é co n o m ie im p o rta n te de m anostats et de therm ostats.

Les chaînes de ré gu latio n sont é lectro niq ues dans les tro is cen­
trales ; les p o in ts de c o nsigne com m andés m anuellem en t à CHOOZ et C H IN O N 2 sont
com m andés par calculateur à St- LAURENT.

La c o m p lexité re la tiv e des systèm es apparaît assez b ien à l 'e x a m e n

du table au n ° II ; elle peut être cara cté risé e notam m ent par le nom bre de re la is
é le c tr o m a g n é tiq u es de com m an de ou de découplag e. Il est de l 'o r d r e de 6 000 à
CHOOZ et dépasse 20 000 à C H IN O N 2 et St- LAURENT.

En c o n c lu sio n , la com m ande est e sse n tie lle m e n t m anuelle à C H O OZ et

CHINON 2 .
136 LANGLADE et LEROY

TABLEAU II. TABLEAU RECAPITULATIF DES MOYENS DE COMMANDE ET

DE SURVEILLANCE - NOMBRE D'ELEMENTS D'AUTOMATISME

N A T U R E C H O O Z C H IN O N 2 St- LAUR ENT 2

Salle de c o m m a nde

- P u p itre de c o m m a nde x x x

- Tableau seco n d aire X X

- Tableau a u x ilia ir e X

- Nom bre de c o m m a n d es m an u elles

L o g iq u es (b o u to n s de com m ande, 460 270 200
com m utateurs, c h o ix , ...)

A n a lo g iq u e s 80 36 39

- S ig n a lisa tio n s lu m in eu ses d 'é t a t 580 1 500 120

- E n r e g is tre u rs
Nom bre de v o i e s 360 ) 60
280
- In d ic a te u rs 290 ] 120
- T é l e s c r i p t r i c e s - im p rim a n t e s 0 5 6
dont - C o n d u ite - 1 -

- D ia lo g u e - 1 -

- S u rv eilla n ce (é v o lu t io n
- 3 4
et m esures)

- D éfauts, changem ent d 'é t a t ,

- 1 2
statistiq u es, ...

- A larm e s lu m in e u se s (in d é p en d an te s
800 860 8
des calculateurs)

Elém en ts d 'a u t o m a t i s m e

- R e la is é lec tro m a g n é tiq u e 6 000 22 000 20 000

- E lém en ts de lo g iq u es statiq u es - 13 000 -

- E lém en ts an alo g iq u e s (R é g u la tio n s

300 270 300
générales)

- C apteur tout ou rien (T .O .R .)

900 1 700 3 000
(M a n o s t a ts ... fin s de course)

C alcu lateu rs n u m ériq u es

- Nom bre 1 3 x 2 1 x 2
- M arque P .S .P . 2 x 1 RH 3 0 0 C 90- 40
2 x 2 C IT A C
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 137

TABLEAU II (suite)

N A T U R E C H O O Z C H IN O N 2 St- LAU R EN T 2

- C ap a cité m é m o ir e (p a r u n ité)
tores ... (b its ) 4 0 9 6 x 15 ) 24 000 x 24
f ) 18 x 90 000
. tam bour (b it s ) ) 96 000 x 24

- Entrées T .O .R . 15 2 900 . 4 800

A n a lo g iq u e s 102 990 2 400

- S o r ties : - In fo r m atio n s In fo r m atio n s 1 000 13 000

pour b ilan
the rm iq u e et
gestio n
c o m b u stib le

- S ig n a lisa tio n s et
3 500 3 500
défauts

- C om m a ndes (T .O .R .) )
(r e la is électrom a­ - 1 400
v F o n ctio n
gn é tiq u es)
ч c o n trô le
- S o r ties vers lo giq u es * D .R .G . 600

- C om m a n des an alo g iq u es - ) 26

Télesc rip trices hors salle de

1 13 0
c om m a nde

A p p a r e ils s p é c ia u x

- Scrutateur de tem pérature 1 - -

- Tachyperturbographe 1 2 2
- C o n sign a te u r d 'é v é n e m e n t s
(s o r t ie n u m é riq u e) 1 - -
( té le s c r ip tr ic e en salle de
com m ande)

Par contre à St- LAURENT, où a u c u n e com m an de n ' e s t p o s sib le de la

salle de com m ande à l 'e x c e p t i o n des arrêts d 'u r g e n c e , des c h o ix de program m es
et éventuellem ent d 'u n e re p rise en m anuel de p o in ts de co n sig n e, la com m ande
est entièrem ent au to m atiq u e.

1 .2 .3 . Traitem ent de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n

Le traitement de 1 1inform ation a un double o b je c t if :

a) Il est n éc essaire à l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n locale sous la fo rm e :

- d 'u n e in fo r m a t io n pour l 'a c t i o n im m é d iate so it par les chaînes

d 'a u t o m a t i s m e so it par l 'a c t i o n du personnel de co n du ite
138 LANGLADE et LEROY

- d 'u n e in fo rm a tio n à usage diffé ré local tel que recherche de

pannes, am énagem ents des m atériels ou d e s m éthodes d 'e x p l o i t a ­
tio n , g estio n du c o m b u s tib le.

b) Le traitem e n t d 'i n f o r m a t i o n est u tile d 'a u t r e part pour la gestio n

techniq ue et é co no m iq ue de l 'E t a b l i s s e m e n t . C ertain s résu ltats seront
u tilis é s pour o rien ter le c h o ix de nouveaux é q u ip em en ts de pro d u ctio n .
>
La p rio rité de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n n é cessaire à la c onduite im m é diate est
in d iscu ta b le et le traitem e nt de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n d o it être conçu avec le souci de
cette p rio rité .

Le traitem e n t à usage d ifféré local ou g é n é r a l est n é c essaire ; il

d o it être conçu de telle sorte q u 'i l n 'a l t è r e pas la q u a lité du traitem e n t
d 'i n f o r m a t i o n pour la co n d u ite.

C entrale de CHOOZ

Le traite m e n t d 'i n f o r m a t i o n est t r a d it io n n e l (s ig n a lis a t io n s d 'é t a t ,

in dica teu rs ou e n r e g i s t r e u r s , sig n a lisa tio n s de d é p a s s e m e n t ).

L 'i n s t a l l a t i o n com porte en outre un calculateur destiné à prépa­

rer les élém ents de g e stio n fin e du co m bu stib le (t a u x d 'i r r a d i a t i o n ) . Celui-
ci élabo re en outre des in fo r m a t io n s de p ré c isio n d 'e f f e t s tran s ito ir e s
né c essaires à la co n d u ite.

C entrale de C H IN O N 2

Le traitem ent d 'i n f o r m a t i o n , tout en com portant une part trad i­

tio n n elle im p o rta n te fait appel à 6 c a l c u l a t e u r s n u m ériq u es avec so r ties sur
t é le s c r ip tr ic e s . Cette techn o lo g ie s 'i m p o s e du fait du grand n o m b re de m esures
à traiter.

T r o is fo nctio n s sont effectuées par c alcu lateu rs :

a) La d é te c tio n de rupture de g a in e (D .R .G .) in disp en sa ble à la s é c u r ité .

b) Deux calculateurs de m esures fo n c tio n n a n t en norm al s e c o u e traitan t 990

grandeurs an alo giq ues.

c) Deux calculateurs de dé fau ts fo n c tio n n a n t é g alem ent en norm al secours

traitan t 550 sig n a lisa tio n s et 2 400 in fo r m a t io n s de d éfauts ou de
changem en ts d 'é t a t .

La c ap acité "m é m o ir e " de l 'e n s e m b l e des c alcu lateu rs c i- d e ssu s est

de 90 0 0 0 m o ts de 18 b i t s , sur m é m o ir e s à tores et à tam bours.

C entrale de S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2

Les in fo r m a t io n s du type tra d itio n n e l sont extrêm em ent réd u ites

surtout si l 'o n c o n sid è re la c om p lexité de l 'i n s t a l l a t i o n .

Le traitem e n t des in fo r m a t io n s est ré alisé par les deux calcu la­

teurs de c o n du ite et de su rv eilla n ce fo n c tio n n a n t en norm al secours. La c ap a ci­
té m é m o ir e de chaque calculateur est de 24 000 m o ts de 24 bits pour les
m é m o ire s à tore et de 96 000 m o ts pour les m é m o ir e s sur tam bour.

Le traitem e n t d 'i n f o r m a t i o n p orte sur 4 000 entrées m esures et

5 000 entrées tout ou rien .
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 139

Les so rties (im p rim an te s, té le sc rip tric e s et quelq u es e n re g is­

treurs b a n alisé s) d é liv ren t e n v ir o n 13 000 in fo r m a t io n s (é ta t , m esures) à usage
im m é diat ou diffé ré et 3 500 in fo r m a t io n s de d isc o rd a n c e s ou de défauts.

Le tableau II peut ca ra cté rise r le niveau d'autom atism e.

II. E X P E R IE N C E A C Q U IS E

Comme nous l 'a v o n s in diq u é, chaque ré alisa tio n b é n é fic ia it d é jà au

m o in s d 'u n e e x p é r ie n c e v o isin e. Le bilan que nous som mes am enés à faire tien t
c o m p te de l 'é l i m i n a t i o n d 'u n c ertain nom bre de d éfauts in é lu cta bles dans le cas
des prototypes.

Nous traite ro n s su c ce ssiv e m e n t :

- L 'h i s t o r i q u e su ccin ct de la m ise en oeuvre des systèm es

- Les s u jé tio n s de m ises en serv ice

- La q u a lité du serv ice

(t a u x de panne et leurs in ciden ces sur l 'u n i t é de p ro du ctio n )

- Les p ro blèm es de m a in te n a n c e et d ' o b so lescen ce

- Les coûts .

2 .1 . E c h é a n c ie r de m ise en serv ice des systèm es d 'a u t o m a t i s m e s

2 .1 .1 . C entrale de CHOOZ

Début de c o n stru c tio n : 1964

Début des essa is : 1966

M ise en serv ice p ro v iso ire : 1967

Un in ciden t de réacteur a reporté le v érita b le dém arrage de tran­

che à m ars 1970.

C ette p é rio d e a été m ise à p ro fit pour co m p léter les tests et pro­
céder à des am énagem ents des au to m atism es.

Au total la phase im p o rta n te de m i s e au p o in t des auto m atism es a

duré 18 m o is, la m arche s e m i- in d u s tr ie lle 2 m o is e t la m arche in d u strielle
avant r é c e p tio n p ro v iso ire 2 m o is .

2 . 1 . 2 . C e n t r a l e s d e C H IN O N 2 et S A IN T - L A U R E N T

La p a r tie tra d itio n n e lle de C H IN O N 2 a été m o ntée de 1961 à 1962.

Les e ssa is m enés p a rallè lem en t aux e ssa is de m a tériel ont duré 2 ans.

Cas des calculateurs

On en trouvera l'éch éa n cier au tableau III.

2 .2 . S u jé tio n s de m ise en serv ic e

2 .2 .1 . Les a u to m atism es tra d itio n n e ls : CHOOZ - C H IN O N 2

Les systèm es t r a d itio n n e ls ont donné lieu aux d éfauts b ien connus
qui tienn en t à la q u a lité des com posants ou de leur m ontage (r e la y a g e , cap­
teurs) .
140 LANGLADE et LEROY

TABLEAU III. ECHEANCIER DE MISE EN SERVICE DES CALCULATEURS

C H IN O N 2 St- LAURENT 2

D étectio n A utom atism e &

de rupture M esures S ig n a lisa tio n traitem e n t de
de g aîne 1 ' in fo r m a tio n

Début de
6 /6 2 9 /6 2 1 0 /6 2 1 /6 9
m ontage

Début des
1 1 /6 3 2 /6 4 6 /6 3 8 /6 9
e ssa is

M ise en serv ice

8 /6 4 7 /6 4 1 1 /6 3 1 1 /6 9
s e m i- in d u s t r ie l

D iv e r g e n c e du
Août 1964 Jan v ier 1971
réacteur

D 'a u t r e s d iffic u lté s sont a ttrib u a b les aux d é fauts de c o n c ep tio n ;

il y aé té rem éd ié par réexam en des schém as ab o u tis sa n t à une sim p lific a tio n .

En outre, une refo n te de la d ist rib u t io n des p o la rité s a été ef­

fe c tu é e à CH00Z.

Pour é v ite r ces d iffic u lté s, le re m è d e c o n siste à n 'u t i l i s e r que

des com posants en nom bre lim ité et adaptés aux c o n d itio n s d 'e m p l o i .

2 .2 .2 . Les c alcu lateu rs

La m ise en serv ice des calculateurs a donné lieu à de nom breux es­
s a is en sim u la tio n effectu é s chez le constructeur. La durée d 'é l a b o r a t i o n des
program m es a été de l 'o r d r e d 'u n an.

Au cours de cette phase, peu de d iffic u lté s se sont présentées

tant e n ce q u i concerne les m a tériels que les program m es.

Q uelques défauts ont été rencontrés à C H IN O N 2 so it au cours de la

phase d 'e s s a i s , so it lors du raccordem ent au processus. Nous c ite r o n s :

- Un éch auffem ent anorm al des re la is d 'e n t r é e du traitem e n t de sig n a lisa ­

tio n

- Une dég rad atio n r a p id e des té le sc rip tric e s

- Des d iffic u lté s de réglag e des c irc u its de m é m o ir e .

SA IN T - LA U R E N T 2 a b é n é fic ié au plus haut p o in t de 1 'e x p é r i e n c e de

S A IN T - L A U R E N T 1. La m ise en se rv ic e d ’ un m a tériel id e n tiq u e effectuée p a r une
même é q u i p e m ixte (c o n s t r u c t e u r - e x p lo it a n t s ) s 'e s t effectuée a in si dans les
m eilleu res c o n d itio n s . Il c o n v ien t de noter letem ps extrêm em ent réd u it (3
m o is ) qui s 'e s t éco ulé entre la fin du m ontage e t le d é bu t de l a m isee n serv i­
ce s e m i- in d u strie lle .
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 141

L 'é q u i p e était com posée :

- de 3 à 5 in g é n ie u r s ou te c h n ic ie n s (c o n s t r u c t e u r )

- de 2 à 3 in g é n ie u r s de l 'E q u i p e m e n t

- de 6t e c h n i c i e n s de l 'E x p l o i t a t i o n .

Sa tâche a été fa c ilité e du fait q u 'e l l e av a it l 'e n t i è r e responsa­

b ilité des chaînes alla n t de l 'é l é m e n t de m esure j u s q u 'a u x actio n n e u rs et
té le sc rip tric e s.

Les p r in c ip a u x défauts de m a tériel ont affecté les un ités d 'a c q u i ­

sitio n de m esure (filt r e s et r e la is ).

A ce jo u r, les d iffic u lté s rencontrées à C H IN O N e t S A IN T - L A U R E N T

ont trouvé une so lu tio n . T o u tefo is les té le s c r ip t r ic e s restent un m a tériel dé­
lica t entraînant un en tretien assez lourd .

2 .3 . La q u a lité du serv ice

La q u a lité du se rv ic e rendu se cara cté rise par l 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é

des systèm es et surtout p a r le s r é p e r c u s s i o n s d e c e s d e r n ie r s sur le com porte­
m ent de la tranche (in d is p o n ib ilit é et nom bre de d é c le n c h e m e n t s ).

Nous devons tout d 'a b o r d ra p p eler q ue CHOOZ n 'a ré ellem e n t dém arré
q u 'e n m ars 1970 après l 'i n c i d e n t m a jeu r survenu au réacteur en 1968.

C H IN O N 2 peut être c o n sid é ré en se rv ic e in d u strie l dep u is ja n v ie r

68. Par contre S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2, co up lé pour la p r e m iè r e fo is au réseau en août
71, a t t e i n t seu lem en t un ré gim e de c ro isière . Les ré sultats statistiq u es de
cette d e rn iè re centrale ne sont donc pas d é fin itiv e m e n t cara cté ristiq u es.

a) A CHOOZ : la q u a lité du serv ic e est ex celle n te.

Si le nom bre de d é clenchem ents a attein t 16e n 1970 ilest tom b é

à 9 en 1971 et à zéro sur les 9 p r e m ie r s m o is de 1972.

Les in d is p o n ib ilité s dues aux auto m atism es ont su iv i la même

évo lutio n :

44 h (s u r 5 470 h de m arche) en 1970

32 h (s u r 6 905 h " ) en 1971

0 h (su r 5 400 h " ) en 1972

Ces résultats ont été attein ts grâce à une actio n portant sur les
p o in ts su iv an ts :

- R em p lacem en t des capteurs défectueux ou mal adaptés

- A m é lio r a tio n des c â bla ges, de 1 'a n t i p a r a s i t a g e etdes c i r c u i t s de m asse

- A m é lio r a tio n et sim p lific a tio n des p ro te ctio n s

- Suppression de commandes logiques directes à partir du calculateur (blo­

cage de la montée des barres par prévision de transitoire nucléaire de
facteur de canal chaud).
142 LANGLADE et LEROY

b) C H IN O N 2

La moyenne an n u elle des in d isp o n ib ilité s du fait des au to m atism es est

de 33 heures sur 6 000.

La part im p u tab le aux calculateurs est de 0 ,7 5 heure.

Le nom bre de sép aratio n s to tales du réseau (2 groupes sim u ltan ém en t) a

été de l 'o r d r e de 30 en 1969. Il est tom b é à 7 en 1970 et à 2 en 1971.

Ce résultat, en d é p it de la c om p lexité de l 'u n i t é de p ro du ctio n , a été

obtenu par des am énagem ents an alogues à ceux e ffe c t u é s à CHOOZ.

c) S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2

S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 a été coup lé au réseau en août 1971. Il est donc d iffi

c ile de donner des statistiq u es sig n ific a tiv e s .

Nous donnerons les résu ltats de S A IN T - L A U R E N T 1 qui est la tranche pro

totype ; celle- ci m ise en serv ice en 1969 a été arrêtée d 'o c t o b r e 1969 à octo­
bre 1970 à la su ite d 'u n in cid e n t m a jeu r de fusio n d 'é l é m e n t c o m b u s tib le.

L 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é de tranche due aux auto m atism es a été de 200 heures

en 1971. Elle sera légèrem ent in fé rie u r e en 1972. Sur ce total 1 'in d isp o n ib ili
té due sp é c ifiq u e m e n t aux calculateurs est de 35 heures en 1971 et de l 'o r d r e
de 10 heures pour 1972.

Il y a eu 21 d éclen chem e n ts dus à l 'a u t o m a t i s m e dont 40 % sont im p u

bles à la m ise au p o in t de la D .R .G . q u 'i l a fallu m o d ifier à la su ite de 1 ' in
c id e n t survenu en octobre 1969. A cette o ccasio n est apparu un des grands
avantages des lo g iq u es program m ées sur calculateur ; celui de perm ettre une
restru c tu ra tio n de lo giq u es c om plexes par sim p le m o d ific a tio n du program m e.

Taux de panne des c alcu lateu rs

Le taux d 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é des systèm es c o n stitu és par les c alcu­

la te u r s et leurs p érip hé riq u es tem ps réel peut Stre estim é comme su it :

a) C H IN O N 2

1968

- Taux de panne 50 h e n m oyenne par c alculateur.

- In d isp o n ib ilité to tale des fo n c tio n s traité es par c alcu lateu r

. S ig n a lis a t io n s : 25 h

. M esures : 20 h

. D étectio n de rupture de g a in e : nulle.

1971

Le taux d 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é des calculateurs est tom bé à 5 heures

par an.

Il n 'y a eu aucune in d isp o n ib ilité des fo n c tio n s.

 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 143

b ) S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2

Si nous nous référons au p r e m ie r sem estre de l 'a n n é e 1972, le taux

de panne m oyen de chaque c alculateur est de 2 p a r m o is et la durée m oyenne
d 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é est in fé r ie u r e à une heure. L 'a r r ê t d 'u n seul calculateur
n 'e n t r a î n e pas de perte d 'é n e r g i e .

Par contre l 'a r r ê t sim ultan é des deux calculateurs entraîne l 'a r ­
rêt général de la tranche si la panne excède une heure. Cette situ atio n s 'e s t
présentée deux fo is en un an. Il im porte de rappeler que les fo n c tio n s de détec­
tio n de rupture de g a in e dans les deux centrales sont in d is p e n s a b le s à la pour­
su ite de l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n . Elles ne peuvent être in te r r o m p u e s que quelq u es heures.

La d isp a r itio n sim u ltan ée des calculateurs de SA IN T - LA U R E N T con­

du it au blocage de la tranche dans la situ atio n où e l l e se trouve. En cas de
dé faut d 'u n e chaîne fo n c tio n n elle v itale, seules su bsisten t les sé c u rité s
câblées.

Cette c o n d itio n so u lig n e l 'i m p o r t a n c e excep tio n n elle des calcu la­
teurs de S A IN T - L A U R E N T .

C 'e s t d ire toute l 'i m p o r t a n c e q u 'i l con v ien t d 'a p p o r t e r à la m a in ­

tenance des systèm es.

2 .4 . La m a in t e n a n c e

2 .4 .1 . Les e ffe c tifs

Les travaux d 'e n t r e t i e n et de dépannage des in sta lla tio n s de com ­

m ande et de su rv eilla n ce n é c essite n t les e ffe c tifs su iv an ts :

C H OOZ 18

C H IN O N 2 27

S A IN T - L A U R E N T 38 (p o u r 2 tranches)

Les é q u ip es respo nsab les des c a lc u la te u rs sont co m p rises dans ce

nom bre : elles sont de 8 agents p o u r SA IN T - LA U R E N T et de 7 pour C H IN O N .

Les te c h n ic ie n s qui les com posent sont en a s tr e in te d 'i n t e r v e n ­

tio n im m é d iate.

Ils ont été c h o is is parm i les é lectro n icien s d é jà très au fait des
processus des cen trale s et form és chez le constructeur au cours d 'u n stage
d 'u n e durée de 14 sem ain es ; ils ont co m p lé té leur fo rm atio n sur le site où ils
ont été p ro gressivem en t in tég rés au cours de la m ise en serv ic e.

L 'é q u i p e est en m esure d 'e f f e c t u e r tous les dépannages y c o m p ris

ceux qui touchent aux un ités c entrales.

Les résultats très p o s itifs obtenus tien n en t au fait que le per­

sonnel chargé de la p ro g ram m atio n connaît parfaitem en t l 'a d a p t a t i o n des pro­
g ra m m es aux processus.

2 .4 .2 . P roblèm es d 'o b s o l e s c e n c e

Les com posants des au to m atism es m odernes subissen t une é v o lu tio n

techn o lo g iq u e très ra p id e . De ce fait la durée des fab ric a tio n s d 'u n com posant
est lim ité e à quelq u es années et le se rv ic e des p ièces de rechange est d iffic ile
à assurer au - delà de 10 ou 15 ans à com pter du début des fa b ric a tio n s .
 144 LANGLADE et LEROY

Ce p ro blèm e est re la tiv e m e n t aisé à régler dans le cas des systè­

m es tra d itio n n e ls r e la t iv e m e n t sim p le s et indépendants les uns des autres.

Par contre, il dem ande ré flexio n lo rs q u e les tech n o lo g ies avancée

et des en se m b les com plexes sont m is en oeuvre.

Tel est le cas des c alcu lateu rs n u m é riq u es.

B ien que nous ayons l 'e x e m p l e de calculateurs num ériq u es en ser­

vice in d u striel dep u is plus de 10 ans (C H IN O N 1) sans d é faillan ce m a je u re , on
peut penser que leu r durée de v i e n 'a t t e n d r a pas les 30 ans de durée de v i e de
un ités de p ro d u ctio n .

En ce qui concerne les in sta lla tio n s é tu d ié e s deux d iffic u lté s

ap p ara iss e n t :

- Nos calculateurs sont a s so c ié s à des m é m o ir e s m a g n é t i q u e s àt a m b o u r

dont le p rin c ip e de fa b ric a tio n est abandonné,

- C ertain s d 'e n t r e eux ont été c o n stru its en p etite sé rie.

C 'e s t ain si que le rem p lacem en t d 'u n tam bour m a g n é t iq u e par un

tam b o u r de rechange n 'i m p o s e pas d 'a r r ê t de tranche m a is rend in disp o n ible
l 'u n des deux systèm es pendant 2 ou 3 jo u rs; par contre la m ise en p lace
d 'u n e m é m o ir e de techn o lo gie différen te si elle n 'a pas été so ig n eu sem en t
é tu d ié e risq u e d 'i m m o b i l i s e r le c alcu lateu r pendant une année au m o i n s .

C 'e s t pourquoi nous nous orien to n s vers l 'é t u d e d 'u n d isp o sitif à
m é m o ir e à disq u e préprogram m é et testé en réel au cours d 'u n arrêt ; la m ise
en p lace ne d ev ra it pas excéder q uelq ues jo urs.

A in s i pensons- nous est résolu le pro blèm e posé par 1 ' o bso lescen­
ce des calculateurs.

2 ,5 . Les coûts

Un b il a n co m p a ratif des coûts des systèm es t r a d itio n n e ls et des

systèm es à base de calculateurs d o it prendre en com pte les élém ents su iv an ts :

- le coût de l 'i n v e s t i s s e m e n t et de la m ise en serv ic e du systèm e

- le coût actu alisé de la m a in t e n a n c e

- les in c id e n c e s de l 'u t i l i s a t i o n d 'a u t o m a t i s m e s poussés sur la r é d u c t io n

de m a in - d ' o eu v r e de con du ite

- le coût des in d isp o n ib ilité s su p p lé m en ta ires.

Les deux d e rn ie rs é lé m ents du b ilan sont éq u iv alen ts dans chaque

systèm e car comme nous l 'a v o n s vu, les in d isp o n ib ilité s en é n erg ie p ro d u ctib le
im p u tab le s aux calculateurs sont n ég lig eab les. D 'a u t r e part, en l ’ état actuel,
les e ffe c tifs de c o n d u ite atteig n en t la lim ite in fé rie u r e c o m p a t ib le avec des
su jé tio n s d 'u n e autre nature. Le pas suiv an t sera it la cen trale entiè rem ent au
t o m a tiq u e sans agents de conduite.

Or cette o p tio n n 'e s t pas réaliste ac tu ellem en t, ni pro bablem ent

pour la p ro ch aine d é cen n ie.

Com parer les coûts d 'i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s , c 'e s t d 'a b o r d fixer le ni-

■ veau de c om p lexité des processus.
 IAEA-SM-168/A -5 145

Du bilan que nous avons effectu é, il apparaît c lairem en t que pour

une in sta lla tio n r e la t iv e m e n t sim p le (ty p e CHOOZ) un a u to m atism e tr a d itio n n e l
est m o in s coûteux q u 'u n a u to m atism e par calculateur si l 'o n tien t com pte du
coût des program m es.

Par contre, s 'a g i s s a n t d 'u n e in s ta lla tio n dont la c o m p le x ité est

v o isin e de S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2, les coûts légèrem ent en fav e u r des au to m atism es
tra d itio n n e ls pour une tranche sont en défaveur de ces d e r n ie r s l o r s q u 'u n m ê­
me program m e peut être u t ilisé sur p lu sieu rs tranches de sé rie (3 ou 4 ) .

Or il est j u s q u 'à ce jo ur rare de v o i r réaliser des tranches

strictem en t de sé rie que ce so it par les cara ctéristiq u es des m atériels p rin ­
c ip a u x ou les cara ctéristiq u es des com posants de c o n trô le - co m m an d e disp o n ibles
sur le m arché.

En d é fin itiv e il ressort de la com p araison des coûts actu alisés

que le seul élé m ent déterm ina nt sera it le coût de l 'i m m o b i l i s a t i o n de la tran­
che à la su ite d 'u n e destru c tio n im prévue du systèm e central. Ce sera it le cas
d 'u n in ce n d ie par e xem p le.

Une avarie quasi to tale d 'u n e salle de relayag e entraîne un arrêt

de 4 à 5 m o is contre une im m o b ilis a tio n estim é e de l 'o r d r e d 'u n e année dans le
cas d 'u n calculateur et des p é rip h é riq u es situ és dans le même local.

Un autre élém ent non n é g lig e a b le , b ien que très ré d u it dans un

calcu l ac tu alisé , est le p ro blèm e de tr é s o r e r ie q u 'e n t r a î n e pour l 'e x p l o i t a n t
l 'a c h a t d 'u n systèm e quasi c om p let pour rem p lacer un systèm e obsolescent.

Un pas dé term ina nt sera en d é fin itiv e fran ch i lorsq ue la s u p p r e s s i o n de

la to ta lité du personnel de c o n du ite sera p o s sib le . Ce sera d 'a i l l e u r s davan­
tage des co n sid é ratio n s de c onfort p lu s que la r é d u c tio n de coût qui im pose­
ront les systèm es à base de calculateurs n u m é riq u e s.

III. CONCLUSIONS

3 .1 . C o n clu sio n s générales sur les au to m atism es de C H O OZ - C H IN O N 2 et S A IN T -

LAURENT 2

Les résultats d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n des systèm es m is en oeuvre à CHOOZ,

C H IN O N 2 et S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 nous perm ettent de p r é c is e r nos id é es sur les n i­
veaux d 'a u t o m a t i s m e souh aitab les ac tuellem ent ou à court term e et sur la p lace
des calculateurs n u m ériq u es dans la ré alisatio n de ces systèm es. L 'o b j e c t i f est
d o u b le :

- ab o u tir à des so lu tio n s tech n o lo g iq u es é co no m iq uem ent in téressan tes

- as sis te r le personnel d 'E x p l o i t a t i o n pour fac ilite r et rendre plus

attrayan te les c o n d itio n s de trav a il.

Le c h o ix d 'u n a u to m atism e dépend dans ces c o n d itio n s des facteurs

su iv an ts :

- la c om p lexité des processus com m andés et la nature du serv ice de

l 'u n i t é d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n

- L 'a d a p t a t i o n des cara cté ristiq u es propres aux d iv ers é lé m ents qui
in terviennent dans la com m ande.
146 LANGLADE et LEROY

Dans ce contexte, les calculateurs n u m é riq u es présentent deux ca­

r a c té r is tiq u e s e sse n tie lle s :

a) La p o s s ib ilité de co m b in er quasi in stan ta n é m e n t des lo g iq u es et des

résu ltats de m esures et de c alcu ls co m p lex es

b) Leur ap titu de à effectuer un très grand nom bre de fo n c tio n s rép éti­
tiv es et à tra ite r une q u a n t it é consid érab le d 'i n f o r m a t i o n s .

Par contre, ils sont in a p te s à s 'a d a p t e r à des situ atio n s im p ré ­

vues .

Ce d om ain e reste l 'a p a n a g e de l 'e x p l o i t a n t lequel d o it d isp o se r

pour rem p lir son rô le des in fo r m a t io n s et des m oyens les m ieu x a d a p t é s à la
co m p ré h en sio n e t aux in terv en tio n s.

Dans la plupart des situ atio n s c ritiq u e s, il im p o rte que la c om ­

p ré h en sio n so it r a p id e et sûre ; l 'e x p é r i e n c e m ontre que les d isp o sitifs tra­
d itio n n e ls co m b in a n t pour la prise de c o n sc ien ce des phénom ènes m oyens v i s u e l s
ou sonores et des p ré s e n ta tio n s faciles à in terpréter (s y n o p t iq u e s , c o u leu rs,
e n r e g i s t r e m e n t s ... so n n e rie s) sont irrem p laç ables. Elles d o iv en t être fiab les
et les com m andes do iv en t être fiab les. Le doute est une situ atio n p sy c h o lo g i­
que qui c o n du it in é lu c ta b le m e n t à des fau sses m anoeuvres o u même à d e s réac­
tio n s aux conséquences graves.

CHOOZ et S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 con stitu en t les deux cas d 'a u t o m a t i s m e

extrêm es.

A C H OO Z le processus est r e la tiv e m e n t sim p le, l 'a u t o m a t i s m e est

s im p le et la c o n du ite quasi m a n u elle.

A S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 le processus est com p lexe et l 'o n im a g in e d iffi

c ile m e n t que la plupart des fo n ctio n s ne so ien t pas ré alisé es a u to m atiq u em e n t.
S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2 est une u nité quasi a u t o m a t i q u e . L e r ô l e d u p e r s o n n e l de quart se
lim ite p r a tiq u e m e n t à la su rv eilla n ce.

C H IN O N 2 o ffre l 'e x e m p l e d 'u n e c o m b in a iso n de c o n d u ite m anuelle

tra d itio n n e lle disp o sa n t des m oyens d 'i n f o r m a t i o n adaptés ; le traitem e nt
d 'i n f o r m a t i o n est co m p lé té par un systèm e de calculateurs où ces d e r n ie r s
trouvent une a p p lic a tio n adéquate de leurs q u a lité s (c a p a c it é et r a p id it é ).

La s é c u r ité so u fflage n 'a y a n t pas le caractère ab so lu de celle de

S A IN T - L A U R E N T 2, l 'i n s t a l l a t i o n reste du d o m aine de la c o n du ite m anuelle. B ien
que ré alisé e en 1965, si elle é tait à r e fa ir e l 'e x p l o i t a n t ap p ré c ie ra it q u 'e l ­
le so it ré alisé e a u j o u r d 'h u i su iv an t le même p r i n c i p e de com m ande. Par contre
le nom bre de calculateurs sera it réd u it à deux.

3 .2 . L 'u t i l i s a t i o n des c alcu lateu rs n u m ériq u es

Les avantages et les lim ite s des auto m atism es t ra d itio n n e ls sont
b ien connus. Par contre l 'u t i l i s a t i o n de calculateurs n u m ériq u es présente en­
core de nom breux a l é a s . L 'o b j e t de ce qui su it est de présenter l 'a v i s de l 'e x
p lo itan t d 'E .D .F . sur cette q u estio n ; ce dé velo p p e m ent co n stitu era la conclu­
sio n de notre étude.

3 .2 .1 . La co m p le x ité des processus

Les c alcu lateu rs sont avantageux si les systèm es sont co m p lex es

ou si le nom bre d 'i n f o r m a t i o n s à traiter dans le cadre d 'u n e même fo n ctio n
 IAEA-SM-168/A-5 147

(c o n s ig n a te u r d 'é v é n e m e n t s ) est im portant; ils perm ettent la réalisa tio n de

com m andes plus p erfo rm an tes que les com m andes tra d itio n n e lle s et c o n stitu en t
l 'o u t i l ap p ro p rié à la c o o r d in a tio n de fo n ctio n s dans des situ atio n s b ien pré­
d éterm in ées. M ais le u r u t ilis a tio n n 'a c c e p t e aucune n é gligence au n i v e a u de
l 'é t u d e ce qui peut être b é n é fiq u e l o r s q u 'e l l e con du it à des a m élio ratio n s de
m atériel p rin c ip a l; dans c ertain s cas lim ite (p h é n o m è n e s alé a to ires) le c alcu­
lateur d ev ien t in ad a p té . Les so lu tio n s de repli sont so it la m ise de la tranche
en situ atio n d ite "d e s é c u rité " so it la n é c essité de faire appel à l 'i n t e r v e n ­
tio n du personnel de co n duite.

Un a v a n ta g e im p o rtan t des lo g iq u es pro gram m ées est de perm ettre

des m o d ific a tio n s im p o rtan tes de fo n ctio n s par sim p le m o d ific a tio n des
program m es.

3 .2 .2 . Les coûts

Lorsque pour une m êm e fo n c tio n c a lc u la t e u r s et d i s p o s i ­

tifs tra d itio n n e ls sont en concurrence, les calculateurs dev ien n en t intéres­
sants dès q ue la sé rie de fo n ctio n s ab solum en t id en tiq u es excède 3 à 4.

Dans le b ilan des coûts il c o n v ien t de ten ir com pte des pro blè­
m es de tr é s o r e r ie q ue ne m anqueront p ro bablem ent pas de po ser au cours de la
v ie de la cen trale les rem placem ents p a rtie ls ou g l o b a u x des systèm es.

Toutes p récau tio n s do iv en t être p rise s avant la m ise en serv ic e

ou a u cours de la m ise en serv ice des systèm es pour faire en sorte que les
p ertu rb atio n s so ien t lim itées. En effet les p ertu rb a tio n s im p ortan tes (c h u t e
de barre, d é c l e n c h e m e n t s ...) ont une in cid e n ce défavo rable sur la tenue des
m atériels p r in c ip a u x (c o n tra in te s th e r m iq u e s ).

Toutes les p récau tio n s (p r o g r a m m e s , e s s a i s ...) seront p rise s

afin d 'é v i t e r l 'a p p a r i t i o n de telles p ertu rb atio n s dues à la grande s e n s ib i­
lité des calculateurs aux c o n d itio n s d 'a m b i a n c e (t e m p é r a tu r e , p a rasites,
m a s s e s ).

En outre, l 'é q u i p e chargée de la m ise en serv ice d 'u n e p re m iè re

réalisatio n d o it être suffisam m ent éto ffée. Il est e sse n tie l q u 'e l l e so it
chargée de la m ise en se rv ic e des tranches de série qui su iv en t.

3 .2 .3 . La fiabilité et la m a in t e n a n c e

Pour ju ger de la fiab ilité com parée des systèm es t r a d itio n n e ls

et des systèm es à base de calculateurs, il sera it n é c essaire de com parer deux
tranches con tem p o rain es où les fo n c tio n s an alo gues so ien t traité es par c alcu­
lateur dans l 'u n e et tra d itio n n e lle m e n t dans l 'a u t r e . De telles réalisa tio n s
n 'e x i s t e n t pas.

Nous avons v u que les in d is p o n ib ilité s in tro d u ites par les cal­
cu lateurs en ré g im e de c ro isière sont n ég lig eab les.

To u tefo is, au cours des e x p é r ie n c e s ou des réalisa tio n s effec­

tuées à E .D .F . il est apparu que l 'a p u r e m e n t des systèm es, l 'a t t é n u a t i o n des
p ertu rb atio n s de fo n c tio n n e m e n t étaien t p lu s long s à réaliser sur les systè­
m es disp o sa n t de calculateurs pour tout ou p a r tie de la conduite.

En fin , dans le cas de calculateurs, la m a in te n a n c e im p liq u e des

s u jé tio n s qui sont plus ré d u ites sur les systèm es t r a d it io n n e ls .
148 LANGLADE et LEROY

- Les in te rv e n tio n s su r une fo n c tio n do iv en t être m in u tieu sem en t prépa­

rées afin d 'é v i t e r des ac tio n s in tem p estiv es sur d 'a u t r e s fo n c tio n s. Ces in ­
terv en tio n s sont plus faciles en général sur les systèm es t r a d itio n n e ls en
ra is o n de la sé p a r a tio n poussée.

- La tenue à jo u r des docum ents et d ictio n n aires d o it être effectuée

sans a u c u n e o m i s s i o n .L e personne¿ de m a in te n a n c e des calculateurs d o it o f­
frir un c ertain nom bre de q u a lité s é m in en tes.

3 .2 .4 . La q u a lité de l 'i n f o r m a t i o n

Les calculateurs d ev ien n en t un o u til in tére ssan t dans l ’ hypothèse

où de très nom breuses in fo r m a t io n s p r im a ir e s sont n é c essaires à la c o n d u ite
(le se u il se situant entre 100 et 200) ou à la su rv eilla n ce (le se u il p our une
même fo n c tio n se situant entre 500 et 1 0 0 0 ). Il est apte à d é liv rer des in ­
fo rm atio n s é labo ré es sous fo r m e de résultat d 'u n e analyse c om p lexe (c o n sig n a -
teur d 'é v é n e m e n t s avec im p re s s io n en lan g ag e in te llig ib le des événem ents
su cce ssifs) ou de d isp o sitio n s ju dicieu ses (c a r t e s de flu x ou de t e m p é r a t u r e s ).

Par contre, il im p o rte de lim ite r les in fo rm a tio n s d é liv rée s au

strict n é cessaire à sav o ir :

- les d isc o rd a n ce s (e t non tous les changem en ts d 'é t a t )

- les dépassem ents e sse n tie ls.

Ces in fo r m a tio n s , néc essairem en t lim ité es et p a rfo is même in ­

su ffisan te s dans une c entrale t r a d it io n n e lle , ne do iv en t pas donner lieu à
l 'i n s c r i p t i o n d 'u n nom bre d 'i n f o r m a t i o n s tel q ue personne ne les lira
jam ais.

Ces in fo rm a tio n s, au surplus, do iv en t être regroupées par

affin ité.

Une p ré cau tio n e sse n tie lle co nsistera à ex am in er les p o s sib ili­
tés de s a t u r a t i o n des m é m o ir e s de t r a n s f e r t . Cette étude est in d isp en sab le
dès la phase de la co n cep tio n .

E lle ne s 'i m p o s e pas pour les in sta lla tio n s tra d it io n n e lle s où
les in fo r m a t io n s de c o n du ite sont d é l iv r é e s en perm anence (e n r e g is t r e u r s ,
in d ica teu rs, voyants d 'é t a t , alarm es d ir e c t e s ).

3 .2 .5 . L ' obsolescence

Les o rd in a te u r s et leurs p é rip h é riq u es sont en év o lu tio n très ra­

p i d e e t l a d u r é e d 'u n e même f a b r i c a t i o n n 'e x c è d e pas quelq u es années. Les as­
pects tech n o lo g iq u es de leu r rem p lacem ent dans un délai faib le (2 à 3 jo u rs)
do iv en t être e x am in é s dès la phase de la c o n cep tio n . Cette étude est in dis­
pensable lo rs q u e le calculateur r e m p lit des fo n ctio n s v itales.

Ce pro blèm e se trouve atténué si le m aître d 'o e u v r e u tilise des

calculateurs de série et largem ent dim ensio n nés ce qui perm et de rem édier à
des défauts p a r tie ls (a v a r ie de p istes m a g n é tiq u e s , réam énagem ent des
p r o g r a m m e s ).

En outre, comme c 'e s t d 'a i l l e u r s le cas pour les systèm es tra­

d itio n n e ls, il im p o rte que so ien t u tilisé s des com posants ou des p érip héri­
ques soig n eu sem en t sé le c tio n n é s et appartenant à de grandes sé ries.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 5 149

Il importe de même que les calculateurs à usage in d u striel

soient prévus pour u t i l i s e r un programme u n iv e r s e l, u t il is e n t des signaux
d 'e n t r é e et d éliv ra n t des in stru c tio n s de sortie norm alisées. Ce problème
dont les instances n ation ales ou in te rn a tio n a les se préoccupent n 'a pas trou­
vé à ce jour de solu tio n .

3 .2 .6 . Les problèmes technologiques

L 'u t i l i s a t i o n d 'o r d in a te u r s dans les in s t a lla t io n s in d u s tr ie lle s

où se trouvent réunies des conditions d'am biance d i f f i c i l e s (températures
extrêmes au niveau des capteurs, présence d 'e a u et de vapeur, parasites é l e c ­
tr iq u e s , m a s s e s .. .) a posé d iv ers problèmes auxquels en général des solutions
simples ont été trouvées. Nous citerons :

- les battements ou rebondissement des r e la is électrom agnétiques,

(f i l t r a g e par retard ou confirm ation d 'é t a t )

- les p a rasite s (b lin d a g e , masse éle c tro n iq u e ),

- les problèmes l ié s à l 'u t i l i s a t i o n de signaux de très bas niveau

(commutations, in flu en ce r ela tiv e de p a r a s it e s ).

Nous rappelons, ce qui est admis de façon quasi g énérale, qu'un

automatisme ne vaut que ce que v a len t les capteurs.

3 .2 .7 . L 'a d a p t a t io n des hommes

L 'a d a p t a t io n du personnel aux systèmes u t il is a n t des ordinateurs

est plus d i f f i c i l e que pour les systèmes tra d itio n n e ls en raison du support
a b st ra it des fon ction s.

La q u a l if ic a t io n du personnel ne souffre pas la m édiocrité.

L 'a c t i o n est importante au niveau :

- de la sélection

- de la formation élémentaire puis permanente du personnel de maintenance.

E n f i n , un automatisme très poussé qui ramènerait la fonction de

chef de bloc à un simple rôle de su rv eillan ce sur une in s t a lla t io n r e la t iv e ­
ment simple en lè v er ait tout intérêt à la fonction.

A la lim ite , celui- ci s era it incapable d 'e f f e c t u e r les in t e r ­

ventions imposées par des situ a tio n s imprévues ou im prévisibles (ruptures
d 'org a nes ou anomalies concomitantes de fonctionnem ent). Un entraînement sur
sim ulateur de conduite, déjà nécessaire pour des in s t a lla t io n s t r a d it io n n e l­
le s , devient o b lig a to ir e .

3 .2 .8 . Les calcu lateu rs et les fonctions annexes

Les exigences externes sont de plus en plus nombreuses et impor­

tantes : ce sont notamment :

- les b ila n s thermiques et la g estio n technique et adm inistrative

- les es s a is et la gestion du com bustible.

On peut remarquer q u 'u n certa in nombre de fonctions dont l ' u t i ­

l it é est d isc u ta ble sont générées par l 'e x i s t e n c e même de moyens externes
puissan ts à base de c a lc u late u rs.
150 LANGLADE et LEROY

Pour ce f a ir e , les calculateurs sont des o u tils précieux. La

ten tation est grande d 'u t i l i s e r les calculateurs d 'e x p lo it a t io n à cette f i n .
Nous n 'y sommes pas favorables sauf à d é liv r er les informations nécessaires
à des traitem ents u lté r ie u r s sur des systèmes déconnectés.

De même que nous souhaitons que les fonctions de traitement de

l'in fo r m a t io n à usage d if f é r é ne réagissent pas sur les traitements d 'i n f o r ­
mation à usage immédiat, de même nous chercherons à évite r que des t r a i t e ­
ments externes ne tendent à dégrader les inform ations nécessaires à
1 'e x p l o it a t io n .

Notre conclusion sera que les automatismes de CHOOZ et de SAINT-

LAURENT 2 sont b ien a d ap té s à chaque cas. Ceci revient à dire que, en l 'é t a t
actuel rien ne m ilite en faveur de la mise en oeuvre d'automatismes généra­
lis é s à base de calculateurs dans les in s t a lla t io n s de conception relativement
s i m p l e , dont la conduite est facilem ent assurée par une équipe réduite pen­
dant les périodes c r it iq u e s . I l importera par contre que toutes les mesures
soien t prises dans ces dernières in s ta lla t io n s pour assurer l 'e f f i c a c i t é des
commandes et à cet e f f e t les systèmes tra d itio n ne ls restent les mieux adaptés.
Ceci n 'e x c l u t pas l 'u t i l i s a t i o n de calculateurs pour le"traitem ent de certaines
fo n c t io n s .

Nous ne nous aventurerons pas à fa ir e des prévisions pour

l 'a v e n i r ; i l n 'e s t , pour être prudent, que de r e lir e les pronostics e n ­
th ou siastes des années 1 9 60 . Nous dirons simplement que tant que la pré­
sence d 'u n seul homme dans une salle de commande est et reste n écessaire,
i l est en v a in d 'e n v is a g e r pour la prochaine décennie un automatisme to tal.
Cette opinion ne s'oppose pas cependant à ce que des e ffo r ts raisonnables
soient engagés vers cet o b j e c t i f .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 6

LESSONS FR O M DUNGENESS 'B ' AND

OTHER POW ER STATION COM PUTERS

B. LOWE
FERRANTI L td .,
Manchester,
United Kingdom

Abstract

LESSONS FROM DUNGENESS 'B1 AND OTHER POWER STATION COMPUTERS.

The on-line digital computer system for Dungeness *B' Nuclear Power Station was specified in 1964-65.
The computers monitor virtually all the instrumentation signals from the reactors, pressure vessels, turbines
and general plants to provide alarm, display, and logging facilities. The computer has direct digital control
of reactor functions, boiler operation, and turbine run-up. The computer system was delivered in 1970 and
is now in use for plant commissioning. Problems have occurred with operational requirements which have
led to the initial design outline being considerably revised. Several examples are given to illustrate the type
of problems encountered and the corresponding solutions, which were sometimes unexpectedly expensive.
The system has recently reached saturation in one or two critical timing areas. The application of direct
control demands a high level of system integrity. The principles used are outlined with some comments on
the basic assumptions. The fault detection and rectification philosophy is described and its limitations discussed.
An improved system configuration has been used on later stations, including Hartlepools and Heysham 'A*.
Reliability has been a major concern throughout the project. Recorded availability figures are given for site
operation to date, and these show clearly the argument which is leading to the complete replacement of the
analog signal scanning system. Initial reliability and performance of this system was satisfactory but it is
proving too costly and difficult to maintain. Maintenance aspects of the software are discussed with examples
of actual fault types discovered, and the problems inherent in their detection and correction. The importance
of correct operational tape-handling procedures is underlined. The difficulties encountered on this project
are compared with similar computer applications. Normal problems are aggravated by the importance of
integrity and availability in power station operation. This has led to a re-appraisal of simple dedicated
computers for selected small isolated tasks and to the use of different processor, store and input-output
configurations to enable easier programming of efficient standby control. Current trends in the marketing
of on-line processors help to make different approaches more economically attractive for the future.

The Dungeness 'B ' N uclear Pow er Station is the fir s t of the Advanced Gas
C ooled R ea ctors (AGR) Stations to be built in the U .K . Its specification called fo r
many new advances in engineering technology, one o f the prim e objectiv es being to
construct a station that was still up to date at the tim e of com m issioning.

This philosophy was applied to the instrumentation and con trol and led to the
sp ecifica tion , in 1964-65, of a com puterised con trol system that in many respects
rem ains unique in the w orld today. It was seen at the tim e as a log ica l developm ent,
based on the experience of the CEGB in applying com puters to the con trol o f the
Magnox s e r ie s o f nuclear pow er stations.

The sp ecifica tion called fo r a twin on line, digital com puter system , fa il safe,
with availability high enough to prevent the n ecessity of shutting down the rea ctor due
to failure of the data p rocessin g system . The com puters are essential to continued
rea ctor operation as they m onitor nearly all the instrumentation signals from the
re a c to r s, p ressu re v e s s e ls , turbines and general plant and in many ca ses provide the
only method of announcing alarm s in the central con trol room .

151
152 LOWE

The con trol room itse lf is designed to make maximum u se of com puter output
via cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. The two re a cto rs at Dungeness 'B ' can be
controlled fro m a com pact room by two operators and a su p ervisor. To a ssist them
to do this efficien tly the com puter system analyses and presen ts the data outputs so
as to highlight the important signal disturbances. It also p erform s sequence control
during start-up of both turbines and rea ctors; A uxiliary functions include analysis of
post incident r e c o r d s , data reduction and record in g, and con trol of the ball scanning
p rocedu res fo r m easuring neutron flux density.

It is apparent, even from this b r ie f introduction, that nothing very difficult

was attempted in each individual area. The novelty o f the design lie s in com bining
the sev era l and div erse types of data p rocessin g functions into a single central
computing system , w hilst retaining sufficient integrity to enable the plant to be
operated in a safe and sa tisfactory manner. The difficulty lie s in optim ising the
tim e sharing of computing fa cilitie s to enable the com puter to m eet all the rea l-tim e
requirem ents of the operators and plant, whilst at the sam e tim e preventing interaction
between p ro g ra m s.

One of the problem s not appreciated in 1964 was that of controlling the plant
data requ ired by each program . A s an exam ple, in o r d e r to m onitor and display a
particu lar analogue instrument signal, the com puter requ ires thirty p ieces of
inform ation. T h ese include the hardware ad dress, the upper and low er alarm lim its,
linearisation constants, scalin g factor,disp lay style, alarm m essage structure, and
inhibit m arkers (signal invalid, under test, e t c .) T here are about 2,0 00 analogue
signal inputs to each com puter system and the entry and checking of these param eters
represen ts a m a jor p roblem , particu larly during com m issioning when the values are
constantly changing.

The solution to data handling in the ca se of Dungeness 'B ' is to use o ff line
com puter fa cilitie s to provide reliable data con v ersion d irect from the main station
construction r e c o r d s . The plant record s are held with the cabling details on replaceable
disc packs and are updated each month on a s e r v ice bureau machine by the construction
com pany. The d is c s are then p rocessed at CEGB HQ where they are searched and
checked by a sp ecia l program which outputs paper tape com patible with the site
com pu ters. A further program is then used to load the data into the right areas o f
sto re .

F o r use after com m issioning, when only a few param eters need to be altered
by station staff a sp ecia l panel is provided, with secu rity lock s which allow s direct
input to store from handkeys, under the con trol of a manual input facility program .
B ecause of the dangers inherent in allowing operators to alter store contents on -lin e
the manual input facility p erform s a com prehensive validity check b efore allowing
any entry. The program fo r this facility was d ism issed as triv ia l in the original
sp ecifica tion , but is now used fo r 36 separate functions and has taken ov e r two man
y ea rs o f efforts to p rovide. B esides alteration of alarm data, it allow s log output
frequ encies to be changed, perm its dumps fo r investigation pu rposes, allow s CRT
form ats to be altered, and enables con trol param eters to be changed. It can also
be used fo r identifying groups of inputs fo r com m on treatm ent, to initialise the date,
to set test data fo r program tests, and to facilitate fault diagnosis.

The definition o f operational details has had other effects on the data p rocessin g
system . It was realised three y ea rs ago that the original sp ecifica tion could not cope
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 6 153

with extra inform ation required on the CRT form ats and additional display drive
equipment was added. This in turn caused som e switching problem s and resulted in
the re -a llo ca tio n of pow er supplies to r estore adequate integrity.

The alarm p rocessin g system has also d e v elop ed . O riginally thought to

con sist o f a few p rim e cause alarm s with many dependent secon d a ries, the
operational requirem ent in p ractice ca lls fo r a number o f prim e cause effects
each with a relatively shallow "t r e e " o f dependencies. This results in considerable
p rogram activity tran sferrin g tree data fro m the backing store fo r analysis, and the
store a c c e s s tim e has becom e a seriou s constraint on the detailed program design
o f the system .

Again, the sp ecifica tion o f fundamental data to the com puter has proved
trou blesom e. The alarm dependencies are sp ecified by plant personnel with little
com puter training and the analysis program is written by com puter personnel with
little knowledge of plant operation. The solution is again found in an o ff-lin e
program , in this ca se a com p iler and loader system . The plant expert can define
lo g ica l and tree dependencies in sim ple mnemonic notation which the com p iler
converts to com puter tape input. This is loaded on -lin e by the loader program
which operates as a sub-routine of the manual input facility already mentioned.

The developm ent of the com puter system has now reached a stage where a
quantitive assessm ent of perform an ce can be obtained. The twin com puters fo r the
fir s t rea ctor w ere delivered in 1970 and at the tim e of w riting are com m ission ed with
a fu ll m onitoring, alarm and display fa cility . Some of the con trol program s are also
available and have been tested using an analogue plant sim ulator.

The Argus 500 com puters used have pa ra llel arithm etic 24 bit w ord length
with program floating point if requ ired . The c o r e store c y c le tim e is 2¿ísec. The
program s are organised into a number of stream s each with a nominal fixed entry
period determ ined by an orga n iser count. T h ere are seven program stream s having
ord ered p riority , stream 1 being highest and th erefore always entered on tim e. If
higher p riority stream s are still active when countdown is com pleted, then a low er
priority stream entry w ill be delayed.

M easurem ents taken show that the p rocessin g tim e is divided as follow s.
Analogue m onitor 20%; digital m onitor 18% ; Fault D etection 13%; ch a ra cter output
14%, digital output con trol 3%; other orga n iser functions 8%, Panel scanning program s
8%, alarm print and display (assum ing one alarm p er 10 s e c s , with one lo g ica l and
one causative analysis) 10%, form at update 6%. These m easurem ents show that the
p r o c e s s o r is fully loaded even without con trol program s.

The form at update and log output program s are in a low p riority stream and
the respon se tim es are noticeably affected by system loading variations in the higher
p riority a rea s. F o r exam ple, the form at update tim e v a ries fro m 7 s e c s to 30 se c s
accordin g to the numbers and types o f form at on display, and the log output rate can
vary fro m 6| seconds p er line to 20| seconds p er line accordin g to the tim e spent
in the highest p riority stream .

It is very difficult to determ ine typical system loadings and hence predict
perform an ce in a highly interdependent tim e sharing system . The only accurate
sim ulator fo r a system of this nature is the system program itself.
1 54 LOWE

The lesson to learn here is to make sure the original design has sufficient flexibility
to cope with the unexpected because the results actually achieved w ere m arkedly
different from e a r lie r attempts to predict system respon ses from the program design s.
It is likely in this instance that the p r o c e s s o r w ill be uprated to a lfis e c store.

The application of d irect con trol demands a high lev el o f system integrity
and a number of prin cip les w ere laid down early in the design stage to apply to all
con trol program s where con trol failure may result in plant damage o r preju dice the
ov era ll availability o f a reactor-tu rbin e unit.

B riefly , all prim ary signals involved are generated from at least two
independent sou rces and are input to the com puter independently via separate analogue
scanner sy ste m s. If the m easuring instruments have a com m on pow er sou rce this
is m onitored by a digital failure input.

D igital con trol outputs are divided into two independent sets. A given control
demand requ ires a "p erm it" signal from one set of outputs together with a " r a i s e /
low er" o r 'o p e n /c lo s e ' type signal from the other. Hence a fault detected on one
channel can always be rendered safe by appropriate action on the other.

The validity of all inputs are checked by the appropriate con trol program s
and independent sou rces c ro s s -c h e c k e d fo r agreem ent. In addition actual actuator
respon ses are m onitored by separate program routines to ensure m ovement is
p roceeding in the expected d irection .

Each digital output has in addition a further relay which is operated

autom atically by a timing device in the event o f com puter failu re. Thus if the on ­
line s e lf-ch e ck program fails o r the orga n iser stops running, the c o r r e c t reset
signal is not generated and the tim er isolates all con trol signals and initiates an
automatic changeover to the standby p r o ce s s o r .

The Dungeness philosophy has a single com puter data highway p er rea ctor
to which are connected all the input/output dev ices em ployed. This highway can be
switched to connect to either o f two identical p r o c e s s o r -c o r e store configurations,
the standby equipment being shared between the two rea ctor sy stem s. Duplicate
backing stores are connected to each highway to provide the sam e lev el of redundancy
in all program handling d ev ices.

In applying the foregoin g integrity prin cip les one im m ediately sees that a
blockage on the highway can resu lt in com plete system shut-down. Fortunately,
this is not a very likely o ccu rre n ce . H ow ever it is also a fact that the m ajority of
the input-output con trol circu its are provided with pow er fro m com m on distributed
supplies and the check program s have had to be designed to ca ter fo r com m on faults
on otherw ise independent sign als.

Later A rgus system s such as those constructed fo r the H artlepools and

Heysham 'A ' AGR stations em ploy two highways p er rea ctor. The input/output
equipment is arranged in fou r b lock s, each block being switchable to either highway.
Any block can thus be isolated if n ecessary and redundant signals are em ployed so
that the lo s s of any one block does not cause re a cto r shut down. P articu la r ca re is
taken with the pow er supply design so that any one failure cannot cause trouble in
m ore than one block .
 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 / A - 6 15 5

A further advantage of the dual highway construction is that sp ecia l test

program s can be run on the standby machine via the second highway to diagnose a
fault in an isolated block . This is not p ossib le on a single highway system where
the suspect equipment must be physically m oved to a separate test facility .

D espite this lim itation, the ov era ll fault detection and rectification philosophy
has proved v e iy effectiv e so fa r. Permanent test w ords are m onitored to check
input scanner operation and test voltages to check the accuracy of analogue con v ersion s.
Any faults in this area are flagged to the operators via the digital input m onitor
program and norm al alarm displays. The equipment is constructed using replaceable
u n its, generally 19 inch racking with printed circu it boards plugged into printed
backboards. M ost o f these boards can be replaced without pow er switch o ff and
th erefore solid faults are v e iy rapidly clea red .

The central p r o c e s s o r , c o r e stores and backing stores are checked with

conventional program s under orga n iser, any failures resulting in a changeover
demand. T ra n sfers to backing store are also used to check highway operation.
Failed units are subjected to confirm atory off-lin e test program m es b efore replacem ent
o r rep a ir. P eriph eral equipment is m onitored by the u se r routines which address
them. F ailure results in a m essage and a switch of output to an alternative d evice.

M ost faults occu rrin g so fa r on the Dungeness 'B ' system have been cleared
within ten m inutes, the longest tim e record ed being just under on hour. However,
these figu res r e fe r solely to hardware faults and it is expected that system faults
w ill take somewhat longer to diagnose. T o a ssist with this task a procedu re is
being established to be vigorou sly applied to each system incident as it o c cu rs .
This involves each operator logging his exact procedu res at the tim e of the incident
and a copy of store contents being taken b efore the system is restarted. Quite often
the interaction of program s is such that it takes sev era l weeks of incidents before
any pattern is established.

Perhaps the m ost difficult type o f fault to detect on -lin e, besides an intermittent
occu rren ce is a gradual deterioration of accu racy associated with an individual
scanned input. T est w ords can be used to check log ic functions com m on to a group
of inputs but can never be applied to all input circu its at on ce. The reliability of
the signal scanning equipment is of paramount im portance.

The prim ary selection o f analogue signals on Dungeness 'B ' is by m echanical
rotary scanner units. W iper brushes are m otor driven ov e r gold contact studs
embedded in plastic to provide sequential switching of 256 inputs every 2 s e c s . A fter
som e initial troubles with log ic arrangem ent, the system worked w ell fo r 2 years
and was delivered to site. D eterioration in perform an ce was noticed and assumed
to be due to e le c tr ic a l noise caused by build up o f gold d eb ris as a resu lt of the
m echanical rubbing action between contacts and w iper. The units w ere cleaned
and serv iced and replaced. H ow ever, it soon becam e evident on many o f the units
that the serv icin g period required was reducing and all units w ere rem oved fo r a
m a jor refurbish. A fter many tria ls and investigations it has been established that
a build up of prow and tail gold d eb ris form ation s, cold welded to the w iper arm s,
is respon sible fo r com plete short circu its between contacts causing two signals to be
read in together. The build up can occu r within 2 to 3 months at norm al running
speeds but may take 6 months o r even one yea r.
156 LOWE

Because the deterioration is difficult to m onitor on -lin e this means that

frequent attention is required by skilled personnel fo r each scanner e v e iy few months.
The c o s t of organising such a maintenance facility and the risk of individual scanners
failing even m ore rapidly between se rv ice period s, has resulted in a decision to
replace the m echanical units with m ore conventional relay selection .

The effect of the scanner failures and investigations is shown in the reliability
fig u res record ed on site ov er the 12,900 hour period between 14th January 1971 to
5th July 1972. Using norm al weighing fa ctors to com pensate fo r redundancy and
assum ing 24 hours resident maintenance the total system availability fo r the reactor
21 equipment was m easured at 11. 33%. If one rem oves the m echanical rotary
scanning units from the assessm ent the availability was 99.96% .

The components of availability are as follow s:

Central p rocessin g m odules plus highway - 99.975%

Analogue input system - below minimum requirem ent fo r 11,432 hours.
D igital input system - 99.996%
Backing store system - 100%
D igital output system - 99.996%
Display system - 100%
Periph eral system - 100%
P ow er supply system - 100%

Again, in these fig u res the effect of program failures has not been considered,
prim a rily because the system is still being developed. Software faults introduce new
concepts of maintenance with consequent pitfalls fo r the unawares.

Once a program is com plete and fully tested then o f cou rse it cannot develop
a fault independently and with vigorou s testing sm all system s can be rapidly brought
to the no fa il condition, often before com m issioning and on -lin e operation. H owever,
on a large system there is an infinite com bination o f interactive possib ilities which
cannot all be tested b efore com m issioning. This gives r is e to a peculiar c la s s of
fault which is norm ally sufficient to bring the whole system to a stop, but because
it depends on coinciden ce to show up, can norm ally be clea red by re-sta rtin g the
program .

E xperience has shown that particular latent faults quite often are d iscov ered
sev era l y ea rs later, perhaps when som e con trol program is com m issioned which
e x e rc is e s parts of working program s in a different way than b efore. The difficulty
then is to maintain a com petent body o f expertise sufficiently fa m ilia r with the
program s to be able to diagnose e r r o r s without causing further disruption.
The problem is inherently m ore difficult than hardware maintenance because o f the
lev el of sk ill requ ired fo r the task. It is mainly because of the maintenance aspects
that standard m odular softw are block s are used whenever p ossib le and it is the
authors opinion that operational details should be form ulated with standard software
routines in mind rather than laid down as inflexible requirem ents to be met by sp ecial
program developm ent.

Software maintenance is also affected by the ch oice of operating system . An

orga n iser which can effectively keep program s apart and prevent interaction via
com m on data areas facilitates rem oval and replacem ent o f program segm ents in a
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 6 157

sim ila r fashion to hardware. Such an organ iser usually requ ires particu lar hardware
fa cilitie s to produce sufficient integrity within the p r o c e s s o r s and s t o r e s .

One further pitfall experienced in software maintenance a ris e s from the ease
o f inserting co rre ctio n s by by-passin g affected areas o f store, and using instructions
in fr e e store at the end of the program . This is a quick and effective method of
restorin g operation but introduces sev ere problem s in documentation if used to
any great extent. It is recom m ended that no m ore than twenty o r thirty such patches
should be used without recom pilin g the tape.

Another problem o f the softw are repair patch technique is the generation o f a
co lle ctio n o f sm all tapes fo r this purpose. These quite often get lost o r are forgotten
if a program reloading is required. Again quantity must be kept to a minimum and
all tapes must be carefully and adequately identified. On Dungeness 'B ' the procedu re
is fo r ev ery tape to contain standard identification on a sp ecia l lea d -in section . The
status o f the tape is identified by colou r to prevent untested tapes being picked up by
m istake. It is essential on standard program segm ents that a form a l m odification
p rocedu re be c a r rie d out b efore a final im plementation is m ade, otherw ise the
advantages o f standardisation are lost.

It is evident from the foregoin g that considerable difficulties have been

encountered in the developm ent of a w orkable data p rocessin g system fo r Dungeness
'B \ Some o f the problem s have been avoided on later designs and com parable
system s are now undertaken with grea ter confidence in the outcom e. However one
o f the m a jor im plementation problem s a ris e s as a result o f the time scale of a pow er
station construction program .

Sm all data p rocessin g sy stem s, log gers, n on-essen tial alarm d e v ic e s ,

switchyard m onitoring system s e tc. can be constructed, program m ed, tested,
d elivered and com m issioned in tim es o f under 18 months but a large pow er station
with d irect con trol cannot be fully com m issioned until the plant is producing
p ow er. During the com m issioning phase it is usually required that the alarm
system is on -lin e m onitoring plant w hilst the con trol program s are integrated and
tested. Thus tests have to be designed which in terfere as little as p ossib le with
the on -lin e p erform an ce. The capabilities o f the operating system are im portant.

Another aspect of tim e sca le is that maintenance problem s associated with the
initial system have to be o v ercom e in pa ra llel with new system developm ent. This
has already been mentioned but the c o s t is not usually appreciated when tenders
are being evaluated.

The overridin g im portance of integrity and availability in pow er stations is

reflected throughout the data p rocessin g system design. Each p iece of hardware
and softw are must be carefully checked as to its p ossib le effect under failure
conditions and predictions must be attempted fo r any failure m odes envisaged.
The difficulty o f doing this fo r a large system has led to a re-a p p ra isa l of
h eira rch ica l con trol prin cip les.

In a h eirarchy of com puters separate p r o c e s s o r s are used to m onitor and

con trol s e lf contained areas of plant. These individual system s can be developed
158 LOWE

and tested independently to a known interface with a management d ev ice. The

difficulty has been in providing store a c c e s s to data fo r each o f the program s
without prohibitive c o st.

Current trends in com puter development utilise m ore com plex integrated
circu its to achieve even cheaper construction . Thus the p r o c e s s o r is no longer a
m a jor co st item in a large system design. This leads to the possibility of m ulti­
p r o c e s s o r s being used. A further change is the concept o f shared storage system s
where m ore than one p r o c e s s o r can a c c e s s the same sto re . This has previously
been achieved by highway switching but now stores are becom ing available with
built in share c ir c u its .

U tilising both the above concepts a data p rocessin g system could con sist of
a number o f p r o c e s s o r s and stores all interlocking to provide extra secu rity.
Interaction could be reduced to a minimum and program m ing treated as isolated
task s. With carefu l interface definition it is possible that the test phase could be
shortened and that parts of the system could be physically isolated from the
rem ainder fo r developm ent.

The input-output equipment would be furnished with a dual highway o r

equivalent, m ore use being made o f rem ote circu its to reduce plant cabling
requirem ents. The prin ciple of isolatable blocks would be retained.

This paper has d iscu ssed a selection of problem s which have occu rred in
conjunction with pow er station p r o je c ts . These are not the only problem s and
indeed som e problem s have obviously yet to be m et. Perhaps the best lesson to
learn is that the peculiarities of com puter system s must be taken into account when
the operating requirem ents are laid down. This suggests that m ore tran sfer of skills
is required between com puter system designers and pow er station operators.
In the authors opinion a great deal o f education is obviously required on both sid es.

D IS C U SS IO N

J . E . L U N D E : I have been under the (possibly w rong) im p r es sio n that

in the United K in g d o m reliance has to a large extent been placed on automated
a la r m analysis algorithm s. Is this still considered a p rom isin g line of
a pproach, or do you consider it to be a difficult one in vie w of the difficulty
of envisaging all types of plant disturbance situations at the design stage?
B . L O W E : E x p e r ie n c e of actual operation will not be available until
the A G R stations are fully c o m m is s io n e d . H o w e v e r , judging fr o m the
limited experience so far, the basic idea s e e m s to be successful and will
probably be applied again in future stations, although the present p r o g r a m s
will be ve ry m u c h sim plified.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 12

КО НТРО ЛЬ ГЕРМ ЕТИ Ч Н О С ТИ П ЕРВО ГО

К О Н ТУРА В П А РО ГЕН ЕРА ТО РА Х
НА АТО М Н Ы Х Э Л ЕКТРО С ТА Н Ц И Я Х
С РЕА КТО РО М В О Д О -В О Д Я Н О ГО ТИ П А

В .Л .А Н Т О Н О В , В .С .Ж Е Р Н О В , Б .Л .К И С Е Л Е В ,
В .В .М А Т В Е Е В , Н .В .Р Ы Ж О В , В .М .С К А Т К И Н

Государственны й комитет по использованию

атом ной энергии С С С Р ,
М оск в а ,
Союз С ов етск и х Социалистических Республик

A bstract-Аннотация

D E T E C T I O N O F L E A K S IN T H E P R I M A R Y C IR C U I T O F S T E A M G E N E R A T O R S . A T N U C L E ­
A R P O W E R ST A TIO N S W IT H W A T E R C O O L E D A N D M O D E R A T E D R E A C T O R S .
The early detection of leaks in the primary circuit and rapid, planned action to n o r m a ­
lize the situation and protect operating personnel increase the probability of reliable nucle­
ar power plant operation, ensure operational safety and exclude the risk of environmental
contamination. Methods whereby various radioisotopes present in the primary coolant are
used as radioactive tracers have become widespread. The authors describe a leak detection
method based on measurements of the hard beta radiation from nitrogen-16 in the steam of
the secondary circuit and describe the design principles and operating parameters of the
equipment in its application to nuclear power stations with water moderated and cooled
reactors. The hard beta radiation from nitrogen-16 is measured directly in the steam
pipes of the secondary circuit by Geiger counters built to withstand high temperatures.
Reliable monitoring of each steam generator is achieved also by using scintillation detector
units to maintain a check on the total activity of the drainage water; this is supplemented by
overall monitoring of the gases from the steam generator group as they leave the ejector,
the gas component of the activity being measured by m eans of detector units with a capacity
of 20 litres. The information from the detector units is fed into data processing equipment
in the station control room . E ac h monitoring point is provided with an independent functio­
nal analogue count rate meter. The necessary sensitivity for early leak detection is pro­
vided by a multichannel reversible scaler. The entire measuring circuit is monitored con­
tinuously by an automatic fault-detecting system. There is also provision for remote cali­
bration of the majority of the detector units. The instruments, detector units and control
panels are assembled from standard modules consisting of microelectronic elements.

К О Н Т Р О Л Ь Г Е Р М Е Т И Ч Н О С Т И П Е Р В О Г О К О Н Т У Р А В П А Р О Г Е Н Е Р А Т О Р А Х НА А Т О М ­
НЫ Х Э Л Е К Т РО С Т А Н Ц И Я Х С Р Е А К Т О Р О М ВОДО-ВОДЯНОГО ТИП А.
Широкое распространение получили методы с использованием радиоактивных индика­
торов, в качестве которых используются различные радиоактивные изотопы, содержащиеся
в теплоносителе первого контура. В настоящем докладе излагается метод контроля нару­
шения герметичности, основанный на измерении жесткого бета-излучения изотопа азот-16
в паре второго контура, а также принципы построения и параметры аппаратуры примени­
тельно к А Э С с реактором типа В В Э Р . Жесткое бета-излучение изотопа азот-16 измеря­
ется непосредственно внутри паропроводов второго контура с помощью высокотемператур­
ных счетчиков Гейгера. Надежность контроля каждого парогенератора дополнительно
обеспечивается контролем за суммарной активностью продувочной воды с помощью сцин-
тилляционных блоков детектирования и дублируется обобщенным контролем активности
газов на выхлопе эжектора от группы парогенераторов с помощью блоков детектирования
объемом 20 литров, измеряющих газовую составляющую активности. Информация от блоков
детектирования поступает по линиям связи в посту управления атомной электростанции на
устройства обработки и вывода информации. Для каждой точки контроля предусмотрен
автономный функциональный аналоговый измеритель скорости счета. Необходимая чув­
ствительность контроля для обнаружения нарушения герметичности на ранних стадиях ее
развития обеспечивается применением многоканальной реверсивной пересчетной схемы.

159
16 0 А Н ТО Н О В и др.

Работа всего тракта измерения непрерывно контролируется автоматическим устройством

контроля исправности. Предусмотрена также возможность дистанционной калибровки
большинства блоков детектирования. Приборы, блоки и пульты набираются из унифициро­
ванных узлов, выполненных на основе изделий микроэлектроники.

У р ове н ь развития науки и техники обеспечивает широкую в о з м о ж ­

ность применения атомной энергии в мирны х целях. Повы ш ение т р еб о­
ваний к обеспечению длительной безаварийной работы А Э С увеличивает
роль систем контроля радиационной безопасности.
О сновной задачей аппаратуры контроля является непрерывный ана­
лиз и прогнозирование потенциальных аварий основного оборудования на
ранних стадиях их развития. Для решения этой задачи на А Э С с В В Э Р
широкое распространение получил м е тод радиоактивных индикаторов, в
качестве которых используются различные радиоактивные изотопы, с о ­
держащиеся в теплоносителе первого контура.

АЗОТ- 16 К А К И Н Д И К А Т О Р Н А Р У Ш Е Н И Я Г Е Р М Е Т И Ч Н О С Т И

Теплоноситель первого контура при прохождение через активную

зону реактора за счет активации нейтронами воды и ее примесей стано­
вится радиоактивным [ 1 ,2 ] .
Радиоактивность ядер сам ого теплоносителя обусловлена в основном
реакцией нейтронов с ядрами 10О , 170 , 180 , содержащимися в воде, и с
ядрами 40A r , 15N , содержащимися в воздухе, растворенном в воде. В
результате образуются радиоактивные изотопы 16N , N , 190 , 41А г .
Радиоактивность примесей (солей и продуктов коррозии конструк­
тивных элементов) обусловлена изотопоми 56M r , 24N a , 60С о , 59Fe и
другими.
К р о м е т ог о, в теплоноситель первого контура м огу т попадать про­
дукты деления ядерного горючего (за счет поверхностного загрязнения
или разрушения топливных элементов). В э том случае активность в
о сн овн ом обусловлена изотопами криптона, ксенона и йода.
Осн овн ой вклад в активность теплоносителя первого контура при
работающей установке вносит кислородная активность, обусловленная
реакцией I60 ( n , p ) 16N , которая м ож е т достигать величины порядка
1 0'1 К и /л .
При распаде изотопа 16N (Tjy2 = 7 ,3 5 сек, X = 0 ,0 9 4 3 с е к "1) об ра зу­
ются гамма-кванты с энергиями 6 ,13 М э в (7 4 % на распад), 7,1 М э в (6 % )
и бета-частицы с максимальными энергиями бета-спектров 10,3 М э в
(2 0 % ), 4 ,3 М э в (4 0 % ) и 3 ,8 М э в (4 0 % ) [31.
Наиболее вероятны м м е с т о м нарушения герметичности магистралей
первого контура ат ом н ы х паропроизводительных установок является
парогенератор. При э том находящийся под высоким давлением тепло­
носитель первого контура с содержащимися в нем радиоактивными и зо­
топами попадает в широко разветвленную систему трубопроводов вт о­
рого кон ту ра.
Регистрация излучения изотопа 16N во втором контуре позволяет
контролировать герметичность независимо от наличия продуктов деле­
ния в воде первого контура.
 IA E A -S M -16 8 /A -1 2 161

Удельная активность изотопа-индикатора в точке контроля

О с о б о е значение имеет выбор точки контроля. М аксимальную чув­

ствительность измерения м ож но получить в случае установки блоков
детектирования в м е с т а х с минимальным внешним га м м а - ф оном на
расстоянии по длине паропровода, не превышающем расстояние, прохо­
ди м ое теплоносителем от в о зм ож ного м еста течи за время, м е нь ш е е
2-х-г 3-х периодов полураспада изотопа азот- 16.
Анализ компановки атом ны х энергетических установок типа В В Э Р
показы вает, что практически во всех случаях имеется в о зм ож нос ть вы ­
брать н еобходи м ы е м еста размещ ения блоков детектирования.
Н иж е приводится оценка удельной активности теплоносителя втор о­
го контура по изотопу азот-16 применительно к 5-у блоку Н ов о- В оро­
нежской атом ной электростанции с реактором типа В В Э Р - 1 0 0 0 [4 ].
Ра сч ет кислородной активности теплоносителя первого контура
производится по известной формуле [1], учитывающей ряд специфических
условий активации, определ яемы х вр ем е нем пребывания теплоносителя
в областях с большими нейтронными потоками, кратностью циркуляции,
плотностью теплоносителя и т .д .

Pacn
A ¡ = Фст j -N,
31 1 1 - e - V ru

где Ф — средний поток нейтронов в активной зоне, под воздействием

которого образуется изотоп азот-16, н е й т р /с м 2 сек;
C7ai - сечение активации кислорода, барн;
N . — ядерная плотность исходного изотопа в теплоносителе,
я д е р /с м 3 ;
- постоянная распада, 1 /с е к ;
ta 3 — время пребывания в зоне облучения за период циркуляции, сек;
tu — период циркуляции теплоносителя в первом контуре, сек.
Для случая работы установки на мощ ности 1 0 0 % расчетное значение
удельной кислородной активности составляет 0,9 • 10 -2 К и /л .
Величина удельной активности пара второго контура в м е ст е установ
ки блока детектирования рассчитывалась по формуле

А = Т РдЧ -k ( - Р а с п А
6 п п \ с е к с м /

где Pj , рп - плотность теплоносителя первого и второго контуров, г / с м 3

q — величина течи из первого во второй контур, к г /ч ;
Т — время движения теплоносителя от м еста течи до блока д е ­
тектирования, сек;
G — расход теплоносителя второго контура через измеряемы й
паропровод, к г /ч ;
к — коэффициент распределения активности изотопа азот-16
м е ж д у паром и кипящей водой [5 ].
162 А Н ТО Н О В и др.

Ра сч ет н ое значение удельной активности изотопа азот-16 в предпо­

л агаем ом м е ст е установки блока детектирования при протечке из пер­
вого контура во второй в парогенераторе, равной 1 к г /ч , составляет
величину порядка 5 '1 0 К и /л .

Р Е ГИ С Т Р А Ц И Я БЕТА- ИЗЛУЧЕНИЯ В СРЕ Д Е С ВЫ СОКИМ Д АВ Л ЕН И ЕМ

И ТЕМ ПЕРАТУРОЙ

Давление среды второго контура м ож е т достигать величины

(60 -г 70) к г / с м 2 , температура - порядка 3 0 0 ° С .
О бы ч н о для увеличения эффективности регистрации излучения при­
ходится увеличивать геометрические размеры счетчика излучения. В
данном случае оказалось более вы годным их значительное ум еньш ение.
Действительно, при достаточно малом диаметре цилиндрического футля­
ра он м ож е т выдерживать заданное давление и в то же время иметь д о ­
статочно тонкие стенки, проницаемые для вы сокоэнергетического бета-
излучения изотопа азот- 16. Э т о позволяет разместить блок детектиро­
вания непосредственно в паропроводе второго контура, расположив в нем
вы сокотемпературный счетчик бета-излучения. П у т е м расчета и натур­
ны х испытаний было установлено, что для надежной работы в этих усло­
виях м ож е т быть использован защитный цилиндрический футляр, изготов­
ленный из нержавеющей стали или титана, ди аметром 8 -г 10 м м и толщи­
ной стенки 1 м м .
Регистрация бета-излучения осуществляется специально разработан­
ны м для этой цели газоразрядны м счетчиком малого ди аметра. Счетчик
наполнен смесью из кислорода, неона и ксенона и работает в области

ЗАЩИТНЫМ. ВЫСОКОТЕМПЕРАТУРНЫЙ
ФГТАЯР СЧЕТЧИК

Р и с .1 .. Датчики внутри трубопровода второго контура.

 IA E A -S M -16 8 /A -1 2 163

Гейгера. М аксимальная рабочая температура счетчика - 3 5 0 °С , н о м и ­

нальное рабочее напряжение — 9 00 в, чувствительность к гамма-излуче­
нию - 60 и м п /м к р , толщина стальной стенки — 70 м г / с м 2 .
Указанны й блок детектирования располагается внутри трубопрово­
дов второго контура, идущих от каждого парогенератора (р и с .1 ).
С уч етом ож идаемой удельной активности теплоносителя второго
контура, геометрии измерения и возмож ностей счетчика была рассчита­
на скорость счета блоком детектирования, которая составляет
1 -
i- 1,5 и м п /с е к для стального футляра толщиной стенки 1 м м при вели­
чине протечки из первого контура 1 к г /ч .

Конструктивные особенности блока детектирования

Чувствительность рассматриваемого м етод а контроля во м н о г о м

зависит от уровня ф онового гамма-излучения в м е с т а х установки бло­
ков детектирования. П о э т о м у для учета влияния фона рядом со счет­
чиком, измеряющим бета-излучение, располагается счетчик фонового
гамма-излучения.
Фоновы й счетчик устанавливается внутри стального футляра с
толщиной стенки 5 м м (р и с .1 ).
Для исключения выхода активного теплоносителя второго контура
во внешнюю среду при наличии в защитном футляре микротрещин или
потере его герметичности используется специальное самоуплотняющее
у с тр ой с тв о.
Тяж елы е климатические и механические условия работы п отребо­
вали создания максимально простой конструкции блока детектирования
с минимальны м использованием в нем радиокомпонентов. В связи с
этим, кроме газоразрядного счетчика, в блок введены только два эле­
м е н та : вы сокотемпературны е гасящий резистор и шунтирующий его
кон денса тор.
Для усиления и формирования сигнала с блока детектирования ис­
пользуется простой усилитель с токовы м входом и вы ходом, рассчитан­
н ы м на кабельную нагрузку. Бл ок детектирования соединяется с усили­
телем теплостойким кабелем. Длина кабеля, с целью обеспечения более
высокой помехоустойчивости тракта, должна быть минимально в о з м о ж ­
ной в условиях эксплуатации.

.Т Р Е Б О В А Н И Я ' ОБСЛУЖИВАНИЕ н

Р и с .2 . Цифровое счетное устройство.

164 АН ТО Н О В и др.

КОМПЕНСАЦИЯ ФОНОВОЙ СКОРОСТИ СЧЕТА

Импульсы от счетчиков излучения поступают на специальное цифро­

вое счетное устройство, обеспечивающее непрерывный дежурный кон­
троль превышения установленного уровня с достаточно большим перио­
дом усреднения.
Устройство представляет собой многоканальный реверсивный цифро­
вой накопитель емкостью М (р и с .2), на входы " + " и которого через
статистические пересчетны е схемы (С П С ) поступают импульсы, с оответ­
ственно, от основного и фонового счетчиков излучения. Статистический
пересчет обеспечивается заданной скважностью пропускания импульсов
счетчиков на входы накопителя и устанавливается так, чтобы частота
импульсов фонового счетчика на входе " + " накопителя при отсутствии
эф ф екта на величину 1 + 4 r¡ превышала частоту фоновы х импульсов
основн ого счетчика на входе где ri — временная и температурная
относительная нестабильность входной части устройства контроля.
Сигналом о появлении эффекта является полное заполнение накопи­
теля, приводящее к срабатыванию схемы сигнализации (С С ).
В результате статистической неравномерности прихода импульсов м о ­
жет произойти частичное заполнение накопителя даже при отсутствии
э ф ф е к т а . Н еобходи мая емкость накопителя М определяется допустимой
вероятностью случайных срабатываний Р .
М о ж н о рассматривать состояние частичного заполнения накопителя
как "о ч е р ед ь " к некотором у обслуживающему прибору, импульсы от о с ­
новного и ф онового счетчиков, соответственно, как "требование на о б ­
служивание" и "о бс л у ж и в а н и е". В э том случае для установления связи
м еж д у М и Р м ож н о воспользоваться известны ми формулами теории
м ассового обслуживания [6 ].
Относительная доля времени, в течение которого накопитель будет
заполнен, даже при отсутствии эф ф екта, составляет

Р = -----— ---- а
(1 + 4r()M + 1 - 1 ’

м - log U + W p )
log (1 + 4 r,)

Н априм ер, при соотношении э ф ф е к т /ф о н

— = 1 /1 0 0 и P = 10"10
пф
( т . е . одно ложное срабатывание сигнализации за 100 суток при скорости
счета фона Пф = 1000 и м п /с е к ) М = 1840 (11 двоичных разрядов).
С реднее время достижения порогового уровня при появлении эф ф екта,
вы звавш его прирост скорости счета, величиной п 0 :

ТА С р -
~ ^
по - 4г}-Пф

КОНТРОЛЬ НА ВЫ Б РО С Е Э Ж Е К Т О РА

К ак известно, газообразны е продукты деления, попадая при наруш е­

нии герметичности первого контура во второй контур в м есте с паром,
после турбины отделяются от конденсата и далее эжектируются в а т м осф еру
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 12 165

Р и с .З . Датчик для регистрации удельной газовой активности.

Контроль на вы бросе эжектора основан на измерении бета-излуче­

ния радиоактивных газов, таких как 87К г , 88К г , 1 8Х е и других.
К ак показали расчетные данные, удельная газовая активность на
вы бросе эжектора составляет величину порядка 5-10 К и /л . Ра сч ет
проводился на примере реактора типа В В Э Р - 1 0 0 0 для случая протечки
1 к г /ч и удельной активности газов в первом контуре 1 0"3 К и /л .
И зм ерен и е осущ ествляется с помощью блока детектирования, вы ­
полненного в виде цилиндрической измерительной камеры из нержавею­
щей стали о б ъ е м о м 20 литров. Га зора зряд ны е счетчики и измеритель­
ная с хем а находятся в отдельной секции, герметично отделенной от из­
мерительной камеры (р и с .З ).
В качестве детектора бета-излучения используется торцевой г а з о ­
разрядный низковольтный счетчик Г е й г е р а . Для дистанционной провер­
ки работоспособности блока детектирования предусмотрен специальный
бета-источник. Такой блок детектирования обеспечивает измерение
удельной газовой активности с чувствительностью порядка 10 К и /л .
Для обеспечения нормальной работы блока детектирования через его
рабочий объ ем необходи мо прокачивать отфильтрованную паровоздушную
см есь с температурой не более + 6 0 °С и давлением до 1 к г /с м 2 .

КОНТРОЛЬ ПО П РО Д УВ О Ч Н О Й ВОДЕ

Для того, чтобы ограничить содержание примесей в воде парогене­

раторов на ат ом н ы х электростанциях обеспечивается их непрерывное
выведение из цикла с помощью системы спецводоочистки [ 7 ] . Ча ст ь в о­
ды , отбираемой на очистку, называется продувочной. Контур проду­
вочной воды состоит из расширителя для сброса давления воды, деаэра­
тора для удаления радиоактивных газообразны х примесей и т еп л ообм ен­
ника.
1 66 А Н Т О Н О В и др.

б
Í - СЦИНТШЯЦШНЫЙ ДАТЧИК

2- ЗАЩИТ»

Р и с .4 . Размещение сциитилляционного датчика.

Н егазообразны е радиоактивные примеси, такие как йод и продукты

коррозии, остаются в воде и прокачиваются через специальные фильтры.
П о э т о м у для повышения надежности система контроля г ер м ет и ч­
ности парогенераторов дополняется непреры вны м измерением с у м м а р ­
ной гамма-активности продувочной воды второго контура с помощью
сциитилляционного блока детектирования на основе кристалла
N a J (Т1 ) 70 х 7 0 .
Сцинтилляционный блок детектирования размещ ается после холо­
дильника в защ итном футляре внутри специального измерительного объе­
м а , через который прокачивается продувочная вода с температурой
(+35 - 4-+ 4 0 )°С (р и с .4 а ).
Для ум еньш ения влияния внешнего гамма- ф она блок детектирования
в м есте с измерительным о б ъ е м ом окружается свинцовой защитой толщи­
ной 5 с м .
Ра сч етн ы е значения и экспериментальные результаты показали, что
с помощ ью такого блока детектирования в о зм ож но измерить удельную
активность воды в пределах 10" 4- 1 0 '9 К и /л .
Чувствительность измерения м ож н о повысить до 10 9 -г 10 10 Ки/л
в случае использования дополнительного блока детектирования, учиты ­
вающего влияние гамма- ф она (р и с .4 6 ) .

Импульсы , вырабаты ваемые блоками детектирования, по линиям

связи поступают на устройства обработки и вывода информации центра­
лизованной системы контроля радиационной безопасности, аналогичной
описанной в работе [ 8 ] .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 12 167

JI И Т Е Р А Т У Р А

[1] Б Р О Д Е Р , Д . Л . и д р ., Вопросы физики защиты реакторов, Госатомиздат, М . , 1963.

[2 ] С И В И Н Ц Е В , Ю . В . , Радиационная безопасность на ядерных реакторах, Атомиздат,
М . , 1967.
[3 ] Д Ж Е Л Е П О В , Б . С . и д р ., Схемы распада радиоактивных изотопов, Изд-во А Н С С С Р ,
М . , 1953.
[4] Д Е Н И С О В , В . П . и д р ., Атомная энергия 3 1 4 {1971) 323 .
[5 ] В Е С Е Л К И Н , А . П . и д р ., Атомная энергия 3_1 2 (1971 ) 135.
[6] К О К С , Д . и д р ., Теория очередей, Изд-во "М и р ", М . , 1966.
[7] М А Р Г У Л О В А , Т . Х . , Атомны е электрические станции, Изд-во "Вы сшая школа",
М . , 1969.
[8] Ж Е Р Н О В , B . C . и д р ., "Система радиационного контроля атомных энергетических
установок с водяным теплоносителем". Доклад на IV Женевской конференции по
использованию атомной энергии в мирных целях, 1971, I A E A , V ienn a, (1972) 79.
 IA EA -SM - 1 6 8 /A -1 3

С И С ТЕМ А КО Н ТРО Л Я ГЕРМ ЕТИ Ч Н О С ТИ

О БО Л О ЧЕК ТВЭЛ О В Р ЕА К Т О Р А В В Э Р -1

В. А .А К С Е Н О В ,И .В . Б А Т Е Н И Н
Союзный научно-исследовательский
институт приборостроения,
М осква,

Ю. А . Б О Р И С О В , Л . И . Г О Л У Б Е В ,
В .П .К РУГЛ ОВ, С .Н .САМОЙЛОВ
Ново- Воронеж ская атомная
электростанция,
Н ов о- В оронеж ,
Союз Советских Социалистических Республик

Abstract-Аннотация

T H E B U R S T S L U G D E T E C T I O N S Y S T E M O F T H E N O V O V O R O N E Z H -1 W A T E R C O O L E D
AND M ODER ATED REACTOR.
The authors describe and report on the operation of a bypass system for detecting
burst fuel elements by delayed neutron monitoring in the water moderated and cooled
reactor of the first unit at the Novovoronezh Nuclear Po w er Station. A bypass detection
system was chosen for reactors of this type mainly for the following reasons: 1) difficulties
associated with having several openings in the pressure vessel and the complicated
core design necessary when coolant is sampled channel by channel; 2) good compatibi­
lity of fuel and coolant; 3) possibility of operating the reactor with a high specific coolant
activity, wich permits continued operation with defective fuel elements as in gas cooled
systems; 4) possibility of using the neutron field overcompensation method to find r e ­
gions with defective elements. The reactor has six circulation loops. A sample is
taken from the headers of the main circulating pumps and is delivered to the sensors of
the detection system within 60-80 seconds. After passing through the m easuring v e s ­
sels, the samples are returned to the inlet of the same pumps.. The sampling system
includes a regulating valve. The sensors of the detection system are located in a cont­
rol area where the background is low and to which operating staff have access. The
paper explains why the delayed neutron method was preferred. The detection units
are corona thermal neutron counters, which are virtually insensitive to g am m a radiation.
A circuit diagram of the electronic equipment is provided. The burst slug detection sys­
tem fulfils the following functions: a) with the reactor operating at a steady level, it
assesses the state of the core and detects new leaks as they occur; b) with the reactor
neutron field overcompensated, it locates regions where there are defective cassettes.
The results obtained with the burst slug detection system in the Novovoronezh-1 reactor
are presented.

С И С Т Е М А К О Н Т Р О Л Я Г Е Р М Е Т И Ч Н О С Т И О Б О Л О Ч Е К Т В Э Л О В Р Е А К Т О Р А В В ЭР - 1.
В докладе приводится описание и опыт эксплуатации петлевой системы контроля
герметичности оболочек твэлов (система К Г О ) по запаздывающим нейтронам на 1-ом бло­
ке Н В А Э С с реактором ВВЭР-1. Выбор петлевой системы К Г О для реакторов подоб­
ного типа обеспечивается,исходя из следующих основных соображений: 1) трудностей,
связанных с многочисленными проходками через прочный корпус и усложненной кон­
струкции активной зоны при поканальном отборе проб теплоносителя; 2) хорошей сов­
местимости топлива с теплоносителем', 3) возможности работы реактора с высокой
удельной активностью теплоносителя, что позволяет использовать твэлы с дефектами
типа газовых теплоносителей; 4) возможности использования метода перекомпенсаций
нейтронного поля для поиска районов с дефектными твэлами. Реактор имеет 6 цирку­
лярных петель. Проба отбирается с напорных коллекторов главных циркуляционных
насосов (Г Ц Н ) и со временем порядка 60-80 сек доставляется к датчикам системы К Г О .
После прохождения через измерительные емкости пробы возвращаются на всас тех же
Г Ц Н . В системе пробоотбора предусмотрена запорная регулирующая арматура. Д а т ­
чики системы К Г О располагаются в обслуживаемом помещении с низким уровнем фона.

169
170 А К С Е Н О В и др.

В докладе обосновывается выбор метода К Г О по запаздывающим нейтронам. В каче­

стве блоков детектирования используются коронные счетчики тепловых нейтронов,
практически нечувствительные к гамма-излучению. Приводится блок-схема электрон­
ной аппаратуры. Система К Г О выполняет следующие функции: а) при стационарной
мощности реактора оценивает состояние активной зоны и обнаруживает возникновение
новых дефектов; б) при перекомпенсации нейтронного поля реактора обнаруживает
районы расположения дефектных кассет. В докладе приводятся результаты эксплуатации
системы К Г О на реакторе В В Э Р - 1.

Ш ирокое развитие ядерной энергетики выдвигает на первый план

вопрос безопасности работы реакторов как для окружающей среды,
так и для обслуживающего персонала. Одной из сторон этой пробле­
м ы является контроль герметичности оболочек тепловыделяющих
элементов (К Г О твэлов) во время работы ядерного реактора.
При нарушении герметичности оболочек твэлов продукты деления,
попадая в теплоноситель, м огу т значительно повысить активность
I контура и т ем с ам ы м затруднить обслуживание ядерной установки,
а при крупных авариях привести к необходимости долговременной
остановки реактора.
О с н ов н ы м и задачами, стоящими перед К Г О , являются: регистрация
нарушения герметичности оболочек твэлов, наблюдение за развитием
деф екта и определение местонахож дения д еф ектного твэла в активной
зоне реактора. При э том система К Г О должна быть достаточно б ы с т ­
родействующей для предотвращения аварийных ситуаций при возник­
новении в о зм ож ны х бы стро развивающихся деф ектов. Отсюда также
следует, а то система К Г О должна обладать высокой надежностью
и быть достаточно автоматизированной для исключения пропуска таких
деф ектов и своевременной сигнализации о возникновении аварийной
ситуации.
Задачи, стоящие перед системой К Г О , определяют требования
к ее основн ы м параметрам: чувствительности, быстродействию, на­
деж ности и дискриминационному отношению.
В С о в е т с к о м Союзе большое распространение получили атомны е
электростанции с реактором типа В В Э Р . Описание системы К Г О 1-го
блока Н ов о- Воронеж ской атомной станции с реактором В В Э Р - 1 и р е ­
зультаты ее двухлетней эксплуатации представлены в данном докладе.

В Ы Б О Р С Т Р У К Т У Р Ы И М Е Т О Д А С И С Т Е М Ы К ГО Р Е А К Т О Р А ВВЭР-1

В ы бор структуры системы К Г О был определен,исходя из ос об е н ­

ностей конструкции и параметров реактора.
Т рудности , связанные с многочисленны ми проходками через п роч­
ный корпус и усложнением конструкции активной зоны , заставили
отказаться от поканального контроля путем отбора проб от каждой
Т В С и тем сам ы м пойти на уменьш ение чувствительности К Г О . Э т о
оказалось в о з м ож н ы м ввиду того, что реактор В В Э Р - 1 имеет з а м к ­
нутый I -й контур и его биологическая защита рассчитана на работу с
большой удельной активностью теплоносителя, т ем сам ы м м о ж н о было
отказаться от контроля за микродефектами оболочек твэлов типа г а з о ­
вых неплотностей, а контроль за активностью долгоживущих га зоо бр а з­
 IA EA -SM - 1 6 8 /A -1 3 171

ны х продуктов деления осуществлять с помощью дозиметрии. Для

реактора В В Э Р - 1 была разработана петлевая система К Г О с отбором
пробы от каждой циркуляционной петли. Н е об х од и м о отметить ос о б е н ­
ности гидравлических характеристик реакторов типа В В Э Р -при цирку­
ляции теплоносителя по I контуру происходит неполное перемешивание
теплоносителя м е ж д у петлями, т. е. каждой циркуляционной петле с о о т ­
ветствует свой сектор активной зоны реактора. Учитывая это о б с т о ­
ятельство и используя м е тод К Г О с высоким дискриминационным
от н ош ен и ем , т . е . высоким отнош ени ем сигнала в канале К Г О с д е ф е к т ­
ны м твэлом к сигналу в б е з д е ф е к т н о м канале, м о ж н о получить и н­
формацию о состоянии твэлов по секторам активной зоны. При выборе
м етод а К Г О кром е вы шеуказанного требования необходи мо было учи­
ты вать, что регистрация наиболее опасных видов дефектов в обол оч­
ках твэлов, характеризующихся непосредственны м контактом топлива
и теплоносителя, должна происходить на во зм ож н о значительном фоне
долгоживущих газообразны х продуктов деления, проникающих в тепло­
носитель через газовы е неплотности в оболочках твэлов. С учетом
вы ш есказанного для петлевого К Г О реактора В В Э Р был выбран метод
по запаздывающим нейтронам.
М е т о д К Г О по запаздывающим нейтронам известен достаточно
давно. О н основан на регистрации нейтронов, излучаемых некоторы ми
продуктами деления, в основном короткоживущими изотопами б ром а и
иода: бром- 87 с периодом полураспада Т ~ 55 сек, иод-137-T ~ 24 сек,
бром- 88 -T ~ 15,5 сек и рядом еще более короткоживущих изотопов.
Ф о н о м при регистрации запаздывающих нейтронов в обычной воде
является наведенная активность теплоносителя, получаемая по реакции
кислород-17 (п,р) азот-17 с периодом полураспада Т ~ 4 сек. Испол ь­
зуя временную задержку пробы теплоносителя перед и зм е р е ни ем , м о ж ­
но практически полностью устранить наведенный фон теплоносителя.
Короткож ивущ ая активность запаздывающих нейтронов, период полу­
распада которой сравним со вр ем е нем цикла теплоносителя по I кон-
туру, обеспечивает высокое дискриминационное отнош ение метода
К Г О для данного реактора.

ОП И САН И Е СИСТЕМ Ы КГО

Проба теплоносителя с помощью системы трубопроводов отбира­

ется от напорных коллекторов главных циркуляционнйх насосов (Г Ц Н ).
В систему К Г О отбирается около 1,5 ' 10 ‘ 2 теплоносителя. После
прохождения системы пробоотбора она возвращается на всас с оот в ет ­
ствующего Г Ц Н . При э том для циркуляции теплоносителя по системе
пробоотбора К Г О используется перепад давления на Г Ц Н . Каждая
пробоотборная нитка включает в себя коммуникационные трубки, за ­
порные и регулирующие вентили, расходомер и датчики К Г О (рис. 1).
Датчик К Г О состоит из водяной рубашки, окружающей блок детектирова­
ния для охлаждения последнего до температуры ~ 8 0 ° С ; измеритель­
н ог о объ ем а, через который проходит проба теплоносителя и отраж ате­
ля, представляющего собой об ъ е м , заполненный технической водой со
слабой циркуляцией для исключения вскипания отражателя. В р е м я
доставки пробы теплоносителя от активной зоны до датчика с помощью
коммуникационны х трубок и емкостей выдержки составляет 60 ■*-80 сек
172 А К С Е Н О В и др.

АВТОМАТИЧЕСКИЙ

Рис. 1. Принципиальная схема доставки проб.

ПАРОГЕНЕРАТОР
ГЛАВНЫЕ ЗАПОРНЫЕ _________ _
ЗАДВИЖ КИ , РЕЗЕРВНЫЕ/

ЗАДЕРЖИВАЮЩАЯ ЕМКОСТЬ, АВТОНОМНЫЙ КОНТУР КГО

I______
ТРУБОПРОВОД ПРОДУВКЙ ТРУБОПРОВОД ПРОМКОНТУРА

Рис. 2. Блок-схема регистрирующей аппаратуры К Г О .

в зависимости от реж и м а работы Г Ц Н . Датчики К Г О расположены

в обсл уж иваем ом помещ ении с низким уровнем нейтронного поля. В
блоке детектирования используется коронный счетчик медленны х ней­
тронов. Стенки счетчика покрыты б о р о м , обогащ енны м изотопом
б opa-10. Счетчик практически не чувствителен к гамма-излучению
до 1000 р /ч а с (, что позволяет исключить влияние продуктов деления
и коррозии, сорбирующихся на стенках измерительного объема датчика.
Принципиальная блок-схема измерительной аппаратуры представлена
на рис. 2. Аппаратура им еет сигнализацию о выходе из строя отдельных
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / A - 13 173

блоков. Блочная конструкция аппаратуры позволяет производить

быструю зам ену неисправных блоков. Простота аппаратуры, датчика
и системы пробоотбора обеспечивает высокую надежность и эконом и ч­
ность всей системы К Г О в целом.

РЕЗУЛ ЬТАТЫ Э К С П Л УА Т А Ц И И СИСТЕМ Ы КГО

Н А Р Е А К Т О Р Е ВВЭР-1

С и с т е м а К Г О реактора В В Э Р - 1 рассчитана на круглосуточную

непрерывную работу в течение всей кампании. О сновны е функции
системы К Г О заключались в обеспечении надеж ного оперативного
контроля за состоянием оболочек твэлов и наличием откры того т оп ­
лива в секторах активной зоны реактора. Зарегистрированные слу­
чаи нарушения герметичности оболочек твэлов показали, что интен­
сивное развитие нарушения происходит в течение нескольких часов
и иногда сопровождается всплесками нейтронной активности,значитель­
но превосходящ ими начальный уровень. Спустя несколько часов после
обнаружения дефекта системой К Г О происходила стабилизация скорости
счета запаздывающих нейтронов на новом уровне, который м о г сохра­
няться до конца кампании. Увеличение активности запаздывающих
нейтронов, характерное для одного нарушения, составляло обычно
30 т 2 0 0 % от первоначального уровня. Чувствительность системы К Г О
по эквивалентной открытой поверхности топлива составляла ~ 3 с м 2 .
О ч еви дн о, что действительная чувствительность была гораздо выше
за счет выхода продуктов деления с большой рабочей поверхности
топлива, чем реальные размеры с ам ого дефекта. Т а к , например,
уверенно обнаруживались де ф е к т ы , вызывающие прирост активности
теплоносителя 10 "8 К и /л .
Для определения местонахож дения деф ектны х Т В С в активной
зоне использовался метод перекомпенсации нейтронного поля р е ак то­
ра. Бол ьш ое количество кассет С У З позволило проверить с помощью
локального перекоса нейтронного поля каждой кассетой С У З практичес­
ки всю активную зону, за исключением периферийных Т В С . О п ре дел е ­
ние района расположения дефектной Т В С проводилось на сниженной
м ощ ности (30 * 5 0 % от номинальной). При опускании кассеты С У З в
иссл едуем ом районе уменьш ение нейтронного поля составляло
30 6 0 % , при э том с помощью другой группы компенсирующих кассет
общ ая м ощ ность аппарата поддерживалась на постоянном уровне. В р е м я
опускания кассеты С У З в крайнее нижнее положение составляло
4 ^ 8 мин, выдержка в ниж нем положении после стабилизации м о щ н о ­
сти - 10 * 15 мин , подъем в исходное положение -3-5-10 мин. В п р о­
цессе перекомпенсации нейтронного поля регистрироваласьи записывалась
скорость счета по всем каналам К Г О , а также регистрировалась т е м п е р а ­
тура на выходе из кассет, средняя температура I -го контура, расход
и подогрев теплоносителя по петлям. При локальном перекосе ней­
тронного поля в районе Т В С с деф ектны м твэлом наблюдалось у м е н ь ш е ­
ние скорости счета запаздывающих нейтронов в исследуемой петле
непропорциональное изменению подогрева теплоносителя в активной
зоне. В остальных каналах показания аппаратуры К Г О оставались
неи зм енны м и или увеличивались в зависимости от перераспределения
энерговыделения и состояния твэлов в районах компенсирующих
17 4 А К С Е Н О В и др.

кассет С У З . При перекомпенсации в ряде районов активной зоны

наблюдались всплески нейтронной активности в соответствующей
циркуляционной петле. Полученные результаты по определению районов
расположения деф ектны х Т В С хорош о согласуются с данными по кас­
сетном у контролю, проведенному на остановленном аппарате.

ВЫ ВОДЫ

1. Двухлетний опыт эксплуатации петлевой системы К Г О на

реакторе В В Э Р - 1 в сочетании с м е т од ом перекомпенсации нейтронного
поля показывает целесообразность ее применения на других реакторах
корпусного типа со стержневой системой компенсации избыточной
реактивности.
2. Петлевая система К Г О позволяет:
а) обеспечить надежный непрерывный контроль за состоянием
оболочек твэлов в активной зоне реактора, за появлением и развитием
новых деф ектов в Т В С с достаточной чувствительностью и оператив­
ностью;
б) определять районы расположения кассет с дефектны ми
твэлами;
в) сущ ественно сократить время на контроль Т В С на оста нов­
л енном аппарате.

DISCU SSION

J. F U R E T : Firstly, have you any experim ental results with respect to

the prelocalization of burst fuel elements sector by sector? Secondly, could
you say som ething about the reasons for the choice of a transit time of 60
to 80 s?
E . A . Z H E R E B I N : T h e transit time of 60-80 s w a s chosen because it
allows an almost complete elimination of the background of neutrons from
nitrogen-17, w hich has a half-life of the order of 4 s.
D . von H A E B L E R : H a v e you ever tried, by m oving control rods, to
reduce the region suspected of harbouring a fuel elem ent defect from 1/ 6 of
the core (found by loop monitoring) to a sm all n u m b e r of fuel elem ents?
If so, has the m ethod been successful?
E . A . Z H E R E B I N : Y e s , overcom pensation of the neutron field with the
help of the control rods has enabled us to reduce the size of a region
containing defective fuel elem ents. W h e n the total n u m b e r of defective fuel
elem ents in the core is sm all, the suspect region generally consists of the
part of the fuel asse m blie s im m ediately adjacent to the control rods.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7

E X P E R IE N C E ACQUISE AU D EM ARRAG E DU
R E A C T E U R RAPIDE RAPSO DIE-FORTISSIM O
SUR LES MESURES DE PUISSANCE
E T LEUR C ON TRO LE
Adaptation au dém arrage de la centrale Phénix

j. g o u r d o n 4
CEA, Centre d ’ études nucléaires
de Cadarache, France

Abstract-Résumé

ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE AT THE STARTUP OF THE RAPSODIE-FORTISSIMO FAST REACTOR ON POWER

MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR CONTROL - ADAPTATION TO THE PHENIX POWER STATION STARTUP.
This paper deals with thermal and neutronic methods used at the startup o f the Rapsodie-Fortissimo fast
reactor in order to determine powers and control them . Results obtained on thermal balances, subassemblies
power and core centre linear power are com pared. The various methods are discussed in view o f their utilization
for the startup of the Phenix power station.

EXPERIENCE ACQUISE AU DEMARRAGE DU REACTEUR RAPIDE RAPSODIE-FORTISSIMO SUR LES MESURES DE

PUISSANCE ET LEUR CONTROLE - ADAPTATION AU DEMARRAGE DE LA CENTRALE PHENIX.
Le m ém oire traite des méthodes thermiques et neutroniques utilisées lors du démarrage du réacteur rapide
Rapsodie-Fortissimo pour déterminer les puissances et en assurer le contrôle. On com paré les résultats obtenus
sur les bilans thermiques, sur la puissance des assemblages et sur la puissance linéaire au centre du cœ ur. On
discute les différentes méthodes en vue de leur utilisation lors du démarrage de la centrale Phénix.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

D a n s tous les types de réacteur et en particulier dans les réacteurs

rapides il est important d'avoir une bonne connaissance et de bien contrôler:
la p uissance totale du réacteur, la puissance de chaque a ss e m b la g e et la
puissanc e linéaire m a x im a le . Connaître ces différents p a ra m è tre s devient
m ê m e une nécessité pour a m e n e r en toute sécurité le com bustible à son
point de fonctionnement nom inal et pour a s s u r e r à tout a ss e m b la g e des
conditions d'irradiation bien déterm inées et contrôlables in situ.
L 'o b je t de ce m é m o ir e est:
— de présenter l'e n s e m b le des m e s u r e s réalisées au d é m a r ra g e de
R a p s o die- Fo rtissim o dans le but de déterm iner les puissances et de
valider les m o y e n s de leur contrôle installés â d e m e u r e sur le réacteur
— de faire une revue rapide du p r o g r a m m e de m e s u r e s de p uissance et
de calibration du contrôle que l'on effectuera cette année (1973) au
d é m a r r a g e de la centrale Phénix.
A p r è s une très brèv e présentation de R ap so die et de Phénix, on abordera
suc ce ssive m en t les chapitres suivants:
— p ro b lèm es généraux relatifs aux m e s u r e s de puissance
— m éthodes de m e s u r e s neutroniques, hydrauliques et therm iques et ré s u l­
tats; bilan et utilisation des m e s u r e s faites au d é m a r r a g e de Rapsodie-
F o r tis sim o
— m e s u r e s prévues au d é m a r r a g e de la centrale Phénix.

175
176 GOUEDON

1. P R E S E N T A T IO N D E R A P S O D IE E T D E P H E N IX

L e s deux réacteurs R ap sodie [1] et P h é n ix [ 2] sont les deux p r e m ie r s

jalons de la filière â neutrons rapides française. Ils sont tous deux refroidis
au so dium , leur coeur contient un com bustible c é ra m iq u e à base d'oxyde
mixte U O 2 - P U O 2 . Ils sont cependant très différents en ce qui concerne leur
p uissanc e, leur conception et leur utilisation.
t R a p s o d ie a divergé en 1967. D a n s sa version actuelle, appelée Rapsodie-
F o r tis sim o , la puissance est de 40 M W (t h ). C 'e st un réacteur à circuits:
deux boucles p rim a ir e s et deux secon daires. L a puissance est évacuée dans
l'atm o sph è re sur un échangeur term inal sodium -air. Rap sodie est e s s e n ­
tiellement un réacteur d'irradiation pour la filière â neutrons rapides. O n a
actuellement dépassé 1000 jours de fonctionnement â pleine puissance.
P h é n ix v a diverger cette année. Sa p uissance est de 560 M W (t h )
(250 M W ( e ) ) . S a conception est du type intégré. L a puissance est tran sm ise
à la turbine par la vap eu r fo r m é e dans trois générateurs de vap eu r chauffés
par le so dium des trois circuits secon daires. Phénix est ainsi une centrale
nucléaire de m oyenne p uissance.

2. P R O B L E M E S R E L A T IF S A U X M E S U R E S D E P U ISS A N C E

L a puissance dégagée par un réacteur a pour origine les fissions qui

prennent naissance dans le com bustible. L e chem in e m e n t de l'énergie depuis
sa source dans le cœ u r jusq u'à son dégagem ent dans les échangeurs term inaux
ou dans la turbine est suffisam m ent com plexe pour que l'on soit obligé de
l 'e x a m in e r avec soin quand on veut c o m p a r e r les m e s u r e s ou les contrôles
de puissance faits â divers stades de ce chem ine m e nt. P a r exem p le, la
m e s u r e des taux de fission dans le cœ u r, qui p er m e t de déterm iner la
source de puissance, et la m e s u r e de la puissance therm ique dans le circuit
secondaire ou sur le circuit vap eu r font appel â des m éthodes totalement
étrangères qui rendent compte du m ê m e p hén om ène aux stades extrêm es de
son évolution.
P o u r faire un e x a m e n critique complet des p hén om è nes, m ê m e en se
limitant au cœ u r, il faudrait d'a b o r d e x a m in e r le p ro c essu s de dégagem ent
d 'é nerg ie à partir des fissions; puis chiffrer les échanges entre a sse m bla ge s
liés aux rayonnem ents nucléaires (7 et neutrons) dans les zones de transition
(voisinage de b a r re s de contrôle, limite cœ ur-réflecteur ou cœ ur-couverture,
voisinage d 'a s s e m b la g e s diluants en acier); ensuite évaluer les échanges
therm iques dus â la conduction therm ique entre a ss e m b la g e s portés â
des tem pératures différentes au voisinage de zones de transition; enfin, en
tenant com pte des débits dans les différents types d 'a s s e m b la g e s , déterm iner
la p uissance therm ique de chaque a ss e m b la g e et la tem pérature du sodium à
leur sortie.
P o u r aller plus loin il faudrait calculer les dégagem ents d'énergie dans
les zones externes au cœ ur telles que les couvertures, les écrans et le
stockage, tenir com pte des pertes ou des apports d'é nerg ie le long des
circuits de refroidissem ent: tous ces échanges et ces pertes sont évalués
ou m ê m e m e s u r é s . O n peut donc en tenir com pte pour c o m p a r e r les résultats
de diverses m e s u r e s faites dans le cœ u r ou dans les circuits.
Si maintenant on p a sse au cas particulier de Rap sodie- Fortissim o, on
constate que les grandeurs à m e s u r e r et à contrôler en priorité sont la
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7 177

puissance linéaire au centre du c œ u r et la puissance de chaque a ss e m b la g e .

C e c i est lié au fait que R ap so die- Fo rtissim o est avant tout un outil d 'ir r a d ia ­
tion qui fonctionne à flux constant au centre du cœ ur (3, 2 • 1 0 15n /cm ? • s),
autrem ent dit â une p uissance linéaire m a x im a le de 430 W / c m dans le
com bustible n ourricier.
L a taille du c œ u r variant avec le n o m b r e d'e xp é rie nce s en pile et avec
le taux de com bustion des a s s e m b la g e s nourriciers, on doit ajuster la
p uissance totale entre 36 et 42 M W pour obtenir la puissance linéaire désirée.
L a puissanc e des a s s e m b la g e s dépend alors surtout de la taille du cœ u r.
L e p ro b lè m e est alors de m e s u r e r et de contrôler la p uissance linéaire.
C o m m e on ne peut pas l'obtenir directem ent, on s 'e s t attaché au d é m a r r a g e
de R ap so die- F o rtissim o â la m e s u r e r par divers m o y e n s et à établir les
relations qui permettent de la relier aux grandeurs contrôlées â tout instant.
P o u r atteindre ce résultat on a fait appel:
— â des techniques spéciales em ployées uniquem ent à l'occasion du d é m a r ra g e:
m e s u r e s de pression dans les zones haute et ba sse pression, taux de
fission au centre du cœ ur, distributions axiale et radiale des fissions dans
le c œ u r
— aux techniques de m e s u r e c o u ra m m e n t utilisées sur le réacteur: bilan
therm ique du cœ ur, bilan des a s s e m b la g e s basé sur des m e s u r e s de
tem pérature et de débit du sodium .

3. M ETH ODES DE M ESURE ET RESULTATS

3.1. M e s u r e s neutroniques

L e s m e s u r e s neutroniques faites au d é m a r r a g e utilisaient des dispositifs

spéciaux de m e s u r e en pile dans lesquels on introduisait des détecteurs
fissiles ou des c h a m b r e s â fission.

3. 1. 1. Distribution des taux de fission

O n a déterm iné les distributions axiales et radiales des taux de fission,

autrem ent dit des sources de puissance, en irradiant à faible puissance des
détecteurs fissiles dans une série d 'a s s e m b la g e s situés sur un m ê m e rayon.
L e s figures 1 et 2 donnent les résultats obtenus dans le cœ ur.
P a r intégration sur tous les a ss e m b la g e s du cœ u r on obtient la p uissance
au centre du cœ ur relativem ent à la puissance totale du cœ ur. D e la m ê m e
façon on déduit la p uissance relative des a ss e m b la g e s situés dans la zone
de stockage.

3.1.2. T a u x de fission au centre du cœ u r

A u m oyen, d 'u ne c h a m b r e à fission spécialem ent conçue pour résister

aux conditions régnant dans le réacteur et étalonnée (0, 38 n g de 239Pu ),
introduite au centre du cœ ur, dans un canal expérim ental (fig. 3), on a m e s u r é
jusq u'à 1 M W le taux de fission du plutonium. L e s résultats ont donné la
p uissance linéaire au centre du c œ u r au niveau de p uissance de 1 M W lu sur
les c h a m b r e s de contrôle du réacteur. Il a bien sûr fallu tenir com pte de
certaines corrections telles que: perturbations introduites par la c h a m b re et
le dispositif expérim ental, rapport des taux de fission de 239 P u et de 235U .
178 GOURDON

-100 0 .100 ( mm)

FIG. 1. Distribution axiale d e la puissance dans divers assemblages caractéristiques.

 \
IAEA-SM-168/A-7 179

FIG.2 . Repartition radiale de la puissance dans les assemblages fertiles.

180 GOURDON

FIG .3. Coupe du réacteur équipé de deux dispositifs de mesure (cotes en m m).

P o u r p a s s e r â la p uissance linéaire â pleine puissance on a dû en plus utiliser

les indications des c h a m b r e s de contrôle étalonnées ensuite â pleine puissance
par bilan therm ique.
D 'a u t r e s c h a m b r e s à fission en 235u ont p e r m is de m e s u r e r la distri­
bution axiale des fissions et de chiffrer à 5, 7 % pour 1 0 0 °C la variation de la
réponse des c h a m b re s de contrôle du réacteur situées dans les bétons de
protection quand la tem pérature du sodium augm ente (fig. 4).

3.2. M e s u r e s hydrauliques et therm iques

3.2,1. M e s u r e s spéciales au dé m a r ra g e

P o u r déterm iner la puissance de chaque a ss e m b la g e â partir de la

p uissance therm ique totale du réacteur il faut connaître le débit de sodium
qui traverse chaque a ss e m b la g e .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7 181

FIG.4 . Variation d e la réponse d ' une chambre de contrôle (C l) en fonction de la température du sodium.

A son entrée dans le réacteur, le sodium est réparti au m o y e n d'un

d ia p h ra gm e entre une zone haute pression correspondant à la partie centrale
du réacteur et une zone basse pression.
L e s m e s u r e s de puissance faites sur R ap sodie divergeaient sensiblem ent
selon la m éthode utilisée. L 'é c a r t était attribué â la m au v a ise connaissance
de la répartition des débits. L o r s des essais du cœ u r F o r tis sim o on a donc
fait des m e s u r e s dans les zones haute et b a s se pression en utilisant des
capteurs de p ressio n m is en place dans chacune de ces zones au m o y e n des
canaux exp érim entaux (fig. 3).
L e s résultats ont conduit â un débit plus faible dans la zone haute pression,
.ce qui a p e r m is une m eilleure connaissance des débits dans le cœ u r.

3.2.2. Utilisation de l'instrumentation conventionnelle du réacteur

L e s n o m b r e u x débitmètres et therm ocouples implantés sur les circuits

ont p e r m is de faire dans la période de d é m a r r a g e toute une série de bilans
therm iques à l'échelon du réacteur ou de l'a s s e m b la g e .
182 GOURDON

3. 2. 2. 1. Bilans therm iques

P o u r évaluer la p uissance totale du réacteur on peut faire le bilan t h e r m i­

que du circuit p rim air e et celui du circuit secondaire. O n dispose pour cela
des m e s u r e s suivantes:

T e m p é r a t u r e du sodium à l'entrée de la cuve

Circuit J T e m p é r a t u r e du sodium â la sortie de la cuve

p rim aire
Débit sodium sur les deux boucles ddtiné par des
_ débitm ètres à c h a m p m agnétique.

T e m p é r a t u r e à la sortie des échangeurs p rim air es

Circuit T e m p é r a t u r e â l'entrée des échangeurs p rim air es

secondaire
Débit sodium donné p a r deux débitmètres â aimant
„ p erm an en t.

L e calcul du bilan therm ique est fait par un calculateur en ligne pour
le circuit p rim a ir e toutes les secondes, et en différé pour le circuit s eco n ­
daire deux fois par jour.
L a formulation em ployée tient é videm m ent com pte des apports d'énergie
le long des circuits et de corrections telles que les lois d'étalonnage des
therm ocouples. O n trouvera sur la figure 5 un exem p le chiffré de bilan
therm ique.

3 . 2 . 2. 2. P u is s a n c e des a ssem blages

Quatre-vingt-cinq therm ocouples fixés sur le couvercle cœ u r donnent

la tem pérature du sodium â la sortie de chaque a ss e m b la g e du c œ u r . L a
carte des tem pératures est relevée toutes les secondes par un calculateur
en ligne. Si on appelle:
Cp la chaleur spécifique du sodium
p la densité du sodium
Qi le débit dans l'a ss e m b la g e
T¿ la tem pérature dans l'a ss e m b la g e i,
la p uissance de l'a s s e m b la g e est donnée par le produit:

Cp p Qi A T 4

L e débit est déduit du débit total p rim a ir e en tenant com pte de la

répartition du débit haute et b a s se p re ssio n et des caractéristiques r é s is ­
tantes du c h argem en t et de chaque a sse m b la g e .
L 'é lév atio n de tem pérature est donnée p a r les therm ocouples du couvercle
cœ ur.
Il faut cependant apporter des corrections soit au niveau des tem pérature
pour tenir com pte des lois d'étalonnage des therm ocouples, soit au niveau des
échanges therm iques entre a sse m bla ge s qui ont tendance â hom ogén éiser
les tem pératu res. P a r exem p le, on a évalué â 100 W par face et par degré
d'é ca rt les pertes d 'u n a ss e m b la g e com bustible situé à l'interface cœur-
réflecteur.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7 183

BOUCLES NORD BOUCLES SUD

PURIFICATION
T Na 552 TNa 652

TNa 550 iTNa 650

356 “C 356eC

110 kW
PERTES PRIMAIRES

DEBITS POMPES
DNa 590 DNa 193 DNa 293
Primaires 11090m3/h I
470 m 3/h 545 m 3/h 5Д5 m 3/h 470m3/h
Secondaires! 9¿0 m3 / h

ECHANGEURS INTERMEDIAIRES

23 °C ---------------------------- ЛТ POINTS CHAUDS------------------------------- 23°C

43 “C ----------------------------- AT POINTS FROIDS------------------------------ 43°C

136°C |-------------------------1 116°C I--------ДТ LONGITUDINAL--------- 1 116 “C |-------------------------1 136 “C

FIG.5. Bilan thermique des circuits primaire et secondaire.

184 GOURDON

L a distribution radiale des puissances dans le cœ u r obtenue par cette

m éthode est reportée sur la figure 2. O n peut constater que les résultats
sont très voisins de ceux déduits des m e s u r e s neutroniques. L a seule
différence se situe â l'interface cœ ur-réflecteur, m a is elle est directem ent
expliquée par les pertes therm iques et de rayonnem ent nucléaire.

3. 2. 2. 3. P u is s a n c e linéaire au centre du cœ u r

L a puissance de l'a s s e m b la g e le plus chargé est donnée par la méthode

précédente. P o u r en déduire la puissance linéaire m a x im a le il suffit d'évaluer
la p uissance dégagée dans les aiguilles de couverture inférieure et dans le
réflecteur d 'a cier supérieur, soit 1, 2 % seulem ent, et de tenir com pte de la
distribution axiale donnée par les m e s u r e s neutroniques (fig. 1).

3. 3. B ilan et utilisation des m e s u r e s de puissance faites au d é m a r r a g e de

Ra p so die -F o rtissim o

T r o is points caractérisent les m e s u r e s neutroniques et therm iques

réalisées au d é m a r r a g e de Rapsodie- Fortissim o:
— toutes les m e s u r e s ont été faites sur un m ê m e cœ u r
— les m éthodes sont quasi indépendantes
— les résultats sont très voisins.
L e résultat le plus important est la détermination de la p uissance linéaire,
trouvée égale par toutes les m éthodes â 4 30 W / c m , avec une précision de 5%,
alors que les calculs primitifs prévoyaient que le cœ u r de d é m a r r a g e donnerait
une p uissance linéaire de 400 W / c m à la puissance nom inale.
C 'e s t à partir de ce résultat et de l'e n s e m b le des observations faites
pendant les m e s u r e s de puissance que l'on a défini la m éthode â em p loyer pour
prédire les conditions de fonctionnement des cœ urs d'irradiation et pour les
contrôler.
D a n s ce but on utilise le code simplifié Cathare qui, pour un chargem ent
donné, calcule la p uissance caractéristique, c'est-à-dire la p uissance totale
â laquelle il faut a m e n e r le réacteur pour atteindre la puissance linéaire
m a x im a l e de 430 W / c m (ou le flux de 3, 2 • 1 0 15 n /c m ? • s) au centre du cœ ur.
C e code tient com pte de l'état du chargem ent: n o m b r e et taux de com bustion
des a s s e m b la g e s nourriciers, a ss e m b la g e s expérim entaux, faux a s s e m b la g e s .
Il utilise des données de base m e s u r é e s , telles les distributions axiales des
taux de fission, ou calculées, distributions radiales des taux de fission
calculées pour un gros c œ u r après com p a ra iso n avec les m e s u r e s faites sur
le petit c œ u r de d é m a r r a g e .
C e code donne aussi pour chaque a ss e m b la g e la puissance, la t e m p é r a ­
ture du so dium â la sortie, le coefficient a¡ à afficher sur le calculateur de
surveillance des therm ocouples cœ u r ( T R T C ) . C e s coefficients a¡ r e p r é s e n ­
tent le rapport A T ra/ A T j entre l'augm entation de la tem pérature m oyenn e du
so dium dans le cœ u r et dans l'a ss e m b la g e i considéré. T out au long de la
m ontée en puissance et pendant le fonctionnement en puissance, il doit y
avoir conform ité entre les a¿ calculés et les a¡ déterm inés par le calculateur.
D e s seuils d 'a la r m e et de sécurité entrent en fonction pour tout dé p assem en t
égal â 5 et 1 0 °C .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 7 185

B ie n que le contrôle instantané de la puissance se fa sse é v id em m e n t sur

les indications des chaînes de contrôle, le m aintien à la p uissance ca rac té ris­
tique pendant l e s 40 jours d'u ne c a m p a g n e d'irradiation e s t a s s u r é , c o m m e on
l'a déjà dit, par le calculateur qui délivre un bilan therm ique du circuit
p rim a ir e toutes les secondes et par les opérateurs qui exécutent deux fois
p ar jour un bilan therm ique du circuit secondaire â l'éc han ge ur interm édiaire.
C 'e s t ce dernier bilan qui sert au recalage des c h a m b re s de contrôle.
O n peut donc r é s u m e r en disant que le m aintien à la puissance c a rac té ris­
tique est basé sur les bilans therm iques m a is que la détermination de la
p uissance linéaire correspondante a été obtenue à partir des m e s u r e s et des
observations faites au d é m a r r a g e .
D ep u is cette période le ch argem en t du coeur a é n o r m é m e n t évolué. A u s s i
il s em b le qu'actuellem ent il y ait un certain écart entre les distributions de
p uissance prévues et celles m e s u r é e s par les therm ocouples. N ous pensons
rep rend re une ca m p a gn e de m e s u r e s de façon à rétablir les relations c o r ­
rectes entre les dégagem ents de p uissance et leur contrôle.

4. M E SU R E S P R E V U E S A U D E M A R R A G E D E L A C E N T R A L E P H E N IX

L e d é m a r r a g e de R ap sodie- Fortissim o était partiellement considéré

c o m m e un banc d 'e ss a i pour les m éthodes de m e s u r e susceptibles d'être
em p lo yé es pour le d é m a r r a g e de Phénix. A u s s i les bons résultats obtenus
sur F o r tis sim o nous poussent â utiliser les m ê m e s m éthodes sur un p r o ­
g r a m m e de m e s u r e adapté aux conditions de Phénix.
D a n s ses grandes lignes le p r o g r a m m e c om pren dra :
— des irradiations de détecteurs fissiles et d'aiguilles com bustibles destinées
â donner les distributions axiales et radiales des taux de fission (l'accent
s e r a m is sur la distribution des puissances â l'interface des deux zones
com bustibles, à la limite cœ ur-couverture radiale et au voisinage des
b a r re s de contrôle et des a ss e m b la g e s diluants)
— des m e s u r e s p a r c h a m b re â fission pour déterm iner la p uissance linéaire
au centre du c œ u r jusq u'à une p uissance voisine de 100 M W (t h )
— des m e s u r e s de p ression dans les différentes zones de débit, destinées â
calibrer les débits et le m élange des trois jets de sodium â l'entrée du
cœ ur
— un test du systèm e de m e s u r e des tem pératures du cœ u r par déplacem ents
d 'a s s e m b la g e s à fort débit v e rs une zone à débit faible (on en déduira la
sensibilité des therm ocouples du couvercle cœ u r et on évaluera les échanges
therm iques entre ass e m b la g e s )
— des bilans therm iques du cœ u r pour connaître la puissance de chaque
a ss e m b la g e
— des bilans therm iques du réacteur, en principe m eilleurs que sur R a p so die
puisqu'on p o u rra les c o m p a r e r au bilan vap eu r, dont la précision est con­
sidérée c o m m e supérieure aux bilans faits sur le sodium .
C e p r o g r a m m e dans son en sem ble est orienté v e rs la connaissance des
distributions de p uissance et v e rs la calibration des m o ye ns de contrôle des
p uissa nc es. A la suite de tous ces essais de d é m a r r a g e on aura pu en parti­
culier évaluer les p erfo rm a n c e s du systèm e de traitement des tem pératures
c œ u r ( T R T C ) par rapport aux puissances réellem ent dégagées dans chaque
a s s e m b la g e . C e systèm e a un rôle de surveillance et.de sécurité p rim ordial
du fait qu'il est branché au plus près des sources de p uissance.
186 GOURDON

CONCLUSION

L e s m e s u r e s faites au d é m a r ra g e de R ap sodie- Fo rtissim o et de Phénix

dem an den t des m o y e n s importants, occupent un tem ps de réacteur non
négligeable et peuvent être une source de risques liés aux manutentions des
engins spéciaux. C e s inconvénients sont â mettre en balance avec les
avantages qu'il y a â bien connaître les puissances et surtout â tester les
m o y e n s de leur contrôle.
Devra-t-on continuer dans cette voie pour le d é m a r ra g e de la future
centrale rapide de 1200 M W ( e ) Super-Phénix? Il nous sem ble p rém aturé
de répondre m a is il faut r e m a r q u e r qu'il y a d'une part des argum ents contre:
la taille accrue du réacteur, l'absence de m o ye ns annexes qui facilitent la
récupération des engins expérim entaux et la vocation de ce réacteur â être
une centrale de démonstration; et d'autre part des argum ents pour: la grande
taille du cœ ur, le ram ollissem en t du spectre de neutrons et la présence d'un
grand n o m b r e de b a r re s de contrôle qui jouent un rôle important sur la
distribution des puissances dans les a ss e m b la g e s et rendent n écessaire le
test le plus com plet possible des m oyens de contrôle destinés â leur s u r ­
veillance.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] RAPSODIE - Industries atomiques nos 5, 6, 7 et 8(1967).

[2 ] PHENIX - Bull. Infs scient, tech. CEA n° 138 (1969).
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8

A P P L IC A T IO N OF PICKERING E X P E R IE N C E
TO FU TU R E CANADIAN N UCLEAR POW ER STATIONS

E .M . YAREMY, D.E. ANDERSON

A tom ic Energy o f Canada Limited,
Power Projects, Sheridan Park,
Ontario, Canada

Abstract

APPLICATION OF PICKERING EXPERIENCE TO FUTURE CANADIAN NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS.

The 2000-MW Pickering Nuclear Generating Station has been producing electrica l power since April, 1971.
Three of the four generating units are now producing full power (1500 MW total) with the output capacity factor
o f each unit approaching that o f a fully mature station. This paper reviews the overall plant control scheme
including system design aspects as well as particular hardware aspects o f the instrumentation used. The
operating reliabilities of both the systems and hardware are discussed as w ell as the lessons learned for
application on future stations such as the 3000-MW Bruce station now under construction. The application
o f the dual direct digital computer control system for all the com plex plant control systems, including reactor
control, has been a success. The dual computer arrangement is being carried over into future stations
although certain changes are being made in the design developm ent and commissioning stages o f the project.
The ease of making substantial program changes while producing full electrica l output has been proven and
the acceptance of the new control tool by the operating staff has been com plete. However, experience has
shown that improvements can be made in the com m unication link between the computer and the operator.
The Pickering regulating system uses resistance temperature detectors and in -core neutron flux detectors as
the main reactor power measurement signals and uses light water chambers in the reactor as the main
reactor bulk and spatial control elements. Some difficulties have been experienced with the system components
as well as with the spatial control concept itself. This has forced fairly substantial system changes, all carried
out at full power through the computer system. The reactor protective system has functioned well with the
few superious reactor scrams traceable to two main sources: electrica l noise pickup on the neutron overpower
scram signals, and failure of the electrica l power scheme to give adequately reliable power. The results of
the Pickering experiences are being applied at this tim e to the designs o f future Candu nuclear power stations.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Pickering Generating Station, of the CANDU nuclear concept

using natural uranium fuel and heavy water for moderator and heat transport
flu id , started feeding electrical power into the Ontario Hydro power
network in A p ril, 1971.

The startup record of the firs t three units (512 MWe each) is
shown in Table I ; the operating record of the 3 units up to June 30th, 1972
is shown in Figure 1. The total operating capacity factor for the in it ia l
operating period shown in Figure 1 was approximately 80%.

The total loss in production capability due to the nuclear steam

supply instrumentation and control systems was 1 .7 % . In turn the largest
fraction (73%) of this 1.7% incapability was due to 15 forced outages
caused by spurious reactor trips (scrams)•

187
188 YA R E M Y and ANDERSON

H
> rl (N
0) * p.. r*.
ü >1 • ■*
•H H U >,
«H > S (U ni
(Q V4 h ) P S
P 0)
•P СО Л Д -P
Ü JJ +J w
< c О О Н
H сч со ro

H ГМ
— ü ® r- P- CM
*0 4J• 0)* p*•
*
a *н
d3 rH a S -p
Q) 3 ü
'О Ф W l-Э O
ФW
Æ +» -p +J
Q Ü c W W W
tí WH rH *4 rH
О
и
H
Pi
сц
p >1 ^
H (U W W W
в гН 1 >1 >t >1
tí m
u л
o ЛЗ
*0
Л
'O
(в
*0
<! •rl 0
H •P -P H u-) со со
от •H «H a> m h

й ô s
о
н
<! H H (\
Н
от u
Q)
r** r** r»
>1 > >1
0 •p. 0
5 03 О 03
Й n a. s г s
•И H SX Я Л
н lu H ■P -P +3
3 О Is* OÍ
tí h m «h

1
W
о iH
«4 Г" CN
о 4J
• r-
g H Xi Ck u
tí h <d
0 u
<})
b* w
<ü
<
Q<
H •P *и
ü -p Л Д J3
¡4 «0 *H îî 4J +3
ü Ф n m m
ftj o <N H <N
s

•p
H •H
J c l-Н «N Г0
D
m
<
E-i
 IAEA-SM-168/A-8 189

>■s 5
* * ®
t UJ ГЧ
5 о
? S

power generation,
station
Pickering generating
FIG. 1.

<901* 4MW) UBMOdlSUId 30NIS

(SSOdO) U3MOd ЭШ1ЭЭ1Э элилппипэ
 190

D20 FROM P R ES SU RI ZI NG PUMPS

Y A R E M Y and ANDERSON

FIG.2. Control system block diagram,

 IAE A - S M - 1 6 8 / Л -8 191

These 15 reactor trips can be divided into 3 categories:

(a) 7 due to failures in the control power supplies.

(b) 5 due to faulty operation of the nitrogen-16 measurement

in the heat transport system, used for overpower
protection.

(c) 3 due to miscellaneous causes generally attributable

to operating in the immature stage of plant l i f e .

The experiences gained at Pickering in this in it ia l operating

period, including the more prominent d iffic u lt ie s , are discussed below.

2. OVERALL CONTROL SCHEME

The control system block diagram is illustrated in Figure 2.

The reactor primary power detector devices are ion chambers in

the start-up range and cobalt type self-powered in-core flux detectors in
the electrical power output range. Longer-term absolute thermal power
adjustments to the in-core detector outputs are made from the flows and
temperatures of selected reactor coolant channels. Reactor bulk and
spatial reactivity control is achieved by the use of liquid zone control
rods with additional depth available from adjusting moderator level.
Cobalt adjuster rods normally inserted to give the desired flux shape are
removed to provide excess reactivity to overcome Xe-135 transients
following a reduction of power.

Referring to Figure 2 it can be seen that the overall control

scheme is of the turbine following the reactor type. The demanded power is
input into the reactor regulating system and the boiler pressure controller
adjusts the heat removal devices (turbine governor valve position or
atmospheric steam discharge valve position) to maintain the boiler pressure
at the programmed value for that reactor power. The station is designed
for base load type of operation with no provision for automatically
correcting any deviations in the power network frequency or varying the
station output on a daily basis to match the variations in network power
demand.

The above described system has worked satisfactorily when the

station has been supplying its power to a large grid (each Pickering unit
presently constitutes approximately 5% of the Ontario Hydro power demand).
However, as the amount of nuclear generated power becomes a larger and
larger proportion of the total it becomes necessary to have the nuclear
stations share in the tasks of network frequency correction and daily load
following. It is for this reason that the new Ontario Hydro Bruce Nuclear
Station (4 units of 750 MWe ea c h ), presently under construction, w ill have
the control scheme by which the reactor power w ill follow the turbine
demand. This is accomplished in the conventional manner by having the
boiler pressure signal adjusting the demanded power setpoint of the
reactor. In this maimer variations in power network frequency are
compensated by the normal operation of the turbine governor valve system.

The load-following requirement of the Bruce station w ill be

accomplished by the use of booster rods and by dumping steam directly to
the turbine condenser bypassing the turbine. On new stations in the future
this load-following capability w ill be accomplished by the use of booster
192 Y A R E M Y and ANDERSON

rods, absorbers, turbine condensers, and separate dump condensers, or some

combination thereof. The exact method to be used is a matter of economics,
dependent upon such factors as the cost of main reactor fuel, the in it ia l
and replacement costs of booster fu e l, the particular load cycling
requirements of the power network, and the type of station being built
(single unit or multi-unit). There is no fixed method of load following
which is the most economical answer for all load-following requirements.

As mentioned above, the Pickering base load type of operation has

worked satisfactorily under normal circumstances. However, one incident
has occurred which raises some doubt as to whether a particular station
should be designed with no frequency correction capability. Due to some
d iffic u lties on the power distribution network, it became divided into
several separate islands. The Pickering station became part of an island
in which the two operating units were producing 40% of the required demand
and the total supply in the island exceeded the demand by 23%. There was a
considerable frequency instability in the island and additional loading
shedding took place before the situation stabilized. It is s t i l l not clear
whether the Pickering station contributed to the additional instability
because of its inherent design. However, it is clear that in designing
plants for base load operation the design must include provisions for
operation in the abnormal network system modes, and they must be able to
contribute their share towards system stability.

3. PLANT COMPUTER SYSTEMS

3 .1 Control

At Pickering G .S .^ a dual computer system is used for the essential

control loops in each reactor unit.

Referring to Figure 2 the shaded area indicates those main

functions carried out by the computer system. Additionally, the system is
used for the control of the fuelling machines, alarm monitoring, automatic
turbine run-up, and various data logging tasks.

Details of the Pickering computer system have been discussed by

T .B . Mahood at Nuclex 72 (1) and they w ill not be repeated here. However,
it is essential to point out the important lessons learned from the
Pickering Installation.

The most important aspect of a control computer installation is

that it be reliable. I t is for this reason that a dual computer
installation was installed on each reactor unit. A ll functions that are
essential to the operation of the unit are repeated in each computer. Both
computers have all their inputs connected at all times and run continuously
but only the outputs of the master computer гиге connected to the final
control devices. I f the master computer fails its outputs are disconnected
and the outputs from the standby computer are connected to the final control
devices. With this arrangement in the operating period up to June 30th,
1972, there has been a total of 3 reactor unit forced outages caused by the
computer systems. None of the forced outages has resulted in a reactor
poison out. The total plant incapability (including forced outages and
power deratings) due to malfunctioning computer systems has been less than
0 .5 % . The exact outage figure is d iffic u lt to establish precisely since

G. S. = generating station
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 193

deratings due to deficiencies in computer system programs sometimes get

charged to the computer system whereas the fault actually lies with the
faulty specifications established for the control programs. However, the
number of single computer stalls during this period was quite substantial.
Reliance on a single computer installation per reactor unit would have
resulted in many power outages.

Another feature of the dual computer approach, which was not

fully appreciated before the startup of Pickering Unit 1, is its flexibility
in accommodating design changes in the process system control programs. As
discussed in Part 4 of this paper, fairly substantial changes were made in
various control algorithms. These program changes were input and tested
out in the standby computer system. Control was switched over to this
standby unit and the master computer reprogrammed without any loss in power
production. These revised programs were also input into the computer
systems of the succeeding reactor units. The ease with which the lessons
learned on Unit 1 could be incorporated on succeeding units was one of the
reasons for the shorter commissioning periods for these units.

As a result of the two factors discussed above, especially the

high capability of the system during the immature stage of plant l i f e , we
are using the dual computer approach on future CANDU stations being
designed.

However, an aspect of the computer systems which could be inproved

upon in the future is the method of commissioning these systems. On
Pickering one computer was available for hardware and software development
very early in the design stage. However, no means of testing the process
control programs on the real time operating process was available until
plant commissioning began and the programs were moved into the operating
computers. Sim ilarly, no means was available to test out the complete dual
computer system prior to the start of field commissioning.

Since delays in reactor startup are very costly in this latter

phase of the construction program, it has been decided to provide a better
testing arrangement for the computer systems on the Bruce station. A
complete dual computer system is being delivered to the design group for
system development (it w ill eventually be installed in Unit 4 of the
s t a t io n ). The operation of the complete system can therefore be tested
prior to the start of field commissioning. Additionally, the simulation of
the plant used for design control studies w ill be done using this computer
system. F inally, the actual plant w ill be simulated in one computer and
the second computer used to control this simulated plant using the actual
control programs developed for the plant it s e lf. By this means it is
proposed to reduce the amount of field commissioning on these systems to a
minimum, thereby shortening the overall construction period.

3.2 Operator Communication

While proving the viability of computer systems for control

purposes, Pickering experience has shown the need for improvements in
machine - operator communications. The main communication link with each
Pickering computer is a 32 character per lin e , 1200 line per minute, line
printer. A typewriter is only used for the input of information to the
computer and for producing data logs. The main control panels utilize a
large number of indicating meters and recorders in the conventional manner.

Another feature of the Pickering design is the use of the

computer system for alarm annunciation, there being only about 80 alarm
194 YA R EM Y and ANDERSON

Pickering control panel layout - for one unit.

zo«
< a
i% o - <
hI “ s» s .
5 Uш Í - i s
U Í ь -¿ t z O
g z 3o°9z
sis ; “<xë
Ош ш < !Ü Z < ^
-ЭЭ JI"U;
U U-U. o . M > X *

FIG.3.
S!ûO
£<f
ÎOg
* *5 u2
S g 5 WoO
° z«0
N | z oJ|O
m u n u- u
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 1 95

windows per reactor unit representing reactor trip s, power setbacks, and
the most important alarm conditions.

As part of this annunciation scheme there is one Cathode Ray Tube

(CRT) display per reactor unit which lists the 20 most recent alarms. All
alarms and alarm clearances are printed out on the 32 character line
printer. The control panel layout for one Pickering unit is shown in
Figure 3.
The above communication arrangement is quite satisfactory during
normal steady state operating conditions. However, during plant upset
conditions such as during a reactor trip , the communications systems are
overtaxed: there are not enough alarm windows to enable the operator to
quickly scan the problem areas; there are too many process indications to
enable the important parameters to stand out from the lesser ones; the line
printers are overloaded and produce a mountain of alarm and control
messages. This latter problem is compounded by the fact that the system
was not designed for such a large number of messages, and as a result the
messages would not be printed out in the sequence in which the events
occurred. Remedial changes such as shorter messages, conditioning of lower
order alarms, and different message handling computer routines have
adequately cleared up the Pickering situation.

However, on future CANDU designs we propose major changes in the

machine-operator link . On the Bruce plant there w ill be a total of 10 CRT
displays for each reactor unit. Recorders have practically been eliminated,
and the only process indicating meters are those required for the monitoring
of the unit when it is shut down and both computers are out of service, and
those few meters that indicate the state of the reactor unit at a glance.
Although the alarm annunciation is s t ill handled by the computer system the
number of alarm windows has been increased to approximately 300 per reactor
unit to enable the operator to use his scanning ability during a plant
upset. The most recent alarms w ill s t ill continue to be displayed on one
CRT display and all alarm and control messages w ill be printed out on a fast
line printer.

The control panel layout for one Bruce Unit is shown in Figure 4.
The 10 CRT displays are dispersed over the main control panels. They w ill
be able to display information in alphanumera, barchart, graphical trend, or
symbolic fashion, with the information being continuously updated. Up to 22
related barchart or 4 related graphical trend inputs can be displayed
simultaneously on the same CRT. The selection of variables to be displayed
w ill be made via a keyboard associated with each CRT display. Typical
displays are shown on Figures 5 and 6. At the operator's request the
complete image, exactly as shown on a CRT, can be reproduced on the line
printer for future reference.

There has been complete acceptance of the computer systems by the

Pickering operating s ta ff. The proposed use of the computer systems for
more extensive operator communication tasks is also being enthusiastically
received by the operating group. This positive attitude has been a great
incentive to the designers on these future plants.

4. REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM

4 .1 Reactor Power Monitoring Instrumentation

Reactor power at Pickering is monitored by three basic devices;
self-powered in-core detectors (ICD) for zone neutron power, resistance
temperature detectors (RTD) for coolant temperature, and ion chambers for
 196
Y AREMY and ANDERSON

FIG.4. Bruce control panel layout — for one unit.

 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 / A - 8 197

ZO N E CON i RO L LEVEL'-.

U N IT S- F ’ERC EN T

EfiST F ACE W E S T F ACE

Z-iü
7 —0 Z-13
■
I E ? Z-ll
■ и
gïïÜK Z-14
1
T—4 О

FIG.5. T ypical Bruce generating station cathode-ray tube (CRT) display.

FIG. 6. T ypical Bruce generating station CRT display.

198 YAREMY and ANDERSON

FIG.7. In-core flux detector locations, and fuel channels with flow monitoring on inlet and temperature
monitoring on both inlet and outlet.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 199

low log power. Each Pickering Reactor has 36 IC D 's coiled onto 8 small
diameter assemblies permanently located in the reactor. 28 are used for
control, 4 are allocated to the protective system and 4 are spares (as shown
in Figure 7 ) . Two RTD's are mounted on each of the 390 outlet feeders and
on 22 inlet feeders. Three ion chambers are mounted in separate housings
outside the core.

The ion chambers are for control only at low power; above 15%
full power they are not utilized . The reason for this arrangement is that
the relationship between the signal from these out of core devices and
reactor power can be altered by such factors as soluble poison in the
moderator, flux t i l t , on-power refuelling, and movement of control devices.

Pickering is the first generation of CANDU reactors to extensively

u tilize ICD’ s for reactor control and protection. Their prompt response,
linearity, compactness, relatively low cost, and long life in high flux
make them the ideal feedback device for both bulk power control and flux
t i l t corrections. As the size of future reactors increases, more of these
detectors w ill be used. The scope for detector development is s t i l l large.

At the time of ordering for Pickering in 1967, Cobalt appeared to

be the best emitter material. Subsequent development work at the Chalk
River Nuclear Laboratories showed that the buildup of the activation
products Co-60 and Co-61 was higher than originally expected with the result
that the expected useful life of the detector is about six full-power years.
However, we have developed a ne»; detector which employs platinum as the
emitter material. This detector has been installed at both the Gentilly and
Pickering stations on a trial basis; the evidence is that the platinum
detector w ill last the full 30 years in the reactor without replacement.
About 250 platinum detectors are being fabricated for the Bruce Nuclear
Generating Station at a tendered cost that is less than the cost for the
Pickering Cobalt Detectors.

The ICD produces about one microampere current at full power.

This is converted and amplified locally to a five volt signal for supply to
the high-level multiplexers of the control computers. Great care was taken
in the design of the amplifier and the interconnections to provide defences
against electrical interference since the sheath of each ICD is grounded in
the reactor.

The reliability of the ICD and associated equipment has been

proven to be very high, and the design techniques utilized in Pickering are
being carried on to Bruce and future p lants.

Significant difficu lties were encountered with the RTD's for

Pickering. The design is a surface type of RTD which is clamped to the
outside wall of each outlet feeder, close to the end fittin g. Two slightly
different types of RTD's were ordered from two suppliers; one batch was
destined for units 1 and 3, the other for units 2 and 4. Although some
quality control difficulties were experienced with the unit 1 batch, an
adequate operating system was achieved. However, a completely unacceptable
failure rate for the unit 2 detectors was identified during pre-startup
testing. After several delays for repairs, all 780 detectors were replaced
with the unit 1 type which, fortunately, were available on site from unit 3.
The failures on these RTD's included open circuits, short circuits, and low
insulation resistance. These failures stemmed from the fact that the RTD
design was a significant departure from the industry standard, compounded by
poor production quality control.
200 YA R EM Y and ANDERSON

Units 3 and 4 have now been modified to accept an improved design

of RTD located in a well which is strapped to the surface of the feeder near
the header. Small stainless steel tubes run from the well to the outside of
the feeder cabinet to permit RTD replacement without entering the header
cabinet. The testing and early operation of unit 3 has confirmed the
improved r elia bility and maintainability of this design. On future plants
it is planned to specify RTD's that are as close to the industry standard as
is possible. We are also pursuing the possibility of temperature
measurement by infra red techniques in those applications where continuous
readouts are not necessary.

4 .2 Zone Control System

The Pickering reactors are divided, for control purposes» into

two axial slices and each slice is divided into one central and six outer
zones, giving fourteen zones in a ll. Zone control compartments are located
in the middle of each control zone in six vertical Zircalloy through tubes,
as shown in Figure 8. Light water is introduced into each compartment by
small diameter tubing. There is a constant outflow of 0.15 k g / s from the
bottom of each compartment and a continuously variable inflow from the top
of 0 .0 2 to 0 .3 0 k g / s .

The zone control system is used by the regulating system for both
bulk power and flux t ilt control. To raise or lower the unit output, the
light water level is varied in all compartments together. To control
regional variations of power across the reactor, the light water levels are
adjusted d ifferentially . The flux t ilt gain can be much lower than that
for bulk power control.

The decision to utilize thi‘s system on Pickering was based in

part on early analytical work which indicated that the reactor would be
marginally unstable at full power for xenon oscillations in the aximuthal
mode i f no provision was made for continuous flux t ilt control. This point
was confirmed on Unit 1 at full power when the flux t ilt portion of the
regulating system was switched o ff for about 24 hours and a slow side-to-
side Xenon oscillation with a 12-hour period was observed to develop. The
flux t il t function was then turned back on and the core was re-stabilized
very effectively.

In spite of the extensive in-reactor and out-reactor development

that went into the zone control system for Pickering, a large number of
man-hours were required to commission the system on Unit 1. Having
remedied the problems on this prototype system, however, the system went
into service on subsequent Pickering units very quickly; a real benefit of
multi-unit stations. Some of the difficulties experienced were related to
the helium bubbler level measurement signals for each compartment, to the
flooding of lines when the compartments o v e rfill, to activation of
impurities in the helium gas system, and to the correct operation of the
system under abnormal fault conditions.

The system works well and the same design is being carried
forward to the Bruce reactors ; the compartments have been increased in
diameter and the flow rates increased to accommodate the requirements of
the larger reactors. The intrinsic advantage of this system is that there
are no moving parts in the reactor, that the compartments can be discretely
located in the core where they are the most effective, and that there are
no top-to-bottom flux distortions such as would develop from the movement
of a top-entry solid absorber.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / A - 8 201

FIG. 8 . Z o n e control com partm ents.

 540 M
W ELECTRICAL GROSS AUGUST 10, 1972
202

о
к!•
CM
YA R E M Y and ANDERSON

К
о
к

К
О
CN

CN
CN

operating history.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 20 3

There is considerable scope for future development of this concept

for application to reactors beyond Bruce. We are presently examining a
gravity feed system into selected lattice locations where only the calandria
tube is installed and the pressure tube and fuel are left out.

4 .3 Early System Performance

A number of problems with the control systems came to light when

Unit 1 started up. It was possible to resolve a majority of these through
modification of the control programs in the computers, by changing test
values and gains, or adding sub routines and additional functions. This is
one area where the advantages of direct digital control became very evident.
Most of these problems had to be resolved prior to firs t electrical
production. As shown in Figure 9 , Unit 1 went critical on 25th February,
1971 and first electrical power was produced on 4th April - a period of 38
days. The comparative numbers for units 2 and 3 were 21 days and 9 days
respectively.

The types of problems encountered during the in it ia l operation

and the solutions are outlined in Table I I . Many of them can be described
as interface problems; that is problems arising from the application of
an on-line direct digital control system to a nuclear steam supply. The
experience and techniques gained from Pickering are directly applicable to
the design of the control system for Bruce, and are resulting in a
significant reduction in engineering time for the design of the Bruce
control system.

4 .4 Reactor Setbacks

When trouble is detected of a lesser degree than that which calls

for a reactor trip , a reactor setback is initiated through the control
system. Examples of parameters in itiating a setback are multiple low water
level in the bo ilers, opening of the atmospheric steam discharge valves and
high level in the bleed condenser. The reactor power is reduced at a
controlled rate of 0 .5 percent of full power per second until either the
setback condition disappears or the power is reduced to a specific low
level.

On Pickering, as on past CANTO reactors, setback conditions are

processed by triplicated analog logic which imposes a fixed downdrive rate
on both computers. Our experience at Pickering indicates that the
flex ibility and reliability of the control computers permits all the
setback conditions to be processed in the computers, and to tailor the
setback rate to suit each particular parameter and its deviation from
normal. This is the design specified for Bruce.

5. PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

5 .1 Shutdown Mechanisms

The principle means of emergency shutdown at Pickering is a bank

of 11 shutoff rods which are worth approximately 24 milli-K. They are of
the winch and cable type and are released by de-energizing an electro­
magnetic clutch, whereupon the drum unwinds freely and the absorber falls
under gravity. The secondary method of shutdown is by dumping the
moderator in the same way as is done at the NPD, Douglas Point, and
Gentilly stations.
 204

T A B LE II. CONTROL SYSTEM PROBLEMS ID E N T IF IE D DURING THE EARLY O P E R A T IO N OF P IC K E R IN G I

YA R EM Y and ANDERSON
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 205

c o n t 'd
II
TABLE
206 YA R EM Y and ANDERSON

м
ri
+->
nJ с
о
•P (6 b fa
Oi . с
•и JJ «н *Л fpt
1
.S ^0
h 11 o Г* о • JQ -M \Û
h w л v С

S i J§ f§t
h

Ч-l H >
ОO w

•P
c
<0

M
-J
O
w
W
0)
F U N C T IO N S

3. en
a
j
Eh
Z
g
H
CJ ci
s
& THEIR

c
o
•H
-p
<c (0
f-4 \
•P <*
g. C 10 H.
SIG NALS

M V л
&
4-
1 О = Backups
o
X №
en O' Л» \
o
J
TRIP

flÊ
REACTOR

X = Main

-p •p
0)
•P H
в 0) 0) m
o H
32 w и Н ^
(d fd
•Р
m
Û4
№ g
«P
3
FP = full power

W ps
III.

й 0) № o
Я 3 с о» S 3 S (1)
ce
&
9
и
CU
0
л ->
•и Й
J 0
О со И о
н н
к
к 3
10 м V4 Ьч о) (Л rt
T A B LE

a л л Н л -Р л ■Р ■р (Л 3
•H O' О» 1 O' 3 O' 3 m 'S
H
•H
22
•И й
a w •Н 0) •н <и О р о и
С)
8
я z Я Й ГС щ си s
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 207

Either system alone has the capability of safely shutting the

reactor down for all trip situations except for certain very low
probability loss-of-coolant accidents during the first year of operation
when the coolant void co-efficient of reactivity related to the fresh fuel
is high. For this case, both shutdown mechanisms may be called upon to
operate.

To avoid a poison out following a rapid shutdown from high power,

the shutoff rods can be withdrawn in five minutes to permit a restart
within the poison over-ride time of 45 minutes. I f a moderator dump occurs,
the heavy water can not be pumped back into the calandria in time to beat a
poison out.

Within the protection system, a "dump arrest" logic determines

whether moderator dump is required in addition to the shutoff rods when a
reactor trip occurs. This sytem works on the principle that a trip signal
w ill open the dump valves unless the reactor power as indicated by ion
chambers falls at an acceptable minimum rate to about 1% of rated neutron
power and remains below this as long as the trip signal persists. The
correct operation of the shutoff rods w ill thus prevent moderator dump.

5 .2 Trip System

Table I I I summarizes the parameters used for reactor trip and

identifies the role they play in the various postulated design basis
accidents. The protective system is an independent triplicated logic
system employing general coincidence. A trip of any one of the seven
parameters in two of the three channels w ill initiate shutoff rod release.

From Table I I I , it can be seen that each of the postulated

accidents w ill be sensed by two different type of sensors, one neutron and
one process.

The system has been designed to be easily tested without

reduction in reactor power. Trip parameters and trip logic are tested
daily. Each shutoff rod is partially dropped at least once a month. The
demonstrated unreliability of this system on unit 1 on the basis of test
results over the first year is 4 x 10-5 y r /y r . The target is 3 x 10-3.

For future CANDU units sited in Canada, designers have' proposed

and the regulatory authorities have agreed that there are advantages in the
provision of two independent shutdown systems; each with their own separate
trip sensing, logic processing, and reactor shutdown systems. The Bruce
reactors do not employ moderator dump; the two methods of reactor shutdown
are gravity shutoff rods and injection of gadolinium poison into the bulk
no de rato г.

5 .3 Early System Performance

As indicated in the introduction, a 1.7% loss of production

capability for units 1, 2, and 3 can be attributed to the nuclear steam
supply control and safety system instrumentation.

The majority of this lost production was due to 15 forced outages

caused by spurious reactor trips over a combined period for the 3 reactors
of 22 operating months.
208 YAREMY and ANDERSON

s
cc
о
u.
C/5
z
<
cc
I-
3 >
CD
>

III— o © -

z
ш
> z
<
X
и

GC
О
H
o
<
H
z
о
о

z
<

Z
<
I
о

о
о
о

III—со Z
Z
<
X
о
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 209

The biggest contributor to these spurious trips was related to

the guaranteed power supplies for the instrumentation. Each Pickering Unit
has two battery banks supplying AC power at 600 volts to two buses via
motor-generator units. These in turn supply two control power buses via
6 00/208 V. transformers. The buses are connected by a transfer contactor
which closes i f power is lost to one side or the other. This is the
conventional split power supply arrangement which has been provided on past
stations, and is shown in simplified form on Figure 10.

The obvious difficulty here is the supply of triplicated channels

D. E. F from a dual power supply. I f there is an interruption on the odd
power supply side, the transfer contactor must be fast enough to prevent
the fail-safe trip instruments on channels D. and F. from dropping out.
The voltage sensing and transfer equipment did not meet the design
specification. There is a well known law of nature which states " i f there
is a p ossibility of several things going wrong, the one that w ill go wrong
is the one that w ill do the most harm". In this case, several avoidable
switching and maintenance operations de-energized the odd power bus which
trips 2 of 3 protective channels. No interruptions of the even bus, which
would trip only one protective channel and therefore not shut down the
reactor, have occurred.

The other factor leading to interruption of control power relates

to the fact that contactors are used for transfer rather than circuit
breakers. A scheme using contactors w ill not maintain supply i f control
power is lost. Certain avoidable operations resulted in interruption of
power due to loss of control power to the contactors.

These experiences have led us to provide at Pickering and to

specify in future units, triplicated power supplies for triplicated safety
systems. Completely separate battery banks, solid state convertors, and
supply buses are provided for each channel of a safety system. There are
no interconnecting contactors or breakers. The complete failure of one
power supply w ill trip only one channel in each safety system and, in a two
out of three trip system, w ill hot cause a unit shutdown. The reliability
of this arrangement is very much higher since there is no dependence on
active transfer devices to sustain voltage and because there is no cross­
link between the systems which might lead to a common-mode failure.

The second cause of spurious trips was instrumentation used to

monitor the level of nitrogen-16 in the heat transport system. The level
of nitrogen-16 is directly proportional to reactor power. The signal is
used in the protective system as a defence against slow increases in
reactor power above full power.

In September, 1971, about six months after unit 1 started up, a

series of reactor trips occurred due to the spurious operation of this
system. The cause was traced to high frequency AC noise pickup in the
pulse counting equipment. I t had been recognized in the design stage that
this equipment would be more vulnerable to noise and care was taken in the
grounding of the instrumentation, conduiting of the signal cables, and
buffering of the power supplies. The source of the pickup could not be
immediately determined so the protective system was modified to use a
linear neutron signal from the ion chambers as an interim measure.
Periodic manual adjustments by the operator are required to maintain a
specified margin-to-trip on the ion chambers. Further changes are underway
to provide a system whereby the ion chamber signal is compensated by the
N-16 activity with lower sensitivity and longer time constant.
210 YA R EM Y and ANDERSON

6. SUMMARY

The generally high availability of the Pickering reactors right

from in it ia l startup has been due in no small measure to the experience
gained from the prototype 200-MW Douglas Point station in the areas of
instrumentation and control. In turn, the experience being gained at
Pickering is being applied to the design of the Bruce and future CANDU
Stations.

This experience is not only being applied at the design level but
it being transmitted to the manufacturing industry also. An extensive
nuclear instrumentation industry has been established in Canada which is
capable of producing high quality equipment at competitive prices.

We are confident that the continuity in reactor concept,

continuity in design s ta ff, and continuity in manufacturing capability,
w ill continue to make the CANDU reactor concept the best for Canada and
competitive with other reactor concepts elsewhere.

R E F E R E N C E

(1) MAHOOD, T .B . , Computer Control in the Pickering Nuclear Power Station,

Nuclex 72, 1972.

DISCUSSION

J. F U R E T : Y ou have not dealt with burst slug detection system s.

I understand that in the Pick ering 1 and 2 reactors the initial design of
the detection system s has been m odified. D o you intend to apply the s a m e
modifications to B ru c e , in particular the use of fine 7 -spectrometry for
defect localization purposes?
I believe that in P ick er in g 1 and 2 you decided to fit the loading and
unloading m ach in es with delayed-neutron detection system s for defect
localization channel b y channel.
E. M . Y A R E M Y : T h e initial Pick ering design did not incorporate
m onitoring equipm ent for failed fuel elem ents. Subsequently two system s
w e r e designed: a com bined system for the detection of deposited fission
products and gaseous fission products, which would detect and localize
the defect to within approxim ately 1 / 1 2 of the core, and a delayed-neutron
m onitoring s c h e m e associated with the fuelling m ach in es to localize the
failure to within a single channel. Neither sy stem can be called fully
operational yet. T h e r e are strong indications that the system for the
detection of deposited fission products, together with knowledge of the
fuel m a n a g e m e n t history of the core, will be adequate for localizing fuel
elem ent defects. T h e r e is also considerable reluctance on the part of the
operator to use the m a in fuelling m ach in es for the seco ndary role of
searching for failed fuel. It m ust be borne in m in d that owing to continuous
on-line refuelling the residence time of the fuel in the core is low.
In the B r u c e reactor two system s are being installed: a com bined
detection system sim ilar to the Pick ering s y s t e m fo r localizingthe defectto a
region of the core, and a delayed-neutron system connected to each fuel
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 8 211

channel outlet feeder pipe via a sam p le tube to localize the defect to a
particular channel. T h e latter sy stem is sim ilar to that us ed successfully
at Do ug las Point.
J. F U R E T : W h a t type of com puters are you thinking of using for B ru ce?
I understand that you intend to simulate the whole p o w er station and its
control s y s t e m on one of them . D o you intend to sim ulate the spatial control
on the basis of real time or of delayed time?
E . M . Y A R E M Y : E a c h com puter at B r u c e is a V a r ia n m o del 620f with
32 К w o r d s of core storage plus auxiliary disc storage. W h e n the plant
is sim ulated in one of the com puters, controlled by the second one, there
is not sufficient capacity to test the spatial control. T h e m odel and test
will sim ulate the reactor as a point m odel, and the em p h a sis will be on
the operation of the overall plant control s c h e m e . Indications are that we
will be able to effect this simulation control in real tim e.
W . B A S T L : H o w do you m e a s u r e the water level in the tubes of the
p o w er control system ? H o w m a n y of the m e a su rin g devices are provided
for control purposes?
E . M . Y A R E M Y : T h e liquid level in each liquid control rod is m e a s u r e d
b y a single conventional bubble pipe in each rod. Bubble-pipe back p re ssure
is a direct m e a s u r e of liquid level.
F . D E C O O L : W h a t w e r e the reasons that led you to adopt liquid-filled
control rods for the B ru c e reactor rather than gas-filled ones, which
cause less flux distortion?
E . M . Y A R E M Y : Considerable effort w a s expended on developing a
satisfactory liquid-filled control rod for P ick ering . T h is system has
b e en show n to operate satisfactorily in a p o w er reactor and m eets the
requirem ents of the B r u c e control system . W e therefore p re fer r ed to
apply this p roven technique to the B r u c e design rather than e m b a r k upon
the design of a n e w sy stem of which w e had no previous experience.
R . J. C O X : T h e r e is a growing suspicion that current m ethods for
the study of spatial stability m a y be giving rise to optimistic predictions,
particularly for water- m oderated reactors. I w on der whether in the
P ick er in g reactor you have been able to obtain a quantitative m e a s u r e m e n t
of the spatial stability m ar g in s and to c o m p a r e them with predictions.
E . M . Y A R E M Y : T ests w e r e conducted on P ick er in g Unit 1 to establish
the threshold of xenon spatial instability. Unfortunately, I do not have
the results of this w o r k with m e , nor can I recall the exact tests and results,
except that the p o w er w a s held at various levels without spatial control in
operation. T h e instability did occur at a level n ea r that predicted by
physical calculations, with a side-to-side divergent oscillation having a
12-h period.
L . N O V I E L L O : Could you tell m e what the rates of p o w er change are
in the P ic k er in g and B r u c e reactors?
E. M . Y A R E M Y : T h e n o rm a l m a x i m u m m a n œ u v e rin g rate for the B ru ce
and P ic k e r in g reactors in the electrical p o w er range is ± 1 % of full p o w er
p er second. T h e ste a m system follows this rate, but with a time lag of
approxim ately 20 s. In the case of the B ru c e plant, the specification
requires the ability to respond to a + 5 % step electrical load change.
T h e B r u c e control system , in combination with the heat sink of B ru ce
N u c le ar Island, m eets this req uirem ent easily.
L . N O V I E L L O : I w a s w on dering w h y you do not consider the use of a
co-ordinated control in w hich the signal for the required load is sent direct
212 YA R EM Y and ANDERSON

to both the turbine governor and to the reactor controller. Co-ordinated

control would allow a higher rate of change.
E. M . Y A R E M Y : T h e B ru ce plant m eets the requirem ent of the
utility with the conventional boiler p r e s s u r e control de scribed. If the
requirem ent w e r e m o r e stringent w e would certainly consider other control
m o d e s , including co-ordinated control. H o w e v e r , it w a s not n e c e ss a ry
to introduce a m o r e co m ple x control s y s tem to achieve the requirem ents
for the B r u c e plant.
 IAEA -S M - 1 6 8 /A - 9

REQU IREM EN TS F O R LARGE N U C LE A R POW ER

P LA N TS FR O M THE STANDPOINT OF THE USER

U. HEIN ING
Rheinisch-Westfálisches Elektrizitatswerk AG,
Essen, Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

REQUIREMENTS FOR LARGE N U CLEA R POWER PLANTS FROM T H E S T A N D P O IN T OF TH E USER.

In recent years nuclear demonstration plants have been erected. The utilities, which bought these
power stations, operated them cautiously with regard to new techniques. Today quite a number of ordered
power plants are nuclear stations, and they have to meet the requirements of the utilities. This paper
explains which requirements the RWE-demands for modem light-water reactor power plants in relation to
the load-following operation, availability and reliability of operation and emergency systems, state of the
control system and control room, automatic control and the use of computer systems.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

In recent y e a r s dem onstration p o w e r plants have be en built, and the

public electric utilities that bought them operated them ve ry cautiously.
T h e s e plants, h o w e v er , did not have to m eet the s a m e operation r e q u ir e ­
m en ts that conventional ones do. B e c a u s e of the n ew and partly unknow n
field of technology som e adjustm ents had to be m a d e .
Since no w ad ays m a n y of the n ew plants are nuclear they inevitably
have to m e e t certain specific req uirem ents owing to their unit size.
Despite all the interest taken in r e s e a r c h it cannot be the task of the
electricity supply com p a n ies to be ready to accept and test n ew technologies
in the first place,but rather to m e e t the d e m a n d of a safe and econom ical
electricity generation.
T h is p aper briefly outlines the req uirem ents w e m u st no w m e e t in
our p o w er plants concerning nuclear p o w e r plant control and instrumentation
(1 3 0 0 - M W light-water reactors). T h e pressure- w ater reactor is p r e ­
dom inantly refe rred to in this paper because our first large nuclear plant
(at Biblis) will be equipped with pressure- w ater reactors.

2. CONTROL

N o r m a l control rates in the network are below 5 % p er m inute. High

load variation rates partly involve expensive equipm ent (the n u m b e r of the
control rods, d im ensio n of the p r e s s u r ize r and of the p r e ss u r ize r relief
tank with P W R ) . T o avoid this disadvantage yet to com pensate for the
less adequate control behaviour of older plants, the following design data
will be required in the future (from Biblis В onw ards).

(a) Control rate

In the range fr o m 15- 60%: ± 10% of the instantaneous output/m in.

In the range fro m 60- 10 0 % : ± 10% of the rated output/m in.

2 13
214 HEIN ING

(b) Step loads (in case of system disturbances)

In the range fr o m 15- 60%: ± 10% of the instantaneous output

In the range fro m 60- 100% : ± 10% of the rated output

N egative step loads can be carried out at any level till trip at full-
load operation to station auxiliary p o w e r (without turbine or reactor trip).
It is intended to operate large nuclear units at first on base load
(about 10 yr). T h is type of operation corresp onds to approxim ately
7 50 0 full load hours p er year. L o a d reductions to 6 0 % a re only considered
during the w ee k en ds.
T h e control system ha s, ho w e ver, to be a rra n g ed so that the plant
can be operated as one m edium - load operation. T h is operation corresponds
to about 6500 full load hours per year with an approxim ate daily load
reduction to 6 0 % and additional reductions to 4 0 % in s u m m e r . T h e unit
m u s t be designed so that both types of operation are possible.
T h e core design can be adapted to a large extent but the layout of
the r e m a in d e r of the plant (i. e. the p re s s u r ize r , the p r e ss u r ize r heater,
the coolant storage and treatment) has to be such as to guarantee m a x i m u m
safety conditions, equalling those n ow available in m e d i u m load p o w er plants.
T h e burn-up behaviour as well as the reactivity control of the core
m u s t be constructed so a s to prevent, if possible, any limitations at the
end of the cycle in the event of a daily load cycle as far as the above-
m entioned control rates are concerned.
F o r reasons of availability different control circuits are a rra n g ed in
a 2-out-of-3 or 2-out-of-4 logic, e. g. the P W R coolant tem perature
control and p re ss u r e control. So-called limiting controls w e r e also
introduced for availability reasons. (T h e s e controls are m ain ly intended
to extend the outage of operating controls and, in addition, to serve for
disturbances w hich are not effectively operating controlled). T h e y prevent
trip values being r eached; if, for exam ple, a certain neutron flux or a
D N B (departure fro m nuclear boiling) ratio has been reached,control rods
are inserted; turbine-governing valves are closed, or by-pass valves are
opened, if a certain m ain- steam p re ssure has be en attained. T h o s e
circuits are also the 2-out-of-3 or 2-out-of-4 logic type.

3. LA YOU T OF THE SYSTEM

(a) N o r m a l equipm ent com ponents not important to technical safety

considerations

A ll equipm ent com ponents w hose outage could involve availability

limitations before being rep aired are provided with standby units. A cc o rdin g
to the concept and extent of equipm ent this led to the following solutions:
2 X 1 0 0 % , 3 X 5 0 % or 4 X 3 3 i % . In the event of such a solution these cycles
as w ell as p u m p s and m o to rs are single m onitored (1-out-of-l logic).
T h e standby will automatically be switched-in if the time lapse requires it.
A m o r e extensive use in m aterial on the electrical side will be
required in c a ses w h e re no standby is possible to prevent any un n e cessa ry
availability limitations. F o r ex a m p le , the protection system of a turbo
unit is of the 2-out-of-2 logic type that can be m onitored and tested.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 9 21 5

(b) Safety equipm ent com ponents

T h e safety equipm ent com ponents include the e m e r g e n c y cooling

s y stem , the e m e r g e n c y p o w er supply etc. In principal it can be said for
all these com ponents that, in case of outage of two sub- system s, this
type of disturbance m u st still be safety controlled and that the plant
m u s t regain a safe condition to be m aintained. A s a result, individually
independent sub- systems w e r e introduced. T h e s e system s com prise
the p o w er supply (e m e rg e n c y generating sets, batteries, switching
installations), residual heat r em o v a l s y s tem s, safety injection system s,
e m e r g e n c y feed-water system s, e m e r g e n c y cooling w ater system s,
m e a s u r in g and protection system s etc. T h e s e system s are again s u b ­
divided into independent sub- system s (3 X 1 0 0 % or 4 X 5 0% ) w hich are
electrically and technically separated fr o m one another. T h e control and
operation of the plant — if disturbances occur such as e m e r g e n c y p o w er
supply, leakage in the p r im a r y system , fracture of a steam generator
tube, leakage in the secondary system etc. — is initiated by output signals
emitted fro m the reactor safety system . T h e s e signals have absolute
priority over operational control signals or interlocking system s. T o
prevent a p u m p fr o m not starting because of disturbance due to a failure
in the interlocking system , the reactor safety system will by-pass all
interlocking signals, i. e. a p u m p will start even if the required oil p re ss u r e
is not available. If this w e r e not the case a multi-channel interlocking
system would be n ec e ssa ry . T o preclude any outage of oil-feed supply
for large p u m p s so m e additional expenses are n e c e ss a ry for the p rocess
engineering part, i. e. one p u m p bearing can be supplied by two oil p u m p s .
T h e sub- system s are constructed in such a w a y as to perm it complete
checking during full operation. T h e sub-system, r e m a in s com pletely
available during checking.

4. R E A C T O R SA FETY SYSTEM

T h e following design principles for the reactor safety system are the
results of planning w o r k carried out with the latest p o w e r plants and fro m
the discussions with licensing authorities:

(a) T h e reactor safety system includes all conceivable ca ses of disturbance,

i. e. not only reactivity disturbances but also accidents such as leakages
in the p r im a r y and secondary system s. T h e r e fo r e , the safety system
will not only co m p r ise the reactor e m e r g e n c y shutdown system but also
the core spray system , safety injection system , e m e r g e n c y feed for the
steam generators, e m e r g e n c y generating set and the system for closing
the penetrating valves.
(b) T h e safety system includes m e a s u r in g the limiting criteria, the
logic and the p ro c essing of the signals up to the control of the safety
installations.
(c) All conceivable cases of disturbance m ust be covered by two
independent criteria. Should this not be possible then the rem ain in g
criterion has to be p ro c es se d diversely in a 2-out-of-4 logic.
(d) All faults occurring in the safety system have to be indicated
by independent signals or m u s t easily be observed by a m a n u a l test.
2 16 HEINING

(e) Function tests shall be possible during reactor operation (i. e.

simulation of the out-going safety system signals to the operation of the
p u m p s and valves).
(f) A single fault of a device in the safety system m ust not cause
the shutdown or partial shutdown of the plant but on the other hand,
nor should it prevent any n e c e ss a ry shutdown. T w o faults occurring on
any device m a y cause a shutdown; they m u st , h o w e v er , not prevent
this shutdown.
(g) Safety system signals have always priority over operating signals
and interlocking system s. Connections with the operating m e a s u r in g
and control instrumentation m u s t be avoided. Should decoupling elem ents
exist they m u st be built in to prevent active effects on the safety system .

F or survey reasons the installation of a reactor control panel would

be suitable. T h is panel should include information of the logical configuration
of the system , the analog values used as shutdown criteria as well as
an indication of the limiting values, outgoing signals of the safety system
and test buttons to simulate outgoing signals and their response in order
to check w hether or not the transmitted orders w e r e executed (switching-in
of p u m p s , opening of valves etc. ).

5. C O N T R O L A N D C O N T R O L R O O M D E SIG N

Also, in large nuclear p o w e r plants equipped with m o r e than 2000

aggregates to be controlled, w e continue to adhere to the concept of a
centralized control r o o m , i. e. the total plant is m onitored and controlled
at one place.
T h o u g h large p o w e r plants will essentially be operated on base load
and as such will ve ry rarely be started up, w e decided to autom ize the
plants w idely owing to their com plicated system s. All system s n e ce ss a ry
for p o w er generation a n d /o r those w hich require considerable handling,
and therefore undergo the risk of being m al-operated, w e r e autom ized
by m e a n s of the functional group control — as already described in
R ef. [1]. W ith a P W R p o w er plant taken as a basis, the following system s
w e r e autom ized:

M a in coolant p um ps
Coolant storage and treatment
E m e r g e n c y and residual heat rem o v a l system
Off-gas system
Radioactive waste treatment
T u r b in e control
Condensation
Cooling-water system
F e e d w a t e r system
E m e r g e n c y feedwater system
Ventilation system
Dem in e ra liza tio n system

T h e functional group control as well as the individual control of

all aggregates are carried out in the central control room . At present
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 9 217

w e play two separate desks for the control ro o m . T h e individual control

is operated fr o m desk N o . 1 while desk N o . 2 has the instrumentation for
the functional group control, as well as the automatic control system and
the data display devices for a la r m and fault m e s s a g e s . After having gained
m o r e experience w e will try in the future gradually to put aside individual
control so that only the functional group control with the n ece ss a ry
instrumentation and indications would be left in the control ro o m . T h e r e ­
fore, the control ro o m proper could be considerably sm aller.

6. PROCESS C O M PU T ER

W e also discussed at length the p rob lem of com puter application in

nuclear p o w e r plants. T h e discussions resulted in a tem po ra ry application
of "on-line, open-loop" principle. F r o m our point of view the important
tasks at present to be solved by the p ro c ess com puter are the following:

Com putation of clear characteristics

M onitoring of the plant
A l a r m and fault signalling
D istu rban ce analysis

T o d a y w e see no advantage or necessity for using the p ro c ess com puter

in "closed- loop" operation. F r o m the technical and econom ical point of
view w e still consider control and computation by p ro c es s co m puters to
be less good. D ec en tralized functional group control is preferred. H o w ­
ever, to achieve acceptable control rates the operation of control rods
in large boiling-water reactors should be' ca rried out by a sm all one-way
p ro c es s com puter because of the n u m e ro u s control rods (about 190 at
1 300 M W ) and the com plicated rod operation schedule.
A v e ry important m ethod of p ro c ess com puter application can be
expected in the future. T h is will be concerned with the distribution control
in the core (especially in boiling-water reactors). A com prehensive core
instrumentation will be n e c e s s a r y for this and a simplified but nonetheless
accurate and quick p r o g r a m to determ ine the p o w er distribution m ust
be added, w hich will control the individual equipm ent com ponents (control
ro ds, boron) according to the result of the computation. W e shall observe
and support the w o r k in this field, with great interest.

R E F E R E N C E

[ 1] HEINING, U . , "Process Computer and functional group control in the Biblis Nuclear Power Plant",
Nuclear Power Plant Control and Instrumentation (Proc. Working Group Meeting, Vienna, 1971),
IAEA, Vienna (1972) 161.

DISCU SSION

V . J E C H : A r e any statistics available in the F e d e r a l Republic of

G e r m a n y on the reliability of nuclear p o w er plant com ponents? If so,
do you intend to use them , for exa m p le , for m aintenance purposes?
218 HEIN IN G

U . H E I N I N G : A s there is only one plant in operation (G u n d r e m m in g e n ,

2 50 M W ) and the other plants are still under construction (3800 M W in
all), w e have just started to com pile statistics. W h e n e v e r possible w e
try to m a k e use of statistics relating to conventional plants.
F. D E C O O L : I believe the increasingly stringent safety requirem ents
have led you to consider installing an auxiliary control console from
w hich e m e r g e n c y shutdown and cooling of the reactor could still be
achieved if the m a in control ro o m w e r e destroyed. W h a t kind of design
is envisaged for this auxiliary console?
U . H E I N I N G : In the event of the destruction of the m a i n control r o o m ,
the plant would be shut dow n automatically by the safety system and
m aintained in a safe condition. T h e safety system is not located in the
central control ro om .
L . N O V I E L L O : Could you say som ething about the criteria used for
leak detection in the p r im a r y and secondary circuits?
U . H E I N I N G : I have considered only m a jo r leakages (catastrophic
failures) as a result of w hich the p re ss u r e would fall sharply in a m atter
of seconds.
L . N O V I E L L O : H a v e you analysed of the possibility of using the
com puter instead of a conventional a la r m system for indicating an a la rm
situation?
TJ. H E I N I N G : W e do use the com puter for indicating an a la rm situation.
T h e r e is no conventional a la rm system in the n ew plants.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A -1 1

B IL A N D 'U T ILISA TIO N DES R E A C T IM E T R E S

DANS LES C E N T R A L E S N UCLEAIRES
R. GARIOD, E. TOURNIER
Laboratoire d'électronique ,
et de technologie de l'inform atique,
CEA, Centre d'études
nucléaires de Grenoble

VU ONG QUAN MAI

Etablissements Merlin Gerin,
Grenoble

Y. PLAIGE
CEA, Centre d ’ études
nucléaires de Saclay,
France

Présenté par J. Furet

Abstract-Résumé

ASSESSM ENT OF TH E USE OF R E A C T IV IT Y METERS IN N U C L EA R POWER PLANTS.

Since 1966 the CMR-66 and CMR-67 reactivity meters have been in use with most of Europe's nuclear
reactors. Information recently obtained from users of these reactivity meters now makes it possible to
assess their performance and the value of the service they perform. Progress has been made with electronic
dividers, especially as regards their stability and the possibility of linking them to different PAGELS net­
works, and as a result it seems likely that more specific reactivity meters will soon be available, in
particular meters capable of handling a wide dynamic range. Source reactivity meters, where the main
difficulty is to obtain a representative flux measurement, are also being studied. Reference is made to
safety reactivity meters operating at rated power. Finally, consideration is given to possible new uses such
as controlled power reduction or the surveillance of power reactors while shut down.

BILAN D 'U T IL IS A T IO N DES REACTIMETRES D A N S LES CENTRALES NUCLEAIRES.

Les réactimêtres C M R 66 et C M R 67 sont adoptés depuis 1966 par la plupart des réacteurs nucléaires
européens. Une récente enquête auprès des exploitants de ces réactimêtres permet de dresser un bilan
d'utilisation, ainsi que les services rendus. Des progrès ont été réalisés dans le domaine des diviseurs
électroniques, particulièrement en ce qui concerne leur stabilité et leur possibilité de commutation sur
différents réseaux PAGELS. Ceux-ci permettent d'envisager la parution prochaine de réactimêtres plus
spécifiques, en particulier les réactimêtres à grande dynamique. On étudie également le cas des
réactimêtres pour niveau source ou la principale difficulté est d'obtenir une mesure représentative du flux.
On note l’existence des réactimêtres de sécurité opérant à la puissance nominale. On envisage enfin de
nouvelles possibilités d'utilisations, com m e la baisse de puissance contrôlée ou la surveillance des réacteurs
de puissance à l’arrêt.

1- RAPPELSURLEFONCTIONNEMENTDUREACTIMETRECMR66/67
L e seul terme parfaitem ent rep ré sen tatif de l'évolution du réacteur est le c o e ffic ie n t de m u lti­
plicatio n K e ff. ou encore le c o e ffic ie n t de m u ltip lic atio n excédentaire
A К = K e ff. - 1
que l'on peut as sim ile r au terme « ré a c tiv ité » :
P= M _
p K e ff
au vo isin age de l'é ta t critiq u e du réacteur.

2 19
220 GARIOD et al.

Le terme « ré a c tiv ité » ainsi défini est lié au flu x neutro nique«n» par une relation d iffé re n tie lle .
L a mesure de la ré a c tiv ité doit donc être déduite de l'é vo lu tio n du flux neutronique dont la
ré a c tiv ité est la cause.
En partant d'une inform ation «n» représentant le flu x neutronique du réacteur, le réactim ètre
résout les équations régissant la cinétiqu e du réacteur.
C ette résolution se fa it par an alogie électriq u e, grâce à l'em ploi de réseaux P A G E L S , unique­
ment composés de résistances et de condensateurs.
L 'é tu d e de l'a n a lo g ie électriq ue avec les équations cin étiq u es d'un cœur ponctuel à un ou
plusieurs com bustibles montre que la somme des courants électriq ues issus des réseaux
P A G E L S , dont les so rties sont maintenues à la masse électronique, est proportionnelle au
produit «pn» de la ré a c tiv ité «p» par le flu x «n».
En d iv is a n t la valeur de ce courant par la valeur «n» on obtient la ré a c tiv ité «p».
L e réactim ètre se compose donc de tro is parties p rin c ip ales :
- la cham e de mesure lin éaire du flux neutronique
- l'ensem ble des réseaux P A G E L S
- le diviseur électro n iq u e.

1.1. C A RACTERISTIQ UES TECHNIQUES

C 'e s t ainsi que le réactim ètre CMR 67 , version récente du réactim ètre CMR 66 possède les
ca racté ristiq u es su ivantes ( f i g . 1 ):
- cham e de mesure lin éaire de flu x
. gamme de mesure : 10 ‘ ^A à 10 ' ^ A en 10 positions
. signal de sortie :
sortie d ire cte : 0 à - 100 V / 1 mA
so rtie enregistreur : 0 à - 100 m V .

- R éseau P A G E L S
L 'a p p a re il standard est équipé d'un réseau P A G E LS à un seul com bustible (U - 235) pour
réacteur à uranium en richi et modéré à eau légère.
A la demande de l'e x p lo ita n t, il est possible d'étudier spécialem ent un réseau à plusieurs
com bustibles à partir des paramètres cinétiques d'un réacteur quelconque.
. P récisio n des élém ents =±1%

. A ffichage du c o e ffic ie n t « j = * ^ . parpotentiom ètre « m u ltito u rs » pour chaque com bustible.

2 ' i * i
- C a lc u la te u r de ré a c tiv ité (d iv is e u r)
. gamme de mesure : ± 200, ± 500, ± 1 000, ± 2 000, ± 5 000, ± 10 000 p.c.m .
. précision : ± 1 % pour une dynamique de mesure de 3 décades (100 V - 1 0 V - 1 V -lO O m V )
. temps de réponse : < 200 ms
. signal de so rtie : so rtie dire cte : 0 à ±-10 V / 1 0 mA
so rtie enregistreur : 0 à ± 50 m V.

2. B IL A N D 'U T IL IS A T IO N D ES R E A C T IM E T R E S CM R 66 - CM R 67

L e s réactim ètres typ e s CMR 66 e t CMR 67 sont in d u s tria lis é s depuis 1966 par la Société
M E R L IN G E R IN .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 1 221

т * г

FIG. 1. Réactimétie C M R <

A partir des études théo riques effe ctu é es au C om m issariat à l'E n e rg ie Atom ique, le prototype
a été ré a lis é e t essayé avec succès en 1965 au Centre d 1Etudes N u cléaire s de G renoble.
A ctuellem ent une vin g tain e d 'e xe m p la ires ont été diffu s és , dont la m ajorité se trouve en ex­
plo itatio n dans les réacteurs européens de recherche, d 'irra d ia tio n ou de puissance.
Une récente enquête auprès des u tilis a te u rs nous a perm is de dresser un bilan d 'u tilis a tio n de
cet ap p areil.

2.1. REACTEURS DE RECHERCHE

L 'u tilis a tio n du réactim ètre dans les réacteurs de recherche s'avère extrêm em ent in té res­
sante car e lle permet un gain de tem ps ap préciable et des mesures ju s q u 'a lo rs in a cc ess ib le s
par la méthode class iq u e (par mesure de la période sta b le ).
En effe t le réactim ètre permet d 'e ffectu er des mesures de ré a c tiv ité s d ire ctes , instantanées,
po s itive s ou négatives en puissance.
La p o s s ib ilité d'en reg istrer la ré a c tiv ité en continu au cours de la mesure de flu x permet de
faire un premier dépouillem ent im m édiat, déjà com plet et précis, puis un examen d é ta illé à
postériori.
Dans ces réacteu rs, l'o btentio n rapide des résu ltats de la mesure est très appréciée : on peut
ainsi procéder à plusieurs divergences par jour, ou changer fréquemment la co nfiguration du
cœ ur.
222 GARIOD et al.

2 .1 .1 . R éacteur type piscin e

L 'u tilis a tio n du réactim ètre peut être périodique (en début de c y c le ) ou continue pour tout
fonctionnem ent du réacteur.
L e s p rincipales mesures sont :

a) Mesures d ire ctes de la ré a c tiv ité par divergence. Ces mesures perm ettent de contrôler la
période donnée par les périodem ètres classiques.
La dynamique de flu x couverte par le CMR 66 ou 67 est de l'ordre de trois décades.
Il est intéressant en fa it de pouvoir disposer d'un réactim ètre à grande dynamique pour cette
ap p lic atio n .

b) Mesure d 'e ffic a c ité de barres par rod-drop.

On constate que le réactim ètre permet :
- un gain d'un facteur 10 au moins sur le temps, par rapport à la méthode du périodem ètre.
D 'au tre part on en registre en direct la forme de la courbe d 'e ffic a c ité des barres.
- des mesures m eilleu res que c e lle s fa ite s au périodem ètre (élim in a tio n des e ffe ts d'ombre dus
aux basculem ents de barres).

c) Mesures de ré a c tiv ité pour le s changements de cœ ur (une fo is par c y c le ).

L 'a p p a re il permet de mesurer par e ffe ts d iffé re n tie ls , sur les barres u tilis é e s , le gain en réac­
tiv ité obtenu à chaque opération de chargement et ainsi de contrôler pas à pas la ré a c tiv ité
introduite ju sq u 'à la valeur d ésirée.
On rapp elle à ce su jet que sans l'u tilis a tio n du réactim ètre, il faut se référer à une valeur des
barres fix é e une fo is pour toutes, valeur fréquemment très différen te de la ré a lité .
En e ffe t, l'e ffic a c ité d'une barre est largement influencée non seulem ent par le burn-up de l'é lé ­
ment de contrôle correspondant, mais aussi par le burn-up des élém ents adjacents.
De plus en fin de rechargement du cœ ur, on mesure l'e ffic a c ité ré e lle des barres qui servira
par la suite pour le cycle qui débute.

d) Mesures d 'e ffe ts divers en ré a c tiv ité (poisons, m anipulations, éch an tillo n s ) et contrôle de
retour à la s ta b ilité après perturbation.

e) P ilo tag e du réacteur ( P = o ).

On s'ap e rç o it que le réactim ètre es t capable de détecter des p e tites variatio ns de ré a c tiv ité et
par conséquent constitue un complément indispensable pour le pilotage.

2 .1 .2 . Réacteur type eau lourde (ESSOR à Ispra)

L e s photo-neutrons introduisent de très grandes constantes de temps et il est très d iffic ile
de mesurer des ré a c tiv ité s par les méthodes co nventionnelles (à partir de périodes stables en
d iv erg e n ce ).
On u tilis e habituellem ent deux réactim êtres pour la ca lib ra tio n de l'e ffic a c ité des barres de
contrôle et de sécurité au début de chaque cy cle de fonctionnem ent.
Lors de ces mesures, le réacteur fonctionne à fa ib le puissance (10 *3 de la puissance nom inale).
En fonctionnem ent normal du réacteur, on les u tilis e occasionnellem ent pour mesurer certains
effe ts de ré a c tiv ité (e ffe t de vid e, de xénon, etc . . . ) .
On peut dire que le gain de temps pour obtenir des inform ations presque com parables est au
moins d'un facteur dix.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A -1 1 223

C ette réduction de temps permet de calib rer la plus grande partie des barres de contrôle au
début de chaque cycle, pour en contrôler la consom mation et donc augmenter la sécurité du réac­
teur.
On dispose ainsi des courbes d'étalon nage des barres qui sont u tile s pour le fonctionnem ent du
réacteur.

2 .1 .3 . R éacteur rapide (R ap so d ie)

Le réacteur «R apsodie» a adopté le réactim ètre depuis 1966 et son fonctionnem ent a été
jugé s a tis fa is a n t.
Vu les conditions p a rtic u liè re s de fonctionnem ent continu en régime stable pour les besoins
d 'irra d ia tio n , on n ’ u tilis e le réactim ètre que pendant la divergence du réacteur au début d'une
campagne d 'irra d ia tio n .
Néanm oins Г in d ication du réactim ètre en régim e nominal sert à su ivre la s ta b ilité du flu x
neutronique, et on constate que l'a p p a re il est capable de détecter rapidem ent des p e tites v a ­
riatio n s de ré a c tiv ité (de l'ordre du pcm) qui sont souvent l'in d ic e d'un défaut s ig n ific a tif
du cœ ur.
Notons que le périodem ètre de puissance peu sensible n'assure aucune sécurité dès que le
réacteur a ffic h e une puissance s ig n ific a tiv e .
Lors de l'o pération F O R T IS S IM O , il a été décidé d 'in clu re le réactim ètre analogique s im p lifié
dans le c irc u it de sécurité de R apsodie.
Ce réactim ètre analogique s im p lifié , vo ie SRSB du standard M U L T IB L O C , comporte les
aménagements su ivants (fig. 2):
- p o s s ib ilité d 'ê tre branché en p a ra llè le sur la sortie d'une chaîne lin éaire haut-niveau, ce qui
permet une économ ie notable
- u tilis a tio n d'un com bustible éq u iva len t d'où sim p lificatio n notable du réseau P A G E L S (un
seul réseau au lieu de tro is , donc plus de réglage à prévoir pour les <xj)
En e ffe t, pour un réacteur rapide te l que R A P S O D IE , le s va ria tio n s re la tiv e s des fractions de
fis s io n s « f j » des d iffé re n ts isotopes «j » sont pratiquem ent n u lles au cours du c y c le de fonc­
tionnem ent.
- p o s s ib ilité de régler les «/3 i e f f . »
Le réseau P A G E L S du CMR 66 a été d é fia i en u tilis a n t les fractions n atu relles « /9 i j » des
neutrons reta rd és.ll aurait fa llu u tilis e r les fractions e ffe c tiv e s «/3 i j e ff. » qui tiennent compte '

FIG, 2. Réactimètre analogique simplifié.

224 GARIOD et al.

de l'im portance re la tiv e des neutrons prompts et retardés suivant leur lieu de naissance et
leur énergie d'ém issio n.
- ne pas tenir compte de la contribution des neutrons prompts ( 1 ^ 2 , 4 10 ‘ ^s)
- réduction du nombre de gamme de ré a c tiv ité en augmentant la s e n s ib ilité de la prem ière gam­
me (20 pcm au lieu de 200 pcm).

L e fonctionnem ent s a tis fa is a n t de ces réactim ètres de sécurité sur R apsodie démontre qu'on
peut inclure avantageusem ent ces ap p areils dans le c irc u it de sécurité des réacteurs.
C 'e s t ainsi que pour P H E N IX , réacteur prototype de puissance dans la filiè re neutron rapide,
en cours de construction en F ran ce, on a prévu tro is chaînes réactim ètre de sécurité qui ont
pour mission de déceler le bouchage éventuel d'un canal de réfrigération et de déclencher une
action de sé cu rité , avant que les barreaux de com bustibles n 'a ie n t à en supporter les e ffe ts
therm iques trop im portants.

2.2. REACTEUR DE PUISSANCE

2 .2 .1 . Mesures de ré a c tiv ité à puissance nulle

On veut mesurer le c o e ffic ie n t de ré a c tiv ité associé à un paramètre « x » (par exem ple
tem pérature du modérateur).
On la iss e évoluer ce paramètre d'une manière continue dans le tem ps, soit une v a riatio n « д х »
pendant le temps « At » . Pendant ce tem ps la ré a c tiv ité va rie de «Др», et on en déduit immé­
diatem ent le co e ffic ie n t de ré a c tiv ité a p .
дх
M ais on s a it que la ré a c tiv ité ne doit pas sortir d'une bande permise pendant ces mesures,
sinon ré v o lu tio n de flu x se ra it trop rapide.
II devient donc nécessaire, à un certain moment de faire varier un paramètre «y» qui a ffe cte
la ré a c tiv ité dans le sens contraire au paramètre x (le plus commode consiste à déplacer les
barres de commande).
En co n tre-p artie, on mesure sim ultaném ent le c o e ffic ie n t de ré a c tiv ité associé au paramèfre
«y».
L a méthode décrite ci-d essu s a été u tilis é e pour déterm iner :
- le c o e ffic ie n t de tem pérature au cours de la montée en tem pérature
- l'e ffic a c ité des divers groupes de barres
- l'e ffe t de xénon après arrêt du réacteu r.

2 .2 .2 . Mesure de ré a c tiv ité en puissance

En fonctionnem ent normal en puissance, lorsqu'on introduit une v a riatio n de ré a c tiv ité
(par déplacem ent des barres par exem ple) c e lle -c i entram e une v a riatio n de flu x à partir de
la q u elle le réactim ètre res titu e l'inform ation ré a c tiv ité introduite dans le réacteur.
A in s i en puissance on peut u tilis e r le réactim ètre pour déterm iner :
- le co e ffic ie n t de puissance
- l'é talo n n ag e d'un groupe de barres
• l'a n tiré a c tiv ité d'une barre ou d'un groupe de barres par « rod-drop» dans les conditions
ré e lle s d 'e x p lo ita tio n .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 1 225

D ans certains cas, en p a rtic u lie r pour les réacteurs à eau pressurisée, lorsqu'on introduit une
v a riatio n de ré a c tiv ité (par déplacem ent des barres par exem ple) c e lle -c i entram e une v a ria ­
tion du flu x qui ramène très rapidem ent la ré a c tiv ité à zéro (par e ffe t Doppler dans le combus­
tib le ).
Par conséquent, la ré a c tiv ité ne peut être d ifféren te de zéro que pendant un bref instant,
lorsque le réacteur est en puissance (à moins d 'a c c id e n t bien entendu). Il est donc nécessaire
de posséder un instrument à réponse très rapide pour mesurer cette ré a c tiv ité .
Notons to u te fo is que les d iffic u lté s sont apparues au fur et à mesure que l'on effectue des
mesures à puissance élevé e à cause de la rap id ité des phénomènes d'une part et d'autre part
parce qu'il est très d iffic ile de discerner les divers paramètres qui affecten t la ré a c tiv ité .

3. PERSPECTIVESD’AVENIR
3.1. PROGRES RECENTS DANS L'A P P A R E ILLA G E

L e s études qui se sont poursuivies ces dernières années ont eu pour o b je c tif d'am éliorer
les perform ances des ap p areils e x ista n ts et de développer une nouvelle c lass e d'instrum ents
mieux adaptée à la mesure de la ré a c tiv ité en m ilieu sous-critique ou à la gamme des flux
interm édiaires (réa ctim ê tres à grande dynam ique).
L e s am éliorations ont porté sur la s e n s ib ilité : les instrum ents d isp o n ib les sur le marché
aujourd'hui ont une gamme de ± 20 ou ± 30 pcm pour la p le in e é c h e lle .
L e pouvoir de résolution es t de l'o rd re de 0,1 à 1 pcm, suivant le niveau à l'e n trée de l'a p p a ­
re il. L 'u tilis a tio n de composants modernes (tran s isto rs à effe t de champ, am p lificateu rs inté­
grés) a permis sim ultaném ent de réduire le bruit en sortie et de dim inuer les dérives dans le
temps et en tem pérature.
L e diviseur électronique a été muni de circ u its de récupération rapide. C es c irc u its perm ettent
la commutation su ccessive du diviseur sur plusieurs réseaux P A G E L S identiques sans que les
indicateurs va rien t (à co ndition to u te fo is que la mesure donnée par l'un ou par l'a u tre soit
identique).
C ette commutation est effe ctu é e autom atiquem ent en fonction du niveau d 'en trée.
L e s réseaux P A G E L S peuvent être ip e rs o n n a lis é s * pour chaque réacteur, ce qui s im p lifie
grandement les c irc u its et é v ite des réglages souvent longs et d é lic a ts . C es réseaux sont
construits à partir des données physiques du cœur en accord avec les neutro niciens. D es ré­
glages de la fraction de neutrons retardés de chaque fa m ille sont prévus pour tenir compte de
l'usure du com bustible. En général les réseaux P A G E L S de réacteurs de même type sont inter­
changeables.
L 'u n e des innovations les plus intéressantes est la p o s s ib ilité d 'u tilis e r plusieurs réseaux
P A G E L S montés en cascade de la manière suivante :
on u tilis e un ictom ètre ou un am p lific ate u r lin éaire de courant à plusieurs so rties, la tension
de chaque so rtie étant cent fo is plus fa ib le que c e lle de la précédente. N aturellem ent une
seule so rtie est en se rvic e, m ais e lle s sont re lié e s en permanence à autant de réseaux P A G E L S
q u 'il y a de s o rtie s . Lorsqu'une so rtie vien t en saturation le diviseur est connecté à la suivante
et au réseau P A G E L S correspondant. C ette disp o sitio n mise en ap plication dans le réactim ètre
2 26 GARIOD et al.

FIG. 3. Réactimètre â grande dynamique.

à grande dynamique (voir figure 3) permet d 'a cc ro ftre la dynamique de flu x de l'a p p a re il, chaque
réseau tra v a illa n t sur une étendue de mesure de deux décades. D es es sa is s a tis fa is a n ts ont été
ré a lis é s avec un ap pareil à tro is réseaux P A G E L S et à six décades de flu x . Cependant il faut
ajouter que ce principe parfaitem ent va lab le pour des flu x croissants peut donner des erreurs
im portantes pour des flu x d é cro is san ts . En e ffe t au moment de la commutation on repasse sur
un réseau P A G E L S re lié à une so rtie qui é ta it précédemment saturée, si bien que toutes les
cap acités du réseau se trouvent chargées à la tension de saturation . C ertain es constantes de
tem ps du réseau peuvent être grandes e t il faut attendre par conséquent plusieurs m inutes pour
que la co nfiguration des charges so it représen tative du réacteur.
L a solution co nsiste alors à recopier le premier réseau sur le deuxièm e réseau en respectant
le facteur 100. L 'e x p é rie n c e confirm e la v a lid ité du procédé et montre en outre q u 'il s u ffit de
recopier les deux c e llu le s qui ont la plus grande constante de temps. C ette recopie peut être
fa ite autom atiquem ent à l'a id e d'un ap pareillag e un peu plus com pliqué.

3.2. D IFFE R E N TS TYPES DE R EACTIM ETRE

Comme on a pu le vo ir dans la prem ière partie, les se rvices rendus par les réactim ètres
intéressent le domaine des mesures physiques, de l'e x p lo ita tio n , de la conduite du réacteur et
enfin de la sé cu rité . Suivant l'u tilis a tio n que l'on compte en fa ire , la constitution et les carac­
té ris tiq u e s de l'a p p a re il peuvent être d iffé re n tes . C 'e s t pourquoi nous pensons que dans l'a v e n ir
le s ap p areils vont se s p é c ia lis e r e t se classer en deux catégories :
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A -1 1 227

• ap p areils pour mesures physiques, comportant un am plificateur lin éaire incorporé, capable
d'opérer sur une large.gamme de flu x . L a plage de tra v a il sur le flu x neutronique es t ch oisie
par sé lec tio n m anuelle, avec une dynamique de l'o rd re de tro is décades et des gammes de me­
sure de ré a c tiv ité étagées entre 30 et 3 000 pcm. C et ap pareil autonome sera précis et d'un
em ploi très souple ; il sera peu d iffé re n t du type CMR 67 actuellem ent co m m ercialisé.

- ap p areils pour la conduite et la sécurité des réacteurs.

L 'in s tru m e n t le plus sim ple de c e tte catégorie e s t le réactim ètre de sécurité haut niveau,
opérant de 1 % à 120% de la puissance nom inale. C et appareil u tilis e l'in fo rm atio n lin é a ire de
flu x déjà u tilis é e pour assurer la protection haut niveau du réacteu r. L e s gammes de mesure
sont lim ité e s à 30, 100 et 300 pcm. L e rôle de cet appareil es t avant tout de détecter de p e tites
va ria tio n s de ré a c tiv ité , indice précurseur d 'a c c id e n ts pouvant être graves. L e s q u a lité s prin­
c ip a le s de ces ap p areils sont la fia b ilité et la s im p lic ité d 'e m p lo i.
C ette catégorie comprend égalem ent les réactim ètres bas niveau et les réactim ètres à grande
dynamique couvrant la gamme des flu x interm édiaires : ces deux types d 'a p p a re ils sont encore
en cours d'étude et d 'e xpérim entation, mais d'ores et déjà leur fa is a b ilité a été dém ontrée.
L e réactim ètre bas niveau (n iv ea u source) sera associé à un sous-ensem ble de mesure neutro­
nique à im pulsion ; il fonctionnera sur quatre décades - de 100 c / s à 10® c / s - et comportera
quatre gammes de ré a c tiv ité 300, 1 0 0 0 , 3 000 e t 10 000 pcm commutées autom atiquem ent. Le
réglage du terme source sera m anuel. II ne faut pas attendre de cet appareil une grande préci­
sion ; des erreurs in é v ita b le s sont dues à un mauvais réglage du terme source, ou à une d is ­
torsion du flu x par e ffe t de barre. Cependant on notera que ces erreurs dim inuent rapidem ent
dès que l'o n s'approche de l'é ta t c ritiq u e , ce qui permet d 'en visag er l'em ploi de ce réactim ètre
en sécurité.
Enfin le réactim ètre à grande dynamique devrait couvrir une plage d'environ six décades, s 'in ­
tercalant entre les deux précédents. L e s gammes de mesure seront 300, 1 000 et 3 000 pcm.
II sera u tilis é comme aide à la conduite ou en sécurité : donc il sera à la fo is sim ple et fia b le .

Remarquons que ces ap p areils ne diffèren t que par le nombre de gammes ou la s e n s ib ilité , mais
que pratiquem ent ils comportent tous les mêmes c irc u its de base ; il est donc possible de stan­
dardiser certain es fonctions que l'on retrouvera dans les d iffé re n ts ap pareils.

3.3. NO U VELLES A P PLIC A TIO N S ENVISAGEES

- En sécurité autour de la puissance nom inale : on u tilis e de te ls réactim ètres sur les réacteurs
rapides Rapsodie et P hénix pour la détection précoce de bouchages év entuels.
L e bruit de fond dû au réacteur est de l'ordre de 1 pcm et la grande s e n s ib ilité de ces ap p areils
associée à un temps de réponse court (0 ,2 s) permet de déceler les moindres incidents.

- En baisse de puissance contrôlée : on peut être amené à désirer une baisse de puissance
momentanée mais rapide ; la méthode a c tu e lle de la chute de barre est un procédé barbare, qui
fa it perdre beaucoup de tem ps e t qui peut être dommageable pour le réacteur : la baisse de
puissance contrôlée par un réactim ètre est un procédé plus souple qui peut se prêter à une
au tom atisation com plète.
228 GARIOD et al.

- Surveillance d'un réacteur de puissance à l'a rrê t.

Dans certains types de réacteu rs, particulièrem ent les PWR, la ré a c tiv ité évolue rapidem ent
avec la tem pérature et il est n écessaire de su rv eiller attentivem ent cette ré a c tiv ité pour év iter
un redémarrage intem pestif à la su ite du refroidissem ent du réacteur.

4 . C O N C L U S IO N

L e s réactim ètres ont d éjà rendu de grands services auprès des réacteurs n u c léa ires . L e s ré­
cents progrès de la technologie ont permis d'am éliorer leurs perform ances et d'en fa ire des
appareils sûrs et peu coûteux. Il semble que compte tenu des ap p lic atio n s possibles, déjà
nombreuses e i qui le seront davantage encore dans l'a v e n ir, ces instruments doivent se d i­
v e rs ifie r pour s'adapter au mieux à la conduite des réacteurs, à leur sécurité, ou aux mesures
physiques.

R E M E R C I E M E N T S

L e s auteurs exprim ent leur gratitude aux person nes suivantes, qui
ont contribué à ce travail en leur com m uniquant obligeam m ent leurs
résultats d'exploitation et leurs r e m a r q u e s: M M . K u s s e r et G a usch i,
Centrale N O K , B a d e n (Suisse); M . D a u m a s , Centrale de C h o o z , A r d e n n e s
(F r a n c e ); M M . R ie sch , Arcip ian i, Hettinger et B alestreri, Réacteur
E s s o r , C C R — E U R A T O M , Ispra (Italie); M M . G a ja c, B e s o u x et B a r b ie r
(R éacteur R a p s o d ie, C E N — C a d a r a c h e (F r a n c e ); M M . L e c o q et L a m o u c h e ,
R é acteur A z u r , C E N — C a d a r a c h e (F r a n c e ); M . L ib m a n n , R é a cteu r Isis,
C E N — Saclay (F r a n c e ); M . Nicoli, R é acteur Phénix, C E N — M a rc o u le
(F r a n c e ); M . C a v é e , R é acteur Siloé, C E N — G renoble (F r a n c e );
M . Patou, R é acteur Siloette, C E N — Grenoble (F r a n c e ); M . M a ro u b y ,
R é acteur M é lu sin e, C E N — Grenoble (F ra n ce ).
CO N TRO L OF THE N U C LE A R P O W ER STATION

(Session B)
 Chairmen

Papers B -l to B-4: W. BASTL (Federal Republic o f Germany)

Papers B-6 to B-8: J.E. LUNDE (Norway)

 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1

LE C O N TR O LE , LA COM M ANDE
E T L'IN ST R U M E N TA T IO N DE
L A C E N T R A L E N UCLEAIRE PHENIX

A. B. CHAPELOT, A. JEANNOT, L. PROUTEAU

CE A, Centre d'études nucléaires
de Saclay, France

Abstract-Resumen

M O N IT O R IN G , C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N OF T H E PHENIX N U CLEA R POW ER S T A T IO N .

The paper describes the salient features of the systems for monitoring and control and the instrumentation
of the Phénix nuclear power station, which consists of a sodium-cooled fast neutron reactor and a power plant
producing 250 M W (e ). In the first part of the paper the authors discuss the design of the power plant control
system. Because of the numerous measurements, actuators and all-or-none data involved, digital computers
must be used to handle the data. The theory underlying the use of this equipment has led the monitoring and
control design team (1) to adapt special computers for surveillance and detection of fuel element plugging,
with a view to ensuring reactor safety (the arrangements for calculation processing and the various sensor
and computer redundancies are explained) and (2) to develop new procedures and means of verbal communication
between the operator and the station data processing computers, and to lay down specific operational sequences
(the new utilization of cathode screens for defect signalling together with the station status charts facilitate
the dialogue between operator and machine).
In the second part of the paper, the authors reveal that the smooth operation of a sodium-cooled fast
reactor core requires numerous redundant monitoring operations to provide adequate data for the safety systems.
The monitoring devices are in part conventional, similar to those found in other reactors (neutron monitoring,
monitoring of fuel-element temperatures), and in part new and experimental (acoustic monitoring of core noise,
new burst slug detection and localization equipment, reactivity-linked safety devices). Equipment in the latter
category has already undergone an experimental phase and a preliminary operational phase in the Rapsodie
fast reactor and in out-of-pile sodium testing rigs.
In the final part, the authors describe, on the basis of experience gained in building reactors, all the
methods used at the manufacturing plant and on site to test the various systems for the monitoring and control
of the power station. Particular attention is paid to methods of testing and calibrating sodium instrumentation,
and also to tests conducted at the manufacturing plant on simplified models for automated equipment. There
is a description of the initial test results obtained on site with the monitoring and control systems, and their
initial try-out during power station tests.

LE C O N T R O L E , LA C O M M A N D E ET L ’IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N DE L A CENTRALE NUCLEAIRE PHENIX.

Le mémoire décrit les caractéristiques les plus marquantes du contrôle, de la commande et de
l'instrumentation de Phénix, centrale nucléaire constituée d’un réacteur à neutrons rapides refroidi au
sodium et d’une installation productrice d’électricité d’une puissance de 250 M W (e ). Dans une première
partie, les auteurs exposent la conception des commandes de la centrale. L'importance des mesures, des
actionneurs et des informations tout ou rien a nécessité l’emploi de calculateurs numériques de traitement
des données. La philosophie d'emploi des équipements correspondants a amené l'équipe de conception du
contrôle-commande: d’une part, à spécialiser des calculateurs dans le rôle de surveillance et de détection
de bouchage des éléments combustibles en vue d’assurer la sécurité du réacteur (l'organisation des traitements
de calcul, des différentes redondances des capteurs et des calculateurs est explicitée); d'autre part, à
développer des procédures et des moyens conversationnels nouveaux entre l'opérateur et les calculateurs de
traitement des informations de la centrale et à en hiérarchiser l’exploitation (l’emploi nouveau d'écrans
cathodiques pour les alarmes de défaut et les tableaux d'état de la centrale favorise les opérations de dialogue
entre l'opérateur et la machine).
Dans une seconde partie, les auteurs précisent que le bon fonctionnement du cœur d’un réacteur à
neutrons rapides refroidi au sodium nécessite des moyens de contrôle nombreux et redondants auxquels sont
associées les actions de sécurité qui sont nécessaires. Ces dispositifs de contrôle présentent deux caractéristiques:
un aspect conventionnel analogue à ce qu'on peut trouver sur d’ autres réacteurs nucléaires (contrôle neutronique,
contrôle thermique de refroidissement des éléments combustibles); un aspect de caractère expérimental

2 31
232 CHAPELOT e t a l.

(contrôle acoustique des bruits du coeur, équipements nouveaux de détection et de localisation des ruptures
de gaine, sécurité sur la mesure de réactivité). En fait, les dispositifs intéressant cette rubrique ont subi une
phase d'expérimentation et d'exploitation préliminaire sur le réacteur expérimental à neutrons rapides
Rapsodie et sur des boucles d'essais en sodium hors pile.
Dans une dernière partie, les auteurs décrivent, compte tenu de l'expérience acquise dans la construction
des réacteurs, l'ensemble des méthodes d’essais en usine et sur le site des différents ensembles constituant le
contrôle et la commande de la centrale. En particulier, les procédures d'essais et d'étalonnage de l'instrumen­
tation sodium y sont présentées ainsi que les essais réalisés en usine sur simulateurs simplifiés, pour les
équipements d'automatisme. C e chapitre est complété par les premiers résultats d'essais obtenus sur le site
pour les ensembles de contrôle-commande et leur première mise en service pendant les essais de la centrale.

1. PRESENTATION DE PHENIX
1 . 1 ._____C a r a c t é r is t iq u e s g é n é r a le s de la C e n tra le

Phénix e s t une c e n t r a le e x p é rim e n ta le à n eu tron s ra p id e s

d e s t in é e à l ' e s s a i en v r a ie grandeur des com posants sodium a in s i
q u 'à dém ontrer l a f a i s a b i l i t é d 'u n e i n s t a l l a t i o n de p lu s grande
p u is s a n ce de ce typ e à p r o d u ir e com m ercialem ent de l ' é l e c t r i c i t é .
La p u is s a n c e é l e c t r i q u e d é li v r é e au ré s e a u e s t de 250 MWe. Pour
en f a c i l i t e r l e fo n ctio n n e m e n t, Phénix e s t e x p lo i t é e en
" c e n t r a le de b a s e " . C e l l e - c i d o i t , t o u t e f o i s , s a t i s f a i r e l e s
c o n d it io n s de fon ction n em en t d 'u n e c e n t r a le c o n v e n t io n n e lle du
résea u é l e c t r i q u e f r a n ç a is l o r s des manques de te n s io n f u g i t i f s
de ce r é s e a u . Dans le ca s de P h én ix, un manque de te n s io n
maximum de 2 secon d es ne d o i t e n t r a în e r aucune p e r t u r b a tio n
sur la c o n t i n u it é de fo n ction n em en t de l a c e n t r a l e . Pour d es
p e r t u r b a t io n s p lu s lo n g u e s , l e fon ctio n n e m e n t en i l o t a g e n 'e s t
pas r e t e n u .

1 . 2 .____ C a r a c t é r is t iq u e s g é n é r a le s de l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n e t du
c o n t r ô le commande

L 'o r g a n i s a t i o n de l a commande des c i r c u i t s de la

c e n t r a le t i e n t compte de l 'e x p é r i e n c e a c q u is e sur le s c e n t r a le s
th erm iques du ré s e a u f r a n ç a i s . L 'en sem b le des c i r c u i t s e s t
décom posé en systèm es é lé m e n ta ire s f o n c t i o n n e l s a p p e lé s
" f o n c t i o n s é lé m e n t a ir e s " . L 'a c t i o n d 'u n e commande de l'o p é r a t e u r
s 'e f f e c t u e au n iv ea u d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n t a ir e . La c e n t r a le
e s t c o n s t it u é e de 120 f o n c t i o n s é lé m e n ta ir e s .
Aucun automate g é n é r a l n 'e s t l i é au démarrage n i à
l 'a r r ê t de l a c e n t r a l e . S e u ls , l e s autom atism es gén érau x,
a s s o c i é s aux c i r c u i t s de s é c u r i t é du r é a c t e u r , in t e r v ie n n e n t
sur l e fon ctio n n e m e n t des pompes s e c o n d a ir e s à sodium , l e tu rb o ­
a lt e r n a t e u r e t l e p o s te é l e c t r i q u e .
Le domaine d 'a c t i o n de l a r é g u la t io n g é n é r a le t i e n t
compte du fon ction n em en t en " c e n t r a le de b a s e " . La r é g u la t io n
g é n é r a le e s t l i m i t é e d 'u n e p a r t au r é g la g e de la tem pérature de
vapeur à l 'e n t r é e des fa is c e a u x de s u r c h a u ffe des g é n é ra te u rs
de vapeu r à une v a le u r de 10e C s u p é r ie u re à l a v a p o r is a t io n ,
d 'a u t r e p a r t au r é g la g e de l a p r e s s io n de va peu r s u r c h a u ffé e à
l 'e n t r é e des soupapes d 'a d m is s io n de la tu r b in e .
L 'u t i l i s a t i o n de d i s p o s i t i f s de tr a ite m e n t des i n f o r ­
m ation s com portant des c a lc u la t e u r s num ériques o r g a n is é s en
systèm es in d ép en d ants perm et de t r a i t e r , d 'u n e p a r t l e s
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 2 33

prob lèm es d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n d es données d e la c e n t r a le e t , d 'a u t r e

p a r t l e s p roblèm es de s é c u r i t é de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage des
élém en ts c o m b u s tib le s .
L 'a b s e n ce d 'a u tom a te g é n é r a l im p liq u e que l e s c a l c u ­
l a t e u r s de tr a ite m e n t des in fo r m a tio n s n 'a s s u r e n t aucune
a c t i o n en b o u c le ferm ée su r l e s f o n c t i o n s é lé m e n t a ir e s . Une
e x c e p t io n a t o u t e f o i s é té admise : e l l e co n ce rn e l a commande
d i r e c t e du mécanisme de l o c a l i s a t i o n de ru p tu re de ga in e par
p rélèvem en t i n d i v i d u a l i s é de sodium .
L 'e x p l o i t a t i o n des moyens de c o n t r ô le du co e u r permet
l e c o n t r ô le du bon fo n ction n em en t d es élém en ts co m b u s tib le s
e t l a v é r i f i c a t i o n de l 'é t a n c h é i t é des a i g u i l l e s q u i l e s
c o n s titu e n t.

2. CONCEPTION DES AUTOMATISMES ET DU TRAITEMENT DES

INFORMATIONS

2 . 1 .______ Im portance des a c t io n n e u r s . m esures e t in fo r m a tio n s

d ig ita le s
Il c o n v ie n t de p o n c tu e r l a p r é s e n t a t io n de ce c h a p it r e
p a r q u elq u es v a le u r s c a r a c t é r i s t i q u e s con ce rn a n t l e c o n t r ô l e -
commande. La c e n t r a le com porte l e s élém en ts s u iv a n ts :
a) 1200 a c tio n n e u r s d ont approxim ativem en t 900 s o l ­
l i c i t é s par 1 es autom atism es ;
b) 3800 m esures s u b d iv is é e s en :
. 2000 m esures de c o n d u ite dont 1300 t r a i t é e s
su r deux c a lc u la t e u r s de tr a ite m e n t des
in fo r m a tio n s ;
. 300 mesures de s é c u r i t é dont 250 t r a i t é e s sur
c a lc u la t e u r s de s é c u r i t é ;
. 900 mesures d e s t in é e s au c o n t r ô le de p ré c h a u f­
fa g e é l e c t r i q u e des c i r c u i t s ;
. 600 mesures e x p é rim e n ta le s des s t r u c t u r e s du
r é a c t e u r d on t 400 t r a i t é e s sur un c a l c u la t e u r
d ' e n r e g is tr e m e n t.
c) 5000 in fo r m a tio n s d i g i t a l e s d on t 4000 t r a i t é e s sur
l e s deux c a l c u la t e u r s de tr a ite m e n t des in form a ­
t io n s .

2 . 2 .____ O r g a n is a tio n d es commandes, des moyens d 'in fo r m a t io n s

e t des autom atism es a s s o c i é s

2 .2 .1 . N iveau des commandes e t des in fo rm a tio n s

Le n iv ea u d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n de l a c e n t r a le co r re s p o n d à
des commandes q u i in t e r v ie n n e n t pour r é a l i s e r une c o n f ig u r a t io n
p a r t i c u l i è r e d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ire : c o n f ig u r a t io n
marche - c o n f ig u r a t io n a r r ê t - c o n f ig u r a t io n s p a r t i e l l e s
(fo n c tio n n e m e n t en nombre r é d u it d 'a c t io n n e u r s a lim e n té s par
grou p es d i e s e l s de s e c o u r s , c o n f ig u r a t io n de c i r c u i t s pour
co r r e s p o n d r e à t e l l e a c t i o n de s é c u r i t é l o c a l i s é e , e t c . . . ) .
234 CHAPELOT e t a l.

L 'o p é r a t e u r d is p o s e de 2 modes de commande pour

chaque f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ire :
a) un c l a v i e r à tou ch es p erm ettan t de c h o i s i r l a
c o n f ig u r a t io n à r é a l i s e r e t o b t e n ir l 'e x é c u t i o n
de ce c h o i x . Des s i g n a l i s a t i o n s in c o r p o r é e s aux
tou ch es re n s e ig n e n t g lob a lem en t su r l ' é t a t de la
demande, l ' é t a t d 'e x é c u t i o n en c o u r s , l ' é t a t ou
l e r e f u s de l 'e x é c u t i o n e t la d is p o n ib ilit é ;
b) un c l a v i e r à tou ch es p erm ettan t de c h o i s i r un
a c tio n n e u r pour fon ction n em en t normal sur 2 ou 3
a c tio n n e u r s redon dan ts l e s a u tre s é ta n t c o n s id é r é s
en a t t e n t e au tom atiqu e. De même des s i g n a l i s a t i o n s
in c o r p o r é e s aux tou ch es re n s e ig n e n t sur l ' é t a t de
marche d 'u n a ctio n n e u r e t de sa d i s p o n i b i l i t é .
Le tra ite m e n t c e n t r a l i s é des in fo r m a tio n s e s t a s s o c ié
à l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n de chaque f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ire :
a) l a s u r v e i ll a n c e des changements de c o n f ig u r a t io n
perm et d 'e n c o n t r ô le r l e temps d 'e x é c u t i o n ;
b) d es m essages de d é fa u t son t é d it é s sur un "é c ra n
ca th o d iq u e de c o n d u ite " im plan té sur l e p u p it r e
de c o n d u ite de l a c e n t r a le (B lo c P r i n c i p a l ) . Ces
m essages son t e x p lo i t é s ( a p p a r i t i o n , a cq u itte m e n t)
de m anière analogue aux d é fa u ts p r é s e n té s sur des
v e r r in e s lum ineuses i n d i v i d u e l l e s ;
c) des a n a ly se s d 'in fo r m a t io n s peuvent ê t r e e f f e c t u é e s
su r des "é c ra n s ca th o d iq u e s de d ia lo g u e " im p lan tés
sur un p u p it r e d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n du tra ite m e n t des
in fo r m a tio n s (B lo c I n fo r m a tiq u e ).
Les ta b le a u x p r é s e n té s p e rm e tte n t, p our une f o n c t i o n
é lé m e n ta ire c h o i s i e , d 'a n a ly s e r :
a) l e s é t a t s de l a f o n c t i o n (v a le u r s des m esu res, é t a t
ou d é fa u t des e n tr é e s d i g i t a l e s ) ;
b) l e s d é fa u ts e t i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é s de l a f o n c t i o n .
Les moyens d 'in fo r m a t io n s c o n v e n t io n n e lle s ( s i g n a l i ­
s a t io n s g lo b a le s in c o r p o r é e s aux tou ch e s des c l a v i e r s de
commande, v e r r in e s d 'a la rm e in d ép en d an tes du c a l c u la t e u r ) e t
de ceux é la b o r é s p a r le s c a lc u la t e u r s (alarm es e t ta b le a u x
d 'é t a t su r écra n s c a th o d iq u e s ) co n c o u re n t à l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n
de la c e n t r a l e .

2 .2 .2 . C on ce p tio n de l'a u to m a tis m e des f o n c t i o n s e t des

c i r c u i t s de s é c u r i t é
Les autom atism es de f o n c t i o n son t r é a l i s é s en te ch n o ­
l o g i e c la s s iq u e à b ase de r e l a i s é le ctr o m é ca n iq u e s p our des
m o t ifs c o n s e r v a t i f s p lu s q u 'é co n o m iq u e s . L 'o r g a n i s a t i o n
te ch n iq u e de fon ction n em en t des autom atism es re p o s e su r " l e
p r i n c ip e de l 'é m i s s i o n de t e n s io n " c ' e s t - à - d i r e que l 'a b s e n c e
d 'u n e in fo r m a tio n n 'e n g e n d re pas d 'o r d r e . En co n sé q u e n ce , l e s
r e l a i s de l a f o n c t i o n ne son t e x c i t é s que pendant l e s change­
ments de c o n f ig u r a t io n . Pour une c o n f ig u r a t io n d é te rm in é e , l e s
o rd r e s so n t m ém orisés au n iv eau l e p lu s i n f é r i e u r de
l'a u to m a tis m e , c 'e s t - à - d i r e dans l'é q u ip e m e n t des c o n t a c -
te u rs de p u is sa n ce par l 'i n t e r m é d i a i r e des r e l a i s a u to -
maintenus de commande.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 235

Par s u it e de c e s p r i n c ip e s , to u te d é f a i l l a n c e sur
l 'a l i m e n t a t i o n é l e c t r iq u e de l'a u to m a tis m e d 'u n e f o n c t i o n
ne p rovoqu e aucun o rd re in t e m p e s t if su r le s a c tio n n e u r s
de c i r c u i t .
Dans l 'h y p o t h è s e d 'u n t e l d é fa u t , une a c t i o n de
s é c u r i t é sur une machine ou une f o n c t i o n d o i t demeurer p o s ­
s i b l e . Cette a c t i o n de s é c u r i t é s e ra e x é c u té e par un ca n a l
s i m p l i f i é de l'a u to m a tis m e indépendant de l'a u to m a tis m e de
f o n c t i o n . Ce ca n a l d is p o s e r a d 'u n e a lim e n ta tio n é l e c t r i q u e
in d ép en d a n te.
Les autom atism es des c i r c u i t s de s é c u r i t é du r é a c t e u r
( a r r ê t r a p id e ou a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e ) son t r é a l i s é s de même en
t e c h n o lo g ie é le c tr o m é c a n iq u e . L 'o r g a n i s a t i o n te ch n iq u e de
fo n ctio n n em en t de c e s autom atism es re p o s e sur " l e p r in c ip e du
manque de t e n s io n " o r g a n is é sur l a b ase de c i r c u i t s lo g iq u e s
à c o ïn c id e n c e 2 /3 ou 2 /2 pour q u elq u es ca s p a r t i c u l i e r s . Ces
autom atism es son t c o n t r ô lé s l o r s des a r r ê t s programmés du
r é a c t e u r pour m anutention d e s co m b u s tib le s (t o u s le s 3 m o is ).
2 .3 . O r g a n is a tio n du tr a ite m e n t c e n t r a l i s é des in fo rm a tio n s
(TCX) !

2 .3 .1 . O p tio n , r ô l e e t c r i t è r e s d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n
Comme c e l a a é té p r é c is é (paragraph e 1 .2 ) l e s c a l c u ­
l a t e u r s num ériques du TCI ne p a r t i c i p e n t pas à l a commande d e s
a c tio n n e u r s ou d e s r é g u la t io n s de l a c e n t r a l e , à l 'e x c e p t i o n
des a c t io n s su r l e d i s p o s i t i f de l o c a l i s a t i o n de ru p tu re de
ga in e (LRG) par é c h a n tillo n n a g e sodium ( d e s c r i p t i o n au p ara ­
graphe 3 . 5 . 2 . 1 . ) .
Pour rép on d re au s o u c i d 'u n e m e ille u r e e x p l o i t a t i o n
des in fo r m a tio n s de l a c e n t r a l e , i l f u t d é c id é :
a) de c l a s s e r a vec s o in l e s d i f f é r e n t e s c a t é g o r ie s
d 'in fo r m a t io n s e x p lo i t é e s p a r le TCI (ta b le a u i )
e t d 'e n o r i e n t e r géographiquem ent l e s m essages
c o r r e s p o n d a n ts , s u iv a it le u r im portan ce h ié r a r ­
ch iq u e ;
b) d 'u t i l i s e r des écra n s ca th o d iq u e s de v i s u a l i s a t i o n :
. en vue d 'u n e p r é s e n t a t io n r a p id e des in fo rm a tio n s
du typ e "m essage de d é f a u t s " ,
. comme moyen l e p lu s s o u p le pour p erm ettre to u te s
a n a ly se s d 'é t a t s e t de d é fa u t s de la c e n t r a le
sans que s o i t n é c e s s a ir e l e su p p ort é c r i t de ce
d ia lo g u e .
Le TCI a é té o r g a n is é pour a s s u r e r l e m e ille u r s e r v i c e
p o s s i b l e . Sa d i s p o n i b i l i t é com p lète e s t n é c e s s a ir e à. la v é r i ­
f i c a t i o n des c o n d it io n s de démarrage e t au c o n t r ô le des é ta p es
de montée en p u is s a n ce de l a c e n t r a l e . Une i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é
p a r t i e l l e ou t o t a l e ne d o i t pas e n t r a în e r l 'a r r ê t de l a
c e n t r a l e à c o n d it io n que d es changements de p u is sa n ce ne
s o ie n t pas e f f e c t u é s . Durant c e t t e i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é , l e s
d i s p o s i t i f s c o n v e n t io n n e ls d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n ( e n r e g i s t r e u r s ,
i n d i c a t e u r s , s i g n a l i s a t i o n s in c o r p o r é e s aux tou ch e s des
c l a v i e r s de commande, alarm es d e d é fa u t ) son t c o n s id é r é s
comme s u f f i s a n t s pou r a u t o r i s e r une a bsen ce t o t a l e du TCI
de q u elq u es h e u re s .
236 CHAPELOT e t a l.

T A B L E A U I. C L A S S E M E N T D E S D I F F E R E N T E S C A T E G O R I E S
D 'I N F O R M A T I O N S E X P L O I T E E S P A R L E T C I E T O R I E N T A T I O N D E S
M ESSAGES COR R ESPON DAN TS

/C a r a c t é r is t i q u e s des in fo r m a t io n s /

EC TC TE ED IP
1 - S u r v e illa n c e des mesures
1 .1 M essages de d é fa u t
. p e r t e s o u s -tr a n c h e c o n t r ô le 220 V X X
. m esures en dépassem ent de s e u il s X X X
. i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é ch a în e de mesure X
1 .2 Messages l i é s aux in t e r v e n t io n s o p é ra te u r
sur l e c a lc u la t e u r
. i n h i b i t i o n ch a în e de mesure X X
. m o d if ic a t io n de s e u i l X X
. a f f e c t a t i o n h y s t é r é s i s à un s e u i l X X
1 .3 E x p lo i t a t io n i n d i v id u e ll e des mesures
. a p p el o p é ra te u r pour s u iv i autom atique X
. a p p e l o p é ra te u r pour a n a ly se (m esure ou
X
s e u il
. h is t o r iq u e (a p p e l ou autom atiqu e) X
1 .4 T ableaux d 'é t a t s e t l i s t e s r é c a p i t u l a t i v e s
. c a r t e s des mesures e t des s e u i l s d 'u n e Y
A
fo n c tio n
. ta ra g e e t éta lo n n a g e DND/G-LRG- Y
Л
d é t e c t i o n H2
• l i s t e des m esures in h ib é e s x
. l i s t e des m esures par v a le u r d 'h y s t é r é s i s x
. l i s t e des m esures a f f e c t é e s au tra ite m e n t Y
A
de s u r v e illa n c e

2 - S u r v e illa n c e des in fo rm a tio n s d i g i t a l e s

(TOR)
2.1 M essages d 'é t a t e t de d é fa u ts des a c t i o n ­
neurs
. changement normal d 'é t a t x
. r e f u s d 'e x é c u t i o n de manoeuvre X X x
. i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é s ou d é fa u ts X X X
. r e fu s de d é le s t a g e (a c tio n n e u r s non x X
secou ru s)
. r e f u s de r e l e s t a g e (a c tio n n e u r s X X X
secou ru s)
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / В - 1 2 37

TABLEAU I (suite)

2 .2 Message d 'é t a t e t de d é fa u ts d es a u tre s EC TC TE ED IP TM

in fo r m a tio n s TOR
'. i n h i b i t i o n d 'u n e v o i e TOR X X
. d éclench em en t des s t a t s X X X
. d é fa u t in d i v id u e l X X
. d é fa u t grou pé ( é la b o r é par le s X X X
autom atism es)

3 - S u r v e illa n c e des f o n c t i o n s é lé m e n ta ire s

3.1 Messages de d é fa u ts
. p e r t e s o u s -tr a n c h e c o n t r ô le 48 V = X X X
. m ise En ou Hors S e r v ic e d es f o n c t i o n s X X
. r e f u s de Mise En ou Hors S e r v ic e des
fo n c tio n s X X X

3 .2 T a bleaux d 'é t a t s e t l i s t e s r é c a p i t u l a t i v e s
. l i s t e s des in fo r m a tio n s de d is c o r d a n c e
X X
de c o n f ig u r a t io n
. l i s t e s des f o n c t i o n s en d é fa u ts X X
. l i s t e s des f o n c t i o n s en e s s a is X
. ta b le a u d 'é t a t d 'u n e f o n c t i o n X X
. ta b le a u des i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é s X X

Code :
EC : écra n de c o n d u ite
TC : t é l e s c r i p t r i c e de co n d u ite
TE : t é l e s c r i p t r i c e mesure
ED : écra n de d ia lo g u e
IP : imprimante
TM : t é l e s c r i p t r i c e de m aintenance

2 .3 .2 . D e s c r ip t io n g é n é r a le
Le TCI e s t c o n s t i t u é de 2 systèm es indépendants :
le p rem ier e s t a s s o c i é à l a ch a u d ière n u c l é a i r e , le secon d
à. l a p r o d u c tio n d 'é l e c t r i c i t é e t aux a u x i l i a i r e s de d i s t r i ­
b u t io n é l e c t r i q u e . Chaque systèm e e s t c o n s t it u é des ensem bles
s u iv a n ts ( f i g . 1 ) .
a) un c a l c u la t e u r de 32000 mots d e 16 b i t s p lu s 1 b i t
de p a r i t é . Le c y c l e mémoire e s t de 0,9y* s ;
b) une mémoire de masse c o n s t it u é e d 'u n d is q u e de
370 000 mots de 16 b i t s ;
c) 4 t é l e s c r i p t r i c e s a f f e c t é e s à des r ô l e s s p é c if iq u e s
(m esu res, c o n d u it e , e s s a i s , m ain ten ance)';
238 CHAPELOT et a l.

d) 3 écra n s ca th o d iq u e s (1 pour l e s m essages de d é fa u t ,

2 pour tes a n a ly se s d es f o n c t i o n s ) de 6k c a r a c t è r e s /
lig n e e t 16 l ig n e s /p a g e ;
e) 1 imprimante de 200 lig n e s /m in ;
f) l e s e n tr é e s a n a lo g iq u e s e t n um ériques. Les c y c l e s de
s c r u t a t i o n des e n tr é e s a n a lo g iq u e s so n t 10 s e t 1 min,
l e c y c l e de s c r u t a t io n des e n tr é e s d i g i t a l e s e s t
de ko ms;
g) 1 t é lé t y p e de program m ation.
Des équipem ents p é r ip h é r iq u e s communs s o n t r a c c o r d é s aux
deux c a l c u la t e u r s :
a) 2 c o n s o le s d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n im p la n tées 1 ' иле au b lo c
p r i n c i p a l , l 'a u t r e au b lo c in fo r m a tiq u e ;
b) 1 u n ité de bandes m agnétiques q u i peut ê t r e
c o n n e c té e à l 'u n ou l 'a u t r e des c a l c u la t e u r s .
C 'e s t à p a r t i r de c e t t e u n ité que so n t ch a rg és tou s l e s
programmes de b ase e t en p a r t i c u l i e r l e s données q u a n t it a t iv e s
(a d r e s s e s , s e u i l s d 'a la r m e s , c y c l e de s c r u t a t i o n , e t c . . . ) . Ces
données form ent une p a r t ie r é d u it e des données co m p lè te s de
l 'i n s t a l l a t i o n é t a b l i e s sou s form e de f i c h i e r s e n r e g is t r é s sur
bandes m agnétiques e t u t i l i s é s comme données d 'é t u d e s e t
d 'e s s a i s de la c e n t r a l e .

Calculateur Bandes
Chaudière nucléaire magnétiques
Télescripth'ce Disque / / 7 Lecteur de cartes
C 2I / 7 *- ¡ 1 Teletype de maintenance magnéficjue
_ “ V *
Ю.020 D C &
AL
IO P Equipements périphériques de la Vers calculateur IPE
salle des calculateurs
D IO

© Q dD (2D m
Ecran de conduite Jelescriplhce de v --- Télescriptrice
(Défeuhs) Ecran de dialogue de conduite
(Analyses) Entrées digitales

C ó m e le Console
Bloc Principal Bloc Informatique
BP BI
Equipements d'exploitation delà salle de contrôle
F I G .l . Diagrammé d’un sous-système TC I de Phénix.
 1 A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 23 9

2 .3 .3 . Equipements d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n
Les équipem ents d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n des in fo r m a tio n s de
chaque c a lc u la t e u r de la c e n t r a l e son t im p lan tés en s a l l e de
c o n t r ô l e e t en s a l l e des c a l c u la t e u r s , c e s deux lo c a u x éta n t
en communication d i r e c t e .
Au B lo c P r in c ip a l de la s a l l e de c o n t r ô l e , un é cra n
de c o n d u ite e s t d e s t in é à l a p r é s e n t a t io n des m essages de
d é fa u t . Une p ro cé d u re perm et l a r e c o n n a iss a n c e e t l 'a c q u i t ­
tement p a r l 'o p é r a t e u r (d é c a la g e du message a vec marquage
d 'u n s ig n e c a r a c t é r i s t i q u e , alarm e s o n o r e , r e c a la g e du
message a près a cq u itte m e n t, e ffa ce m e n t autom atique du message
à la d i s p a r i t i o n , tassem ent autom atique d e s m essages).
Chaque message e s t composé de l 'h e u r e d 'a p p a r i t i o n
(h , m in, s - k c a r a c t è r e s ) l 'a d r e s s e alphanum érique (6 c a r a c ­
t è r e s ) , un t e x t e a lp h a b é tiq u e en lan ga ge s e m i- c l a ir (32
c a r a c t è r e s ) e t la c a r a c t é r i s t i q u e du type de d é fa u t (k
ca ra ctères).
Les alarm es peuvent ê t r e p r é s e n té e s sur 2 pages q u i
peuvent ê t r e tou rn ées par l 'o p é r a t e u r .
En o u t r e , une t é l e s c r i p t r i c e perm et l 'e n r e g is t r e m e n t
des m esures ayant d ép a ssé un s e u i l de s u r v e i ll a n c e (im p re s ­
s io n en r o u g e ) ou c e l l e s a p p e lé e s par 1 'op é ra te u r (im p re s­
s io n en n o i r ) . L 'im p r e s s io n s 'e f f e c t u e en c o lo n n e s , c e l l e s -
c i so n t c o n s t i t u é e s de l 'a d r e s s e des mesures p u is de l 'i m ­
p r e s s io n des v a le u r s to u te s l e s m in u tes.
Au B lo c In fo rm a tiq u e de l a s a l l e de c o n t r ô l e , deux
é cra n s d 'a n a ly s e son t e x c l u s i v e m e n t t t i l i s é s pour l e d ia lo g u e
o p é r a t e u r /c a lc u la t e u r e t l a p r é s e n t a t io n de ta b le a u x pour
l 'a n a l y s e des in fo r m a tio n s d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ir e . Ces
ta b le a u x c o n s t it u e n t l e s a n a ly se s d 'i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é , de
d é fa u ts e t des é t a t s de l a f o n c t i o n . Les ta b le a u x son t
in h ib é s en ca s de d é f a i l l a n c e de l 'a l i m e n t a t i o n é l e c t r i q u e
des équipem ents de c o n t r ô l e (m esures, autom atism es) par
le s q u e ls t r a n s it e n t l e s in fo rm a tio n s r a c c o r d é e s au c a l c u l a ­
te u r .
En o u t r e , une t é l e s c r i p t r i c e de c o n d u ite e s t d e s t in é e
à l'e n r e g is t r e m e n t d es m essages de d é fa u ts de n iv eau h ié r a r ­
ch iq u e moins é l e v é , des in t e r v e n t io n s de l 'o p é r a t e u r sur des
élém en ts d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n p r o té g é s par c l é s (changement de
s e u i l s de s u r v e i ll a n c e des m esures, i n h i b i t i o n de tra ite m e n t
d 'u n e v o i e a n a lo g iq u e ou d i g i t a l e , e t c . . . ) .
Au B lo c In fo rm a tiq u e de l a s a l l e des c a l c u l a t e u r s ,
une t é l e s c r i p t r i c e de m aintenance e s t d e s t in é e à l 'e n r e g i s ­
trem ent des m essages de d é fa u ts des v o i e s de m esures, l e s
v a le u r s des m esures en phase de dépannage, l e s d é fa u t s des
équipem ents p é r ip h é r iq u e s du TCI.
E n fin , une im prim ante s e m i-ra p id e permet l 'e n r e g i s ­
trem ent du jo u r n a l de b ord de l a c e n t r a l e , e t c e l u i des
ta b le a u x d 'a n a ly s e p r é s e n té s su r é c r a n s .

2 .3 . ^ . T ra item en t des f o n c t i o n s de c a l c u l s
Ces tr a ite m e n ts son t e f f e c t u é s à p a r t i r des mesures de
l a c e n t r a l e . I l s co n c e rn e n t des tr a ite m e n ts d ,'e x p l o i t a t i o n
"en l i g n e " à l 'e x c l u s i o n des c a l c u l s s c i e n t i f i q u e s .
240 CHAPELOT e t a l.

Dans une p rem ière c a t é g o r i e , on peut c l a s s e r des

tr a ite m e n ts q u 'o n r e t r o u v e sur d 'a u t r e s ty p e s de r é a c t e u r :
b i l a n therm ique de l a c e n t r a le ( c ô t é sodium e t e a u -v a p e u r ),
d é t e c t i o n de d is c o r d a n c e sur l e s m esures red on d an tes des
c i r c u i t s de s é c u r i t é , cumul r a d io p r o t e c t i o n , e t c . . . Dans une
secon d e c a t é g o r i e , on p eu t c l a s s e r des tr a ite m e n ts p lu s
s p é c i f i q u e s t e l s que l e s c a l c u l s des d é t e c t i o n s de ru p tu re s de
g a in e s (DRG) e t le c a l c u l de l a c o n c e n t r a t io n d 'h y d ro g è n e dans
l e sodium s e c o n d a ir e , de son é v o lu t io n e t d e s a c t io n s
d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n à en tre p re n d re : re c h e rc h e de l'é lé m e n t du
g én é ra te u r de vapeu r d é fe c tu e u x ou a r r ê t immédiat de l a
c e n tr a le .

2 .3 .5 . Programmation e t s û r e té de fon ction n em en t

Le programme e x é c u t i f e s t o r g a n is é au tou r d 'u n systèm e
à p a rta g e de temps géré à p a r t i r d 'u n ensemble d 'i n t e r r u p ­
t io n s (XT) h ié r a r c h i s é e s . Les tâ ch e s co rre s p o n d a n te s peuven t
ê t r e c l a s s é e s en deux c a t é g o r ie s :
a) l e s programmes d é c le n c h é s par o r d r e s c y c liq u e s
( iT h o r lo g e ) ;
b) l e s a u tr e s IT d é cle n c h e n t l e s tâ ch e s des organes
p é r ip h é r iq u e s (ГГ équipem ent, IT c o n s o l e ) .
La p r i o r i t é des in t e r r u p t io n s e s t c l a s s é e d ep u is l e
n iv ea u l e p lu s é le v é au n iv ea u l e p lu s bas comme s u it :
a) IT in t e r n e s de n iv eau l e p lu s é le v é : IT/OFF-IT/ON -
H orlog es (20 ras - 100 ms) - C o n trô le p a r it é -
C o n trô le v i o l a t i o n mémoire - G e s tio n des e n t r é e s /
sorties du canal IOP - Panneau de commande de l'u n it é
c e n t r a le ;
b) IT e x te r n e s : A -u tocon trôle - Perm u tation ca n a l IOP -
C la v ie r s p u p it r e BI e t BP - Manque d e te n s io n ré s e a u
e t r e l e s t a g e des a c tio n n e u r s - G e s tio n d is q u e -
E n t r é e s /s o r t i e s d i g i t a l e s - E n trées a n a lo g iq u e s -
Ecrans c a t h o d iq u e s , e t c . . .
Pour a s s u r e r l a s û r e té de fo n c tio n n e m e n t, l e s systèm es
so n t a u to -p ro té g é s c o n tr e un c e r t a i n nombre de d é fa u t s .
Une panne d 'a lim e n t a t io n é l e c t r iq u e (b a is s e en d e sso u s
de 10 $ de l a t e n s io n n orm ale) e s t d é t e c t é e par un équipem ent
q u i d é l i v r e un s ig n a l d 'i n t e r r u p t i o n IT/OFF. T ou tes l e s
données so n t t r a n s fé r é e s en mémoire ( p r o t e c t i o n program m e).
Au r e t o u r de l 'a l i m e n t a t i o n norm ale un s ig n a l IT/ON d é cle n ch e
un programme de redém arrage q u i re c h a r g e l e s r e g i s t r e s . Un
message de d é fa u t e s t é d it é sur t é l e s c r i p t r i c e de c o n d u ite e t
im prim an te.
Les d é fa u t s p r o p r e s à l 'u n i t é c e n t r a le son t d é t e c t é s
p ar l 'a u t o c o n t r ô l é ( c o n t r ô l e du temps d 'e x é c u t i o n en l i a i s o n
a vec 1 ' IT h o r l o g e ) , l 'e r r e u r de p a r it é ( c o n t r ô le des échanges
d 'in fo r m a t io n s e n tr e mémoire c e n t r a le e t mémoire à d is q u e ) ,
l e c o n t r ô l e ca n a l ( c o n t r ô l e d es échanges e n tr e u n it é c e n t r a le
e t p é r i p h é r iq u e s ) , l a p r o t e c t i o n mémoire (m ise à l 'a b r i des
programmes d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n v i s - à - v i s des programmes de
m o d if ic a t io n s "en l i g n e " ) .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 241

3. CONTROLE D E FONCTIONNEMENT DU COEUR

3 .1 » ____ C o n s id é r a tio n s g é n é r a le s et l i a i s o n des d i s p o s i t i f s

de c o n t r ô le avec l e s c i r c u i t s d 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e
La gain e d es a i g u i l l e s , com posant l e s élém ents
c o m b u s tib le s , c o n s t it u e l a p rem ière b a r r i è r e de s é c u r i t é du
r é a c t e u r . Pour m a in te n ir l 'i n t é g r i t é de c e t t e b a r r i è r e , l e
bon ï* e fr o id is s e m e n t des élém ents c o m b u s tib le s d 'u n e p a r t e t
l e c o n t r ô le de l 'é t a n c h é i t é des g a in e s d 'a u t r e p a r t ,
c o n s t it u e n t l e s c a r a c t é r i s t i q u e s fond a m en tales d 'u n e bonne
e x p l o i t a t i o n du coeu r d 'u n r é a c t e u r à n eu tron s r a p id e s .
L 'e x p é r ie n c e a c q u is e su r l e r é a c t e u r R ap sod ie en e x p l o i t a ­
t i o n d e p u is 1 9 6 7 , l e s tr a ite m e n ts de c o r r é l a t i o n q u i appa­
r a i s s e n t p o s s i b l e s e n tr e l e s d i f f é r e n t e s n a tu res d 'in fo r m a ­
t io n s p h y siq u es on t perm is de s p é c i f i e r l e s d i f f é r e n t s
ensem bles q u i a ss u re n t l e c o n t r ô le du c o e u r de Phénix :
a) l e c o n t r ô le de l a r é a c t i v i t é ;
b) l e c o n t r ô le therm ique de r e fr o id is s e m e n t des
élém ents c o m b u s tib le s a ssu ra n t l a d é t e c t i o n de
bouchage de c e s élém ents ;
c) l e c o n t r ô le a co u s tiq u e des b r u it s du co e u r ¡
d) l e c o n t r ô le de d é t e c t i o n e t de l o c a l i s a t i o n des
ru p tu re s de g a in e .

3 . 2 .____ C o n trô le de l a r é a c t i v i t é
Des r é a c t im è t r e s , c o n s t it u é s de réseaux de P a g e ls , son t
a s s o c i é s aux ch a în e s n e u tro n iq u e s l i n é a i r e s e t a ssu re n t la
s é c u r i t é co r re s p o n d a n te dans l a gamme de 1 , 3 . Ю -1 à 1 ,3 de la
p u is s a n ce nominale. Les s e u i l s son t a ju s t é s p our des v a le u r s
p o s i t i v e s e t n é g a tiv e s de la r é a c t i v i t é (5 pcm pour l'a la r m e
é t 10 pcm pour l 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e ) . Le r é g la g e des f a i b l e s
v a le u r s de s e u i l n é c e s s a ir e s à la d é t e c t i o n s e n s ib le des
an om alies du c o e u r , a pour con séqu en ce d 'im p o s e r l 'a c t i o n
d 'i n h i b i t i o n s a utom atiqu es pour masquer l e s r is q u e s d 'a c t i o n s
in te m p e s tiv e s dues à des v a r i a t io n s norm ales de r é a c t i v i t é
(manque de te n s io n f u g i t i f , a r r ê t d 'u n e pompe p r im a ir e ) .

3 . 3 .____ C o n tr ô le de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage des élém ents

co m b u s tib le s

3 .3 .1 . D e s c r ip t io n g é n é r a le
Ce c o n t r ô le a pour but de d é t e c t e r une é l é v a t io n anormale
de l a tem pérature de s o r t i e du sodium des élém ents combus­
t i b l e s c o n s é c u t iv e à un bouchage p a r t i e l de c e s d e r n ie r s ,
e t à tou s l e s n iv ea u x de p u is sa n ce du r é a c t e u r . Chaque
élém ent co m b u s tib le (1 0 3 f i s s i l e s e t 18 f e r t i l e s ) e s t
in stru m en té de 2 th erm ocou p les chrome1-a lu m e l im plan tés
dans un d o ig t de gant (tem ps de rép on se k ,2 + 2 s ) .
L 'en sem b le des th erm ocou p les e s t r a c c o r d é à 2
c a lc u la t e u r s de s é c u r i t é uniquement a f f e c t é s à c e t t e tâ c h e .
Chaque c a l c u la t e u r e x p lo r e l e s 2 f a m i ll e s de th erm ocou p les
to u t e s le s 3 s ; a i n s i , chaque assem blage e s t e x p lo r é to u te s
l e s 1 ,5 s . Lorsque l e s e u i l de s é c u r i t é e s t s o l l i c i t é , le s
2 c a l c u la t e u r s commandent sim ultaném ent l 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e
du r é a c t e u r au moyen d 'u n e com b in a ison lo g iq u e en 2 /2 .
2 42 CHAPELOT e t a l.

3 . 3 . 2 . T ra item en t de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage
La d i f f é r e n c e de tem pérature Altv d 'u n assem blage i
en cou rs de bouchage ne p e rtu rb e pas le c a l c u l de l a d i f f é ­
ren ce de la tem pérature moyenne Ù.Tm.
C e tte v a le u r moyenne Л 1^ ^ ûiTru­
e s t un élém ent r e p r é s e n t a t i f du ra p p o r t d é b it s o d iu m /flu x
de n eu tron s e t , de ce f a i t , de l ' e f f i c a c i t é de r e f r o i d i s ­
sement du co e u r .
Chaque c a l c u la t e u r déterm ine à chaque c y c l e de
s c r u t a t i o n , l a v a le u r de r é fé r e n c e de 1 a tem pérature d i f ­
f é r e n t i e l l e de l'a s s e m b la g e c o n s id é r é :
ATir = oti Дтта
^ . e s t un c o e f f i c i e n t param étriqu e p ro p re à chaque assem blage
( d i f f é r e n c e de th erm ocou p les, im p la n ta tio n géogra ph iqu e de
l'é lé m e n t c o m b u s tib le , tau x de com b u stio n , e t c . . . ) . Ce
c o e f f i c i e n t e s t d éterm in é par "ta r a g e " au fu r e t à mesure
de l a p rem ière montée en p u issa n ce s u iv a n t chaque campagne
de m an u ten tion . Le c a lc u la t e u r compare d es v a le u r s ДT¡.v -A T ¡.r .
Le tr a ite m e n t de s é c u r i t é e s t e f f e c t u é en c o ïn c id e n c e 2 /2
su r le s 2 f a m i ll e s de th erm ocou p les.
Les c o e f f i c i e n t s a e t b s o n t d éterm in és pour q u 'u n e
alarme s o i t d é cle n c h é e pou r une anom alie d ' éch au ffem en t de 5° C
e t l 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e s o l l i c i t é à 10° C.
Pour l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n des c a l c u la t e u r s , une c o n s o le
permet :
a) l 'a j u s t a g e d es c o e f f i c i e n t s a e t b de r é g la g e d e s
s e u ils ;
b) l 'a f f e c t a t i o n d 'u n assem blage à un groupe de
s u r v e illa n c e ( l e s assem blages so n t ra sse m b lé s en
3 grou pes de s u r v e i ll a n c e ) ;
c) l e s demandes d 'é d i t i o n de c a r t e s g é og ra p h iq u es ou
com p a ra tiv es des m esures.
3 . 3 - 3 . S é c u r it é g é n é r a le du système
Les c a lc u la t e u r s son t munis de deux typ es de p r o t e c t i o n .
Une prem ière c a t é g o r ie de p r o t e c t io n s e n tr a în e l 'a r r ê t
du c a l c u la t e u r :
a) c o n t r ô le de p a r it é mémoire ;
b)a u t o -c o n t r ô le ( c o n t r ô le du temps de d érou lem ent
d 'u n e i n s t r u c t i o n ) ;
c) d é fa u t d 'a lim e n t a t io n é l e c t r i q u e .
Une secon d e c a t é g o r ie de p r o t e c t io n s provoque une
alarm e :
a) d é fa u t program m ation ;
b) p r o t e c t i o n mémoire.
La s é c u r i t é du systèm e de tr a ite m e n t de d é t e c t i o n de
bouchage des assem blages e s t l e s u iv a n t ;
En ca s de d é fa u t d 'u n th erm ocou p le, c e l u i - c i e s t
autom atiquem ent in h ib é e t e s t c o n s id é r é "en dépassem ent"
v i s - à - v i s du tr a ite m e n t de s é c u r i t é . S i l e 2ème therm ocou ple
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 243

hom ologue de l'a s s e m b la g e tombe en d é fa u t , l ’ a c t i o n de

s é c u r i t é n 'e s t pas d é c le n c h é e . Aucune m o d if ic a t io n de p u is ­
sance du r é a c t e u r n 'e s t a u t o r i s é e . 1
• ; En ca s de d é fa u t d 'u n c a l c u la t e u r , l a s o r t i e lo g iq u e
e s t p o s it io n n é e en "panne sû re" e t l e fon ction n em en t en
c o ïn c id e n c e 2 /2 du systèm e e s t t r a n s fé r é en fon ction n em en t
1 /2 . S i l e 2ème c a l c u la t e u r e s t h ors s e r v i c e ou tombe en
d é fa u t , i l y a i n h i b i t i o n de l 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e . Dans c e t t e
s i t u a t i o n l 'o p é r a t e u r a pour co n s ig n e l 'a r r ê t manuel du
réa cteu r.

3 .4 ._____ C o n tr ô le a c o u s tiq u e
L 'a p p a r it io n de p o in t s chauds su r l e s élém ents
c o m b u s tib le s par r é d u c t io n de d é b it dans l e s assem blages
peut e n t r a în e r l e d éclen ch em en t d 'u n e é b u l l i t i o n l o c a l e du
sodium q u ' i l fa u t d é t e c t e r rapidem ent pour é v i t e r une f u s io n
p a r t i e l l e - ou t o t a l e de l'a s s e m b la g e . Phénix e s t éq u ip é de 11
p o in t s de mesures f i x e s e t 1 p o in t dé m esu re 'm o b ile p ó s i t i o n -
n a b le dans 7 emplacements de r é f é r e n c e .
Compte ten u du c a r a c t è r e e x p érim en ta l de ce c o n t r ô le
(R a p sod ie d is p o s e d é jà de ch a în e s e x p é rim e n ta le s en e x p l o i ­
t a t i o n ) , l e s équipem ents de mesure ne s o l l i c i t e n t pas l e
c i r c u i t d 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e du r é a c t e u r .

3 .5 ._____ D é t e c t io n e t l o c a l i s a t i o n de ru p tu re s de g a in es

3 .5 .1 . C o n s id é r a tio n s g é n é r a le s
P o u r -le r é a c t e u r P h én ix, l e grand nombre d 'a i g u i l l e s
(p lu s de 30 000) con ten a n t l e co m b u s tib le Pu O2 , и02 * ou l a
m a tiè re f e r t i l e U02 , la f i n e s s e du g a in a g e , e t l e taux de
c o m b u s tio n . é le v é im p liq u e n t une s u r v e i ll a n c e permanente des
ru p tu re s de g a in e s .
A p a r t i r de l 'e x p é r i e n c e de R ap sodie e t en f o n c t i o n
des c o n d it io n s p a r t i c u l i è r e s du co m b u s tib le de Phénix
(nombre d 'a i g u i l l e s , .é p a is s e u r des g a in e s , e t c . . . ) on peut
p r é v o ir :
a) q u ' i l y aura des ru p tu re s de ga in e ;
b) q u 'e l l e s s e r o n t die typ e d i f f é r e n t .
Schém atiquem ent. i l .y aura :
à) des "r u p tu r e s g a z" q u i co r re s p o n d e n t à un r e l â ­
chement dé gaz sans c o n t a c t du sodium avec l e '
co m b u s tib le . (don c p our l a q u e lle l a d im en sion du
d é fa u t dans l a .g a i n e e s t a p r i o r i t r è s f a i b l e ) ;
on p ou rra s!.accommoder.de ce type de ru p tu re s ;
b) des "r u p tu r e s m o u illé e s " q u i co r re s p o n d e n t à un
c o n t a c t d i r e c t dù sodium avec l e co m b u s tib le e t
don t on p eu t c r a in d r e une é v o lu t io n r a p id e . On
ne p eut t o l é r e r l e fon ction n em en t du r é a c t e u r avec
c e s ru p tu re s g ra v es q u i son t notamment s u s c e p t i ­
b le s , de p rovoq u er l'e n tr a în e m e n t de fragm en ts de
.com bu stible dans l e , sodium e t .d e s bouchages
, ■_ lo c a u x , donc des éch a u ffem en ts u l t é r i e u r s . Pour
c e t t e r a is o n i l f a u t ,.n o n seulem ent d é t e c t e r ,
mais a u ssi l o c a l i s e r e t i d e n t i f i e r ce typ e de . i
244 CHAPELOT e t a l.

ru p tu re s a f i n de s a v o ir quand e t où i l fau d ra
in t e r v e n i r (déchargem ent des assem blages en
d é fa u t) .
A fin de r e m p lir l e s t r o i s f o n c t i o n s " d é t e c t io n g é n é r a le "
" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " e t " l o c a l i s a t i o n " des ru p tu re s de g a in é s , l e s
d i s p o s i t i f s de mesure re te n u s re p o s e n t sur l e s deux modes de
p rélèvem en t : l e sodium e t l 'a r g o n .

3 .5 .2 . Mesures sur l e s p rélèvem en ts sodium

Les a p p a r e ils de mesure u t i l i s é s son t basés sur le
p r in c ip e de l a d é t e c t i o n des p r o d u its de f i s s i o n X e t Br
ém etteu rs de n eu tron s d i f f é r é s (DND). Ces n eu tron s (200 à
500 keV) son t d é t e c t é s par des com pteurs de n eu tron s th erm i­
ques a p rès a v o ir é té th e rm a lis é s par un m odérateur en p o ly ­
é th y lè n e .
A fin d 'o b t e n i r une m e ille u r e s e n s i b i l i t é de d é t e c t io n
de c e s n eu tron s e t m algré l e s p r o t e c t io n s n é c e s s a i r e s , on a
p r é f é r é u t i l i s e r des com pteurs à He3 p lu t ô t que des chambres
à f i s s i o n . C ette o p t io n n 'a pu ê t r e p r i s e q u 'a p r è s une longue
s é r i e d 'e s s a i s e t l a m ise au p o in t de la f a b r i c a t i o n de
com pteurs à He3 de lon g u eu r u t i l e s u f f i s a n t e .

3 . 5 . 2 . 1 . D é t e c t io n g é n é r a le (DND/G) e t l o c a l i s a t i o n g é n é ra le
(DND/LRG)
C e tte d é t e c t i o n e s t a ssu rée au moyen de 6 p rélèvem en ts
de sodium e f f e c t u é s dans l a cuve du r é a c t e u r à l 'e n t r é e des 6
éch angeu rs in t e r m é d ia ir e s e t d i r i g é s v e r s un b l o c DND/G s it u é
en zone a c c e s s i b l e .
La c o n c e p t io n du b lo c de n eu tron s d i f f é r é s permet
d 'a s s u r e r sim ultaném ent l e s deux f o n c t i o n s s u iv a n te s :
a) l a s u r v e i ll a n c e g lo b a le du r é a c t e u r ;
b) l a p r é l o c a l i s a t i o n d 'u n e ru p tu re dans un s e c t e u r du
coeu r en f o n c t i o n de l'h y d r a u liq u e d es écou lem en ts
dans l a cuve p r im a ir e .
L 'en sem b le de d é t e c t i o n a une géo m é trie c y lin d r iq u e
a vec une sy m étrie d 'o r d r e 6 . Au c e n tr e son t p la c é e s 6
c a p a c it é s dans l e s q u e l l e s c i r c u l e l e sodium proven an t de
chacun des 6 éch a n g eu rs. Ces c a p a c it é s s o n t sé p a ré e s par
une é t o i l e de g r a p h ite à 6 b ra n ch e s. 6 p a ir e s de com pteurs
He3 son t p la c é s en re g a rd de chaque c a p a c i t é .
Grâce à l a p ré s e n ce de l ' é t o i l e de g r a p h ite "sem i­
tr a n s p a re n te " aux n eu tron s ém is, chaque groupe de com pteurs
e s t in f lu e n c é p r é f é r e n t ie lle m e n t par 1 ' é m iss io n de la capa­
c i t é d evan t l a q u e l l e i l e s t p la c é (e n v ir o n 34 $ de son
s i g n a l ) . Les deux f o n c t i o n s r e c h e rc h é e s sont donc a in s i
ob ten u es et l 'o r g a n i s a t i o n des ch a în e s de mesure permet
d 'a s s u r e r l e s deux f o n c t i o n s s u iv a n te s de s é c u r i t é e t de
p r é lo c a lis a tio n .
Les 6 s ig n a u x , is s u s des com pteurs de rang p a ir ou
im p a ir , so n t a d d itio n n é s pour d é l i v r e r 2 mesures hom ologues
de l a con ta m in a tio n g l o b a le du r é a c t e u r e t p erm ettre d 'é l a b o r e r
un s ig n a l en c o ïn c id e n c e 2 /2 d e s t in é à l 'a r r ê t d 'u r g e n c e du
réa cteu r.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 245

Alimentaron de la pompe

Source intarmiffenh!
/ de contrôle

Bloc de mesures
Ü¡1
À € Compteurs à He*3
• Tf
j i/
Chambre i Na

Débihnètre élecfrornagneUque

Arbre» des sélecteur»

<21 Tubes de prélèvement-

F IG .2 . Phénix: bouchon de localisation de ruptures de gaine (LRG).

Chaque somme des signa u x is s u s des deux com pteurs de

chaque p a ir e e s t t r a i t é e par l e c a l c u la t e u r "ch a u d iè re
n u c l é a i r e " . Un d é s é q u il ib r e des in fo r m a tio n s ob ten ues permet
de l o c a l i s e r l e s e c t e u r du co e u r (un six ièm e e n v ir o n ) où
se tr o u v e l e d é fa u t d é t e c t é .
La l o c a l i s a t i o n (DND/LRG) e s t a ssu ré e par des p r é lè v e ­
ments in d i v id u e ls de sodium à l a s o r t i e des assem blages
co m b u s tib le s au moyen d 'u n mécanisme ( f i g . 2 ) q u i com bine en
2 é ta g e s s u c c e s s i f s de s é l e c t i o n :
a) l e p rélèvem en t de sodium par groupe de 3 assem­
b la g e s ;
b) la s é l e c t i o n d 'u n p rélèvem en t dans un grou pe de 3 .
En o u t r e , ce d i s p o s i t i f a ssu re l e prélèvem en t g lo b a l
su r l'e n s e m b le des a ssem blages c o m b u s tib le s .
2 46 CHAPELOT et a l.

L 'en sem ble des mécanismes de p rélèvem en t de sodium ,

l e s c i r c u i t s h y d ra u liq u e s c o r r e s p o n d a n ts , l a pompe é l e c t r o ­
m agnétique à cou ran t c o n t in u , e t le b l o c de d é t e c t i o n de
n eu tron s d i f f é r é s (DND) son t ra ssem b lés dans un bouchon de
l o c a l i s a t i o n de ru p tu re de gaine in t é g r é au bouchon to u rn a n t
du r é a c t e u r /
Ce systèm e n 'a s s u r e aucune a c t i o n de s é c u r it é , sur
l e r é a c t e u r . La commande des mécanismes du d i s p o s i t i f de
l o c a l i s a t i o n e t l e tra item en t des mesures son t e f f e c t u é s par
l e c a l c u la t e u r "c h a u d iè re n u c lé a ir e " du tr a ite m e n t c e n t r a l i s é
des in fo r m a t io n s . Le b l o c DND/LRG e s t p lu s sim ple que l e b lo c
DND/G ; i l com porte une chambre de c i r c u l a t i o n de sodium , une
p r o t e c t i o n de plom b, une couronne de p o ly é t h y lè n e dans la q u e l­
l e son t lo g é s 6 com pteurs He-3.

3 .5 .3 » M çsures sur l e s p rélèvem en ts d 'a r g o n (t a b le a u I I )

Les p rélèvem en ts d 'a r g o n a n a ly s é -, p ro v ie n n e n t de
deux p o in t s d i f f é r e n t s :
a) de l 'a r g o n de cou v e rtu re de l a cuve p r im a ir e .
C e tte co u v e rtu r e r e c u e i l l e to u s l e s gaz q u i,
a près s 'ê t r e échappés des, a i g u i l l e s l o r s des
r u p tu r e s , se dégagen t du sodium p r im a ir e . On y
d é t e c t e l e s p r o d u its de f i s s i o n e t l e s tr a c e u r s
gazeux s t a b le s in c o r p o r é s aux a i g u i l l e s l o r s
de le u r f a b r i c a t i o n ;
b) du d é g a z e u r, p la c é sur l e c i r c u i t de r e t o u r du
sodium du bouchon de . l o c a l i s a t i o n de ru p tu re s de
g a in e s (LRG). Ce d i s p o s i t i f perm et d 'e x t r a i r e ,
avec de l ' argon n e u f, l e s p r o d u it s de f i s s i o n
e n tr a în é s p a r l e sodium q u i e s t p r é le v é d i r e c ­
tement a u -d essu s des a sse m b la g e s. I l perm et,
par l e s m esures sur l 'a r g o n , une i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
p r é c is e des ru p tu res de g a in e s l o c a l i s é e s ou
le u r l o c a l i s a t i o n s i e l l e n 'a pas d é jà é té e f ­
f e c t u é e par la mesure DND sur l e sodium .
Les p r o d u it s de f i s s i o n Xe e t Kr peuven t ê t r e d é t e c t é s
à l 'a i d e des a p p a r e ils s u iv a n ts q u i se co m p lè te n t.
Une chambre d 'i o n i s a t i o n à c i r c u l a t i o n , a s s o c ié e à
un a m p lific a t e u r à rép on se l i n é a i r e ou lo g a r ith m iq u e , f o u r n it
en c o n tin u une v a le u r g lo b a le de l ' a c t i v i t é (notamment is o t o p e
à v i e longu e X e-133 e t X e -1 3 5 ). ■
Un gammaChromatographe e s t un a p p a r e i l m e s u r e a u to ­
m atique c o n s t it u é par l e co u p la g e d 'u n e co lo n n e ch rom atographi
que ga zeu se avec un ensem ble de s p è c t r o m é tr ie V com portant 6
canaux r é g la b l e s en é n e r g ie .' I l permet dé mesurer c y c l i q u e ­
ment ( c y c l e = 8 min) l ' a c t i v i t é d ’ i s o t o p e s ém etteu rs de
rayonnement Y e n tr a în é s dans 1 ' argon de p ré lè v e m e n t. -A in si,
pour d é t e c t e r e t i d e n t i f i e r une ru p tu re de g a in e , on peut
c h o i s i r de se c a l e r su r l e s co r p s s u iv a n ts :
A - 41 (T = 110 min) Ne - 23 . (T = 38 s )
. Xe -1,33 (T = 5 ,3 5 j ) X e-13 5 ( t = 9 h)
Kr - 89 (T = 3 ,2 min) Kr - 87 (T = 78 min)
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / В - 1 247

T A B L E A U II. T A B L E A U R E C A P IT U L A T IF DES A P P A R E IL S D E M E SU R E
D E D R G /A R G O N

. A p p a re il C ir c u i t de
F o n c tio n Isotop es
de prélèvem en t
r e c h e rc h é s
mesure (tem ps t r a n s i t )

D é te c tio n Chambre d ' i o ­ DRG/ARGON cuve

g lo b a le n is a tio n V à (kO s + k min
c ir c u la tio n de lig n e à
Tous p r o d u its
reta rd )
de f i s s i o n
gazeux notam­
ment :

Xe-133
L o c a lis a tio n idem LRG/ARGON
(kO s + k min Xe-135
de l ig n e r e t a r d )

D é te c tio n Gamma c hr oma- DRG/ARGON cuve Ne-23 ’

I d e n tific a tio n tograph e (40 s ) + A -kl '
L o c a lis a tio n Kr -87
K r -88
Commutable sur Xe-135 m
LRG/ARGON Xe-135 '
X e-133

D é te c tio n e t Chambre à DRG/ARGON cüve Rn-222 e t

l o c a l i s a t i o n de s c in tilla tio n ^ ( 40 s ) s e s d escen d a n ts
ru p tu re de ga in e
d 'a s se m b la g e s
expérim entaux Commutable sur
LRG/ARGON .

D é t e c t io n e t E n r ic h is s e u r DRG/ARGON cuve Xe e t Kr
lo c a lis a t io n + s p e ctro m è tre s t a b le s
de masse
Commutable sur
LRG/ARGON

L 1a p p a r e il ,perm et de r é a l i s e r l e s f o n c t i o n s p r i n c i ­
p a le s s u iv a n te s :
a) p rélèvem en t autom atique de l 'é c h a n t i l l o n à
an a lyser. ;
b) mesure de l ' a c t i v i t é des gaz a près passage sur
l a coloiin e chrom atographique ;
c) cla ssem en t des im p u lsio n s d é t e c t é e s dans un
s é le c t e u r d 'é n e r g i e ;
d) m ise en form e, comptage et s to ck a g e dans une
mémoire numérique ;
248 C HAPELOT e t a l.

e) tr a ite m e n t c y c liq u e de ce s im p u lsio n s avec

s o r t i e sur imprimante e t v e r s l e c a l c u la t e u r
"c h a u d iè re n u clé a ire ".
Le temps du c y c l e de mesure e s t r é g l a b l e de m anière
co n tin u e (0 à 15 m in ). De p lu s , i l e s t p o s s i b l e :
a) de "c o n to u r n e r " une p a r t ie de l a co lo n n e chroma-
tog ra p h iq u e ce qui permet de r é c u p é r e r p lu s
rapidem ent l e s Xénon e t d im in u er a in s i la durée
t o t a l e du c y c l e ;
b) de "c o n to u r n e r " com plètem ent l a co lo n n e ce qui
permet de f a i r e une s p e c t r o m é t r ie У en d i r e c t .
Pour l a d é t e c t i o n du radon tr a c e u r , c e r t a in s a s ­
sem blages expérim entaux s e ro n t marqués en in t r o d u is a n t une
c a p su le de radium dans chaque a i g u i l l e . Le radon ém etteu r o(
d escen d a n t du radium , s e ra d é t e c t é , l o r s de ru p tu re s de
g a in e s , par une chambre à s c i n t i l l a t i o n c l a s s iq u e .

3 .5 * 4 . D é t e c t io n de gaz tr a c e u r s s t a b le s à l 'a i d e d 'u n

sp e c tro m è tre de masse c o u p lé à une l ig n e d 'e n r ic h is s e m e n t
A p a r t i r des étu d es qui ont commencé en 1969 à
Cadarache e t se s o n t notamment t r a d u it e s par des e s s a i s sur
R ap sodie dont l e s r é s u l t a t s ont é té t r è s s a t i s f a i s a n t s , i l
e s t en v isa g é de marquer tou s le s assem blages de Phénix à
com pter du secon d chargem ent. La méthode p révu e c o n s i s t e à
i n t r o d u ir e à l 'a i d e d 'u n e ca p su le de t r è s f a i b l e s q u a n tit é s
(q u e lq u e s cm3) de m élanges d 'i s o t o p e s s t a b le s de Xe ou Kr
dans chaque a i g u i l l e co m b u s tib le l o r s de la f a b r i c a t i o n .
I l a donc f a l l u é t u d ie r un systèm e ca p a b le de m esurer a u to­
matiquement des r a p p o r ts is o t o p iq u e s de Xe ou Kr a vec une
bonne p r é c i s i o n pour d es c o n c e n t r a t io n s i n i t i a l e s de l 'o r d r e
de 10“ ° en volum e.
La s o lu t i o n rete n u e re p o s e sur l ' u t i l i s a t i o n d 'u n
s p e c tro m è tre de masse de p o u v o ir de r é s o l u t i o n moyen co u p lé
à une lig n e d 'e n r ic h is s e m e n t en tièrem e n t a u to m a tis é e .
L 'en sem b le e s t commandé e t g é r é par un p e t i t c a lc u la t e u r
q u i é d it e cy cliq u e m e n t sur une imprimante l e s v a le u r s des
ra p p o r ts is o t o p iq u e s p r in c ip a u x :
Xe - 1 2k Xe -128 Kr-80 *
Xe-129 ’ X e-129 ’ Kr-82
q u i p erm etten t d 'i d e n t i f i e r l'a s s e m b la g e ayant r e lâ c h é ses
tr a c e u r s à l a s u it e d 'u n e ru p tu re de g a in e .

3 .6 ._____ P e r s p e c t iv e d ’ a v e n ir du c o n t r ô le des co e u r s
Pour l a 2ème c e n t r a le à n eu tron s r a p id e s ( Su per-
P h én ix) l e c o n t r ô le du co e u r s 'e f f e c t u e r a avec une o r g a n i­
s a t io n d i f f é r e n t e de P h én ix.
Les c a l c u l s r e l a t i f s aux DRG q u i é t a ie n t a ss u ré s
par l e tr a ite m e n t c e n t r a l i s é des in fo r m a tio n s s e ro n t e f ­
f e c t u é s su r des c a lc u la t e u r s s p é c i a l i s é s e t d o u b lé s . Ces
c a lc u la t e u r s f o n c t io n n e r o n t en s e co u rs l ’ un de l 'a u t r e .
Ce doublem ent e s t n é c e s s i t é par Ja d i s p o n i b i l i t é des
in fo r m a tio n s pour la co n d u ite du r é a c t e u r . En p lu s des DRG,
i l e s t p révu de c o n f i e r à ce s mêmes c a lc u la t e u r s l e c o n t r ô le
de l a d é t e c t i o n d 'h y d ro g è n e e t des c o r r é l a t i o n s e n tre d i f ­
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 249

f é r e n t s p aram ètres (com parateur de r é a c t i v i t é , com paraison

d é b i t /p u i s s a n c e , tem pérature . . . ) . Ces tr a ite m e n ts de c o r ­
r é l a t i o n p erm ettron t de d é t e c t e r un d é fa u t n a is s a n t , d 'e n
d é te rm in e r l a ou l e s o r i g i n e s , l a g r a v it é e t l e d é v e lo p ­
pem ent. I l n 'e s t pas e n v is a g é , pour l 'i n s t a n t , d 'e f f e c t u e r
des a c t io n s autom atiqu es de s é c u r i t é à p a r t i r d 'in fo r m a t io n s
t r a i t é e s par ce s sy s tè m e s . L 'i n i t i a t i v e se ra l a i s s é e à
1 ' o p é r a te u r .
Le c o n t r ô le de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage des a sse m b la g e s,
t e l s que d é f i n i s précédem m ent, e s t co n s e rv é a vec c e r t a in s
aménagements.
Devant l'a u g m e n ta tio n des in fo r m a tio n s (p lu s de 800
th e rm ocou p les) e t la d i f f i c u l t é de f r a n c h ir l 'e n c e i n t e
étan ch e (q u i n 'e x i s t e pas à P h é n ix ), l a d é c e n t r a l i s a t i o n de
l 'a c q u i s i t i o n des in fo r m a tio n s e t le u r cod age e s t en c o u r s
d 'exam en . Ce p rem ier n iv e a u , en p lu s de l ' a c q u i s i t i o n , e f f e c ­
tu e ra un tr a ite m e n t l o c a l de com paraison par ra p p o r t à vin
s e u i l a b s o lu dont l e r é s u l t a t p o s i t i f ordon n era une a c t io n
de s é c u r i t é . Un deuxième n iv e a u , c e n t r a l i s é , e f f e c t u e r a l e s
tr a ite m e n ts de b ou ch a g e. Ce systèm e à 2 n iv eau x p erm ettra
égalem ent d 'a c c r o î t r e , s in o n de c o n s e r v e r , l e s ca d en ces
de tr a ite m e n t de P h én ix.

4. ORGANISATION DES ESSAIS DE QUALIFICATION ET DE

RECETTE DES ENSEMBLES DE CONTROLE-COMMANDE

4 . 1 .____ E s s a is de q u a l i f i c a t i o n sur des m a t é r ie ls de

con trôle-com m an de e t c r i t è r e de t r i
Des e s s a is de q u a l i f i c a t i o n su r des m a t é r ie ls de
con trôle-com m an de on t é té e f f e c t u é s auprès d 'o r g a n is m e s
a g ré é s (EdF e t L C IE ). Ces e s s a is co n ce rn e n t e s s e n t ie lle m e n t
l e s r e l a i s m in ia tu re s u t i l i s é s dans l'a u to m a tis m e a i n s i
que l e s d i f f é r e n t s sou s-en sem b les c o n s titu a n t l e s ch a în e s
de mesures c o n v e n t io n n e lle s (tra n s m e tte u r s , a m p lif ic a t e u r s ,
d é c le n c h e u r s é l e c t r o n i q u e s , d é t e c t e u r s th e r m o é le c tr iq u e s
du c o e u r , e t c . . . ) . De c e s e s s a is on t é t é d éterm in és l e s
c r i t è r e s de t r i des m a t é r ie ls co r re s p o n d a n ts en f o n c t i o n
d es taux de p rélèv em en ts ¡ en p a r t i c u l i e r , l e s e s s a i s s u i­
v a n ts s o n t e f f e c t u é s sur la t o t a l i t é des r e l a i s : v é r i f i c a ­
t i o n du fo n ction n em en t des c o n t a c t s , mesure de l a te n s io n
m inim ale d 'e x c i t a t i o n , v é r i f i c a t i o n de la te n s io n m in i­
male de d é s e x c i t a t i o n s u p é r ie u re à une v a le u r d é te rm in é e .

tj.Z *_____ E s s a is en u sin e ou l a b o r a t o ir e su r des ensem bles

de contrôle-com m an de

4 .2 .1 . Mesures n e u tro n iq u e s
Une ch a în e de ty p e nouveau a é té d é v e lo p p é e p a r le
CEA e t e s t u t i l i s é e pour Phénix : une même chambre d 'i o n i ­
s a t io n e s t r a c c o r d é e sur l e même ca n a l de mesure à des
a m p lific a t e u r s de mesure l i n é a i r e e t lo g a r it h m iq u e . Par
a i l l e u r s , l a mesure de r é a c t i v i t é e s t é la b o r é e à p a r t i r
de la v o i e de mesure l i n é a i r e .
Des e s s a i s on t é t é e f f e c t u é s pendant p lu s ie u r s mois
à R a p s o d ie .
250 CHAPELOT et a l.

Par a i l l e u r s , une ch a în e de chaque type (ch a în e de

prédém arrage, ch aîn e de dém arrage, ch a în e de p u issa n ce
l i n é a i r e /l o g a r i t h m i q u e /r é a c t i m è t r e ) a é t é e ssa y é e su r l e
r é a c t e u r U lysse de S a c la y .a v e c les d é t e c t e u r s d e s t in é s à
Phénix e t l e s lon g u eu rs de c â b le s corre sp o n d a n t à c e l l e s de
l 'i n s t a l l a t i o n . Le fon ction n em en t d 'en se m b le a é té s a t i s ­
f a i s a n t . Les ch a în e s de prédém arrage u t i l i s a n t des chambres
à f i s s i o n haute tem pératu re (im p la n té e s dans l a cuve de
P h én ix) se s o n t m ontrées s e n s ib le s aux p a r a s it e s b a sse
fr é q u e n c e . A l a s u it e de c e s e s s a i s , de nouveaux c â b le s
on t é té s p é c i f i é s avec b lin d a g e mumétal pour i n s t a l l a t i o n
su r l e r é a c t e u r .

4 .2 .2 . Automatisme
Les autom atism es sont r é a l i s é s au moyen de r e l a i s
é le ctr o m é ca n iq u e s m in ia tu re s montés sur c i r c u i t s im prim és.
Les d i f f é r e n t s c i r c u i t s c o n s t it u e n t des modules a ssu ra n t
des f o n c t i o n s d 'a u to m a tis m e . Ces m odules sont assem blés dans
d es b a cs pou r form er l'a u to m a tism e d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ir e .
Les e s s a is en u s in e de chaque f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ire ont é té
e ffe c tu é s :
a) pour s 'a s s u r e r de la c o n fo r m ité du fon ction n em en t
de l'autom atism e conform ément au schéma lo g iq u e
de l 'é t u d e ;
b) pour c o n t r ô le r l e r e s p e c t d es p r in c ip e s d 'a u t o ­
matisme su r la r é a l i s a t i o n du schéma (a b sen ce
d 'o r d r e in t e m p e s t if l o r s d es coupures d 'a lim e n ­
t a t io n é l e c t r iq u e ou de l a rem ise sous t e n s io n ) .
Pour r é a l i s e r ce s e s s a i s , des s im u la te u rs d 'e s s a i s
ont é t é c o n s t r u i t s . I l s com pren aient l e s d i s p o s i t i f s r e p r é ­
s e n t a t i f s des commandes d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n ( c l a v i e r s à t o u c h e s ) ,
des a c tio n n e u r s (m icrom oteu rs pour s im u le r l e s vannes moto­
r i s é e s ) , des in c id e n t s à sim u ler ( i n d i s p o n i b i l i t é ou d é c le n ­
chement in t e m p e s t if d 'u n a c t i o n n e u r ) . C e tte o r g a n is a t io n
des e s s a is en u sin e ( é t é 197t ju s q u 'à Novembre 1972) a
perm is de c o r r i g e r d i f f é r e n t s d é fa u ts d 'é t u d e , de r é a l i s a t i o n
e t de p ren d re en compte d es m o d if ic a t io n s "de d e r n iè r e h eu re"
e t de l e s c o n t r ô l e r "su r l e champ". T o u t e f o i s , l e s s e u ls
c o n t r ô le s q u i ne peuven t ê t r e r é a l i s é s co r re s p o n d e n t aux
p roblèm es l i é s aux f a c t e u r s tem p orels l i é s aux c i r c u i t s de
l a c e n t r a l e . Les r é g la g e s corre s p o n d a n ts sur l e s tem p o ri­
s a t io n s s e r o n t donc a ju s t é s pendant l e s e s s a is sur s i t e .

4 .2 .3 . T ra item en t des in fo r m a tio n s

Des e s s a is sur l e s c a lc u la t e u r s du TCI ont é té
e f f e c t u é s en u s in e (program m ation de b a s e , s im u la tio n des
in fo r m a tio n s e n t r é e s , cou p la g e du c o n t r ô le c a lc u la t e u r avec
l'a u to m a tis m e d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n t a ir e ). Le but é t a i t de
c o n t r ô l e r tou s l e s programmes ayant un a s p e c t q u a l i t a t i f
avant l e d é p a rt pour P h én ix. Au moment de l a f i n des e s s a is
en u s in e , tou s l e s programmes " o f f l i n e " e t l e s programmes
"on l i n e " des tr a ite m e n ts des e n tr é e s d i g i t a l e s a v a ie n t
é té c o n t r ô l é s . Une p a r t i e d es tr a ite m e n ts des mesures
n 'é t a i t pas e f f e c t u é e e t l e s e s s a is co rre s p o n d a n ts on t dû
ê t r e r e p o r t é s sur s i t e .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 251

Tous le s e s s a is sur l e s c a lc u la t e u r s de s é c u r i t é
de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage des a ssem blages ont é té e f f e c t u é s
en u s in e . Un fon ction n em en t c o n tin u de 1 m ois a é té r é a l i s é .
Pendant c e t t e p é r io d e , des d é f a i l l a n c e s im p orta n tes sur des
r e l a i s Reed de com m utation des v o i e s de m esures on t é té ,
d é t e c t é e s . Après enquête e t d is c u s s io n avec l e fo u r n is s e u r
des r e l a i s , l a t o t a l i t é de c e u x - c i a é té changée sur l e
s ite .

4 .2 .4 . E ntraînem ent d es pompes sodium à v i t e s s e v a r ia b le

L 'e n tra în e m e n t des pompes sodium p rim a ire s (12 0 0 kW)
e t s e c o n d a ir e s (700 kW) à v ite s s fe v a r i a b le e s t c o n s t it u é
de moteur asynchrone à r o t o r b o b in é a s s o c ié à un d i s p o s i t i f
de ca sca d e asynch ron e dans l a b o u c le é l e c t r i q u e du r o t o r .
Les équipem ents co rre s p o n d a n ts son t c o n s t it u é s en te c h n o ­
l o g i e à s e m i-co n d u cte u r s u t i l i s a n t d es t h y r i s t o r s de
p u issa n ce,.
Comme c e s ensem bles p r é s e n t a ie n t un c a r a c t è r e p r o ­
t o t y p e , le u r e s s a i avant m ise en p la c e à Phénix p a r a i s s a i t '
in d is p e n s a b le . Les grou p es moto-pompes e t leu rs v a r ia t e u r s
de v i t e s s e on t é té e s sa y é s su r des b o u c le s à eau im p la n tées
au CEA/CEN-Saclay. En o u t r e , des e s s a is com plém entaires
on t é té r é a l i s é s sur un m oteur e t son v a r ia t e u r dans une
s t a t i o n d 'e s s a i s E d F /S t-D en is en vue de c o n t r ô le r l e s
p erform a n ces dynamiques du systèm e :
a) fon ction n em en t e t r é a c c é l é r a t i o n autom atique
sur des manques de t e n s io n f u g i t i f s
b) fon ctio n n em en t sans p e r t u r b a t io n su r des b a is s e s
dfe te n s io n de 30 fi, ou des d é s é q u il ib r e s é l e c ­
t r iq u e s (p h a se , te n s io n ) corresp o n d a n t à des
c o u r t s - c i r c u i t s monophasés au n iv eau du résea u
225 kV.

4 .2 .5 . Les ensem bles de d é t e c t i o n de ru p tu re s de gain e

(DRG)
Ces ensem bles ont f a i t l ' o b j e t des e s s a is l e s p lu s
é la b o r é s sur le s équipem ents avant le u r m ise en p la c e sur
P h én ix. Ces e s s a is ré p o n d a ie n t au s o u c i de d is p o s e r sur la
c e n t r a le de m a té r ie ls sû rs e t é p ro u v é s , ayant su b i des
e s s a is d 'e n d u ra n ce e t d 'é t a lo n n a g e dans des c o n d it io n s
a n a log u es d 'u t i l i s a t i o n sur P h én ix.
Pour c e l a , l é r é a c t e u r R ap sod ie e t une b o u c le
d 'e s s a i sodium de Cadarache on t c o n s t it u é pour une la r g e
p a r t l e banc d 'e s s a i d es ensem bles DRG de P h én ix. Ces e s s a is
peuvent se- c l a s s e r en d i f f é r e n t e s c a t é g o r i e s .
Les e s s a i s DRG e f f e c t u é s sur l e r é a c t e u r R ap sodie
c o n s t it u e n t l 'a p p r o c h e e t l 'e x p l o i t a t i o n p h y siq u e l e s p lu s
s i g n i f i c a t i v e s des équipem ents e t p ro cé d u re s de d é t e c t i o n
des r u p tu re s de ga in e d 'u n r é a c t e u r r a p id e . Ces e s s a is ont
perm is de d é f i n i r e t de s p é c i f i e r des méthodes e t a p p a r e il ­
la g e s nouveaux ( d é t e c t i o n de tr a c e u r s s t a b le s par s p e c t r o -
m é tr ie de m asse, gam m achrom atographie, mesure d. radon e t ^
g l o b a l e , a n a ly se de p r o d u it s de f i s s i o n gazeux e x t r a i t s
a p rès dégazage de sodium p r é le v é sur un ou p lu s ie u r s
a s s e m b la g e s ).
252 CHAPELOT et a l.

C e rta in s a p p a r e ils s p é c i f i é s p our Phénix (gamma-

ch rom atogra p h e, m esures oi, radon e t ~6 g l o b a l e ) ont s u b i,
a p rès c o n s t r u c t io n , des e s s a is d 'é t a lo n n a g e sur l e r é a c t e u r
R a p s o d ie .
Les b l o c s d é t e c t e u r s de n eu tron s d i f f é r é s ( d é t e c ­
t i o n g é n é r a le e t l o c a l i s a t i o n ) ont é t é é ta lo n n é s avec des
s o u r c e s de n eu tron s d ’ Am/Li e t des s o u r c e s 'í de F/N a.
Par a i l l e u r s , e t compte ten u du manque de f i a b i l i t é
i n i t i a l e des d é t e c t e u r s BF3, une campagne d 'e s s a i s de q u a li ­
f i c a t i o n e t d 'en d u ra n ce a é té la n cé e su r d e s com pteurs He-3.
P a r a llè le m e n t, un programme de développem ent de com pteurs
BF3 a é té la n c é e t l e s e s s a is a c t u e ls donnent de bons
r é s u lta ts .
Des e s s a i s , à c a r a c t è r e h y d r a u liq u e , ont é t é e f ­
f e c t u é s sur une m aquette r é d u it e de cuve pour s 'a s s u r e r
des c a r a c t é r i s t i q u e s s a t i s f a i s a n t e s de p r é l o c a l i s a t i o n d es
6 p rélèvem en ts de sodium de l a d é t e c t i o n g lo b a le (DND/G).
Des e s s a is ont p e rm is, par a i l l e u r s , l e c o n t r ô le des é q u i­
l ib r a g e s de d é b it dans l e s 6 p rélèvem en ts e t l e c o n t r ô le
des v i b r a t io n s des t u y a u te r ie s c o r r e s p o n d a n te s .
Le mécanisme de p rélèvem en t sodium (bou ch on LRG)
a f a i t l ' o b j e t de nombreux e s s a is a n a ly tiq u e s e t com p lets
q u 'o n p eu t résum er de l a m anière su iv a n te :
a) re c h e rc h e des s e u i l s de ca v ita tio n de l a pompe
é le ctr o m a g n é tiq u e ;
b) étu de h y d ra u liq u e des c o n d it io n s de p rélèvem en t
e t de l a b o î t e à mélange ;
c) e s s a is m écaniques des s é le c t e u r s de prélèvem en t
e t de le u r en traînem ent ;
d) e s s a is com p lets du mécanisme en sodium e n tr e
des p a l i e r s de tem pératures com pris e n tre -250° C
e t 580° C.
E n fin , l'e n s e m b le de d é t e c t i o n des gaz tr a c e u r s
s t a b le s c o n s t i t u é d 'u n e lig n e d 'e n r ic h is s e m e n t , d 'u n s p e c t r o -
m ètre de masse e t d 'u n c a l c u la t e u r a s s o c i é s e r a essa y é e t
éta lo n n é dans l e s l a b o r a t o ir e s du CEA (co u ra n t 1973) avant
m ise en p la c e à Phénix e t raccord em en t su r l e c i r c u i t
de p rélèvem en t a rg on .

4 .3 . E s s a is su r s i t e des ensem bles de con trôle-com m an de

4 .3 .1 . E s s a is a n a ly tiq u e s
I l s c o n s i s t e n t à v é r i f i e r tou s l e s ensem bles de
con trôle-com m an de e n tra n t dans l a co m p o s itio n des moyens
d 'e x p l o i t a t i o n d 'u n e f o n c t i o n é lé m e n ta ir e . D iff é r e n t e s
éta p e s c o n s t it u e n t c e t t e v é r i f i c a t i o n :
a) c o n t r ô le de r o t a t i o n d es a c tio n n e u r s à p a r t i r
de commandes l o c a l e s ( b o u c le s d 'e s s a i s ) ;
b) é ta lo n n a g e des ch a în es de m esures y com pris
le u r s r é c e p t e u r s en s a l l e de c o n t r ô le ;
c) c o n t r ô le de l'a u tom a tism e a vec to u te s s e s
l i a i s o n s ( s a l l e de c o n t r ô l e , équipem ents
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 1 253

c o n ta c t e u r s en p o s i t i o n " d é b r o c h é e - e s s a i" ,
a u tre s l i a i s o n s v e r s TCI e t ch a în e s de r é g u la ­
tio n ) ;
d) s im u la tio n des in fo r m a tio n s d 'e n t r é e s au TCI e t
c o n t r ô le d es m essages d 'i n f o r m a t io n , d es ta b le a u x
d 'é t a t e t d es lo g iq u e s de tr a ite m e n t des i n f o r ­
m ations ;
e) e s s a is d es ch a în e s de r é g u la t io n en b o u c le
o u v e rte a vec c o n t r ô le de manoeuvre des vannes
de r é g la g e .
L 'en sem b le de c e s e s s a is a n a ly tiq u e s c o n s t it u e l e s
c o n d it io n s p r é lim in a ir e s du démarrage des e s s a is de f o n c t i o n ­
nement d 'u n c i r c u i t a vec f l u i d e .

4 .3 .2 . E s s a is d 'e n d u ra n ce
I l s c o n c e r n e n t, e s s e n t ie lle m e n t , l e s c a lc u la t e u r s
de s é c u r i t é . Ces e s s a is d 'e n d u ra n ce s 'é t a l e n t sur une
p é r io d e de 7 m ois avan t l a montée en p u is s a n ce de l a c e n t r a l e .
I l s on t pour b u t de c o n n a îtr e l a f i a b i l i t é e x a c te du systèm e
de s é c u r i t é de d é t e c t i o n de bouchage des a ssem blages e t de
m ettre au p o in t l e s o p é r a tio n s de p ro cé d u re de m ain ten ance.

Des autom atism es son t en s e r v i c e d e p u is 9 m ois

( d i s t r i b u t i o n é l e c t r i q u e ) e t 6 m ois (ch a u d iè r e n u c l é a i r e ) .
Des s t a t i s t i q u e s de pannes peuven t commencer à ê t r e é t a b l i e s
a vec une r e p r é s e n t a t io n s i g n i f i c a t i v e .

4 .4 ._____ C o n clu s io n

Le c h a p it r e 4 n 'a donné q u 'u n a p erçu s u c c i n c t des

e s s a is e f f e c t u é s su r des m a t é r ie ls é lé m e n ta ire s ou d es
ensem bles de con trôle-com m a n d e. On a ch erch é à d é v e lo p p e r
l e s e s s a is en u sin e ou dans l e s l a b o r a t o i r e s du CEA,
p ré cis é m e n t p our ra s se m b le r a u tou r de c e s e s s a is l e s moyens
e t l e s com péten ces q u ' i l s e x i g e n t . C e rta in s e s s a is on t f a i t
a p p a r a îtr e d es a n om alies ou des pannes suffisam m ent t ô t
pour que d es remèdes p u is s e n t ê t r e a p p o rté s dans l e s temps
im p a rtis par l e p la n n in g . I l fa u t c o n v e n ir , b ie n que l e
r e c u l du temps ne s o i t pas s u f f i s a n t pour en ju g e r , que
l e s p r i n c ip e s de c o n c e p t io n n 'o n t pas eu à ê t r e m o d ifié s
e t que c ' e s t e s s e n t ie lle m e n t dans l a q u a l i t é des f a b r i c a ­
t i o n s p a r t i c u l i è r e s que son t apparues l e s d é f a i l l a n c e s
te c h n o lo g iq u e s te s p lu s s i g n i f i c a t i v e s .

DISCU SSION

R . S A R T O R I : D o you u s e the two therm ocouples of each fuel a ss e m b ly

both for the safety com pu ter and for n o rm a l plant control?
A . B . C H A P E L O T : T h e two therm ocouples belonging to each a ss e m b ly
are connected to the two safety com p u ters, w hich initiate only the safety
m e a s u r e s described in the p a p e r. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s of the outlet t e m p e r a ­
tures of the su b a s se m b lie s do not therefore contribute towards the fine
control of the p o w e r station. A s P h é n ix is designed to function as a b a s e ­
load plant, the fine control is m a n u a l.
2 54 CHAPELOT e t a l.

A . E . S O U C H : D o you intend to use the gas-stripping facility m entioned

in section 3 . 5 . 3 (b) of your p aper to im p ro ve the sensitivity of the burst
can detection equipm ent, and have you p e r fo rm e d any experim ents relating
to the im p r o v em en t of sensitivity?
A . B . C H A P E L O T : T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s provided by the gas-stripping
facility will supplem ent the detection and localization of can bursts by the
m e a s u r e m e n t of delayed neutrons in s o d iu m . T h e fission products derived
fr o m stripping are less diluted by the extracted gas than are those obtained
by sam pling of the argon cover g a s . T h e n e w method-is expected to have
a better sensitivity. It w a s dem onstrated to be practicable by a test carried
out on R a p s o d ie ( T E S T A R = A r g o n T e s t ). T h e test consisted essentially
of introducing into the core two special a sse m b lie s equipped with a. so-called
T E S T A R plug, w hich acted as a stripper for the s o d iu m . O n e of the a s ­
sem blies contained a b a re uranium tube as a source of fission products
while the other w a s used as a reference.
D . E . A N D E R S O N : W h a t would happen if both therm ocouples on any
of the fuel a sse m b lie s should fail sim ultaneously while the reactor w a s
operating at full p o w er? Secondly, what would happen if both com puters
should fail? ■'
A . B . C H A P E L O T : T h e safety circuits would not be triggered if w e had
sim ultaneous failure of both the therm ocouples on a single a s s e m b ly . No
change in the reactor p o w e r is perm itted. Sim ilarly, the failure of both
com puters would not trigger the safety circuits. T h e operator has in­
structions to shut do w n the reactor m anually in such a c a s e;
D . E . A N D E R S O N : T h a n k y ou. M a y I also ask you to say something
about the overall system reliability that m u st be dem onstrated by testing
to satisfy y o u r safety authorities?
A . B . C H A P E L O T : T o get a true idea of the reliability of the equipm ent
(therm ocouples and com puters) w e are putting the whole sy stem into service
for a period of six m onths before the reactor b e c o m e s critical (first half
of 1 9 7 3 ). During that tim e the reactor will be filled with so dium at different
tem peratures, so the therm ocouples will supply significant m e a s u r e m e n t s .
T o sim ulate fouling of the assem blies s o m e therm ocouples will be connected
to a simplified sim ulator generating variable voltage r a m p s . D u rin g the
test period.all operating conditions and failure situations (one, then two,
therm ocouples; one, then two com pu ters, etc.) will be put into effect in
o rder to check the p rop er functioning of the system .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /В -2

A N U C LE A R POW ER STATION
CO N TRO L D E V E LO P M E N T

M .H . BUTTERFIELD
A tom ic Energy Establishment, Winfrith, Dorchester, Dorset,
United Kingdom

Abstract

A N U C L EA R P O W E R S T A T I O N C O N T R O L D EV EL O P M EN T.
The paper discusses a wide range of topics essential to the choice, design and development of the load
following controls on S G H W R and their implementation on the prototype reactor at Winfrith in Dorset,
England. The grid supply network requirements are discussed first together with their influence on control
system design. In combination with other plant conditions the basis for the choice of a load-following system
is then described. The system design procedures involving simulation, its construction, installation and
testing are described and some performance results quoted. To make efficient use of the control system
design procedures it is necessary that the plant model be as accurate as possible for this purpose. Methods
of achieving this, developed at Winfrith, are described in the paper.

1. INTRODUCTION

The prototype Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor (SGHWR) at Winfrith

in Dorset, England, is a thermal reactor with direct cycle steam raising
plant in the form o f a Lamont b o ile r . The system is shown diagrammati-
ca lly in Fig. 1 and is fu lly described in References _7 and ¿2 .J . It
was o rigin a lly designed and b u ilt to act as a base load station supplying,
the British grid system with 100 MW o f e le c tr ic ity .

In order that SGHWR's can have a good commercial prospect i t is

essential that they take a fu ll part in assistin g the supply system to
follow the changes in load placed on i t . This type o f reactor has very
good dynamic properties which do provide i t with the sort o f operational
f le x i b il it y needed to s a tis fy a ll aspects o f load follow ing.

This paper is concerned with load following controls on the SGHWR

appropriate fo r commercial use. The control design is based, in the fir s t
instance, on the requirements o f the DK grid, but it s load following capa­
b il it i e s make the system applicable anywhere in the world.

2. LOAD-FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE UK GRID

The load variations are o f course subject to random variation but can
be described for our purpose as having four principal components:-

( i ) A typical 24 hour load demand history on the system is shown in' Fig. 2.
In Winter this ranges over 20,000 to 40,000 megawatts and in summer from
10,000 to 20,000 megawatts in round figures. As much as possible o f this
load variation is predicted from known daily patterns, weather forècasts
e tc . and then power changes scheduled for individual stations according to
location and merit order. The corresponding sp ecifica tion fo r generating
plant is fo r Wide-ranging movement up to - 1096 per minute. Finé control
o f station output is by frequency regulation based on governor action at
each station .

255
256 BUTTERFIELD

F I G .l . Diagram showing basic functions of the steam-generating heavy-water reactor.

TIM E OF OAY ( h )

F I G .2. Typical daily load cycle.

(ii)Frequency varia tio n s fo llo w a pattern whçse major component corres­

ponds to ty p ic a l hourly flu c tu a tio n s o f - 5$ as shown in F ig . 3-

(iii)Momentary frequency changes and corresponding loads o f order - 19°

occur continually every minute or two; this a rises, for example,
from random switching o f large loads.

(iv ) Sudden f a lls in frequency and corresponding rapid increases in

demanded station output arise due to failu res elsewhere in the system,
eg, tripping out o f a station or large turbo-alternator s e t. To
cope with th is, selected stations operate on "spinning reserve" or
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 2 257

(H z)
P R EQUENCY
G R ,°

TIME OF DAY (h Ï

F IG .3 . Typical grid frequency variations.

FREQUENCY
I
|
|
|
_
|
WITH
STATIONS
INDIVIDUAL

F IG .4 . Overall grid frequency control.

258 BUTTERFIELD

"running spare" at approximately 75% o f their rated outputs; there

must be enough o f this reserve capacity to cover the largest single
station or set that can drop out. The UK sp ecification fo r fu ll
spinning reserve capability o f individual stations is typ ica lly that,
starting from 75$ o f output rating, "steps" to 90$ should be achiev­
able within 2 to 3 seconds, subsequently output rises to 100$ over
the next few minutes.

The frequency regulation requirements o f ( i i ) and ( i i i ) are less

demanding than the 10$ per minute required over a wide range fo r ( i ) .
Hence the capability o f the station is usually assessed from ramps up to
- 10%/minute and steps in rated output up to +15$ . It is thought that
these requirements w ill be representative o f what is needed fo r systems
elsewhere but the role o f an SGHWK station w ill be slig h tly d ifferen t for
each country and should be given separate study as required.

3. FREQUENCY REGULATION AND STABILITY

Important dynamic conditions arise from the frequency regulation via

turbine control valve governor action. Figure 4 shows the position o f a
single station within the system. For our purpose here a ll stations in
the system use the same supply system frequency (eg, 50 Hz approximately
in the B ritish g rid ); a ll the alternators are linked e le c tr ic a lly so that
they turn synchronously. When one station a lters i t s output'then it s
alternator moves s lig h tly in phase relative to the others. A change in
load on the system is f e lt at the turbines as a change in torque required
by the alternators. This results in a change in speed o f rotation, and
therefore supply frequency, at a rate inversely proportional to the inertia
o f the rotating machinery.

From a common observed frequency variation a ffectin g it s turbine

valve position each station reacts according to it s own dynamic properties,
and the outputs are simply summed at the mutually synchronised alternators.
This is a cla ss ica l closed loop situation and i t s s ta b ility can be analysed
by methods corresponding to the Nyquist cr ite ria by opening the loop at XY.
From an o s cilla to r y input at X the response at Y is derived by simply
adding the frequency responses o f the separate station s. Since we are not
dealing with conditionally stable systems the required condition can be
expressed in the form that the response

when Y and X are in phase. The total response Y is o f course a vector sum
and the magnitude o f each sta tion 's contributory vector is proportional to
i t s fraction al contribution to the tota l system.

Hence, i f every station is stable when supplying i t s own load in iso ­

lation via the minimum turbine in ertia, then any combination o f those
stations forming a load following system w ill also be stable. This con­
d ition currently forms part o f the sp ecification for nuclear stations in
the UK. An "unstable" station can be stab ilised in the presence o f the
rest o f the system but i t is contributing in an unstable manner to the
performance o f the system and would be unstable i f ever isolated . The
condition is therefore a desirable one which is also s u fficie n t for system
s ta b ility , and any new station satisfyin g i t w ill, when added to the
system, a ssist system s ta b ility .
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 2 259

FIG. 5. Schematic diagram of the coupled control.

4. CHOICE OF STATION CONTROL SYSTEM

There are two basic forms o f control system appropriate for an SGHWR
station , whose differences are reflected in steam pressure con trols.
These a re :-

(a) Sometimes called "de-coupled 11 con trol. Closed loop control o f steam
pressure by movement o f the turbine control valve (TCV). A ll varia­
tions in demanded output power must be achieved by open-loop control o f
core power and hence heat into the steam generating unit in order to
provide load following; hence this system is most suitable for base
load operation.

(b) Sometimes called "coupled" con trol. Closed loop control o f steam
pressure by varying core power. This system naturally follows load
set by turbine valve p osition , but can provide base load operation by
adding further controls to the turbine governor (Fig. 5)•

The a b ility o f the plant to provide fle x ib le output and it s maximum

possible manoeuvres are decided substantially by the amount o f energy
stored in the drum and the rate at which any loss can be replenished. For
example, a sudden f a l l in frequency w ill cause the turbine valve to open
further. There is an immediate rise in steam flow and hence in output
power but unless the heat input to the steam generating unit (from core
power) is raised, the pressure w ill f a l l to a new level such that output
power is unchanged.
 BUTTERFIELD

STEAM OEUVERED TO TURBINE IN

ABSENCE OF REACTOR POWER CHANGE

30 40

TIME ( s )

F I G .6. Response to step change in turbine control valve position.

In the highly sim plified diagram Fig. 6 , the f a l l in steam delivery

to the turbine is due to f a l l in pressure and also represents an attendant
loss o f energy stored in the drum. Starting to increase rea ctiv ity by
raising the moderator le v e l at the instant the step demand is made,
increases the core power and extra heat goes into the b o ile r and restores
the pressure to it s origin al value. I t is easily shown that in order to
prevent the e le c tr ic a l output from under-shooting more than 20% o f the
i n it ia l step, the heat into the b oiler must be raised to the new power
level in approximately h alf the time constant o f the drum.

From this we can see that provided the control system opens the
turbine valve and raises the core power as fast as p ossible, the precise
form o f control system is not going to a ffe ct a b ility to provide step
increase in output fo r spinning reserve. This is fu lly consistent with
the general optimal control theory according to which, under a wide set o f
conditions, minimum response times are achieved by driving at least some
o f the controls immediately to their extremes. Either (a) or (b) can do
th is, hence this need does not help to choose or decide on any compromise
between them.

Looking at system frequency regulation we find that a representative

picture for a station carrying i t s own load in isolation can be obtained
using a very sim plified disturbance model.

Let Y = Turbine Control Valve position

N = Neutron power
4 = Heat flow into water circu it
= Demanded neutron power
nd
W = Steam flow
P = Steam pressure in drum
f = Supply system frequency at X
X
Lower case le tte r s y, n e tc . denote small changes about a steady state in
Y, N e tc, and . . . denote response time constants and , A^ . . .
control gains.
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 2 261

The normal k% governor characteristic ca lls fo r 100% change in

demanded power for 2 Hz variation. Hence the valve movement due to
governor action is - f and, introducing the Laplace operator s , control
laws are expressible as

Coupled control -
Y^ = (scheduled station output) - f

“d = (a i +t ) p
where and A are negative.

Decoupledcontrol -
Np = (scheduled station output) - J f

yT = (v r +A5S) P' * f:c

The plant model scaled in normalised quantities ( i e , such that
P = W = Y = Q = N = 1 at fu ll power) i s : -
w = Р + У
T1- sp = q - w

1 1
n = ------------ . ----------- Пр
1 + T2 s 1 + T^s

The plant model and control laws enable transfer functions, or fr e -

w
quency responses -j— to be calculated. The load can be approximated by a
x
simple in ertia to give
Í1 £
w s
when К is normally in the range 5 to 10 sec- 1 , and I & I is therefore
o f order 50 to 200. w

This model is found to give frequency responses -Jf- o f the form shown in
x fv
Fig. 7. Bearing in mind the additional 90° lag introduced by and
i t s typical order o f magnitude, the de-coupled system is lik e ly to lead to
in s ta b ility in the frequency con trol, while the coupled system can give
good s ta b ility .

It is interesting to note that as the pressure control is made tighter

in decoupled control by sharpening the turbine valve action , s ta b ility
worsens; whereas s ta b ility is improved as the pressure control is improved
in coupled con trol. The reason for this is that the la tte r case requires
increasing speed o f response o f the heat source, which can be expected to
be b en eficial to system s ta b ility .

Corresponding frequency responses derived using a comprehensive

simulator are also shown in Fig. 7, curve E. Use o f the simulator confirms
the result and in view o f this there seems to be clear advantage in coupled
con trol.
262 BUTTERFIELD

♦90°

FIG. 7. Frequency response w /f of SG H W R .

A . Coupled control simple m’odel
B. Coupled control simple model
C. Decoupled control simple model
D. Decoupled control simple model
E. Decoupled control full simulator.

Another d iffic u lt y associated with decoupled control arises from the

fact that the turbine control valve is inherently a non-linear device in
that steam flow is far from lin ear as a function o f it s position demand
signal. Appropriate compensation is not found to be easy, thus leaving
awkward operating regions due to gain variations and there is s t i l l the
problem o f dealing with more than one turbine.

These p ractical considerations, combined with the theoretical features

o f coupled control led to coupled control being selected for load following
and commercial SGHWR systems.

5. IMPLEMENTATION

The prototype SGHWR at Winfrith was origin a lly designed for base load
operation with the de-coupled form o f control system. The coupled control
had therefore to be added to an existing system. This has been done in
 LA EA - S M - 1 6 8 /B - 2 263

TABLE I. COUPLED CONTROL SYSTEMS

Reactor power Ki T6
K 3
T7 K4
°jo governor K’ i
ojo rating (°lo per °}o) (sec) (sec) (lb/in) Oft per °Jo)
gain

90 1 .5 20 66 5 .0 1000 35

70 2 .0 15 66 5 .0 1000 35

56 2 .0 15 66 5 .0 1000 35

two stages, f ir s t l y with separate equipment which had to be plugged in and

was used for plaint tests to validate the theory and design, secondly with
permanently installed equipment engineered to fu ll operational standards
and providing a switchable alternative for the operators at the control
desk.

The control gains (see F ig. 5) were adjusted on the plant to yield
good stable operation combined with the least drop in pressure following
turbine valve openings o f order 2 to The recommended gains vary
s lig h tly with power level as in Table T.

The figure o f 66% governor gain for Kj indicates that in response to a

change in grid frequency two thirds o f the equivalent power demand change
is the most appropriate feed-forward demand to neutron flux power. Com­
bined with the action o f the pressure con trol, higher values o f Kj lead to
system response overshoot by over-driving the reactor power.

During the control design stage best gains were established on the
SGHWR training simulator. While the results were very useful in confirming
theory and in specifying gain ranges for the hardware the gains actually
arrived at by plant testing were sig n ifica n tly d ifferen t.

For operator training, under de-coupled control and fo r quite wide-

ranging control studies the analogue simulator has given a seemingly
adequate representation o f SGHWR transients. Residual errors remained
but their significance was not clea rly id e n tifia b le . Faithful simulation
o f closed loop control response, particularly where best performance is
required, requires that open loop frequency responses be correct especially
in the region o f the c r it ic a l s ta b ility p oin t. A study was mounted in
which analogue model parameters were adjusted to minimise integrals o f
frequency response error ( i e , differen ce between model and plant) in which
the error was weighted more heavily as the open loop response approached - 1 .

This work is reported in Ref. i t indicated with a high degree

o f significance that many parameters should be altered in the model
including rea ctiv ity and heat transfer/conduction co e ffic ie n ts which
hitherto could not clea rly be distinguished between. In every case other
arguments existed in favour o f change in the same direction and the status
o f the simulation fo r studying various classes o f failu re transient has
been substantially improved.

An additional feature o f the fu lly engineered version o f the coupled

con troller is an electronic governor unit (EGU) which accepts signals
representing measured e le c tr ic a l output, grid frequency and demanded
station output set point. By combining these to form error signals and
passing the results through pre-selected shaping networks the EGU can act
264 BUTTERFIELD

TURBINE VALVE MOVEMENT

STEAM FLOW

w' 3
о
►
—
z 2
0

1 i
s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 1
TIM E ( 5 )
F I G .8. Response of steam mass flow (Wg) to step change in turbine control valve position (Y-pcy).

on the conventional speeder gear to a lter the e ffe ctiv e ch aracteristics of

the existing governor. In this way alternative modes o f operation can be
selected such as fixed output (base lo a d ), varied governor gain for load
follow ing, grid frequency deadbands, limited output range.

6. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The response o f the Winfrith SGHWR to "step" changes in turbine valve

position o f order 5% o f maximum continuous rating is shown in Fig. 8 .
This response was obtained from tests on the plant. I t demonstrates the
good potential running spare capability o f SGHW type reactors and at the
same time supports conclusions about this from both single model considera­
tions and from use o f the training simulator.

The step response o f Fig. 8 has been used to derive the frequency
response o f the whole plant for governor demand variations. The results
show that Winfrith SGHWR under coupled control is stable carrying it s own
isolated load and therefore contributes to grid system s ta b ilit y . The
Nyquist diagram shows gain margin o f over 2 and phase margin o f over 40°
assuming a severe grid load ch a ra cteristic.
The development and implementation o f this control system has underlined
the d e sira b ility o f having plant models which provide accurate estimation o f
control gains. In consequence a method o f optimising model parameters for
control design has been developed. This uses recorded plant transients to
step disturbance inputs, but the model optimization is based on minimising fre­
quency response error cr ite r ia .

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] Steam Generating and other Heavy Water Reactors, Proc. Conf. British Nuclear Energy Soc. London
(May 1968).
[2] B R O W N , G . , M O O R E , J ., S M IT H , D . R . , "Steam generating heavy water reactor - A modular reactor
system yielding economic power over a wide range of output". 4th Int. Conf. peaceful Uses atom.
Energy (Proc. Conf. Geneva, 1 9 7 1 )5 , U N , New York; IA E A , Vienna (1972) 255.
[3] BUTTERFIELD, M . H . , G A LL . C . J . , "Dynam ic model verification by comparison with plant tests on
Winfrith S G H W R ", Br. nucl. Energy Soc. Conf. on Boiler Dynamics and Control in Nuclear Power
Stations, London (March 1973).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /В -3

D E V E L O P M E N T OF A C O N TR O LL E R
W ITH HIGH A V A IL A B IL IT Y FO R
A N U C LE A R POW ER R E A C T O R

P. GIORDANO, P. NOVELLI, A. PULACCI

CNEN — Centro Studi Nucleari della Casaccia,
Rome, Italy

Abstract

D EV EL O P M EN T OF A C ONTROLLER W I T H H IG H AVAILA BILITY FOR A N U CLEA R POWER REAC TOR.

The CIRENE concept for nuclear power plants is based on vertical pressure-tube reactors, moderated
by cold heavy water, cooled by boiling light water and fuelled with natural uranium dioxide. On account
of the neutron absorbing effect of the cooling light water, the reactor shows a positive power to reactivity
coefficient, and is intrinsically unstable. As a result the reactor operation requires a continuously operating
control system whose availability is a major concern of the plant and also has a deep impact on the
plant safety. Therefore, in the frame of the Research and Development program for the CIRENE reactors,
a particular effort was made to develop all the components concerned for the reactor control. This paper
deals with the main features of the neutron power control system of the CIRENE Prototype reactor (now
under construction at Latina), based on a special controller built for high availability. After describing
the main conceptual characteristics of the reactor control, the particular features of the controller are
outlined, through which the required performances are obtained.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e im portance of highly reliable autom ized control for nuclear p o w er

reactors is now reco gn ized particularly because of its implications for
e n ergy cost and plant safety. In fact the reduction of trips due to control
m alfunction im p ro v es the plant availaljility appreciably (especially in the
case of reactors for w hich xenon poisoning forces long shutdowns) and
d e c re a se s the n u m b e r of possible conditions necessitating the operation
of safety shutdown system s and consequently the likelihood of endangering
the plant.
F o r the C I R E N E type nuclear reactors studied in Italy, the above
statements a re particularly valid. Actually the plant shows an intrinsic
instability, im plying the need of a continuously operating control loop
m aintaining the neutron p o w er equal to the desired set-point by m e a n s of
a control reactivity feedback. A m alfunction of this loop necessarily
causes a reactor shutdown and, in m o st c a s e s , a neutron transient, to be
controlled by the safety devices in o rder to avoid a nuclear accident.
T h e instability of the plant is a consequence of the C I R E N E concept [1]
b a s ed on vertical pressure- tube reactors m o dera te d by cold heavy water,
cooled by boiling light w ater and fuelled with natural u r a n iu m dioxide.
In fact the use of natural u r a n iu m requires over-móderation and c o n ­
sequently there is a noticeable negative reactivity effect of the cooling
light w ater. B ut the light-water content in the core is directly related
to the reactor p o w er: a p o w er increase causes a coolant density d e cre a se ,
hence a positive destabilizing feedback results.

26 5
266 G IORDANO et al.

F o r the above rea s o n s , the analysis of the system dy nam ics and the
developm ent of all the com ponents n ece ss a ry for the neutron p o w er
control w e r e of p r im a r y importance in the R e s e a r c h and Developm ent
P r o g r a m for the C I R E N E reactor.
D y n a m ic and control studies, p er fo rm ed by an extended analog,
digital and hybrid simulations [2-5] w e r e initiated m a n y y ears ago and
indicated w hat the design requirem ents for the control loop com ponents
should be.
T o m atch the exigences d e m a n d e d of the control actuators a special
system w a s developed at C I S E : the "two- phase r o d s ", consisting of a
two-phase neutron absorbing m ixture (borated w ater and oxygen) flowing
in U tubes inserted in the core. T h e reactivity is controlled by varying
the m ixture density through a valve affecting the liquid flow-rate [6].
T h is system fulfils the functional requirem ents (fast response,
negligible dead zo n es, proportionality b etw een control signal and reactivity),
while high reliability is achieved through redundancy: four control rods
are provided in the prototype reactor, while with only two of them being
n e c e ss a ry to m aintain proper control.
A s for the detectors and controllers, a special integrated electronic
system w a s developed by C N E N to p er fo rm the functional tasks stated in
Section 2 and to obtain the required overall reliability. T h is paper
presents a description of the features and p erfo rm a n c e s of this system .

2. D E S IG N В A C K G R O U N D

F o r the neutron p o w e r control loop the m a i n requirem ents resulting

fro m the studies p e r fo rm e d and the simulation tests.
(a) H igh reliability: to be achieved by a proper design to m aintain
the control action also in case of failure of a single com ponent;
(b) Fail-safe, in the sense that the probability of the control rods
being extracted as a consequence of a failure m ust be reduced to
a m in im u m ;
(c) F a s t response of the control action (a few seconds);
(d) N ec e ssity of a proportional term in the transfer function between
neutron p o w e r e r r o r and control reactivity.
T h e analysis of the dynam ic behaviour of the reactor s how ed that a
pure integration in the control transfer function had to be avoided, or
com pensated with a derivative term . F o r practical reasons (noise control)
the use of electronic derivation w a s excluded.
(e) Lo o p gain independent of load, to have a good p erfo rm a nce at
ev ery p o w e r level;
(f) Proportional plus integral action of the controller.
T o achieve these req uirem ents a proper control actuator w a s
n e c e ss a ry , and this w a s achieved, as said, by developing the two-phase
rod system . A s to the input signals for the control, owing to the fast
response required, it w a s n e ce ss a ry to use neutron detectors with low
response time. It w a s decided to use out-of-core ionization c h a m b e r s ,
on account of their high reliability and low burnup.
Co n cern in g the controller, a rather com plex and unusual system w a s
n e c e ss a ry to fulfil all the req uirem ents and tasks. T h e design possibilities
ex a m in ed w e r e :
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /В -3 267

(1) T o use n o rm a l electronic h a r d w a re and to obtain the high reliability

through redundancy, adopting the m ajority vote or sim ilar
techniques [ 7, 8];
(2) T o use a system b a s ed on p ro c ess com puters (direct digital control),
with autodiagnostic software and redundancy;
(3) T o develop a special electronic system of. the detect-correct type;

T h e first possibility w a s excluded be ca use, owing to the fast reactor

instability and to the peculiar functional req uirem ents (for ex am ple the
proportionality betw een er r o r and control reactivity), p erfo rm a nce
deterioration resulting from a sub-system failure w a s inacceptable and
caused a loss of control, if the sim p ler s c h e m e s w e r e adopted. M o r e
sophisticated s c h e m e s led to great complexity and cost.
T h e use of digital com puters (second possibility), adopted in the case
of the Gentilly C A N D U - B L W C a n ad ian reactor w hich is ve ry sim ilar to
C I R E N E , w a s not considered b e ca u s e, w h e n the studies for C I R E N E
w e r e begun, there w a s no experience in Italy on direct digital control in
general and in particular for a nuclear p o w er plant.1
T h e third possibility presented the difficulty of requiring a highly
reliable and fast fault detection and switchover system [6].
B ut at C N E N an advanced line of nuclear safety channels for reactor
protection (the S C I N system ) had been developed since 1962 which w a s
fail-safe to a high degree and.obtained through a continuously operating
fault detection system . T h e basic concepts and the design features and
techniques of this system could be applied to the case of the C I R E N E
controller, thus o vercom ing the above difficulties. Therefore- the third
possibility w a s chosen.

3. D E V E L O P M E N T OF THE SCHEM E AND FEA TU R ES

T h e conceptual s c h e m e of the controller is shown in F i g . 1.

C o m m e n t s and explanations about this s ch em e are the following:

(a) T o o v e rc o m e the effect on the signal of the ionization c h a m b e r s

of the m o d era to r level variations (which can occur because of p o w er or
xenon buildup transients) and of the boron concentration in the m oderator,
an automatic gain correction has been used. T h is correction has been
p e r fo rm e d on the basis of steam flow and p re ss u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e
sc h e m e adopted to p er fo rm this task, fo r m e d by the blocks 8-9-10-4, w a s
found to be the best after a series of tests carried out with analog and
digital m o d e ls ;
(b) T o obtain constant p er fo rm a n c e s at the various p o w er levels,
an inverse proportionality between, controller gain and p o w er level w a s
required be ca use the kinetics gain is directly proportional to the p o w er
levels and be ca use the feedback, which is'in parallel with the control
action, h as a gain approxim ately inversely proportional to the p o w er level
(being the density kept constant'by varying the coolant flow rate, the fe e d ­
back gain is alm ost constant in percentage of the actual p o w er level, and
therefore inversely proportional in absolute values). H e n ce the correct

1 However, also because of the good results obtained at Gentilly, direct digital control could now be
considered for the CIRENE for high-level plant control.
 268
GIORD ANO et al.

FIG. 1. Conceptual scheme of the controller.

 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 /В -3 269

L o g ic f a u l t s i g n a l

Logic fa u l t signal

FIG. 2. Scheme of the computation unit.

gain variation could be obtained by dividing the neutron p o w e r error

(W n -Wno) by the actual neutron p o w e r itself. Actually better results w e r e
obtained using the set-point instead of the neutron p o w er signal in the
denom inator of the fraction, as indicated in the block 6 of F ig . 1;
(c) T h e special fault detection system is incorporated in the controller
and this system is ba sed on the p resence of a high-frequency signal
traversing the electronic channel. A 14-kHz signal is generated inside
the high voltage p o w e r supply of the ion c h a m b e r and is closed, by m e a n s
of proper a rr a n g e m e n ts , around the channel in a loop containing the
c h a m b e r (through w hich it p a ss e s due to the c h a m b e r capacity) and the
a m plifiers. T h e original signal and the output signal are c o m p a r ed in
amplitude and phase: well- determ ined relations exist between them
u n der n o rm a l conditions and there is an alm ost negligible probability that
these relations are m aintained both in the case of a failure or a m a l ­
function. So, if the phase dem odulator (block 2) gives the correct voltage
output, the system is operating properly, otherwise a logic output
indicating a failure is obtained.
270 GIORD ANO e t al.

So far, using only one controller, the required high reliability of

the control action would not be obtained. If the system fails, the logic
signal fro m the fault detection system points out the failure, but loss of
control results.
T h e r e fo r e the channel is completely duplicated as shown in F ig . 2.
O n e of the controllers drives the four control rods, while the other
operates in a backup m o d e . W h e n the signal of the fault detection system
indicates a failure of the controller A , control is transferred to the
controller B . A proper connection is m a d e to m aintain the output of the
backup controller equal to the output of the other, so that in the transfer
operation no discontinuity in the driving signal occurs. T h i s connection
is n e c e ss a ry because otherwise, on account of the integral term in the
controllers, a drift betw een the two outputs can be present. (T h e controller
driving the ro ds, which is inserted into the control loop, cannot drift,
but the other could drift indefinitely).
T h e only possibility of c o m m o n m o d e failures should be the lack of
set-point voltage fro m the operator desk. P r o p e r arra ng em en ts will be
provided (i. e. duplication of the potentiometers and of the p o w er supplies)
to reduce the probability of this event.
O n account of the redundancy, the failure of one actuator does not
lead to loss of control even if the rod goes into its extrem e position.

4. S Y S T E M E N G IN E E R IN G

R e g a r d in g the engineering, great im portance w a s given to simplicity.

W it h particular solutions it w a s possible to p er fo rm m a n y of the functional
tasks, n a m e ly the c h a m b e r signal amplification and tran sm ission, the
gain correction and the gain variation with load ( l / W no), with only two
am plifiers, thus also reducing strongly the failure rate of a single controller.
T h is appears clearly fr o m the s chem e of F ig . 3. T h e am plifier A 4
and the M o to r M limit the set-point variation velocity and, in connection
with the am plifier A l , divide the erro r signal by W no and multiply it by the
correction factor G c. In fact, the output of the unit results:

but, if V L is com puted as:

with G c the desired gain correction one obtains:

w h e re R a X I X G c is the correct value of the neutron p ow er.

 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 /В -3 271

Reference
voltage

CORRECTION TERM

V =
R3
— =— G„ - E
L в С

(О = desired gain correction)

с

F IG .3 . Set-point, gain correction and gain variation test.

F ig u r e 4 show s the controller w h e n operating in the "autom atic control"

m o d e . It can be observed that the p er cent er r o r, (Wn - W no) / W no, t o b e
us ed as input for the control action is sim ply obtained by subtracting a
constant reference voltage fr o m the output of A l .
T h e features of the computation unit (Fig. 2) show n in F ig . 5 have great
im portance for the overall reliability of the system .

5. C O M M IS S IO N IN G A N D T E S T O F T H E P R O T O T Y P E S

T h e first prototype of the system , built at C N E N , has been c o m m is sio n e d

and thoroughly tested in connection with the analog plant simulator,
M a n y practical and conceptual faults and deficiencies w e r e discovered
through these tests.
272 GIORD ANO et al.

(Ref.)

FIG. 4. Controller in "autocontrol" mode.

LOGIC FAULT SIGNAL

FIG. 5. Computation unit.

 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 /В -3 273

A second im p ro ved version w a s then built. T h e good p erfo rm a nce

of this final prototype during prolonged observation of the system which
has been run in connection with the sim ulator, indicates that the m a in
design and construction faults m a y have been virtually eliminated. N o w
a test is under w a y of the complete control loop, including detectors and
actuators, in the R B 3 r e s e a r c h reactor of C N E N (M ontecuccolino,
B ologna). T h e a im of this w o r k is to c a r ry out an effective test including
the actual instrumentation, elecontronics and actuators.

6. C O N C L U SIO N

T h e developm ent of a special electronic com ponent to p er fo rm the

tasks required for a single control loop m a y be in general considered in ­
convenient and impractical.
A ls o in the case of the C I R E N E , with its intrinsic instability one m a y
ask if the developm ent of the rather sophisticated system described in this
p aper w a s justified.
T h e alternative could be the adoption of n o rm a l h a r d w a r e with a high
construction standard, giving up the use of sophisticated techniques
(a im ed at obtaining, through redundancy, high reliability) and permitting
a control system outage in case of a com ponent failure.
T h is possibility is favoured by simplicity and the fact that, in a
special system , the lack of industrial engineering and of prolonged testing
m a y outweigh the advantages of the particular redundant s c h e m e , leading
to a reliability not m u c h better or perhaps w o r s e than in the case of the
use of well-known, proved and tested com ponents.
T h is is probably true if the system is not properly developed and
tested. So the need of careful engineering and of effective and complete
testing is im perative.
H o w e v e r , during the developm ent of a nuclear reactor there is enough
time to bring such a system to industrial m aturity, and it is our opinion
that the cost is justified (with reference to 500 to 1000 M W ( e ) units) if the
probability of a plant outage due to the control system is strongly reduced.
W it h the use of our system w e are confident that the n u m b e r of plant shut­
dow ns due to a control-loop failure is redu ced by at least a factor of ten
(from about one p er year to one per ten y ea rs or m o r e ).

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] SILVESTRI, М ., CASAGRANDE, I ., BROGGIATO, A ., MANCINI, C. , PEDRETTI, Outlines o f the

CIRENE project, Energia Nucleare 18 11, Nov. 1971 (Paper presented at the Fourth International
C onference on the Peaceful Uses o f A tom ic Energy, Geneva, Sep. 1971).
[2 ] GIORDANO, P ., MATHIS, A ., MELUCCI, G . , Dynamics and control studies for a steam-generating
pressure-tube reactor, CNEN Rep. RT/ING (65) (13 Sep. 1965).
[3 ]' BARZACCHI, M. , GIORDANO, P ., MATHIS, A . , Development and use o f a non-linear m odel for a
direct c y cle nuclear power plant, Proc. AICA 5th Int. Analogue Computation Meetings, Lausanne, 1967,
Presses Académiques Européennes (1968).
[4] ALESSANDRINI, A ., BERRUTI, A ., MAGNI, A ., MASSIMELLO, G . , PETERLONGO, G . , Studi di
contrallo per il reattore CIRENE, Rep. CISE R 168, (April 1967).
[5 ] GIORDANO, P ., MATHIS, A ., MODONESI, "Use o f analog and hybrid computers in the design o f
CIRENE-TYPE Nuclear Power Plants", Paper presented at the Enlarged Halden Programme Group
Meeting, Loen (Norway) M ay/june, 1972, to be published.
274 GIORD ANO e t a l.

[6 ] PETERLONGO, G ., BROGGI, A ., TACCONI, F. A ., "Fluid actuators for control and safety in pressure
tube reactors", Paper presented at the Tech. Meetings o f .NUCLEX 72, Basle, 1972, to be published.
[7 ] LAWRENCE, L. A .J ., The developm ent o f redundancy techniques for the achievement o f highly reliable
autocontrol for nuclear reactors, Rep. AEEW-R396 (1964).
[8 ] LAWRENCE, L. A .J ., An analytical and experimental study o f the behaviour o f redundant controllers
applied to a nuclear plant, Rep. AEEW-R283 (1964).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4

PROCESS COM PUTER SYSTEM S W ITH

HIGH R E L IA B IL IT Y AND AD VANCED
OPERATOR COM M UNICATION EQUIPM ENT
FOR NUCLEAR POWER P L A N T A P P L IC A T IO N

J.E. LUNDE, K. NETLAND. T . PALMGREN, M. 0VREEIDE

OECD Halden Reactor Project,
Halden, Norway

Abstract

PROCESS COMPUTER SYSTEMS WITH HIGH RELIABILITY AND ADVANCED OPERATOR COMMUNICATION
EQUIPMENT FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT APPLICATION.
In view of the strong trend towards using extensive process computer applications for the monitoring,
control and protection of nuclear power plants, a significant need for computer systems with better re lia b ility /
cost characteristics and better operator^rocess com m unication features than those com m only available at
present has been envisaged. Two advanced prototype computer systems, a decentralized modular process
computer system (DEMP) and an operator-com m unication system (OPCOM) have been developed at the OECD
Halden Reactor Project and are being prepared for experimental operation o f the Halden Reactor. The paper
discusses the technical and econ om ic features of these computer systems in light o f current developments in
computer technology as well as the demands to improved control systems emerging from more advanced nuclear
power plant design. The problems associated with the appropirate structuring o f user functions on modular
systems and for computer-based com m unication systems are also discussed.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

In view of the strong trend towards using extensive process com puter
applications for monitoring, controlling and protecting nuclear p o w er plants,
a significant need for com puter system s with better reliability/cost c h a r a c ­
teristics and better o p era to r/p ro ce ss com m unication features c o m p a r ed with
those c o m m o n ly available at present has been envisaged. T w o advanced
prototype com puter system s, a decentralized m odular process com puter
system ( D E M P ) and an operator-c o m munication system ( O P C O M ) , have been
developed at the O E C D H a ld e n Reactor Project and are being p repared for
experim ental operation of the H alden Reacto r. T h e first on-line experim ent
will take place in the first quarter of 1 97 3.

2. D E C E N T R A L I Z E D M O D U L A R P R O C E S S C O M P U T E R S Y S T E M (D E M P )

A key feature to an extensive degree of com puterization, i .e . w h e re all

essential plant functions are handled by com puters, is com puter system
reliability. It is noteworthy that high reliability is not only a requirem ent
in relation to direct digital control ( D D C ) applications, but is of almost
equal im portance for appropriate supervision and alarm system in a station
w h e re a m in i m u m of conventional back-up instrumentation has been provided
in the control r o o m .
C o m p u ter system s with high reliability can be achieved in several
alternative w a y s . T h e D E M P system m a y be characterized as a system

275
276 LUNDE et al.

having "M u ltip ro c e s so r s and G en eralized W o r k D iv is io n ". F o r several

reasons of technical and econom ical character, this type of system so far
appears to p o ss es s features prom ising for process control applications.
T h e m a in characteristics aim ed for with the D E M P system are:

(a) T h e system should be invulnerable to failures in any single unit or

m odule in the system , such that high priority functions can be m a in ­
tained through redistribution of tasks betw een non-failed m odules;
(b) T h e system should be self-organizing in the sense that it should
restructure itself upon h a rd w a re and certain software failures;
(c) T h e system should enable an effective utilization of its com puta­
tional resources thus, it is hoped, achieving a good balance between
costs and reliability features;
(d) T h e system should be flexible in the sense of permitting several
functional structures (i. e. dual, hierarchical, parallel processing
e t c .), and in the sense that system expansions can be easily a c ­
c o m m o d a ted owing to the modularity features.

T h e design has the advantage of being extrem ely flexible, allowing

D E M P to a s s u m e organizations ranging from strict multi-level hierarchial
to parallel decoupled processing, and a variety of combinations of these.
T h e adm inistration of this polym orphic structure is under software control,
allowing D E M P to change structure dynam ically, according to the status of
the environm ent, and of the com puter system itself.
T h is design offers a potential for high reliability and fail soft c h a r a c ­
teristics, as all the m odular resources can be restructured im m ediately
upon failure of a m odule.

2 .1 . D E M P h a r d w a re structure

T h e D E M P structure (F i g . 1) is considered as a collection of ha rdw a re

r eso u rc es, grouped in two sections:

Section 1, the processing section, consists of m e m o r y m odules, p ro ­

cessing units ( C P U s ) , global m e m o r y bus-data channel, with associated
special h a r d w a re as m e m o r y protect registers, m e m o r y address index
registers, and re-allocation registers.

Section 2, the I / О Section, consists of local and global I / O bu ses, global

I / O exchange, global interrupt h a r d w a re , and four special devices,
interacting with section 1. In addition co m es the operator com m unication
system , and the p rocess I / O system , both of which are connected to
both global I / O bu se s.

P r o c e s s in g section

E a c h m e m o r y m odule in the system has a dual identity. It serves as

the local m e m o r y for an associated C P U , in that case looking like a con­
ventional com puter with 8 К of core. T h e other identity is as global m e m o r y
for any of the C P U s in the system .
T h e special h a r d w a re m odule, Global M e m o r y B u s , has been designed
to adm inister this function. W h e n e v e r an address is generated within one
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 277

мм мм ММ мм
i 2 3 4
8К

" G L O B A L " M E M O R Y BUS

CPU CPU CPU CPU

1 2 3 4

FIG. 1. DEMP hardware structure.

of the C P U s , exceeding the range of the local m e m o r y , a request to enter

the global data channel is generated in the M e m o r y Control unit. T o select
the right external m odule, a m e m o r y index register associated with each
m odule is u s ed . W h e n a m e m o r y index m atches the leading bits of a m e m o r y
reference on the bus, this m odule will be selected for m e m o r y a c c e s s . F o r
8 К m e m o r y m odules an effective index of three bits, for 16 К m odules two
bits, and for 32 К m odules one bit, will point to the correct m odule. H o w ­
ever, the n u m b e r of m odules attached to the bus can be very large, and by
correct manipulation of m e m o r y indices, the m e m o r y exchange can handle
any practical size of core storage.
T h e global m e m o r y exchange is designed to acco m m o da te a w ide range
of organizations by judicious use of the m e m o r y index registers and a
queuing network to take care of simultaneous request for the global data
channel.

I / O section

T h e purpose of the global I / O exchange is to m ak e peripheral devices

accessible to m o r e than one C P U . This is n ece ssa ry if the system is to
drive certain peripherals regardless of specific C P U failures. E a c h C P U
278 LUNDE et al.

will support 128 local devices, and each of the two global I / O buses will
a cco m m o da te 64 global devices. Critical devices will be connected to both
of the I / O b u se s, and the selection of which bus to transmit over is done by
so ftw a re.
T h e I / O system consists of two sub s y stem s; I / O control and interrupt
control. T h e I / O control resolves contention for the s a m e resource by the
different C P U s , while the global interrupt control channels the interrupts
back to the requesting C P U and does not interfere with the other C P U s in
the s y stem . This enables the system to spread the I / O load and act rapidly
to critical interrupts.
Special devices of im portance to the system and connected to the global
I / O bus, and thus operable from any C P U , are:

Console switch control, on all C P U s . T h e s e switches are operable via

output instructions from other m ach in es, enabling the m achine in w hich the
M a s t e r Scheduler p ro g ra m is in control, to stop, clear and re-start any
of the other m ac h in es .

M e m o r y index control on any m e m o r y m odule in the system : A n I / O

instruction, executed from the m achine hosting the M a s t e r Scheduler
p r o g r a m , will set up the hierarchy in response to one of the local real
time operating s y s tem s, if appropriate. T h is is one of the few actions of
the system d e e m e d critical and dem an ding central coordination.

M e m o r y protect register control: T h e m e m o r y protect register,

associated with each 8 К m e m o r y m odule, will be set via a set of global
I / O instructions.

Re-location register control: T h e re-location register, enabling cross

execution by C P U s in the various m e m o r y m odules, also allowing a highly
efficient core allocation s c h e m e , is set for each C P U by an I / O instruction.

2 .2 . D E M P software structure

G e n e r a l concept

T h e D E M P system w a s chosen for its high expected M T B F for critical

p ro cessing functions. T h e software system governing the re-configuration
m ust then m aintain the critical processing functions on severe system
failures, although with reduced operational p er fo rm a n ce . T h u s , the inter­
connections of m odules are un der software control, allowing it to a s s u m e
several structures according to different purposes and system status.
T o com ply with the concept of D E M P , the software system D E M O S is
structured according to F i g . 2 . It consists of three m a in m odules;

L R T O S — L o ca l R eal T i m e Operating S ystem : a single com puter task

adm inistration system under w hich each C P U operates during n orm al
operation;
M S — M a s t e r S ch ed u ler ; system reconfiguration and task allocation
m odule, activated upon disturbances in the system ;
E D — E r r o r Detection: an erro r detection and diagnostic system of
param ount im portance in a structure w hose m ain characteristics are
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 279

FIG. 2. DEMP software structure.

reliability and safety, supervising the operation of the complete system ,

and taking corrective action w h e n malfunctions are detected.

T h e software system is based upon criteria to optimally and.safely

adm inister the reso urces and tasks in the D E M P structure. It is able to
change its. structure according to needs of the u s e r or the constraints i m ­
posed by failures in the system .
O n e added degree of freedom is admitted by the multi-machine configura­
tion, nam ely the capability of selecting one of a group of com puters to do a
particular job. T h is job assignm ent function m ust be p erfo rm ed by a central
operating function that can adm inister the whole system , implying the
hierarchy s h o w n in F i g . 2. T h e organization of the L R T O S is not typical of
conventional single-m achine sy stem s.

E r r o r Detection ( E D ) System

T h e m a in principle of the D E M P E r r o r Detection System is to maintain

and protect unfailed tasks, and thereafter try to recov er failed tasks. It
consists of a multitude of sm all checking and m onitoring m odules distributed
throughout the L R T O S , c o m prisin g erro r detection, erro r diagnostics and
e r r o r reco v ery.
T h e E D routines dynam ically update the R e so u rc e Table to contain the
current status of all system h a r d w a re m odules, and schedule diagnostics
p r o g r a m s upon detection of an er r o r to define the error with higher reso lu­
tion. C ertain e r r o rs , i .e . those having influence on the configuration of
the system , activates the M a s t e r Scheduler P r o g r a m to. effect the n ecessary
reconfiguration.
280 LUNDE et al.

M a s t e r Scheduler (M S ) System

T h e M a s t e r Scheduler is responsible for the reconfiguration of the

D E M P system after h a rd w a re or software failures and is also the m a in
configuration tool at system generation tim e, distributing all defined tasks
a m o n g the system m odules with proper consideration of requested response
tim es, I / O use, m e m o r y space and priority distribution, thereby creating
the tables of information n ece ssa ry for the L R T O S s to w o r k independently
and optimally.
In the system generation phase, the M S m ust be given information on
all the tasks the system is to perform , and on all the h a rd w a re equipment
constituting the complete sy s tem . This information is us ed in establishing
two w o rking tables for the M S , the T a s k Table and the R e so u rc e T a b l e .
T h e s e tables are used to get a balanced load on all system m odules, and
m a y be dynam ically changed as the system is changed owing to failures or
exclusion/incorporation of h a rd w a re and software m o dules.
A special feature of the D E M P software system is the definition (p r o ­
vided by the u s e r ) of an existence priority to every software m odule, speci­
fying the im portance of this m odule relative to the others for total u s e r
system functional p er fo rm a n ce . A s com ponent failures cause loss of critical
m odules, i .e . core space or C P U tim e, s o m e of the system m odules m ay
be excluded. T h u s , if failures progress through the system , the p ro g ra m s
that are lost m ust be of least possible influence on the system p erfo rm a n ce ,
that is, those with the lowest existence priority. T h e r e b y , one can secure
a good system p erfo rm a nce even with severe loss of critical h a r d w a re .
T h is illustrates the principle of graceful degradation used in D E M P , a
feature that requires a special data flow strategy for the u s e r system .

2 .3 . Flexibility aspects

If advantages can be gained by changing the h a rd w a re configuration, it

can easily be done. F o r portions of the system requiring high reliability,
extra C P U s , m e m o r i e s , and buses can be added. If extra "real- tim e"
capacity is required, another C P U with a sm all m e m o r y can be incorporated.
It is this capacity for easy expansion, distributed computation and sim ple
modification that are the real strength of the system .

2 .4 . U s e r software structure

T h e choice of functions to be im plem ented on a D E M P system and their

relative im portance will be dependent on the actual process (in our case the
H B W R ) . H o w e v e r , the software organization, i .e . the rules for interaction
and com m unication between the different u s e r p ro g ra m m o dules, the
data file organizations e t c ., can be m o re generally defined, such that a good
solution for the u s e r software organization is transferable to other industrial
processes.
T o utilize the possibilities offered by the D E M P prototype, the user
p ro g ra m system is split up in m odules, and the different m odules are given
existence priorities according to the importance of that p ro g ra m m odule to
the p erfo rm a nce of the p ro c e s s. Further, the information flow between the
different p r o g r a m m odules will be such that a higher priority m odule can
continue to p erfo rm its task, at least for a limited period of time and m ay be
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 2 81

S IM P L E X S Y S T E M S T R U C T U R E DEM P S YSTEM S T R U C T U R E

FIG .3. User software organization.

with so m e w h at reduced quality, even if s o m e of the information exchange

breaks do w n ow ing to the loss of a low er priority m odule.
T h e difference between the typical u s e r software organization of a large
sim plex p ro c ess com puter system and the u s e r software D E M P system
organized according to the criterion outlined above, can be illustrated by
F i g . 3.
In the typical sim plex com puter system the u s e r p ro g ra m s will also be
m o dula r. T h e p ro g ra m parts are here generally classified according to
their activity: Supervision, D D C , O p erator C o m m u n ica tio n etc. T h e s e parts
are again built up of different subm o dules.
In the D E M P system , the u s e r functions are organized in an "onion"-like
fashion. Innerm ost is a nucleus of m odules w hich are absolutely n ecessary
for running the p ro c ess, although possibly at reduced efficiency. This
nucleus is built up of so m e m odules from the operating system , so m e
m odules of the D D C - s y s t e m , so m e m odules of the operator-process c o m ­
m unication system , so m e m odules of the supervision s y stem . This nucleus
is surrounded by layers of lower priority, the layer next to the nucleus
containing for instance the additional m odules n ece ssa ry to operate the p r o ­
cess at full efficiency. T h e p ro g ra m nucleus is distributed a m o n g the
available C P U m e m o r y m odules, to obtain fail-soft characteristics upon
failure of a m o dule . T h e assignm ent of existence priorities to the different
u s e r p ro g ra m m odules calls for a criterion for the priority setting. Since
the basic idea behind the D E M P prototype is to obtain increased operational
reliability, the criterion will be the im portance of the u s ç r function for
plant operation reliability. In other w o r d s , the priorities should be assigned
such that the chances for unplanned shutdowns and operation at undesired
conditions (red uced pow er) caused by h a za rd situations are m in im ize d .
P r o g r a m s fall into three m ain classes:

(1) T h o s e that m ust m aintain continuous operation in spite of ha rdw a re

failures in order to prevent plant shutdown;
(2) T h o s e that m a y cause reduced plant p erform ance if stopped, but
can be regenerated from disk if n ece ssa ry ;
(3) T h o s e that norm ally reside on disk, and are not essential to the
plant operation.
282 LUNDE et al.

P r o g r a m s in class 1 m ust have a complete copy in two places in core

(in different m ach in es) and the p aram eters generated by one copy m ust also
be available to the other. T h e s e are essentially running in full dual o p e r a ­
tion. T h e second class is m erely required to update the disk copy at som e
specified time interval to ensure that there is not too m u c h " b u m p " in
control in case that particular p ro g ra m m ust be regenerated". T h e third
class of p r o g r a m s is essentially d r a w n from a batch queue, m ulti-user'
facility or so m e specific application p r o g r a m s .
A representative set of u s e r functions will be im plem ented and tested
in simulations and reactor experim ents in H alden in the beginning of 1973.
It is envisaged, h ow ever, that m o re extensive investigation of how to utilize
the D E M P features will require additional studies from 1973 o n w ards.
Such studies will probably also reveal s o m e desirable modifications in
D E M O S , as there will be important interactions between system s software
w o r k and applications experience.

3. T H E O P E R A T O R C O M M U N IC A T IO N S Y S T E M , OPCOM

T h e O P C O M system design has been m ad e un der the assum ption that its
features will satisfy the requirem ents set to a fully "c o m p u t e r ize d " control
room in a nuclear plant. A s the responsibilities of the operators are dif­
ferent from those of the sup erv iso r/en gin e er, it is considered n ecessary
to provide each category with suitable com m unication equipm ent to avoid
undesirable interference in the execution of their respective w o r k p ro c e­
d u re s. T h e operators should utilize an operator's console to obtain in fo r m a ­
tion and p erfo rm manipulations as quickly as possible, this being of particu­
lar im portance in critical operating situations. T h e supervisor is less
instantaneously active; thus, he should be adequately served by utilizing a
keyboard w h ich includes s o m e special features for m ak in g information
manipulation possible. W h e r e a s the supervisor can m an a ge with a single
display unit, the operators will each need several units.
In the design studies it has been found advantageous not to a s s u m e the
display units to be strictly functionally dedicated ones, although it is realized
that s o m e units, essentially for alarm annunciation, have to be dedicated.
T h e displays should have the capabilities of presenting both alphanum eric
and graphic information. F u r t h e r m o r e , the graphic information presented
should be dynam ically updated not only with respect to presentation of process
p a ra m eter values, but also, for instance, such that a m im ic diagram clearly
should indicate open or closed flow paths and changes in the state of flow
paths. T h ro u g h the introduction of colour displays, such a requirem ent can
relatively ea sy be satisfied by letting status changes induce colour changes
in the d ia g r a m s . In addition, the use of colours m ak e s the pictures in
general clearer and enables a sim ple w a y of indicating priorities to a la rm s
and m e s s a g e s .
R e sp o n se time is another important system feature; unless an operator
request for information can be served, say, within a few seconds, he will
tend to feel insecure and w o n d e r about a com puter failure or plant
m aloperation.
H a r d w a r e and system software should be designed in a m odular fashion
to perm it n ew units to be added and to enable modified or new functions to be
im p lem en ted. Finally, it should be possible to introduce a reasonable
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 283

FIG.4 . Main components in the computer-based operatorA>rocess com m unication system.

degree of com ponent redundancy, and utilize relatively inexpensive c o m ­

ponents, for instance for displays such that available on-shelf spares can
reduce m e a n time to repair and enhance the overall reliability.

3 .1 . O P C O M system structure

T h e m ain parts in the com m unication system are a console with func­
tionally defined push-buttons, keyboards, tracker balls for addressing p u r ­
poses and colour T V displays, air controlled by a m ini-com puter, w hich in
turn is connected to a m a in p rocess control com puter (F ig . 4). F ig u r e 5
show s the structure of a three-channel O P C O M configuration.
T h e m a in com puter will transfer coordinates for graphic displays, and
characters for alphanum eric displays to the mini-com puter, N O R D - 2 0 , w hich
in turn will generate the complete picture and transfer the information to
the selected display.
N Q R D - 2 0 is a general purpose mini-com puter equipped with 4 K , 16 bits
core m e m o r y w hich generates and updates graphic and alphanum eric pictures,
284 LUNDE et al.

I MAIN COMPUTER I

selects refresh m e m o r y , display, external video, grid pattern etc., and

services operator's console, tracker balls, keyboards and line printer.
T h e Disp lay Controller, w hich is selected by the R e fr e s h M e m o r y
Selector, contains a m e m o r y and control circuits n ece ssa ry to perform
functions like tra n sm issio n of data in either direction betw een the m e m o r y
and the N O R D - 20 com puter. In addition, this unit decodes data in the refresh
m e m o r y and m aintains the information on the colour displays. T w o m o des of
operation are available, one for graphic and one for alphanum eric data.
In graphic m o de a refresh m e m o r y of 16384-8 bits bytes is n e c e ss a ry while
in alphanum eric m o de a m e m o r y of 1600-8 bits bytes is sufficient. In
graphic m o de 384 by 256 points are addressable in horizontal and vertical
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 285

direction respectively. In alphanum eric m o de 25 lines with 64 A S C I I c h a r a c ­

ters each are stored in the refresh m e m o r y and transferred through a h a r d ­
w a r e character generator decoding the characters to a 5-by-7 dot matrix
before being transferred to the display.
T h e D isp lay Selector establishes connection between any display con­
troller and any colour controller, so that the contents of any refresh m e ­
m o r y m a y be sent to any colour display.
T h e output from the display selector is fed to the proper Co lour Controller
w h e re the binary signal is tran sfo rm ed to a n analog signal. T h e tracker
ball signal and the data from the grid pattern generator will be m ix e d with
the com puter signal. T h e correct m ixing of colours are p er fo rm ed and then
transferred to the red, green, and blue inputs of the colour displays.
A s displays of standard c o m m e r c ia l 22-in. T V sets are used with so m e
m in o r m odifications, it w a s decided to adopt 384 by 256 p r o g ra m m a b le
points, horizontal and vertical respectively. T o ov e rc o m e flicker effects,
two vertical adjacent colour points are given the s a m e information and the
s a m e is done horizontally to get a s y m m e tr ic point. In other w o r d s , a
p r o g r a m m a b le point actually consists of four colour groups. T h e s a m e solu­
tion w a s selected for alphanum eric operation.
T h e V ideo M i x e r allows a m a x i m u m of three external video signals
un der p r o g r a m m e control to be m ix e d with the com puter signals and
displayed on the scre en . T h e signals can be ordinary broadcasting T V
pictures, output fro m a video recorder, from a T V c a m e r a etc. F o u r
different intensity levels m ay be p ro g ra m controlled. Potential applications
could be review of m anuals and operational pro cedures for training p urposes,
T V m onitoring of rem ote or inaccessible plg.nt a reas etc.
F o r addressin g p urposes, the com m unication system is equipped with a
T r a c k e r Ball for m oving a squ are- m ark on a selected display. T h e m a r k is
h a r d w a re generated on the display and w he n pressing a read-button, the x
and y coordinates for the m a r k position are transferred to the m a in c o m ­
puter. T h e respo nse m a y for instance be a display of the value of the variable
pointed at.

ftl NUIURV CIRCUIT SS Ю-4

CD
V?70 U771
© © 0
PUR.CIRC.

FIG. 6.
О
Display of the primary circuit at the Halden Plant.
2 86 LUNDE et a l.

T h e K e y b o ard is equipped with a standard A S C I I character set with

s o m e additional buttons w hich are used for special c o m m a n d s in the system .
A cu rso r m a r k is controlled by five push-buttons; two for left and right
shift on a character line, two for vertical displacem ent between character
lines, while one push-button gives the cursor m a r k a " h o m e " position in
upper left co rner.
T h e O p e r a t o r 1 s Console consists of push-buttons with and without lights,
and alphanum eric displays built up of light emitting diodes in a 5-by-7 m atrix
per character. T h e layout of the panel m a y easily be reconfigurated and
extended to m eet different req uirem ents.

3 .2 . Software structure

T h e general software in the N O R D - 2 0 com puter will com m u nicate with

the m ain com puter, generate pictures, serve the input devices, etc. T h e
p ro g ra m system has a m odular design and uses 3 К of core storage for
p r o g r a m s , leaving 1 К as post-box area for com m unication with the m ain
com puter. T h e "post-box" area is divided in sub-areas for keyboard
services, tracker-ball services, console services, colour display services
and er r o r m e s s a g e serv ices. T h e output of colour-display data are p e r ­
fo rm e d by the user p ro g ra m transferring coordinates and characters to the
"post-box" a r e a . T h e u s e r p ro g ra m s transfer graphic data as coordinates
with colour information and alphanum eric data as F O R T R A N form at strings
with information about colour and size of characters to the N O R D - 2 0 c o m ­
puter. A n exam ple of a coordinate segm ent (Xj y-j and x 2 y2 with colour
information) giving a red line from upper left corner to lower right corner is;
*0 2 55 38 3 0 3
A n exam ple of a text string could be:
( / / / / 5x, *1 0 T H I S T E X T IS O N E L I N E 5, S T A R T I N G I N P O S . 6,
G R E E N C O LO U R *)
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 4 287

FIG. 8. Bar graph for the startup situation of the plant.

FIG. 9. Computer output mixed with video.

288 LUNDE et a l.

3 .3 . E x p er im en ta l operation of the H alden Reactor

T o investigate experim entally the p erform ance of the com puter-based

operator- process com m unication system , it will in the near future be
connected to the reactor plant, replacing to so m e extent the conventional
control r o o m .
T h e reactor engineer will have a colour display and a standard keyboard
at his disposal, while the operator will use three colour displays, a console
with pre-defined push-buttons, and a tracker ball for addressing p urposes.
T h e reactor engineer will supervise the operation of the plant with
reg a r d to safety and operational criteria, and he will collect the information
needed for obtaining an overall view of the plant status in all situations.
T h e en gin eer/o pe ra to r will be able to call m im ic d ia g r a m s , histogram s,
trends, plant status, and a la rm s and m e s s a g e s from the monitoring system
will automatically be displayed. F r o m the m im ic d ia gra m s (circuit displays)
the en gin eer/o p e ra to r can obtain further detailed information by m e a n s of
the k ey b o a r d /tr a ck er ball.
F ig u r e s 6-9 are a few exam ples of display pictures specified for o p er­
ation and supervision of the plant. F ig u r e 6 is a display of the p rim ar y
circuit of the plant. In the diagram red lines will indicate closed circuits,
while green lines indicate open circuits. R unning pum ps is indicated with
gree n a r r o w s , while not running is given by red a r r o w s . T h e operator can
by m e a n s of the tracker ball "point" at sym bols for further details, t e m p e r a ­
tures, levels, p re ss u r es etc. Also valves can be addressed for manipulation
from the operator's console. T h e u s e r system in the m ain com puter is
monitoring the plant for changes and, if so, the d ia g r a m is automatically
updated.
A n important feature for a computer-based supervision system is the
possibility of trend display of plant variables as show n in F i g . 7 w hich is the
values of a flow for the last 10 m in . T h e Y - a x i s i s automatically scaled w he n
ad d r es s ed to give the best resolution of the cu rve . Cu rv es with different
colours can be m ix e d on the s a m e display.
L eve ls can be displayed as graph bars indicated in F i g . 8 . Colours are
used to indicate variables outside the r e c o m m e n d e d and permitted range. T h e
levels are updated in time intervals of, for instance, one second.
F ig u r e 9 is an exam ple of com puter output m ix ed'w ith video signals
( T V broadcasting station). T h is feature will have great advantages in display
of video from the T V c a m e r a supervising rem ote com ponents.
 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 / В - 6

SIM U LATIO N STUDIES OF

THE O P T IM A L D IR E C T D IG ITAL CO N TRO L
OF THE A - l R E A C T O R

£ . KARPETA, P. St IRSKŸ, K. VOLF, S. ROUBAL

Power Research Institute,
Prague, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

Abstract

SIMULATION STUDIES OF THE OPTIMAL DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL OF THE A-l REACTOR.
Computer-aided simulation of the digital control of the Czechoslovak nuclear power plant A-l reactor
approximating the nominal steady state is presented. Modern control theory approach has been adopted and
the problem of the optimal control of the reactor is formulated as a discrete-time linear-quadratic-Gaussian
(LQG) problem. Following the lines of the separation theorem, the effects of choosing different performance
index weighting matrices are studied primarily for deterministic optimal control with all state variables
accessible for measurement. Some properties of the Kalman filter for the process state estimation are then
investigated. The results of the analysis of the more realistic stochastic control are given.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

It is completely accepted that safety, reliability and econom y of the

operation of a nuclear p o w er plant depend to a great extent on the plant's
control s y s tem . T o d a y , com puter control system s are installed in m a n y
plants to facilitate the efficient use of the information collected by the
m e a s u r in g devices. E a r lie r applications of digital com puter techniques
to p o w e r reactors w e r e limited p rim arily to data handling. T h e rem ark a ble
p ro g re ss in the technology and design of digital com puters, w hich has
resulted in a considerable increase of both capability and reliability of the
co m p u ters, alongside a concurrent d e cre a se in their cost, size and weight,
enabled a fundam ental extension of the co m p u ter's role in the plant control
sy s tem . R e c en t developm ents in m an - m achine com m unication now m a k e
it possible to benefit fully fr o m all the capabilities of the com pu ter. A s a
result of these advances a n u m b e r of control functions is now being taken
over by the com puter, and the designer of the sy stem is faced with the
necessity of adopting appropriate digital control algorithm s. T h o u g h existing
control theory provides a variety of m ethods for the application at hand,
considerable intuition and experience with the p ro c ess are n ec e ss a ry , and
extensive sim ulation studies m ust be carried out before on-line application.
T h e C ze c h o s lo v a k approach to the installation of digital com puters on
nuclear p o w e r plants is outlined in R e f . [ 1 ] . A t present its realization is
determ ined by the following two factors: (a) the national p r o g r a m of the
nuclear p o w er industry has switched fr o m the heavy-water gas-cooled
reactors to the P W R ; and (b) the design and construction of the C ze ch o slo va k
control com puter T E S L A R P P 16 has b e e n com pleted and production will
start in the n ea r future. U n d e r these circum stances the first C ze ch o s lo v a k
nuclear p o w e r plant A - l, w hich is now being started up, will also serve as
a convenient facility for experim ental studies concerning com puter control
s y s t e m s.

289
290 KARPETA e t a l.

In this connection a r e s e a r c h project, the m a in objective of which is to

investigate and establish the long-term conception of the design and instru­
mentation of control system s for C ze ch o s lo v a k nuclear p o w er plants, w a s
recently started. Applications of m o d e r n control theory to reactor and
plant control are included in this project so as to study the advantages
and shortcom ings of this approach. Investigation of the direct digital control
of the A- l reactor cooling gas output tem perature has b e e n selected as the
first step tow ards this goal. This w o r k is to be incorporated into the I A E A
international coordinated resea rch project.
T h e following notation will be em ployed throughout the p aper: bold-face
type indicates m atric es, a rro w s indicate vectors; the transpose of a vector
or m atrix is denoted by the p r im e , the inversion of a m atrix is denoted by
the p o w e r to -1. T h e sym bol I is used for the identity m atrix and the
s y m bo l 0 stands for the zero m atrix while 0 denotes the ze ro vector.
T i m e is usually denoted by t, differentiation with respect to time is indicated
by a dot, T stands for the sam pling period and E stands for m athem atical
expectation.

2. D E S IG N P H IL O S O P H Y

T h e synthesis of optim al direct digital control of the A- l reactor,

b a s ed on the m o d e r n control theory approach, is described in detail
else w h ere [2] . T o facilitate the presentation of the analysis of this control
s o m e of the m a in points of the design p ro cedure will first be r eview ed.
M a th e m a tica l identification of the p rocess had to be adopted as no
experim ental data w e r e available. T h e reactor core w a s replaced by an
effective fuel channel, the p a ra m eter s of w hich w e r e cooling-gas-flow
weighted averages of the p ara m eters of the individual channels. T h e radial
distribution of neutron density and tem peratures in the reactor w e r e neglected
and their axial distribution w a s centred. A point m o del of the reactor
kinetics with one group of delayed neutrons w a s derived and only the r e ­
activity feedback of the fuel tem perature w a s considered. T h e m a x i m u m
tem perature of the u ranium w a s selected so that a safety p a ra m e t e r of the
reactor m ight be taken into account. T h e dy nam ics of the output parts of
the reactor, as well as those of the m a in pipelines up to the place of the
installation of the therm ocouples for coolant output tem perature m e a s u r e ­
m ent, w e r e approxim ated by a first-order lum p ed m o d e l. Determ inistic
step-function disturbances w e r e a s s u m e d in the cooling-gas flow, in the
reactivity and in the cooling-gas input tem perature. Stochastic disturbances
driving the p ro c ess w e r e represented by the reactivity equivalent noise
s o u r ce. Identification of the process resulted in a lum ped- param eter non­
linear m o d e l of the o rder of ten with four variables accessible for m e a s u r e ­
m en t. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t vector w a s supposed to be corrupted by the additive
white noise. Reactivity w a s chosen as the control variable. T h e state
equation of the m o d e l w a s linearized about its steady-state solution and the
p ro b lem of the optimal control of the reactor w a s form ulated as the regulator
p ro b lem for a time-invariant discrete version of the continuous p r o c e s s .
T h e unified p ro c edu re of the linear-quadratic-Gaussian p ro b lem w a s
em ployed to design the optimal controller and the optimal estim ator.
T h e s e ideas will now be translated into m athem atical ex p ressio n s.
T h e p ro c ess to be controlled is described by the following equations
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 6 291

x(t) = F x(t) + G w(t) + C u(t) (1 )

(2 )
z(t) = Hx(t) + v(t)

w h e r e x(t) is the n-dim ensional state vector of the p r o c e s s , z(t) is the

m - dim ensional output vector, u(t) the r-dim ensional control vector, w(t)
the p-dim ensional r a n d o m vector driving the p r o c e s s , v(t) the m - dim ensional
r a n d o m vector of the additive noise contaminating the m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
and F , G , С and H are time-invariant m atrices of the o rder compatible
with x, w and u. T h e com ponents of these vectors are as follows:

t U S Il * ^ c s n * ttsn» turnj Qlli O í, t( J j , gcf ¿ k x , t c

Ч.П > tth > Sc » tc

u = 6k

6k„

v qn ' Vtth » v gc 1 v tco

w h e r e tusn, tcsn and tbn are, respectively, the u r a n iu m , cooling gas and
sheat tube m e a n tem peratures weighted by the squ ared neutron density,
tUm is the m a x i m u m tem perature of u r a n iu m , qn the reactor p o w e r , ci the
concentration of delayed neutron p re c u r s o r s , t ^ t h e tem perature of the
therm ocouple, g c the cooling gas flow, and tco the cooling gas input
tem perature; all these variables indicate relative deviations fr o m nom inal
v a lu es. Total reactivity 6 k is given by the relation

6k = 6kx + 6kw + 6ku

w h e r e 6kx is the reactivity deterministic disturbance, 6kw is the reactivity

r a n d o m disturbance and 6ku is the control reactivity.
T h e coolant output tem perature tcl is related to the p rocess state
variables by the equation

tcl "

T h e com ponents of F , G , С and H and their n u m e ric a l values are given in

R ef. [2 ]. T h e discrete-time counterparts of E q s (1) and (2) are given by

x(k + l) = фх(к) + Г w (k) + 4* u(k) (3)

2 92 KARPETA et al.

z(k + l) = H x (k + l) + v (k + l) k = 0 ,1 ,2 . ...(4 )

w h e r e Ф , Г and Ч1are the p ro c es s transition m atr ix , the r a n d o m disturbances

tra n sm issio n m atrix and the control tra n sm issio n m atrix , respectively.
S am p ling period T has be en omitted for simplicity of notation.
T h e p ro b lem of the digital control of the reactor about its steady state
w a s form ulated as follows.
G iv e n the linearized time-invariant dy nam ical sy stem (3) and the
linearized time-invariant observation E q . (4), let the initial state vector
be G a u s s ia n r a n d o m vector with zero m e a n and k no w n covariance m atr ix , i. e . ,

E [x(0)] = 0 E [ x ( 0 ) x '( 0 ) ] = P (0) (5)

L e t the p ro c ess driving noise w be a stationary, white, G a u s s ia n vector

with ze ro m e a n and know n covariance m atrix, i . e . ,

E [w (k)] =0 E [w(k) w '(k )] = Q (6)

Let the m e a s u r e m e n t contaminating noise v also be a stationary, white,

G a u s s ia n r a n d o m vector with zero m e a n and k now n covariance m atrix, i. e.

E t v (k + l )] = 0 E [v(k+l) v'(k-t-l)] = R (7)

F u r t h e r m o r e , it is a s s u m e d that x (0 ), w (k) and v (k +l) are mutually

independent, i . e . ,

cov [x (0); w ] = 0 cov [x(0); v] = 0 cov [w ; v] = 0 (8)

for all к § 0. F i n d a sy stem w hich generates the control vector u such

that the quadratic p e r fo rm a n c e index of the fo r m

•N
J = E ] £ x '(k ) A x (k) + u'(k- l) В u (k-1) (9)
k=l

is m i n i m u m . T h e weighting m atrices in E q . (9) are s y m m e tr ic a l positive-

sem idefinite real m atrices of the o rder ( n X n ) and ( r X r ) , respectively.
T h e solution of this L Q G stochastic control p ro b le m is given by the
so-called separation th eo r em . A ccordin g to this theo rem the optimal
control vector is generated by

u(k) = S (k )S (k | k ) (10 )
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 6 293

w h e r e the control gain m atrix S is obtained by the solution of the deter­

m inistic linear-quadratic p ro b le m , and the estimate §(k |k ) of the plant
state vector x(k) is generated by the K a l m a n filter under the assum ption
that u(k) is determ inistic. T h u s , the feedback control loop consists of
the ca sc a de com bination of an optim al estim ator and optimal controller.
T h e following recu rsive form ulas are available [5] for the computation
of S(k) :

W (k+1) = M (k + 1 ) + A

S(k) 4 "W (k + l)4 »+ B 4"W(k+l)<t>

(11)

M (k ) = Ф' W (k + 1 ) Ф + Ф ' W (k + 1 ) 4»S(k)

к = N - l, N- 2, . . . 2, 1, 0; M (N ) = 0

and for the computation of 2(k| k):

x(k+ l|k + l) = фх(к| к) + K(k+1)

P (k+11 к) = Ф P (к Iк) ф'+ Г Q Г

(1 2 )
-i
К (k+1) = P (k + 1 1к) H' H P (k+11 k) H’ + R

P ( k + 1 1k+1) = I - K(k+1) H P(k+11 k)

w h e r e K(k+1) is the ( n X m ) K a l m a n filter gain m atrix and P (k + l|k + l) and

P (k + l | k ) is the ( n X n ) covariance m atrix of the estimation error vector

x (k+ l) - x (k+l|k+l) (13)

and the ( n X n ) covariance m atrix of the prediction er r o r vector

x ( k + l ) - x ( k + l I k) (14)

respectively. T h e initial conditions for the algorithm (12) are given

by E q . (5).
T o s u m m a r i z e : E m p lo y in g the L Q G approach one has arrived at' a
set of p ro b lem s w hich can be solved by a digital com pu ter. A question
a rises: w hat is available to the design engineer to control the quality of
the overall design so that he can obtain a satisfactory system ? In general,
the a n s w e r to this question, for the time-invariant c a s e, is the selection
of four m atrices A , B, Q and R . T w o of them , n am ely A and B, are a s s o ­
ciated with the deterministic control p ro b le m , the other two are associated
294 KARPETA e t a l.

with the estimation p r o b le m . T h e fact that fr o m a m athem atical point of

v ie w the separation theorem allows one to solve the control and filter
p ro b lem s separately does not m e a n , ho w e v er, that these m atrices should
be selected independently of each other. Unfortunately, there are no
system atic pro cedures available for the specification of A , B, Q and R .
S o m e qualitative properties of the overall system can only be deduced fr o m
the closed-loop s y s t e m equations.
F u r t h e r m o r e , as it can be seen fr o m E q s (11) and (12), both the con­
troller and the filter, being linear, are in general time-variant. T h i s , of
co u rs e, is a m a jo r disadvantage fro m an im plem entation viewpoint, m ainly
due to limited capabilities of co m m o n ly available com puters. Naturally,
great interest in the steady-state solution of the L Q G stochastic control
p ro b lem arises in this connection. T h e existence of the steady-state
solution w a s first proved by K a l m a n [3] under the assum ption of complete
controllability and com plete observability of the time-invariant sy stem (1).
If in this case the control is optim ized over the semi-infinite interval (0,oo)
both the control gain m atrix S and the filter gain m atrix К turn out to be
constant. T h e solution of the prob lem is then given by the control/filter
algebraic Riccati m atrix equation. Applying a routine test of controllability
and observability of time-invariant p ro c esse s it can easily be s how n that
the sy stem (3) is neither controllable nor observable. T h u s , the question
of the existence of the optimal time-invariant feedback loop r e m a in s open
and will be studied later by em ploying a straightforward m ethod b a s ed on
investigation of convergence of S and K, considered as solutions of rela­
tions (11) and (12), to their asymptotic values w h e n к approaches infinity.

3. S IM U L A T IO N T E C H N IQ U E

Investigation of the transient response of the closed-loop sy stem of the

digital control of the A- l reactor tem peratures w a s carried out, using
A L G O L , on the general- purpose digital com puter O D R A 1 2 0 4 . T h e m ain
p a r a m e t e r s of the com puter are as follows: core m e m o r y cycle 6 u s , core
m e m o r y size 16 K , w o r d length 24 bits. T h e com puter w a s p r o g r a m m e d
to solve the set of first-order non-linear differential equations of the m odel
of the p ro c ess using Runge- Kutta- M erson algorithm , and to p e r fo r m the
calculations of the state vector estimates as w ell as the calculation of
the control vector in accordance with E q s (11) and (12). N o m odelling of
the A / D and D / A conversion w a s involved.
R e- exam ining the assum ptions under w hich the optimal control p ro b lem
w a s form ulated it can be see n that no limitations im p o s ed upon the control
variable w e r e taken into account in the design stage. T h e rea so n is obvious
but the real case, ho w e ver, is that the outputs of the actuators are con­
strained either ow ing to limited resources of energy or to special req uire­
m ents originating, e . g . , fro m safety considerations. T h is applies also to
nuclear, reactor control system s since reactivity as well as its rate of
change is allowed to range only inside well-specified limits. F o r the A-l
reactor the following values w e r e adopted

M 6k = 2 00 p c m м лбк = 39 p c m / s
 IAEA-SM-168/B-6 295

w h e r e M 6k and М д6к indicate the limits for the m agnitude and the rate of
change, respectively. T h u s , the control variable u(k) = 6 k u (k), resulting
fr o m passing the p ro c ess output vector through the filter and controller,
w a s handled as follows:

if |u(k) 1 s M ôk then u(k) = u(k)

if |u(k) 1 > M 6k then u(k) = M *k for u(k) > 0 (15)

u(k) = - M ók for u(k) < 0

|u(k) - u ( k - 1 ) l - M
if T 6 м Д6к then u(k) = u(k)
(16)
I u(k) - u(k-1) I
11. rp ^ m A6k

then u(k) = u(k-l) + T М л6к for u(k) - u(k-l) > 0

u(k) = u(k-l) - T М Д(5к for u(k) - u(k-l) < 0

Should the need of both amplitude and velocity constraining arise, algorithm
(16) is applied before algorithm (15).
T h e lack of experim ental data w a s a limiting factor in the m odelling of
the r a n d o m p ro c e s se s involved. D e s ig n of the control system w a s ba sed
on the assum ption that both the p ro c ess driving noise and m e a s u r e m e n t
additive noise are stationary, white, G a u s s ia n .random vectors. Such an
assum ption is usually m a d e if there are no data available indicating the
contrary. It is, h o w e v er , well kno w n that this assum ption is strongly
violated, particularly in the case w h e n reactivity-noise-equivalent source
technique is applied to at-power reactors. Significant deviations fr o m the
expected shape o ccur in the observed reactor noise p o w e r spectra in this
case even if the at-power reactor transfer function is used. Colo ur noise
source m u st be em p lo yed to keep this technique valid. T h is fact w a s ,
h o w e v er , neglected and both the p rocess driving noise and the m e a s u r e ­
m ent noise w e r e generated by an ordinary p s e u d o r a n d o m variable digital
generator p r o g r a m m e d on the com pu ter. T h e generator w a s not statistically
tested except for m e a n value and covariance calculations; the result obtained
s e e m e d to be satisfactory. This approach did not cause any considerable
discrepancies in the closed-loop sy stem transients, as pointed out in R e f . [ 4 ] ,
m o st probably be ca use of the p r e s u m e d low level of reactor noise.
T h e n u m e rica l values of statistical p a ra m eter s of the r a n d o m p ro c esse s
have be en a s s e s s e d on the basis of published values for s o m e other reactors.
T h e following values w e r e adopted:

Q = 1 .1 6 X 1 0 '9

w h ich co rresp o nds approxim ately to the standard deviation of the reactor
p o w e r level noise of ct^,, = 0. 5 % of the reactor nom inal p o w e r , and
296 KARPETA et al.

0. 2 5 0 0 X 1 0 ' 6 0 0 0
0 1. 58 7 6 X 1 0 ' 8 0 0
R = -
0 0 2. 2556 X 1 0"4 0
0 0 0 0 .1 2 1 4 X 1 0 ’ 4

A justification of this selection can be found in R e f . [ 4 ] .

4. D E T E R M IN IS T IC C O N T R O L P R O B L E M

T h e solution of the deterministic p ro b lem yields the so-called d e te rm in ­

istic control s y s t e m . T h e investigation of the transient responses of this
s y s tem represents a convenient tool for the studies of the effect of the
individual selections of A and В on p rocess dy nam ic properties. T h e picture
is not interfered with here by the uncertainties involved ,in the overall
p r o b le m , as both the p ro c e s s driving noise and the m e a s u r e m e n t noise are
neglected and all p ro c ess state variables are a s s u m e d to be accessible for
m easurem ent.
T h e objective of the reactor control system , w hich is one of the local
loops in the control system of the p o w er station A - l, is to m aintain the
coolant output tem perature constant in o rder that: (1) T h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r ­
ature of the fuel cladding m a y not exceed its limiting value; (2) the nom inal
conditions for steam - generator operation m a y be en su red . If there is a
need on the plant secondary side of a new adjustment of the reactor p o w er
level, then a n ew value of the coolant flow is first set by the coolant flow
controller. T h e reactor control system , being disturbed by this change,
sets such a p o w e r level that the coolant output tem perature is kept at the
pre-set value. A n other outside disturbance affecting the reactor system
is the coolant input tem perature. It w a s , ho w e v er, learned previously that,
owing to the large heat capacity of the steam generators, the time evolution
of this disturbance is rather slow with sm all changes in m agnitude. Since
only at-power operation of the reactor w a s con sidered, inner disturbances
of the sy stem w e r e represented by the reactivity fluctuations. H e n c e , the
objective of the reactor control system w a s stated as follows. G iv e n any
com bination of the above-mentioned disturbances, one finds a corrective
control such that the coolant output tem perature and the fuel-cladding
m a x i m u m tem perature deviate as little as possible. A s a consequence of
such a form ulation the quality of the control can be judged by the m a x i m u m
overshoot, settling time of the transients, and the steady-state deviations
of these two variables.
A straightforward w a y to the first selection of A and В w a s thus at hand:

J (17)
i =1

It turned out that in this case low-valued fluctuations w e r e s up erim p osed

upon the transients of the closed-loop s y stem . T h e fluctuations vanished
either by selecting A to be positive-definite or by penalizing the control, i . e . ,
introducing В > 0. T h e last approach resulted, of co u rse, in unsatisfactory
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / В - 6 297

FIG . 1 , Transient response o f the d eterm in istic control system for A g c = - 0 . 1 , Д6кх = 0 . 0 0 1 , A t co = 0 , 0 3 4 7 ,
T = 1 s, 0 . 5 s, 0 , 1 2 5 s (curves 1 , 2 and 3 , resp ec tiv ely ).
298 KARPETA e t a l.

transients because the larger that В w a s , the sm a ller w e r e the individual

com ponents of S, the slow er w a s the system , and the larger w e r e the steady-
state deviations of tum and tcl. On ly diagonal positive-definite m atrices A
w e r e studied and the p ro b lem of assigning n u m e rica l values to the weighting
coefficients in the p er fo rm a n c e index
oo

= X % tusn + g2 isn + g3 tta + §4 *ит + Ss + S 6 C¡ + g 7 t l + g8 (18)

i —1

w a s attacked by an ordinary trial-and-error m ethod. T h e best transients

(as far as the overshoot, undershoot, steady-state deviation and the duration
of the transients of tumand tc lare concerned) w e r e obtained for
Si = §2 = ё з = g 5 = ёб = ёт= !» g 4 = g 8 = 2 0 . T h e time evolution of the
plant variables tum, tcl and the control variable 6ku for three values of
the sam pling period T are s h o w n in F i g . 1. T h e w o rst case with regard
to possible coincidence between the instant of sam pling and the instant of
step-function disturbances occurring is presented (the disturbances occu rred
im m ediately after the first sam pling had taken place).
L et us conclude this section with a r e m a r k concerning the asymptotic
properties of the controller gain m atrix S (k ). M a tr ix S(k) approached quite
rapidly its asymptotic value; five decim al digits accordance w a s reached
for к = 100 and m atrix S (1 00 ) w a s adopted to represent a sufficient
approxim ation of S(oo).

5. S T O C H A S T IC C O N T R O L S Y S T E M

An alysis of the stochastic control system w a s carried out both off-

and on-line, m ak in g use of the results of the preceding section. Off-line
computation of the filter gain m atrix K(k) and of the estimation error
covariance m atrix P(k |k ) w a s p er fo rm ed in order to investigate the
asymptotic behaviour of the filter and to study the influence of the different
selections of P (0) upon the filter dynam ic properties. Sim ulation of on-line
control in the stochastic ca se w a s em ployed to discover whether a time-
invariant filter can be adopted for real-time control. M a tr ix S ( 1 0 0 ) ,
corresponding to the p er fo rm a n c e index (18), w a s perm anently used during
these studies. —►
In the stochastic control p ro b lem the initial state x(0) is vie w ed as a
r a n d o m variable. A m e a s u r e of this initial uncertainty is the covariance
m atrix P (0) w h ich is used_as a starting value for the K a l m a n filter algorithm .
T h e p ro c ess state vector x satisfies a set of sim ultaneous differential
equations. H e n c e , its com ponents are in general correlated and the m atrix
P (0) has non-zero elem ents р ^ , i f j. T h e co m m o n ly used approach, how ever,
is that the m atrix P(0) is a s s u m e d to be diagonal since it is rather difficult
to evaluate its non-diagonal elem ents. A s the control n ea r the nom inal
steady state w a s dealt with, the following selections of P(0) w e r e m a d e

P(0) = cov[ cr = 0. 5] P(0) = cov[ a = 1. 0] P(0) = cov[ a = 5 .0 ]

w hich m e a n s that the standard deviation a = 0. 5 % (1 % , 5 % ) of each state

va riab le's nom inal steady-state value w a s adopted as a m e a s u r e of this
 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 / В -6 2 99

v a r iab le's initial uncertainty. T h e off-line calculation revealed so m e

interesting properties of the filter. T h e n um e rica l results, for increasing k,
s e e m e d to support the conclusion that, (1) in spite of the fact that the p rocess
is not o bservable, both the filter gain m atrix K(k) and the estimation error
covariance m atrix P (k |k ) approach s o m e asymptotic values; (2) the a s y m p ­
totic values do not depend on the selection of P (0 ). T h e convergence w a s ,
h o w e v er , rather poor and for sm a ll values of к w a s evidently affected by
the selection of the initial value: larger P (0) resulted in slo w er con vergence.
T h e next step towards the goal of achieving a steady-state solution of
the stochastic control p ro b lem w a s the investigation of the closed-loop
transients for the time-invariant filter.gain m atrix K (k ). T h e asymptotic
value of K, the existence of w hich s e e m e d to be docum ented b y the preceding
studies, w a s approxim ated by the value K (4 0 0 ). T h is selection resulted in
a com pletely unsatisfactory dy nam ic response of the overall s y s tem . T h e
bandwith of the sy stem w a s v e ry n a r r o w , preventing the noise fr o m p assing
through but at the s a m e time reducing the control action to such an extent
that, in practice, no control w a s exerted. L o w e r k-valued gain m atrices
K (k) w e r e then tested for the time-invariant filter. This approach is partly
illustrated in F i g . 2. Im proving d y nam ic p er fo rm a n c e can be. o bserved for
decreasing к w hich, on the other hand, had to be paid for by an increase
of the noise level in the s y s t e m . A reasonable c o m p r o m is e s e e m e d to be
rea ch e d for К (28) w hich p re se r v ed approxim ately the s a m e noise level in
the closed-loop sy stem as that in the uncontrolled p ro c ess while still being
good enough fr o m the aspect of the control quality. T h is result w a s obtained
for T = 1 s and for the sim ultaneous o ccu rren ce of all p r e s u m e d disturbances,
i . e . , A g c, A 6 k x, A t co.
It turned out that the conditions for such a c o m p r o m is e depended on
the sam pling period and, m o r e o v e r , if the sy stem w a s disturbed only by
either A g c or A t co or by both of them , the control action w a s unsatisfactory,
even in the opposite direction at the beginning of thé tránsients. H e n c e ,
the attempt to em ploy a time-invariant filter failed. T h e possible reason
m ight be due to the inappropriate selection of the m atrix Q . It has already
been pointed out in Section 2 that the selection of the m atrices A , B, Q and
R should not be m a d e independently. In our case В and R can be assigned
fixed values; the r ea s o n for В = 0 w a s discussed in the preceding section,
and the fixed value of R originates fr o m the nature of the p r o b le m . A large
value of A w a s selected to obtain good p er fo rm a n c e of the deterministic
control loop. Since a sm all value of Q w a s adopted on the basis of the
physics of the p ro b lem (an 0 . 5 % noise le v e l.s e e m s to be reasonable for
this kind of reactor), the bandwith of the filter is sm all and the poles of the
closed-loop system , w hich are related to the constants of the filter, b e c a m e
dom inant causing poor transients of the sy s tem . A greater uncertainty might
have b e e n introduced into the process dy nam ics in order to represent errors
in m odelling. So far, this approach has not yet been em p loyed.
W it h simulation of the on-line control with a time-variant filter, the
e xp erim ent w a s com pleted. T h e closed-loop transients of such a s y s t e m ,
turned out to approxim ate v e ry closely those of the deterministic case
(see F i g . 3 ) . T h e "s m o o t h e d " values of the m a x i m u m overshoots and the
steady-state deviations are practically the s a m e both in deterministic and
stochastic control; only the duration of the time respon ses increa sed a
little owing to the sm a ller slope of the transients in the time interval
b etw een the overshoot and the steady state of the p r o c e s s .
300 KARPETA e t a l.

F IG . 2 . Transient response o f the stochastic control system with a t im e -in v a r ia n t system for A g c = - 0 .
AÔkjj - 0 , 0 0 1 , A t co - 0 . 0 3 4 7 . К = K ( 5 0 ) , K ( 3 0 ) , K (2 0 ), K (1 0 ) (curves 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 , r e sp e c tiv e ly ).
 I A E A -S M - 1 6 8 / В - 6 301

F I G .3 . Transient response o f the stoch astic control system with t im e -v a r ia n t filte r for A g c = - 0 . 1 ,
Дбкх = 0 . 0 0 1 , A t co = 0 . 0 3 4 7 . C ontrol with and w ithout t im e d ela y (curves 1 and 2 , r e sp e c tiv e ly ).
302 KARPETA e t a l.

6. CONCLUSIONS

In this p aper an attempt has been m a d e to s u m m a r i z e results of a first

step tow ards the m o d e r n control theory approach to the control of the p o w er
station A-l reactor. M a n y p rob lem s r e m a in to be investigated. S o m e of
th em are the following: (1) A test for the required computational tim e of
a control co m puter is needed; (2) since the com puter p r o g r a m s used to
solve the estimator algorithm and to com pute the control input are written
in A L G O L and have not been com piled for m in i m u m time execution, no
conclusions can be m a d e concerning real-time control capability; (3) a
hybrid com puter sy stem should be used to establish feasibility of real­
tim e control; (4) m o r e effort m ust be devoted to the m odelling of the p rocess
in o rder to obtain a lower- dim ensional p ro b le m and to rea ch a satisfactory
steady-state solution of the stochastic control; and (5) the actual c h a r a c ­
teristics of the sen so rs and actuators should also be included to obtain m o r e
realistic results for draw ing a com p a riso n between the classical control
sy stem and this n ew approach.

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] A Study on Determination of the Main Perspectives in the Field of Nuclear Power Plant Control,
Czechoslovak AEC Rep. 1618/1-1/19 (1969) (in Czech).
[ 2] STIRSKŸ, P ., KARPETA, £ ., "Optimum digital control synthesis of the A 1 reactor of the first
Czechoslovak nuclear power station". Nuclear Power Plant Control and Instrumentation (Proc. Working
Group Meeting, Vienna, 1972), IAEA, Vienna (1972) 179.
[3] K ALM AN, R .E ., "New methods and results in linear prediction and filtering theory” , Proc. 1st Symp.
Engng. Appl. Random Function Theory and Probability, Purdue University, J. Wiley&Sons, New York(1963).
[4] KARPETA, £ ., Digital computer control of type-A nuclear reactor employing one of the modern optimal
control theory approaches, Ph. D. Thesis, Power Research Institute, Prague (1972).
[5] M EDITCH, J.S., Stochastic Linear Estimation and Control, McGraw-Hill, New York (1969).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7

D E V E L O P M E N T AND A P P L IC A T IO N OF
AD VAN C ED CONCEPTS FOR NUCLEAR
P LA N T AND CORE CONTROL

R. GRUMBACH, B. BLOMSNES
OECD Halden Reactor Project,
Halden, Norway

Abstract

DEVELOPMENT A ND APPLICATION OF ADVANCED CONCEPTS FOR NUCLEAR PLANT A N D CORE CONTROL.

Concepts for closed-loop computer control of both the plant power production and the core power distribu­
tion have been developed and tested at the OECD Halden Reactor Project. The plant control concept was based
on the optimal control theory for linear systems subject to quadratic performance criteria. This approach was
taken because the theory as well as the control system design procedure is simple and well established, and
because it results in a simple control algorithm. However, an important addition to a straightforward application
of the theory was introduced to reduce the sensitivity of the control system to differences between the (non­
linear) reactor process and the linear model, from which the control algorithm was derived. This addition
consisted in an augmentation of the state description with a number of ártificial variables which represented
the discrepancy between the linear model and the true process. This measure resulted in a control system which
is applicable over a wide power range (load-follow) without adjustment of controller settings. The described
plant and core control concepts have been studied in simulations or applied in experiments at the Halden
Boiling Water Reactor. The paper presents a sample of representative results. It is concluded that the chosen
approaches are promising for the control of large nuclear power plants, and the applications to such plants are
studied.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

F o r the control of large nuclear p o w er plants, n u m e ro u s couplings

b etw een different variables m ust be o bserved. T h is situation m a k e s those
control m ethods attractive that allow the control problem to be dealt with in
a multivariable state space instead ôf assigning single loop controllers to
single variables and individually handling the coupling p hen o m e n a between
them .
T h e applicability of multivariable optimal control theory, colloquially
often referred to as "m o d e r n control theory", to p roblem s of nuclear plant
and core control, has been studied for several y ea rs as part of a resea rch
p r o g r a m , carried out at the O E C D H alden R eacto r Project, on the use of
pro c ess com puters in nuclear p o w er stations [ 1 ,2 ] . O n e of the m a in reasons
for investigating advanced control concepts that require a process com puter
has been the gap existing betw een theory and engineering applications in this
field. D u r in g the last decade, the m athem atical theory of topics such as
optimal control, estimation and filtering, has developed rapidly and is now
w ell established. H o w e v e r , only limited technical experience on these
m ethods is so far available. It is therefore of interest to test the new theories
in applications, especially as they s e e m to possess advantages w h e n multi-
variable a n d /o r non-linear system s are to be controlled.
T h is paper concentrates only on the control p ro blem s treated; it does
not discuss the assum p tion of using a process com puter for direct digital
control of nuclear reactor plants, which are referred to in Refs [3-8].

3 03
304 GRUM BACH and BLOMSNES

SET POINTS

FIG.l. Design and operation of the control algorithms.

T h e applications described in the subsequent sections co m p rise the

p o w e r /p r e s s u r e control of a B W R plant (section 2) and the control of the
spatial neutron flux distribution in a reactor core (section 3). Solutions to
both p ro b lem s have be en verified in experim ents on the H a ld e n Boiling
W a t e r Re a cto r, H B W R , [9]; in addition, the plant control problem has been
studied in simulations of B W R plants. Both control p roblem s w e r e approached
fro m the s a m e theoretical ba sis.
Signal flow and signal treatment in the closed control loop are s how n in
the upper part, the "on-line" part of F i g . 1. A n r-dim ensional control
signal vector ur(k) is generated at time tk from the estimated process state
vector X[/k) w h o s e n scalars m a y co m p rise both m ea su ra b le, u n m e a su ra b le
and artificial state variab les. T h e values of the control signals in u r(k) are
a s s u m e d constant in the time interval [tk; tk+1].
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7 30 5

T h e theories underlying the optimal estimation of the state vector and

the determination of the control vector are outlined in Refs [10- 13]; specific
nuclear applications have further been derived in [14- 18]. Only the final
equations, relating process state and control signals, and defining a desirable
optim um situation, are therefore given h ere.
A n optimal control vector u r°(k) shall be defined by

S ? (k ) = F r x n (k ) 4 ( k ) (1 )

w h e re the linear feedback m atrix Frxn(k) is derived from a discrete-time

m odel

*n<k+1) = Gnxn(k) ^ ( k ) + H nxr(k) fyk) + în(k) (2)

w h ic h is us ed to establish a p erfo rm a nce function

= ,f=1 [(*>) - ^n(k) )T Pnxn(^n(k) • *n(k)) + " 7 О1'1) Qrxr “r(k-1)] (3)

H e r e , xfj(k) is the desired state vector (setpoint vector) at the k'th sam pling.
Pnxn and Q rxr are constant, positive semi-definite, sym m e tric weighting
m atric es. (Superscript T denotes the transpose of a vector or m atrix, and
the subscripts their dim ensionality. )
T h e optimal control p roblem is then formulated as follows:
O n e m ust determ ine the sequence of control vectors [ur(0), ur(l), . . . . ,
u r(N - l)], w h ich m in im ize d the expected value of the p erform ance function
specified by E q . (3) subject to the condition that the state transition E q . (2)
is satisfied, for any arbitrary initial state x j o ) . (T h e r e is no possibility
for explicit treatment of physical constraints in this theory. Such constraints
m ust be handled indirectly through choice of the weighting m atrices P a n d Q . )
In the application described in this paper, a dynam ic p r o g r a m m in g a p ­
proach [11] has been used to determ ine the feedback m atrix F rxn yielding
the optimal control signal sequence. In general this m atrix changes from
one sam pling to the next, resulting in time-varying feedback control. H o w ­
ever, simplifying assum ptions can be m ad e in both the plant and the core
control ca s e . F o r sm all к and large N , i .e . in the beginning of a multistage
p ro c ess, the variations of the feedback m atrix are negligible. F o r the
plant p o w e r /p r e s s u r e control, steady-state control m ay thus be view ed as an
infinite-stage p ro c ess, and consequently a constant Frxn has been applied in
the steady-state control system s at the H B W R , with the result that the control
system s w e r e constant feedback control s y s tem s. (Asym ptotic convergence
of Frxn already o c cu rred at N = 2 0 . )
In the core control case, the separation of the different dynam ic in ­
fluences on the neutron flux distribution has m a d e it possible to design a
sim plified control law which is valid for a limited period of tim e, but
certain parts of the inherent dy nam ics are neglected. At the end of the
period the control law has to be updated to m atch the changed physical
characteristics of the p ro c e s s. In this w a y , the problem of a-priori m odelling
the core d y na m ics is circum vented; instead, use has been m ad e of on-line
identification techniques which provide the core p aram eters needed to evalu­
ate a control law valid for a given situation.
306 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

2. PLANT CONTROL

2 . 1 . F ea tu res of the m o d e r n control algorithm

T h e first experience with m o d er n control methods at the Halden Project

w a s obtained through the developm ent and experim ental testing of an
algorithm b ased on linear optimization theory and K a lm a n filtering for
control of the nuclear p o w er and the vessel p re ssure of the H a ld e n reactor
[19].
A linear m athem atical m odel of the reactor itself and the heat-removal
circuits w a s developed from physical principles and fro m plant responses
obtained in identification exp erim ents. T h e m odel had 12 state variables,
of which four w e r e m e a su ra b le . T o com pensate discrepancies between the
m o del and the real p rocess, three artificial variables, representing W i e n e r
p ro c esse s and denoted "drift t e r m s ", w e r e added to the state vector. In the
K a l m a n filter, estimates of the drift term s as well as of the non- m easurable
state variables w e r e com puted. A version of the algorithm without the drift-
term feature w a s also m ad e in order to study the effect of the drift term s on
the control system p erfo rm a n ce .
T h e p erfo rm a nce function w a s chosen such that deviations of the nuclear
po w er and the vessel p ressure from their respective setpoints could be
penalized, and to avoid unrealistic control signals, t e r m s w e r e included in
the p erfo rm a nce function w hich m ad e it possible to penalize the controller
velocities. T o this end, the setpoints and the controller velocities w e r e
included in the state vector. T h r e e controllers w e r e used, of w hich only
two w e r e "o p t im iz e d ", n am ely a valve controlling the flow of sub-cooled
w ater to the reactor tank and a valve controlling the flow of steam from the
reactor. T h e third controller w a s a control rod, w hich w a s m oved only to
m aintain the sub-cooling valve within its (rather limited) effective range.
T h e weighting coefficients of the perform ance function w e r e determ ined by
a trial-and-error procedure (simulation) w h e re the real p erfo rm a nce criteria
regarded step responses and responses to noise perturbations.
T h e m a in p roblem in the K a lm a n filter design w a s the determination of
the p ro c ess noise covariances. A com puter p ro g ra m w a s m ad e w hich
com puted estimates of those p aram eters on the basis of records of m e a su re d
reactor data. T h is p ro g ra m w a s useful in the selection of the covariances;
h o w e ver, so m e of them , e . g . the covariances of the (white) noise inputs to
the drift t e r m s , had to be selected by engineering judgem ent and on the basis
of the p erfo rm a nce of the resulting algorithm as investigated in simulations.
T h e design and operation of a m o d e r n control algorithm of this type is
illustrated in F i g . 1.
After extensive testing, the algorithm w a s im plem ented on a process
com puter for experim ental investigation. T h e following types of m e a s u r e ­
m ents w e r e p e r fo rm e d with the reactor controlled with the "m o d e r n "
algorithm :

(1) Steady-state m e a s u r e m e n t (only noise perturbation)

(2) M e a s u r e m e n t of the response to nuclear p ow er setpoint changes
(3) M e a s u r e m e n t s of the response to v e sse l p ressure setpoint changes
(4) M e a s u r e m e n t of the response to reactivity perturbations
(5) M e a s u r e m e n t of the response to changes in subcooling and p ow er
level.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7 307

M e a s u r e m e n t s of types (2), (3), and (4) w e r e p er fo rm ed also with the

nuclear p o w er and vessel p re ss u r e controlled by a conventional PID-control
algorithm . In this w a y a c o m p a r iso n of the m o d e r n algorithm to a conven­
tional control system could be achieved. T h e PID- algorithm w a s digital and
im plem ented on the process com puter, and "o p t i m u m " p a ra m eter settings
w e r e obtained by on-line tuning.

2 .2 . P e r fo r m a n c e of the m o d e r n control algorithm

Stability

T h e algorithm showed satisfactory stability properties in all m e a s u r e ­

m ents. H o w e v e r , this w a s so only for the version of the algorithm w hich
included the drift-term feature. T h e version of the algorithm without drift
t e r m s sho w ed poor stability properties. It m a n a g e d to keep the reactor
u n de r control in the condition for w hich it had been optim ized, but it caused
instability w h e n significant changes w e r e (gradually) introduced in sub­
cooling or p o w er level.

Sensitivity

T h e general conclusion w a s that the p erfo rm a nce of the algorithm w a s

insensitive to changes in the reactor p o w er level and in the amount of sub­
cooling supplied to the m oderator, and also to changes in s om e of the p a r a ­
m eters of the m o del. Although so m e p a ra m eter s of the m odel can be
changed considerably without degrading the control system p er fo rm a n ce , it is
clear that the quality of the m odel in general is decisive for the perform ance
of-a control algorithm of this type. T h is w a s clearly dem onstrated in an
early experim ent, w h e re a m o d e r n algorithm derived from a poor m odel
m a d e the whole reactor system oscillate.

Effect of the drift term s

T h e purpose of the drift term s is to m ak e the algorithm less sensitive

to biased disturbances (drifts), modelling er r o rs and changes in the p rocess,
i .e . in general, to differences between the (linear) m odel of the p ro c ess,
fro m w hich the control algorithm is derived, and the real (non-linear)
p r o c e s s . T h e experim ents proved that the presence of drift t e r m s has a
very favourable effect on the p erfo rm a nce of an algorithm of this type. In
fact, it w a s found that the version of the algorithm that did not include the
drift-term feature showed only poor p erfo rm a nce , especially during m e a s u r e ­
m ents of type (5), w h e re the process w a s m oved aw a y from the condition for
w hich the algorithm had be en derived. This result has been confirm ed in
sim ulations, both with a m o del and control system for the H B W R , and with a
m o del and control system for a standard light-water B W R . Without the
drift t e r m s , a linear state-variable feedback control algorithm of the in ­
vestigated type is basically a multivariable PD- control s y stem . T h e drift
t e r m s introduce an integral effect in the system , a.nd. therefore this technique
has also been denoted "m ultivariable PID- control". T h e m ost important
property of the drift term s is that they, by their integral term effect, counter­
act steady-state offsets.
308 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

C o m p a r is o n to a conventional PID-control system

T h e experim ental result of the p erfo rm a nce of the m o d e r n algorithm

co m p a r e d with that of a conventional PID-control algorithm w a s that no
significant difference could be observed between the two system s for the
types of perturbations w hich w e r e applied. Both system s behaved
satisfactorily.

Sam p le of responses

F ig u r e 2 show s respon ses obtained with the reactor controlled with the
m o d e r n control algorithm including the drift-term feature. It is observed
that a step change in the p o w er setpoint is followed rather rapidly and
without steady state offsets, and with only a m in or perturbation of the
pressure.
F ig u r e 3 shows a response to a step change in the nuclear p ow er
setpoint obtained with the reactor controlled by the version of the m o d er n
control algorithm that did not include drift t e r m s . T h e setpoint is not
followed, and there is a large steady-state offset.

- 6.0

0.2
LU LU

CONTROL TOD MOVEMENTS'-

♦ = ONE STEP OUT
*. » IN

< J \ y

FIG.2. Response to a +5% step in nuclear power setpoint.

 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7 309

<л
* §
Ш CL
Ï 1Л
о ш
о. се

S E T P 0 IN T

FIG. 3. Response to а -7% step in nuclear power set point obtained with a control system without the drift-
term feature.

3. M U LT IV A R IA B LE A P P R O A C H T O COR E C O N T R O L

A procedure for the control of the neutron flux distribution w a s derived

fro m a sim plified version of E q s ( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) . T h e simplifications are based on
the following assum ptions:

(1) T h e .process dy nam ics can be split into a fast m ode and a slow m ode,
containing the neutron kinetics and therm ohydraulics in the first and the
xenon-iodine subprocess in the latter m o d e . T h e controller, w orking in
time intervals betw een the characteristic time constants of the fast and slow
m o d es , respectively, observes fast state changes as prom pt effects, slow .
changes as low frequent noise. Introducing the local neutron fluxes in n
reactor zones as state vector and replacing of the m atrix H (k ) in E q .( 2 ) by a
"c o r e operator m atr ix " C , yields the simplified form

¿ n (k + 1) = ¿n (k ) * c nxr(k ) [“ r(k + 1 ) - Sr(k )] + vn( k - k + l) (4)

 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

FIG.4. Main stages of a control cycle.

 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7 311

w hich shall be usable, for practical purposes, within the interval

[tk; tk+1]. v n (k->k + l) contains the non-deterministic state change that
o cc u rred betw een instants к and k + 1.

(2) Only one control stage shall be considered at a tim e, a s s u m in g the

respective initial state as being stationary with respect to the fast d y n a m ic s.
T h e feedback m atrix Frxn(k) in E q . ( l ) is thus the result of a static m in i m i z a ­
tion of a weighted s u m of squared local differences betw een actual and
desired fluxes and squared controller m o vem en ts (ab sorber rod position
changes). In contrast to the control law F rxn(k) for the plant control case
(see section 2), FJxn (k) is in general a s s u m in g new values after each control
cycle k, k + 1, . . ., due to the variations in the core operator m atrix С
following the changing process characteristics.

O n e of the m a in tasks of the process com puter is thus the re-adaptation of

C nxr(k) after each change of the process state. T o avoid physics calculations
for the determination of the elem ents of C nxr(k), w hich represent the ratio
betw een local flux changes and the individual absorbed rod m ovem en ts
causing th em , on-line identification m ethods have been applied w hich relate
successive rod configuration changes with flux distribution changes following
th em . A n outline of these m ethods is given in Refs [20, 2 1 ] .

Another important function of the p rocess com puter is the evaluation of the
weighting m atric es P nxn and Q rxr in E q .( 3 ) in such a w a y that constraints on
the flux distribution (e. g. local therm al limits) or on the absorb er rods
( e .g . restricted positioning range) are not violated. This task has to be
carried out in each control cycle to ensure optimal utilization of available
m argin s.

(In the experim ents with the H B W R , the p ro g ra m system required about
7 К w o r d s com puter core storage space for "load-on-call" operations;
totally the p r o g r a m s occupied 2 40 К of disk m e m o r y . T h e execution of one
control cycle, w h o se m ain stages are indicated in F i g . 4, took about 5 m in;
h o w e ver, only about 1 m in w a s com puter time while the rest com prised
control rod repositioning, waiting for indications from slow-responding
flux detectors, etc.
In n u m e ro u s exp erim ents, different aspects of the control system have
been investigated [20]; the exam ple chosen in this paper shows, besides the
general workability of the control system , the self-adaptation of the control
p a ra m eter s and the influence of changes in the weighting of the local differences
betw een actual and desired flux. F igu re 5 shows an experim ental run in
w hich a desired flux w a s specified for 10 reactor locations (detector positions)
in the H B W R (in F i g . 5 indicated by, e . g . D E T 2 - 0 3 ) ; control w a s executed
by 7 independent a b s o rb er rods. T h e curves depict the ratio between actual
and desired flux at 5 of the 10 locations (d ia g ra m 5a), the unweighted sum of
local differences betw een actual and desired fluxes, i .e .

10
Ju = 2 (Pa,i - Pdj ) 2 (5)
i=l ' '
(d ia g ra m 5b), and the position of four of the seven absorb er rods and the
behaviour of four elem ents of the core operator m atrix C nxr during six
312 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

1 00 -

0.96

096 ■

0 .9 4 *

0 .9 2 *

0 90 -

1. 0 4 -

1.0 2 -

100'

(a)

(b)
 IAEA-SM-168/B-7 313

<cn,l
U roo
POS.
ROD

(с)
ROD P O SIT IO N S

F L U X C H A N G E / R O D M O V EM EN T

FIG. 5. (a) Ratio between actual and desired flux in six successive control cycles.
(b) Normalized sum of squared flux deviations, Ju, at 10 core locations.
(c) Rod positions and influence of rod movements on local flux in six successive control cycles.
314 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

control cycles (d ia g ra m 5c). Discontinuities in the flux ratio between s u c ­

cessive cycles are due to renorm alization of the desired flux in order to
en sure constant total-core p o w er during the control procedure.
T h e initial values for the feedback m atrix F rxn and the core operator
m atrix C nxr had been taken from a previous experim ent with the sam e
locations and rods, but otherwise different conditions. T h e experim ent w a s
to show that the adaptation properties of the control system are flexible
enough to both "l e a r n " the correct process p ara m eters and to control the
pro c ess state.
O w in g to the initial inconsistencies of the p ara m eter m atrices F and С
with the p ro c ess and control state, it could be expected that the efficiency of
the control system during the first cycle would only be low. T h is assum ption
w a s confirm ed by the bahaviour of the local flux and the s u m quantity J u>
show n in F i g . 5(a) and (b ). F r o m the selected locations, only detector 2-03
signals a m a r k e d change of the actual flux towards the desired value; the
total convergence, as represented by the decrem ent of J is low. H o w e v e r,
the local flux changes induced by the variation of the rod configuration p ro ­
vided sufficient information on the new core condition, such that the core
operator m atrix could be updated, permitting the evaluation of a m o r e relevant
feedback m atrix . In particular, the core operator m atrix element related to
detector 2-03 and rod 17 underwent a m ajo r change, as show n in F i g . 5(c).
T h e consequence of the re-identification of the core operator m atrix and
the corresponding adaptation of the feedback m atrix to the current control
situation is apparent in the subsequent cycles 2 and 3. Significant reductions
of the s u m of squared flux deviations, Ju , are obtained, and three of the five
flux signals s h ow n in F ig . 5(a) exhibit a clear convergence towards their set
valu es. T h e continued variations of the elements of С indicate that also
during these runs the state changes prom pted the application of the updating
pro c edu re.
T o test the effectiveness of im posing penalties on individual flux d e ­
viations, the flux weighting pattern represented by the m atrix P (k) in E q .( 3 )
w a s changed after cycle 3. W h ile equal weights had been put on the flux
e r r o rs at all 10 core locations during cycles 1. . . 3, the weight on position
7-03 w a s in the fourth cycle 5 times as high as for the other locations. T h e
effect of that action is see n in a convergence of the flux at position 7-03
during cycle 4 . At the s a m e tim e, how ever, J u (4) shows a deterioration
w hich indicates that the im p rovem ent at position 7-03 w a s reached at the
expense of the approxim ation at other locations; in F i g . 5(a), position 6-12
m a y be m entioned as typical exam ple for such a com pensation effect.
After cycle 4, the weight on the flux deviation at location 7-03 w a s reset
to be equal to those of all other positions, except for 6-12 w hich now w a s
m a d e five times as large as the rem aining nine w eights. T h e flux deviation
at this position, w hich before w a s rather divergent, is significantly reduced
during cycles 5 and 6. At an approximately constant average squared erro r,
as indicated by Ju (5) and J u(6), the im p ro vem en t at position 6-12 w a s
balanced by the slight divergence at positions 8-03 and 9-02, and possibly at
further locations not presented in F i g . 5(a).

4. C O N C L U SIO N S

T h e results of the plant and core control experim ents showed that the
proposed m ethods are, with the help of a process com puter, easily applicable
 MEA-SM-168/B-7 315

without m ajo r im plem entation p ro b le m s. Although the experim ents with the
H B W R w e r e rather specific to that reactor, general conclusions can be
d r a w n with respect to the advantages offered by the system atic and yet flexible
procedure in deriving optimal control laws under observation of certain
constraints. It appears to be obvious that the concepts described can be
extended to include other constraints or further feedbacks, like the xenon-
iodine d y n a m ics in the case of the flux distribution control, the latter aspect
being of particular im portance in view of the increasing sizes of the reactor
cores w hich require control actions preventing xenon instability.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1] LU N D E, J.E ., G RU M BACH , R ., 0 V R E E ID E , М., ’’Advances in control and supervision o f

power reactor plants using on-line computers, based on experience from HBWR experiments
and operation” , Proceedings 4. Int. Conf. on Peaceful Uses o f A tom ic Energy, Geneva, 19 7 1.
[2] G RU M BACH , R., ’’Supervision and control o f the Halden Boiling Water R eactor b y process
com puters” , IAEÀ-PL-431/8, Nuclear Power Plant C on trol and Instrumentation, In ter­
national A tom ic Energy A gen cy, Vienna, 1972.
[3] CROW TH ER, R .L., H O LLA N D , L .K ., ’’Nuclear applications o f on-line process com puters” ,
Nuclear News, M ay 1969.
[4] HOERM ANN, H., ’ ’Entwicklungstendenzen beim Einsatz von Prozessrechnem in Kernkraft-
werken” , A tom w irtschaft, October 19 7 1.
[5] F R E Y M E Y E R , Ph., ’’Prozessrechner für K em kraftw erke” , A tom w irtschaft, O ctober 19 7 1.
[6] C O STA N TIN , P., W OLFF, U ., ’’Process computer application in A E G designed nuclear
steam supply systems” . Proceedings 3rd IFAC/IFIP C onf. on Digital Com puter Application
to Process Control, Helsinki, June 1972.
[7] LU N D E, J.E ., BLOM SNES, B., G RU M BACH , R ., 0 V R E E ID E , М., ” A speculative outlook
on future on-line computer applications in nuclear power plants” , Proceedings Enlarged
Halden Programme Group M eeting on Com puter C ontrol at Loen, Norway; OECD Halden
Reactor Project, 1972.
[8] LU N DE, J.E ., ’ ’Advanced control and autom ation o f nuclear power plants” , Proceedings
N U C L E X 72, Technical Meeting No. 10 / 11, Basel, 1972.
[9] JA M N E, E., SIV E R T S, J.G ., Description o f the HBWR Plant, Rep. HPR-95, 1967.
[10] K A L M A N , R .E., ” A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problem s” , Trans­
actions ASM E, V o l. 82D, 1960.
[11] TO U , J., Modern C ontrol T heory, M cGraw-Hill, 1964.
[12] B R Y SO N , A .E ., HO, Yu-Chi, Applied Optim al Control, Blaisdell, 1969.
[13] O G A T A , K ., State Space Analysis o f Control Systems, Prentice Hall, 1967.
[14] G RU M BACH , R ., B J0 R L O , T.J., B R U A R 0 Y , P.G., JO SE FSSO N , R ., S O LB E R G , K .O .,
’’Application o f m odem control theory to digital control o f HBWR” , Proceedings
Seminar on Applications o f On-Line Com puter to Nuclear Reactors, Sandefjord, Norway,
1968.
[15] B J0 R L O , T.J., G RU M BACH , R., JO SE FSSO N , R ., SO LB E R G , K .O .,’’ Digital control o f
the Halden Boiling Water Reactor b y a concept based on m odem control th eo ry” ,
Nuclear Science and Engineering 39, 1970.
316 GRUMBACH and BLOMSNES

[16] S T IR S K Y , P., K A R P E T A , C ., ’’Optimum digital control synthesis o f the A 1 Reactor o f

the first Czechoslovak nuclear power station” , IAE A -P L -4 31/11, Nuclear Power Plant
Control and Instrumentation, International A tom ic Energy A gen cy, Vienna, 19 7 1.
[18] G RU M BACH , R., ’’On-line computer control o f the neutron flux distribution in a nuclear
reactor core” , Proceedings 5th IF A C World Congress, Paris, 1972.
[19] B J0 R L O , T.J., BLOM SNES, B., GRU M BACH , R., JO SE FSSO N , R ., LU N D E, J.E ., SAT O ,
K ., Application o f M odem Control Theory for Regulation o f the Nuclear Power and the
Reactor Vessel Pressure o f the HBWR, Rep. H P R -131, 19 7 1.
[20] G RU M BACH , R ., Forthcom ing Halden Project Report.
[21] R O G G E N B A U E R , H., BEZEM ER, J., On-line Parameter Estimation o f Dynam ic
Processes from Input-Output Measurements, Rep. H PR -147, to be published.

DISCU SSION

J . E . L U N D E (C h a ir m a n ): I w o n d er whether M r . G r u m b a c h could say

a little m o r e about the application or inclusion of the drift term s that w er e
used in the H alden steady-state and load-following control sy stem s.
R. G R U M B A C H : T h e "drift t e r m s " , w ho se theoretical foundation is
explained in the paper and references, w e r e introduced to ren der estimates
and control laws less sensitive to biased disturbances and to the effects of
discrepancies between the real m onolinear process and the linear m odel
from w hich the estimation a n d /o r control algorithm s are derived. T h e
favourable effect of the drift term s has been significant in particular w h e n
there w e r e large state variations. H e r e , approaches limited to the linear
m o del failed, while the algorithms based on the m odel and augm ented by
drift term s s h ow ed excellent results.
P . J O V E R : B efore considering w a y s of achieving optim um control
of a p o w er station, should one not try to find a sim ple solution to the problem
of obtaining o ptim um p a ra m e t e r estimates? Is it really n ece ssa ry , for this
approach, to have a complete knowledge of the dy nam ic m o del of the p o w er
station? Might it not be sufficient to process in so m e appropriate w a y the
values that can be m e a s u r e d — ass u m in g for exam ple a sim ple binary or
quadratic developm ent m odel on the basis of w hich sound predictions for
control purposes might be obtained?
R . G R U M B A C H : In fact, the core control system described here does
not depend on a physical m odel, but on a m athem atical m odel up-dated
adaptively on line. It would therefore appear to dem onstrate M r . J o v e r's
point.
J . E . L U N D E (C h a ir m a n ): M y co m m e nt with respect to the question
raised by M r . Jo v e r is that in designing m odels for m o d e r n control
algorithm s one can either base oneself on a physical m o del or on a purely
m athem atical one — for w hich the m atrix elem ents m ust of course be
derived by m e a n s of suitable dynam ic exp erim ents.
J . F U R E T : D u r in g his oral presentation M r . G r u m b a c h show ed a slide
depicting the flux distribution in the Stade reactor. I w o n d e r whether
M r . von H a e b ler could tell us whether a study is in p ro g ress in this connec­
tion. If so, is it concerned, for exam ple, with eliminating reactivity control
by m e a n s of borated w ater and m in im izin g the n u m b e r of control rods? A r e
experim ents on this reactor envisaged?
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 7 317

D . von H A E B L E R : T h e tests conducted in the Stade reactor, so m e

results of w h ich w e r e shown on the slide M r . G r u m b a c h projected during
his oral presentation, w e r e designed to ascertain the influence of rod
insertion on the radial flux distribution. T h is is not a matter of control, but
of safety. T h e tests showed that the insertion of any one control rod at full
p o w er will not cause flux distortions exceeding the design safety m ar g in .
W . C I E C H A N O W I C Z : Y o u m entioned that one of the constraints on opti­
m u m p o w er distribution control is the fuel b u rn u p . Y o u r problem m a y well
be linked with fuel burnup optimization, w hich is a multi-stage decision
pro b lem , and also with the optimization of poison m an a g e m e n t.
R . G R U M B A C H : T h e fuel burnup optimization procedure has been
a s s u m e d to be separable from the p o w er distribution control p roblem in the
short term (daily operation). In the long ter m , h ow ever, the er r o r occurring
w h e n the predeterm ined burnup strategy is not followed is considered in the
recalculation of the desired p o w er distribution.
J . E . L U N D E (C h a ir m a n ): M r . C iechanow icz referred to the inter­
connection betw een core control and fuel m a n a g e m e n t . W e realize, of
course, that such links exist but are trying to break dow n the overall
p roblem in such a w a y that the desired p ow er distributions established by
m e a n s of fuel- m anagem ent calculations serve as inputs to the core control
system .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 8

A P P L IC A T IO N OF MODERN CONTROL
TH E O R Y IN N U C LE A R POW ER

J.D . CUMMINS, M .H . BUTTERFIELD

Atom ic Energy Establishment, Winfrith, Dorchester, Dorset,
United Kingdom

Abstract

APPLICATION OF MODERN CONTROL THEORY IN NUCLEAR POWER.

This paper reviews the following topics. Modern control theory concepts have been used in plant
identification; control system design; investigations of spatial xenon phenomena, boiling water reactor
noise and stability; in fuel management; and in load changing situations. Where analytical techniques have
been applied the results obtained have not always been com pletely satisfactory owing to difficulties mainly
concerned with non-linearities of various types and the large number o f differential equations generally
required to define nuclear power systems. The paper also considers a specific case to optim ize a nuclear
reactor transient response following a demanded load change. The paper finally discusses the possibility
o f future applications and some of the im m ediate difficulties which need to be overcom e.

1. INTRODUCTION

In common with quite wide usage "modern control" is taken here to mean
optimisation of a numerically specified criterion,usually defined to
include techniques based on calculus of variations, maximum principles and
dynamic programming. There is a great deal of recent control theory on
many other topics such as multivariable system design in the frequency
domain and non-linear system stability. These are concerned more with
satisfying a criterion than optimisation and their diversity is such as to
require a great deal of space for adequate treatment.

The extent to which optimisation techniques have been applied to

industrial processes generally is small, and to many people disappointing.
The amount of effort spent in studying both the basic theory and applica­
tion is very substantial. The reasons for the lack of enthusiasm in
adopting the methods arise from a combination of inadequacies in the theory,
complexity in implementation and difficulty in achieving sufficiently more
economic benefit than standard control design methods can yield.

2 SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF MODERN CONTROL

THEORY TO NUCLEAR PLANT
2.1 Nuclear reactor startup

Startup from essentially zero power may be carried out by raising

power at constant period (exponentially with time) until the desired higher
power level is reached. Most realizations use some form of logarithmic
power variable with lead-lag network to control the period. Though over­
shoot may occur at the new power level, the controller's performance may be
made acceptable by choice of controller parameters. Control using dynamic
programming to minimize a quadratic form of reactor response and input con­
trol f i j can give some improvement. But conventional analogue equipment
gives approximately the same control performance, and has the added bonus
of being cheaper to produce.

319
320 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

2.2 Optimum nuclear reactor control, non-linear analysis

At the IFAC conference in 1960 papers on optimum bang-ba^g control

were presented /2 , ~bj. This work was studied by Hopkinson for
minimum time control in nuclear reactors. He was not able to achieve
analytical derivation of an optimum switching function by the methods
suggested, and found that alternatives based on calculus of variations led
to computing algorithms requiring computers of very large memory. Appli­
cation of this type of control looked unlikely and this position has not
changed substantially. Hopkinson pointed out that although it has been
shown under fairly general conditions that for a linear controlled system
the optimum controller, if one exists, is bang-bang, no general work has
been done on how much better the optimum system is than others. This
remains substantially the position today, although some specific compari­
sons have been made on nuclear plant between conventional and optimal con­
trollers / 3 7 *

Reduced minimum time control problems have been studied widely.

Typically, the analysis assumes no reactivity feedback effects and most
authors consider only the single delayed neutron approximation. The
maximum principle of Pontryagin has been used by Mohler and leads to the
typical bang-bang solution Monta /j l J also obtains bang-bang time
optimal solutions. Another paper uses a sampled-data model and standard
linear sampled-data theory to obtain dead-beat response to a step input in
reactivity £ Ъу. A more generalized discussion appropriate to the nuclear
reactor field has been given byde Backer /9 , Л0/.

Other papers optimize nuclearreactor manoeuvres by direct use of the

calculus of variations /^ ¿ 7 and parametric search /ÎJ7 *or *he optimal
control. Some authors are now attempting to solve problems which are
approaching the needs of designers. Early in 1971 Love formulated
as a non-linear optimization problem the control of axial power distribu­
tion in a pressurized water reactor core under changing load conditions.
The one dimensional distributed core model was approximated by using
finite differences to obtain a set of non-linear ordinary differential
equations. Linear programming was used in an iterative scheme to deter­
mine an optimum control rod strategy during a temporary power reduction.

2 .3 Optimum reactor power manoeuvres for minimum xenon buildup

After shutdown xenon poison continues to be produced and if the excess

reactivity provided is small, the xenon must decay before a reactor may be
re-started; this may take several hours. The problem is to devise a
neutron flux shutdown sequence which will minimize the maximum xenon con­
centration occurring both during and after shutdown, a so called minimax
problem. Pontryagin's maximum principle has been used essentially with
steady state single energy group neutron diffusion equations and point
xenon-iodine equations £ 15 , 1 6 , 17, 18 7 .

Some progress has been made with solving this problem using dynamic
programming £ 19 ,2C^; the latter considers only the minimization of the
xenon peak occurring after the neutron flux shutdown sequence is completed,
which omits the part of the problem dealing with shutdown sequence. A
more general discussion of the problem is given in ¿2л/ . Optimal control
in which the model equations sire linearised and the criterion is a
quadratic function of the states and controls has been studied for xenon
dependent reactor dynamics¿^2,2^. Published work on spatial control
includes 25 , 26 , 27/^ the problem of achieving optimal power shaping is
receiving very wide attention J B , 29, 3 0 /.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 8 321

2.k Modern control theory in fuel management studies

Useful methods for optimization of fuel charge-discharge strategies

are an urgent need. Some systemization of the fuel-management scheme
using dynamic programming has been attempted ¿51, 32, 3 ¿7 . Dynamic program­
ming provides in theory a systematic means of building up the'optimum
fuelling sequence, the optimum principle used is to minimize the form
factor so that it is close to unity. One difficulty in the application of
the technique is to find a sufficiently rapid simplification of the power
distribution calculation to complete the calculation procedure in a time
which is not excessive. It was found that simple first order perturbation
calculations of the power distribution were not adequate. Harked diver­
gences after only a few fuel changes were observed in the power distribu­
tion when compared with power distributions calculated using the ZADOC code
which incorporates refinements ¿3i¡7* When a fuel element has to be removed
out of planned sequence, difficulties occur with dynamic programming.
Currently judgment and simple guiding principles seem to offer the only
feasible way of choosing the charge-discharge sequence.

2.5 Optimization of nuclear reactor controller parameters

There have been many exercises over the past few years concerned with
establishing the best values for nuclear reactor control parameters. In
many cases they rely more on numerical "hill climbing" to optimize a chosen
criterion function rather than on calculations based on optimal control
theory .

More recently, there has been a change in emphasis towards the quad­
ratic criterion function, matrix Riccati equation and linear feedback form
of optimal control solution or related dynamic programming technique.
Several papers have been published which usé this technique.

Atary and Shah ¿3¿7 have studied the Siemens 58 MW(e) PWR, which is
now operating at Karlsruhe, with an eighteenth-order model and involving
some unobservable states estimated by the Kalman filter technique. Some
extension to include constrained controls was made by obtaining the optimal
control signal from the linearized unconstrained equations and manipulating
the controls with that signal so that the constrained controls would follow
according as the constraints would permit. Compared with the existing
conventional control this shows considerable improvement in overshoots,
settling time and offsets.

Another PWE study was made by Stark ¿ 3 7?. A cylindrically symmetri­

cal reactor was assumed and equations for heat transfer to coolant
developed. By transformation of variables, non-linear differential
equations of the state variables are converted into a set of linear
equations and the optimal control of the banks of control rods for a quad­
ratic cost function in state and control variables based upon the matrix
Riccati equation. No comment is made on either (a) the power distribution
invariance, it appears to be poor, or (b) the transient response.

Paper /387 considers a 150-MW, 170-ata coal-fired Benson boiler model

with optional feedback Riccati controls for three examples of quadratic
forms in the state error and unconstrained control. The authors state
that they have shown that an optimal tracking system can be designed for
power stations under variable pressure operation, and that for their
example there is significant improvement when compared with a conventional
temperature control.
322 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

The problem of thermal strain has been studied to determine how to

schedule the loading of steam turbines so that the loading time is mini­
mized for a known permitted thermal fatigue ¿ЪЭ/. In this paper thermal
fatigue has been equated with thermal strain variation.

Paper attempts to circumvent the analytical difficulties associa­

ted with a high-order system, the 200-MW reactor at Douglas Point, Ontario.
The authore reduce the system to an elementary ninth order non-linear model
and produce on-line a second-order model which fits the response of the
ninth order model in some best fit sense. The authors' concern is to
adapt the control system quickly on-line in order to compensate for the
non-linear plant characteristics and for the varying system parameters.
The optimal control of the second order model is based on the analytical
solution of the algebraic matrix Biccati equation.

The practical question as to how one would commission a modern control

system on a plant appears not to have been considered in any great detail.

The papers on nuclear reactor power plant which currently use modern
control theory all plough more or less the same furrow. The system is
made linear, the controls are linear, state variables are fedback, the
control is unconstrained, the cost is based on minimizing simple quadratic
forms of state and control variables. This leads to an optimal control
which incorporates the solution of the algebraic matrix Riccati equation.

Whilst steady-state stability and adequately damped performance of

nuclear reactor control systems is of paramount importance, the behaviour
of the whole plant is of particular interest when a change in electrical
demand occurs. Load pickup of SGHWR is discussed elsewhere in this paper.

Published research on load demand changes using optimal control

theory is quite sparse. Paper /¡*2? discusses the response of a notional
PVffi. One useful result which appears from this optimal load demand study
is the lack of change in the solution of the matrix Biccati equations
resulting from substantial changes in the load demand.

The combination of optimal control theory and noise has attracted

very little attention,/h 2 , are appropriate. In some ways this is
difficult to understand because in many systems there is a significant
amount of noise present and the best economic operating level needs to be
decided from use of "damage models" with statistically defined input
based on study of internal noiee sources and external system disturbances

2.6 Comparison of modern control theory application with conventional

PID control at Halden, Norway
A major objective for Halden in computer control has been to formulate
a plant model and disturbance statistics based upon results obtained from
plant measured data, and to assess the control quantitatively against a
defined control objective, e.g., minimum mean steam pressure error. A
linear model, time invariant with a quadratic performance integral cri­
terion was chosen, some states were estimated using a Kalman filter and the
optimal controls for the sampled data system were computed by the dynamic
programming technique. The control law is optimum for linear Biccati
feedback ¿h,5 , 57. The calculations are quite similar to those discussed
elsewhere, eg ¿W] ] . The transient responses were compared with those
obtained using conventional control designs having gains optimised by con­
ventional analogue computer parameter surveys using the same criteria.
 IAEA-SM-168/B-8 32 3

For the Halden reactor it wae found that the differences were email, which
is probably due to the known small, interaction between the conventional
control loops.

3. OPTIMAL CONTROL OF THE STEAM GENERATING HEAVY WATER

REACTOR (SGHWR) IN RESPONSE TO A FAST LOAD CHANGE

The salient features of the plant are shown in Fig. 1 of The

capability of the SGHWR in supplying 'load quiçkly should a transmission
line or circuit breaker from Other operating plant become faulty, is an
important economic bonus for this class of reactor. Investigations have
been made of the improvement which.might be obtained by using controls
based on modern control theory for the SGHWR when required to pick up load
quickly. An appropriate exercise considered here looks at a singleSGHWR
carrying an isolated load which undergoes step change.

* 0.2

ЬФ 6W6

- 0.2 - 0.2

*1

YM

50 100
TIME (s)

TIME (s)

FIG.l. SGHWR amplified model. Minimum, Lime response (Manual). Load change -
324 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

Several alternative controls were examined, as follows.

(1) Strategies derived from Pontryagin'e maximum principle using a

simplified plant model. (This example serves to illustrate
general aspects of the method.)
(2) Control derived from the matrix Riccati equation for a plant
simulation consisting of approximately 50 equations including 30
state variables /J & 7 . The control so determined was applied to
the non-linear set of equations which included plaint and con­
troller constraints.
(3) Similar to (2) but for a simplified plant simulation used in
( 1 ).
W Conventional analogue three term controllers.

(1) Optimal control strategy using Pontryagin's principle

on simplified model
We use five state equations

X1 - а1 V
=
*2 a2 X1 " a2 x2
= a3 X2 " a3 X3
ь
x4 % x3 " \ V + a5 xif x5
*5
= a7 Г + a7 *4 У - a6 xk x5
= Normalized moderator height
X11
= Normalized neutron flux
x2
= Normalized heat flux
x3
x* = Normalized steam drum pressure
= Grid frequency (Hz)
x5
= Moderator valve position
V
V = Speeder gear position

г = n orm alized load

dx
X =
dt

Many criterion functions have been examined; we choose for demonstra­

tion simply, minimum time and augment the states by Xg(t) = t.

In the usual way we form the Hamiltonian function from

 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 8 325

which , u2 are chosen to maximize. The new variables p1 to pg together

with x1 to x^ must satisfy equation (1) and the adjoint equations
àH ...
= - — which are
Pi àx.

- *1 = P2 a2

= - p2 a2 + p3 a5
- h
= - p3 a3 + Pi+ a¡f
- *3 (3 )
= (u2 ' - 0.5 xg) (a? p5 - a^ p^)
- h
= - °-5 (p5 a? - Pj+ &k)
- *5
= 0
-h

The controls which maximize H are

A

V = jMax u ' I sign £ p1 }

and
У = I Max u2 ' I sign { p5 a? - p^
W
Initial adjoints are unknown and terminal adjoints, except
Pg (tf) = -1, arbitrary. Initial and final states of to Xg are

Initial states Г ( о ) , Г (о), Г ( о ) , 1 , 0 , 0

Terminal states Г (t^) , Г (t^) , Г (t^.) , 1, 0, Xg (t^.)

respectively, where t^ is the terminal time.

Л Л.
For the chosen criterion function the optimal controls u^' and u^' are
of the bang-bang type, with signs depending at each instant on the p's.

Note that the optimal control agrees with common sense, for example
if one wishes to meet a load demand in minimum time, open the throttle valve
to supply the required steam to the turbine immediately and increase the
reactor power as quickly as possible, bearing in mind that the system
inertia will cause some overshoot if subsequent opposite control action is
not taken.

With limits on the controls u , , it is not known how to solve the

equations of motion (1) and (3) and maximize (2) analytically. An apparent
alternative is to put all the equations including limits on an analogue com­
puter. This also contains fundamental difficulties since if equations (1)
representing the plaint are stable then the adjoint equations (3) are
unstable, and vice versa. The problem becomes that of finding initial con­
ditions for p to pg such that the whole simulation remains within its
electrical limits and produces the correct end conditions for x^ to x^.
For realistic criterion functions which include peak state variable devia­
tions, integrals of state variable deviations, control states and terminal
values of states and controls, the equipment required for solution by
analogue computer is quite large.

From attempting the analogue simulation the form of control strategy

required by the theory became apparent and it was found feasible in this
326 CUMMINS and BUTTERFIELD

50 100 so wo 150
T IM E (s ) T IM E (s )

FIG.2. Full SGHWR simulator m odel. Riccati feedback. All 30 states. Load change - lO^o.

case (Fig. 1) to provide corresponding approximate manual control during

which the operator effectively solvés the adjoint équations by providing the
anticipation Or prediction. The control system is also made more practical
by introducing a zero state for èach Of ’u^ and u^. For example, when p^ is
small u-| has'little effect on H; thè correct solution shows u1 alternating
rapidly with little total effect.-. 'îMe iresult is shown in Fig. 1.

During this % load increase, thè .grid fréquericy deviation is -0.16

hertz and the steam drum pressure de.vi&tion is.less them 35 lb/in2. With the
moderator valve raté constraint ànd.'-tüè-^èteam drum time constant obtaining,
it is not possible to reduce thé '•itóítoúrt .óteaei dfúm pressure deviation.
 IAEA-SM-168/B- 327

+ 10

-10
+ 1.2

At
(HZ)

- 1.2

50 100 150 50 100 150

TIME (s) TIME (s)

FIG .3. Full SGHWR simulator m odel. R iccati feedback (principal states only). Load change - lO^o.

(2) Whole plant simulation with state variable feedback

An extensive numerical investigation has been carried out /¡+8/ where

Tepper considers a quite detailed plant model. He linearizes the system
equations, solves the matrix Riccati equations and hence deduces the uncon­
strained optimal linear control feedback matrix . The criterion
function consisted of the state variables, steam drum pressure and grid
frequency and the two controls. Surveys of the matrices which weight these
variables were made which showed that a larger weighting (penalty) on the
controls compared with the weighting on the two state variables was desir­
able. Two responses, for a 10Э£ load reduction are shown, Figure 2 with all
the state variables fedback in the optimal linear regulator and Figure 3
with the less influential state variables on control removed from the control
feedback matrix.
3 28 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

This more full simulation provides greater detail than the previous
case. It is worth noting that when the turbine control valve closes follow­
ing the load demand decrease, pressure rises, steam void decreases,
reactivity increases and neutron flux and heat flux rise in contradiction of
the required movement in reactor power. As a consequence the settling
time is somewhat longer than would be the case if the power decreased
initially.

(3) Reduced plant simulation with state variable feedback

Similarly to (2), a study of the optimal linear feedback regulator for

the five state variable model was made. According to the theory ^¡-97 if
the system equations are
x = Ax + Bu
and the cost function is
rT
CF = (x' Qx + u' P u) dt

then, the optimal control U, is

tJ = - P-1 B' R x
where R is given by the solution of

-Q + RBP-1 B ' R - R A - A ' R =

and 1 denotes the transpose.

Let Q = rc 0 о 0 P = -X.
о 0
q2
0 q3 0
0 0
0
5 J

With A and В matrices defined by the model used in (1), the algebraic
matrix Riccati equation was solved on an analogue computer assuming a range
of values of the Q and P matrices and the resultant R matrix substitutedin
the optimal control U. The load demand increase of5# then perturbed the
five state variable model, with the optimal control limited by amplitude
and valve rate constraints. An extensive survey of the Q and P matrices
was made to find the optimal-optimal linear feedback regulator.

The characteristics of the transients which have been chosen as

important criteria in exploring the response for different values of the
weighting matrices Q (q , q , q , q^, q ) and P ( \ 1 , ^ ) , see Figure 4,
for the optimal linear feedback control with a reduced set of state
variables (fiv e) were as follow s:-

(a) The ratio of the peak change in neutron flux to the final change in
neutron flux - approximately 2 is reasonable.
(b) Moderator valve movement which includes one complete opening and one
complete closure is considered reasonable.
(c) The smaller the deviation of the steam drum pressure, the better.
(d) The smaller the deviation of the alternator frequency from the reference
value the better.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /В - 8 329

i__________ i__________ I__________ I__ i--------------- 1----------------1----------------1—

0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150

T IM E Is ] T IM E is )

Е Ю .4. SGHWR simplified model. Riccati feedback. Load change + 5%.

The best Q and P were found to be defined by values:-

----
q1 q2 q3 % ' q5 ^ !
;
1 1 1 10 I 10 500 0.5

The response of the reduced plant simulation to a % load increase is

shown on Figure k for this optimal linear feedback control. The steam
drum pressure deviation was -35 psi and the grid frequency deviation
-0.1^ hertz. Note that the optimum responses shown in Figures 1 and ^ are
quite similar.
330 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

♦ 0.2

bh

-0 .2 L

+ 0.2

ЬФ

- 0 .2

+ 1

YM bYT,

50 100 150 50 100 150

TIME (s) TIME IS)

FIG. 5. SGHWR simplified m odel. Conventional coupled control. Load change + 5%.

The dominant terms for the turbine valve control are grid frequency
and steam drum pressure in that order and for the moderator valve, steam
drum pressure, moderator height and heat flux. This emphasis in the
relative weightings of the state variables in the control signals agrees
with preconceived notions.

(k) Conventional analogue control

The conventional analogue control consists of a normal speed and load

governor operating the turbine control valve. As steam drum pressure
falls for example, it provides via a proportional plus integral controller
a demand for higher reactor power. When the pressure error and its rate
of change are zero the load increase will be matched by the reactor power
 IAEA-SM-168/B-8 331

output. This control scheme is referred to as "coupled control" since

load changes ón the turbo-alternator are coupled to the nuclear reactor.
Some improvement in plant response may be achieved by feeding forward to
the reactor power control a measure of the grid frequency variations,
since these variations represent the load changes.

For the simplified model previously described, with amplitude and

valve rate limit constraints included, optimum values of the proportional
and integral gain required in the steam drum pressure control were found
based upon the response of the plant simulation to a ÿ increase in load
demand, see Figure 5. The response shown in Figure 5 has a quite similar
performance to that shown in Figures 1 and k.

This investigation has demonstrated that conventional control for a

realistic, though idealized (reduced) SGHWR model gives a performance which
compares favourably with the optimum response.

4. CONCLUSIONS

There are very real difficulties associated with applying current

analytical procedures. The only case in which an explicit analytical
solution is known to be generally possible is that of a linear system
subject to a quadratic penalty or cost function. The solution is
achieved by solving the Matrix Riccati Equation and it yields a linear
feedback control system. Even this case contains difficulties since it
uses every state variable in the system for input to the controller; at
least some of these are usually inaccessible and have to be estimated.

In practice constraints are usually imposed either on the state

variables or the controllers (or their rates). Associated quadratic
penalties can be accommodated by the linear theory, but hard constraints
normally take the problem beyond analytical solution. With the plant
equations and required optimal criteria known the adjoint equations cam be
written down as in the example treated in the text. The complete set of
equations now requires suitable choice of the initial conditions for the
adjoints (which are likely to be unstable) to enable an analogue computer
solution which will depend on the initial state of the system.

In order to cope with external disturbances, internal noise and to

help reduce the effects of imperfections in the plant model used for
control design, we require feedback control, bvt this does not naturally
arise from optimal control analysis except in the case of linear uncon­
strained systems with quadratic criteria. A development of the theory is
required which determines functions uf (x^ x^ ... x^) representing closed
loop control in terms of specified state variables.
The analytical difficulties usually result in optimal control problems
being recast into a form having linear plant equations and quadratic
penalty criteria. Economic criteria of the type needed in practice seldom
fit this pattern. This situation obtained in the example treated in the
text for minimising grid frequency excursions where, in effect, the cost
matrices PQ were selected so that the results came near to satisfying the
constraints.

The case studied at Halden and mentioned in the text is significant.

There the gains in conventional control loops were optimised by trial and
error against the same criterion as used in the Riccati solution and the
results were very close. This can probably be explained by the simple
consideration that the additional freedom of choice in deciding the form of
332 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

control under Riccati was not able to take advantage of any significant
interaction between the conventional loops. A similar explanation is
likely to apply to the results found in the example based on SGHWR in the
text.

It appears that a way forward for optimal control theory development

exists here. The required design procedures would first be to study
interactions and hence assess the potential benefits of optimal control;
this would then indicate the form of control required. While founded on
analysis this approach is fully consistent with use of plant (or simulator)
test responses, and this feature is one of the strengths of conventional
frequency domain methods.

R E F E R E N C E S

SHEN, C.N. and HAAG, F.G., Application of optimum control to nuclear

reactor startup, Trans. IEEE on Nucl. Sci. NS-11 2 (Apr. 196*+) 1-9.

£ 2 7 FULLER, A.T., Relay control systems optimised for various performance

criteria, Proc. IFAC Moscow (i960).

^ LA SALLE, J.P., The bang-bang principle, Proc. IFAC Moscow (i960).

HOPKINSON, A., A Study of the Feasibility of Deriving Analytically

the Optimum Switching Function for a bang-bang reactor control system,
UKAEA Rep. AEEW - M 272.

/ “¿7 BJ0RLS, T.J., BLOMSNES, B., GRUMBACH, R., JOSEFSSON, R., LUNDE, J.E.,
SATO, K., Application of Modern Control Theory for Regulation of the
Nuclear Power and the Reactor Vessel Pressure of the HBWR.
OECD Halden Rec. Proj. Rep. HPR 1 3 1 .

MOHLER, R.R., Optimal control of nuclear reactor processes,

LA-3257-MS.

¿^2] MONTA, К., Time optimal digital computer control of a nuclear reactor.
Continuous time systems. Jnl. Nucl. Sci. & Techy, ¿ 6 (June 1966 ) 227.

MONTA, К. and LENNOX C.G., A time optimal on-off program for the NRU
reactor digital computer control experiment, Jnl. Nucl. Sci. & Techy.
2 10 (Oct. 1965 ) 391.

£ *}] DE BACKER, W., The Maximum Principle, its Computational Aspects and
its Relations to other Optimization Techniques, EUR.590e.

/Tc¡7 DE BACKER, W., Synthesis of Optimal Control and Hybrid Computation,

EUR-2202e.

/Tl7 MULCAHY, T.P., Time Optimal Control of Nuclear Reactors with

Velocity-Limited Control Devices, ANL-6695-

SHEN, C.N. and HAAG, F.G., Application of optimum control to nuclear

reactor startup, Trams. IEEE on Nucl. Sci. NS-11 2 (Apr. 1964) 1-9.

LOVE, G.G., A non-linear dynamic optimization technique for control­

ling xenon induced oscillations in large nuclear reactors,
Trans. IEEE on Nucl. Sci. NS-18 1 (Feb. 1971).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /B - 8 3 33

/ï k / MOHLER, R.R. sind SHEN, C.N., Optimal Control of Nuclear Reactors,

New York Academic Prees (1970).

ROBERTS, J.J. and SMITH Jnr., H.P., Time optimal solution to the
reactivity-xenon shutdown problem, Nucl. Sci. & Engng, 22 4
(Aug. 1965 ) 470-^78 .

ROBERTS, J.J. and SMITH Jnr., H.P., Equivalence of the time optimal
and minimax solutions to the xenon shutdown problems, Nucl. Sci. &
Engng, 2¿ 4 (Dec. 1965) 397-399.

LEWINS, J., BENHAM, R.D., Time optimal xenon shutdown on the xenon
boundary, BNWL-186 .

¿Ï&7 ROSZTOCZY, Z.R. and WEAVER, L.E., Optimum reactor shutdown program
for minimum xenon buildup, Nucl. Sci. & Engng, 20 3 (Nov. 1964)
318 - 323 .

/T¿7 ASH, М., BELLMAN, R. and KALABA, R., On control of reactor shutdown
involving minimal xenon poisoning, Nucl. Sci . & Engng. 6 2 (Aug. 1959)

/ 26/ ASH, М., Application of dynamic programming to optimal shutdown

control, Nucl. Sci. Engng. 24, 1 (Jan. 1966 ) 77-86.

¿2.Л/ ASH, М., Optimal Shutdown Control of Nuclear Reactors, Academic Press,
New York (1966 ).

/2 2 / WIBERG, D.M., Optimal Feedback Control of Spatial Xenon Oscillations

in a Nuclear Reactor, TID-21273-

WIBERG, D.M., "Optimal control of nuclear reactor systems". Advances

in Control Systems, ¿ (1967 ) 301-388.

/ 2М / STACEY Jnr, W.M., Xenon-induced spatial power oscillations, Reactor

Technology, 1j5 3 (Summer 1970) 252.

¡ 2 $ STACEY Jnr, W.M., Space- and energy-dependent nucleonics in reactor

transient analysis, Reactor Technology, 1_4 2 (Summer 1971) 169 .

¿2&J STACEY Jnr, W.M., Space-time nuclear reactor kinetics, Nucl. Sci. &
Techy ¿ (1969 ), Academic Press, New York.

¿'2 OWENS, D . H . , A Numerical Approach to Transfer Function Synthesis for

Reactor Spatial Control Studies, UKAEA Rep. AEEW - R 723.

/2 $ 7 OWENS, D.H., Spatial Transfer Functions and the Synthesis of Multi-

variable Feedback Systems for the Control of the Radial Azimuthal
Modes of a Cylindrical Nuclear Power Reactor, UKAEA Rep. AEEW - R 724.

¡2 3 ¡ GRUMBACH, R., ROBINSON, E., SATO, K., VERSLIUS, R.M., Adaptive control
of the neutron flux distribution based on on-line process identifica­
tion, Enlarged Halden Programme Group Mtg. on Computer Control, Loen,
Norway (May 29 - June 2, 1972).

/3 q 7 TSAI, T.Y. and GRIGSBY L.L., An approach to spatial power regulation

in nuclear reactors, 12th JACC, St. Louis, USA (11-13 Aug. 1971)
Paper 3 - E2, 255-260.
334 C U M M IN S and BUTTERFIELD

¿317 BELLMAN, R.E. and DREYFUS S.E., Applied Dynamic Programming,

Princeton (1962 ).

¿327 HICKS, D., Fuel Management in Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactors,
11th Annual Mtg. American Nucl. Soc. (21-24 June 1965 ) UKAEA Rep.
AEEW - M 554.

Ij î l FENECH, H. and WALL, I., The application of dynamic programming to

fuel management optimisation, Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. 7 1 (June 1964).

ALLEN, F.R., ZADOC (A Two-Group Two-Dimensional Fuel Management

Programme for IBM7090 or STRETCH), UKAEA Rep. AEEW - R 425.

¿3¿7 BLAKE, R.G., PIGOTT, P.M., SMALE, R.J., BOWDLER, R.K.W. and
WHITMARSH-EVERISS, M.J., Hybrid Computer Simulation of Dungeness В
Power Station, RD/C/R52.

ATARY, J. and SHAH. M.M., Modelling and analytical control system design
of a complete nuclear power plaint prototype, Proc.IFAC Paris (June 1972)

¿37/ STARK, K., Optimal control of a pressurized water reactor,

Proc. IFAC Paris (June 1972).

/3 & / HERBRICK, R. and JAMSHIDI, М., Design of an optimum state regulator

for a once-through boiler, Proc. IFAC Faris (June 1972).

BEDNARSKI, S. and SHEN, C.N. Optimal schedules for rapid starting

and loading of steam turbines, Proc. IFAC Parie (June 1972).

/Ц 0 / BEREZNAI, G.T. and SINHA, N.K., Application of optimum low-order

models to the adaptive control of nuclear reactors, Proc. IFAC
Paris (June 1972).

¿Çl7 DUNCOMBE, E. and RATHBONE, D.E., Optimization of the response of a

nuclear reactor plant to changes in demand, Trans. IEEE on Automatic
Control, AC-14 3 (June 1969 ) 277-282.

WEAVER, L.E., Reactor Dynamics and Control Elsevier, New York (1968 ).

¿ Ç ÿ WEAVER, L.E. and KATSMA, K.R., Mean square error minimization of

boiling reactor noise, Nucl. Sci. and Engng. j4^ (Dec. 1962) 38O- 383.

¿iïj¡7 BUTTERFIELD, M.H., A nuclear power station development,

IAEA/SM-168/B-2, Prague (Jan. 1973).

¿£¿7 JOSEFSSON, R. and BLOMSNES, B., Comparison between Modern and

Classical Approaches to the Control of Nuclear Power and Vessel
Pressure of the HBWR, OECD Halden Reactor Proj. Rep. HPR 113-

¿5^7 TOU, JULIUS T., Modern Control Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

¿577 ANDERSON, J.H., Control of a power boiler dynamic model in the

presence of measurement noise and random input disturbance, Conf. on
Industrial Applications of Dynamic Modelling, Durham (Sep. 1969 )

¿587 TEPPER L., Application of modern control theory to the control of a

nuclear power reactor, Ph.D. Thesis, Imperial Coll., London (1972).
 IAEA-SM-168/B-8 335

D IS C U S S IO N

W . C IE C H A N O W IC Z : Y ou m e n tio n e d that the p r o b le m s o lv e d b y the

u s e o f the P o n tr y a g in p r in c ip le is p r o b a b ly u n s ta b le . I sh o u ld lik e to add
that th is is due to the n a tu re o f the H a m ilto n e q u a tio n s u s e d in a p p ly in g the
P o n tr y a g in p r in c ip le . T o a v o id the v e r y d iffic u lt t w o -p o in t b o u n d a r y
p r o b le m on e c a n r e s o r t to d ir e c t m e th o d s o f o p t im iz a tio n (i. e. the g ra d ie n t
m e th o d , c o n ju g a te g r a d ie n t m e th o d o r s e c o n d v a r ia t io n m eth od ) in s te a d o f
the in d ir e c t P o n tr y a g in m e th o d . T h e c o n v e r g e n c e p r o b le m w ill then be
n e a r the o p tim u m p oin t, h o w e v e r . In the n e ig h b o u r h o o d o f th is op tim u m
one c a n u s e the N ew ton m e th o d ; th is is f a s t - c o n v e r g e n t but n e v e r t h e le s s
s u it a b le i f o n e is a b le to g u e s s the v a lu e n e a r th e op tim u m .
М . H. B U T T E R F IE L D : A l l th e s e m e th o d s h a v e th e ir ow n p r o b le m s ;
o u r a p p r o a c h s e e m e d su ita b le f o r a n a lo g u e s im u la tio n , and in the ev en t
y ie ld e d the r e q u ir e d s o lu tio n . W e d o n ot a t p r e s e n t e n v is a g e fu r t h e r
e x te n s iv e stu d y o f th is p r o b le m , f o r w h ich a c o m p r e h e n s iv e r e v ie w o f
s o lu t io n m e th o d s w o u ld b e e s s e n t ia l.
R . E . UHRIG: H a v e you lo o k e d at m o d e l r e f e r e n c e a d a p tiv e c o n t r o l
s y s t e m s o r a t a d a p tiv e c o n t r o l s y s t e m s o f o th e r ty p e s ?
M .H . B U T T E R F IE L D : T h e " m o d e r n c o n t r o l" w o r k r e p o r t e d h e r e
c o v e r e d o n ly te c h n iq u e s b a s e d on the c a lc u lu s o f v a r ia t io n s and m a x im u m
p r in c ip le s , t o g e th e r w ith a c o m p a r is o n o f r e s u lt s w ith c o n v e n t io n a l (PID )
c o n t r o l s y s t e m d e s ig n m e t h o d s . A d a p tiv e c o n t r o l m e th o d s p r o v id e a n o th e r
a p p r o a c h w h ich m a y d e s e r v e stu d y, but at an y g iv e n in sta n t an a d a p tive
s y s t e m w ill b e s u b -o p t im a l.
O u r w o r k r e v e a le d tw o th in g s: f i r s t that the u s e o f h ig h ly s i m p lifie d
m o d e ls c a n r e s u lt in a c l o s e a p p r o x im a tio n to the o p tim u m s y s t e m d e r iv e d
f r o m c o m p le x m o d e ls , and s e c o n d ly that c o n v e n tio n a l d e s ig n m e th o d s c a n
y ie ld c o n t r o l s y s t e m s v e r y n e a r ly a s g o o d a s the o p tim u m b y " h i l l c lim b in g "
f o r the s a m e c r i t e r i o n . T h is is p r o b a b ly due to low c r o s s - c o u p l i n g b e tw e e n
the c o n v e n t io n a l lo o p s and p r o v id e s a p o t e n t ia lly u s e fu l lin e f o r r e s e a r c h .
R . E . UH RIG: A b o u t s e v e n o r e ig h t y e a r s a g o w e c a r r i e d out a stu d y
in v o lv in g the a p p lic a t io n o f a m o d e l r e f e r e n c e a d a p tiv e c o n t r o l s y s t e m to a
n u c le a r r o c k e t p r o p u ls io n s y s t e m . T h e stu d y w a s c a r r i e d out on a h y b r id
c o m p u t e r . T h e r e s u lt s s h o w e d a c o n s id e r a b le im p r o v e m e n t in the p e r ­
fo r m a n c e o f the n u c le a r r o c k e t . It s e e m s to m e that s u c h a s y s t e m m ig h t
b e u s e d a d v a n ta g e o u s ly in the c o n t r o l o f a n u c le a r p o w e r plant w hen it
f o llo w s a flu ctu a tin g lo a d ; and th is w ou ld be p a r t ic u la r ly u s e fu l i f the lo a d
v a r ie d o v e r a w id e r a n g e .
TECHNIQUES O F M EASU REM EN TS O F DYN AM IC
CHARACTERISTICS

(Session C)
 Chairman

R.E. UHRIG (United States o f America)

 IAEA-SM-168/C-0

REVIEW OF M EASU REM EN T TECHNIQUES

FOR DYNAM IC CHARACTERISTICS

R.E. UHRIG
C ollege o f Engineering,
University o f Florida,
Gainesville, Fla.
United States o f Am erica

Abstract

REVIEW OF MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS.

Comprehensive studies of the dynamic behaviour of nuclear power plants have been undertaken for many
years and have clearly established that noise techniques are comparable to oscillator tests and appropriate for
the use on power reactors. Several reactor manufacturers have worked primarily on the use of noise analysis
techniques. However, results of reactor noise measurements are not yet well understood for nuclear power
plant operation. One of the major obstacles to a comprehensive program of reactor dynamics measurements
has been the complexity of the measurement procedure. Also, the acquisition and procession of data can be
quite complex. In recent years, the use of pseudorandom binary input signals has been very attractive because
its principal advantage is in the processing of the data. However, the potential development of noise analysis in
nuclear power systems is being hindered by other non-technical problems.

T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f d y n a m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n u c le a r p o w e r plant
s y s t e m s h as b e e n a t o p ic o f in v e s tig a t io n s in c e the d a y s o f the e a r ly e x p e r i ­
m e n ta l n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts o f the m i d -1 9 5 0 s . T h e e a r ly w o r k in clu d e d
both o s c i l l a t o r e x p e r im e n t s w h ich in tr o d u c e d s in u s o id a l v a r ia t io n s o f
r e a c t iv it y , a s w e ll as a n a ly s is o f tr a n s ie n t s in d u ce d by n o r m a l c o n t r o l - r o d
m o v e m e n ts .
One o f the f i r s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e s tu d ie s o f the d y n a m ic b e h a v io u r o f a
n u c le a r p o w e r plant w a s u n d e r ta k e n on the H a ld en B o ilin g W a te r R e a c t o r
w h ich c l e a r l y e s t a b lis h e d n o is e te c h n iq u e s as b e in g c o m p a r a b le to o s c i l l a t o r
t e s t s and a p p r o p r ia te f o r the u s e o n p o w e r r e a c t o r s . T h e d y n a m ic e x p e r i ­
m e n ts on the KIWI and N E R V A N u c le a r R o c k e t R e a c t o r s d e m o n s tr a te d the
fe a s ib i lit y and d e s ir a b il it y o f u s in g p s e u d o r a n d o m n o is e te c h n iq u e s in
d e t e r m in in g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n u c le a r p o w e r s y s t e m s . E x p e r im e n ts on
the S od iu m R e a c t o r E x p e r im e n t (S R E ) and the E x p e r im e n t a l B o ilin g W a te r
R e a c t o r (E B W R ) in the U n ited S tates and the D o u n r e a y F a s t R e a c t o r in
S co tla n d in the la te 1 9 5 0 s and the e a r ly 1 9 60 s did m u ch to c o n v in c e e x p e r i ­
m e n ta lis ts that d y n a m ic t e s t s w e r e d e s ir a b le and im p o r ta n t in the e s t a b lis h ­
m en t o f the b e h a v io u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n u c le a r p o w e r s y s t e m s . H o w e v e r ,
n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts h ave o p e r a t e d in a v e r y a c c e p t a b le m a n n e r a s fa r as
th e ir d y n a m ic b e h a v io u r is c o n c e r n e d , and h e n c e th e r e h as b e e n lit tle in ­
c e n t iv e f o r e it h e r the r e a c t o r m a n u fa c tu r e r s o r the u tility c o m p a n ie s to
u n d e rta k e an e x te n s iv e in v e s t ig a t io n o f the d y n a m ic s o f n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts .
S e v e r a l r e a c t o r m a n u fa c tu r e r s h ave c a r r i e d o n s o m e w o r k on p o w e r
r e a c t o r d y n a m ic s , p r im a r i ly on the u s e o f " n o is e a n a ly s is t e c h n iq u e s ."
S in c e s m a ll p e r tu r b a t io n s o f a n u c le a r p o w e r plant c a n be a llo w e d , the u s e o f

339
340 UHRIG

" n o i s e " te c h n iq u e s is p r o b a b ly the m o s t r e a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h . On a few o c c a ­

s io n s m e m b e r s o f the U n ited S tates A d v is o r y C o m m it te e on R e a c t o r S a fe ­
g u a rd s (A C R S ), r e c o g n iz in g the im p o r t a n c e o f r e a c t o r d y n a m ic m e a s u r e ­
m e n ts , h ave e n c o u r a g e d s o m e o f the a p p lic a n ts f o r lic e n c e s to e x a m in e the
u s e fu ln e s s o f r e a c t o r n o is e te c h n iq u e s . H o w e v e r , lit tle h as r e a lly c o m e
fr o m th e s e a c t io n s . In d eed , it a p p e a r s that w e h ave a situ a tio n in w h ich the
lic e n s in g a g e n c y is not ju s t ifie d in r e q u ir in g a d d itio n a l r e a c t o r n o is e data
u n til the r e s u lt s o f r e a c t o r n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e b e t te r u n d e r s t o o d , and
y e t w e w ill not be a b le to s e c u r e an ad equ ate u n d e r sta n d in g o f the in fo r m a t io n
to b e g a in e d fr o m r e a c t o r n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t u n til w e a r e a llo w e d to take
e x te n s iv e m e a s u r e m e n t s on n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts u n d e r r e a l o p e r a t in g
c o n d i t io n s .
A m a jo r o b s t a c le to a c o m p r e h e n s iv e p r o g r a m o f r e a c t o r d y n a m ic s
m e a s u r e m e n t s h as b e e n the c o m p le x it y o f the m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . T h e
f i r s t ste p is d e t e r m in in g the kind o f in fo r m a t io n w h ich c o u ld r e a s o n a b ly be
e x p e c t e d fr o m th e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s . In s o m e c a s e s , s im p ly m o n it o r in g
o f the r e s p o n s e o f the p o w e r r e a c t o r s y s t e m to p e r tu r b a t io n s w h ich o c c u r as
p a rt o f n o r m a l o p e r a t io n w ill y ie ld a g r e a t d e a l o f u s e fu l in fo r m a t io n . H ow ­
e v e r , i f th e r e is a n e e d f o r an a n a ly t ic a l m o d e l o f th is s y s t e m , then it is
u s u a lly e s s e n t ia l that the s y s t e m be p e r tu r b e d and its r e s p o n s e a n a ly s e d and
c o r r e la t e d w ith the in pu t. U s u a lly th is p e r tu r b a t io n is in tr o d u c e d th rou g h
s o m e m e c h a n is m w h ich w ill v a r y the r e a c t iv it y , i . e . c o n t r o l - r o d m o v e ­
m en t, c o n t r o l o f c o o la n t flo w , a v a r ia t io n in the e r r o r s ig n a l to the a u to m a tic
c o n t r o l s y s t e m , the u s e o f s p e c ia lly d e s ig n e d r e a c t iv it y o s c i l l a t o r s , e t c . In
a ll c a s e s th e r e is a c lo s e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n the ty p e o f p e r tu r b a t io n w h ich
is in tr o d u c e d and the fr e q u e n c y ra n g e o v e r w h ich the d a ta a r e e x p e c t e d to be
ta k en . G e n e r a lly , n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts r e s p o n d s lo w ly and the tim e co n s ta n ts
a r e r e la t iv e ly lo n g ; h e n c e , it is o fte n p o s s ib le to u s e c o n v e n tio n a l c o n t r o l
s y s t e m s f o r e x p e r im e n t s p r o p o s e d f o r c e r t a in kin ds o f in v e s tig a t io n .
T h e a c q u is it io n and p r o c e s s i n g o f data c a n a ls o be qu ite c o m p le x . P r o ­
c e s s i n g d a ta " o n lin e " u s u a lly m e a n s that on e is b e c o m in g in v o lv e d in an
e x p e n s iv e p r o g r a m , s in c e the s y s t e m h as to be c a p a b le o f h an dlin g a g r e a t
d e a l o f d a ta in a r e la t iv e l y s h o r t p e r io d o f tim e to c o n tin u o u s ly u p d a te the
r e s u lt s b e in g o b ta in e d . On the o th e r hand, p r o c e s s i n g the da ta " o f f lin e "
s im p li f ie s the p r o c e d u r e s in v o lv e d , but d e c r e a s e s the u s e fu ln e s s , as fa r as
the r e g u la r o p e r a t io n is c o n c e r n e d . T h e c h o ic e o f w h e th e r d ig it a l o r a n a lo g
te c h n iq u e s a r e to be u s e d is on e p r im a r i ly a s s o c ia t e d w ith the a v a ila b ilit y
o f eq u ip m en t, but m o r e and m o r e o f the data a c q u is it io n and p r o c e s s in g is
h an d led u s in g d ig it a l te c h n iq u e s . T h is has b e e n p a r t ic u la r ly tru e s in c e the
a v a ila b ilit y o f d ig it a l c o m p u t e r c o d e s im p le m e n tin g the " f a s t F o u r i e r t r a n s ­
f o r m " , th e r e b y r e d u c in g the c o m p u te r tim e n e e d e d f o r the a n a ly s is o f data
and d y n a m ic e x p e r im e n t s . M o r e r e c e n t ly , s p e c ia l a lg o r ith m s r e q u ir in g v e r y
lit t le c o m p u t e r m e m o r y h ave b e e n u s e d a d v a n ta g e o u s ly . T h e c h o ic e o f
w h e th e r s p e c i a l o r g e n e r a l e q u ip m e n t is u s e d is a g a in d ep en d en t u p on a v a il­
a b ility , but a s a g e n e r a l r u le , s p e c ia l p u r p o s e eq u ip m en t is ju s t ifie d on ly
w h en on e ta k e s a la r g e n u m b e r o f m e a s u r e m e n t s and c o n tin u e s to ta k e data
o n a ro u tin e b a s i s .
T h e ty p e o f p e r tu r b a t io n to be u s e d in th is s y s t e m is a ls o q u ite im p o r ta n t.
In r e c e n t y e a r s , the u s e o f p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y input s ig n a ls h as b e e n v e r y
a t tr a c tiv e b e c a u s e o f the p o s s ib ilit y o f s im p ly u s in g the r e g u la r r e a c t o r
c o n t r o l s y s t e m s to p r o d u c e the p e r tu r b a t io n . T h e p r in c ip a l ad va n tage o f the
p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y input is in th e p r o c e s s in g o f the data, i . e . the p s e u d o ­
 IAEA-SM-168/C-0 341

ra n d o m b in a r y s e q u e n c e is a c y c l i c v a r ia b le , and h e n c e the data c a n be

a v e r a g e d o v e r a la r g e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s and then p r o c e s s e d u s in g on ly the
" a v e r a g e d " c y c l e . H o w e v e r , s p e c ia lly fa b r ic a t e d b in a r y s ig n a ls w h ich g iv e
a m o r e fa v o u r a b le d is tr ib u tio n o f e n e r g y h ave a ls o b e e n u s e d a d v a n ta g e o u s ly .
F in a lly , I w o u ld lik e to ta lk about s o m e o f the le g a l a s p e c ts o f th e s e
m e a s u r e m e n t s . F o r e x a m p le , the p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y s ig n a l f o r a r e c e n t
s e r i e s o f " n o i s e " e x p e r im e n t s on a m a jo r n u c le a r p o w e r plant w a s in t r o ­
d u ce d th rou g h m a n u a l m a n ip u la tio n o f the c o n t r o l - r o d p o s it io n s w itc h by a
r e a c t o r o p e r a t o r w ho fo llo w e d the output o f a p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y s ig n a l
g e n e r a t o r a s d is p la y e d on an o s c i l l o s c o p e . I n c r e d ib le a s th is te ch n iq u e m a y
s e e m in th is day and ag e o f e le c t r o n i c d e v ic e s , it is u n d e r s ta n d a b le w h en you
c o n s id e r the a m ou n t o f w o r k n e c e s s a r y to m o d ify the p o w e r plant lic e n c e
to a llo w the in tr o d u c t io n o f a p e r tu r b a t io n b y e l e c t r o n i c m e a n s . H a vin g the
r e a c t o r o p e r a t o r m a n ip u la te the c o n t r o l r o d a llo w e d the e x p e r im e n t to be
c a r r ie d out w ith ou t m o d ific a t io n o f the l ic e n c e .
T h e p o te n tia l d e v e lo p m e n t o f n o is e a n a ly s is in n u c le a r p o w e r s y s t e m s is
b e in g fr u s t r a t e d by o th e r n o n -t e c h n ic a l p r o b le m s . A n u m b e r o f in v e s t ig a t o r s
h ave d e m o n s tr a te d that s o m e a n o m a lie s c a n be d e t e c te d by s im p ly m o n it o r in g
v a r io u s k in d s o f " n o i s e " o r flu c tu a tio n s that o c c u r th rou g h ou t the p o w e r
r e a c t o r s y s t e m . V a r ia b le s w h ich h ave p r o v id e d in fo r m a t io n a b ou t the sta tu s
o f the p o w e r p la n t in clu d e n e u tro n d e n s ity , p o w e r , r e a c t iv it y , p r e s s u r e s and
t e m p e r a t u r e s th rou g h ou t the s y s t e m , and c o o la n t v e l o c i t y . A l a r g e - s c a l e
study o f the " s ig n a t u r e s " o f n o is e s ig n a ls ta k en fr o m p o w e r r e a c t o r s y s t e m s
m e a n s r o u tin e m o n it o r in g and a n a ly s is o f n o is e w h ich o c c u r s in th e se v a r i ­
a b le s . T h is h as not h app en ed f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .

(1 ) T h e c o s t o f in s t a llin g and m a in ta in in g the in stru m e n ta tio n as w e ll

as p r o c e s s i n g the da ta is a c o s t that a u tility c o m p a n y is not lik e ly to
in c u r v o lu n t a r ily .
(2) T h e p r e s e n t sta te o f a n a ly s is o f n o is e s ig n a ls fr o m p o w e r r e a c t o r s
d o e s n ot p r o v id e p o s it iv e id e n t ific a t io n o f d if fic u lt ie s and h e n ce d o e s not
p r o v id e a b a s i s f o r takin g a c tio n w hen ch a n g e s o f n o is e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o c c u r .
(3 ) T h e le g a l r e s p o n s ib ili t y o f a u tility c o m p a n y that h as c o l l e c t e d su ch
d a ta is n ot c l e a r . S om e u n a n s w e r e d le g a l q u e s t io n s w h ich h ave a r is e n a r e :

(a ) W hat lia b ilit y d o e s a u tility in c u r in the e v e n t o f an a c c id e n t if

" a f t e r - t h e - f a c t " a n a ly s is o f n o is e data sh ow s a ch a n g in g s p e c t r a l
d e n s it y o v e r a p e r io d o f tim e w h ich c a n be c o r r e la t e d w ith
d e t e r io r a t in g p e r fo r m a n c e ?
(b ) W hat o b lig a tio n d o e s a u tility h ave to shut dow n a n u c le a r p o w e r
pla n t, th e r e b y in c u r r in g s u b s ta n tia l fin a n c ia l l o s s e s , w h en c o n ­
c u r r e n t a n a ly s is o f n o is e sh o w s an in e x p la in a b le but su b s ta n tia l
ch a n g e in " n o i s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " that c a n not be c o r r e la t e d w ith
any o t h e r v a r ia b le b e in g m o n it o r e d ?

T h e s o lu t io n to th is d ile m m a lie s in the a p p r o p r ia te lic e n s in g b o a r d s

r e q u ir in g that n o is e d a ta be c o lle c t e d and a n a ly s e d w ith the r e s u lt s b e in g
m a d e g e n e r a lly a v a ila b le . T h is m u st be a c c o m p a n ie d by le g is la t io n w h ich
w o u ld e lim in a t e le g a l lia b ilit y o r o b lig a tio n to a c t s o l e ly on the b a s is o f the
a n a ly s is o f the n o is e d a ta u n til the a n a ly s is p r o c e d u r e s a r e p e r fe c t e d
s u ffic ie n t ly .
342 UHRIG

DISCUSSION

D .H . S T E G E M A N N : Y ou m e n tio n e d the le g a l a s p e c t s o f th e r e s u lt s o f
n o is e e x p e r im e n t s . If fr o m the r e s u lt s in fo r m a t io n ca n b e o b ta in e d on
s a fe ty a s p e c t s a lr e a d y c o v e r e d by the s a fe ty p r o c e d u r e s , do y ou r e a lly think
that new le g a l q u e s t io n s a r e lik e ly to e m e r g e ?
R . E . U H R IG : I c a n a n s w e r th is q u e s t io n on ly in the c o n te x t o f the
situ a tio n in th e U n ited S tates o f A m e r i c a as I s e e it.
R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f u t ilit ie s w ith w h om I h ave ta lk ed h ave e x p r e s s e d
e x t r e m e r e lu c t a n c e to a llo w e x te n s iv e n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n a c o n tin u o u s
b a s is b e c a u s e th ey f e e l the le g a l q u e s t io n s o f the ty p e I r a is e d sh ou ld be
se t tle d f i r s t . G e n e r a lly , c o u r t s in the U n ited S tates a p p ly the d o c t r in e o f
" s t r i c t lia b ilit y " to any in d u s tr ia l p r o c e s s that r e p r e s e n t s a p o te n tia l d a n g e r
to the g e n e r a l p u b lic . T h e r e a r e at the p r e s e n t tim e no le g a l p r e c e d e n t s
fr o m the U n ited S tates c o u r t s in v o lv in g p r o b le m s o f th is ty p e , and h e n ce
u t ilit ie s a r e on the w h o le u n w illin g to in c u r any a d d itio n a l p o te n tia l lia b ility
u n le s s th ey s e e that the d ir e c t b e n e fit s to th em e x c e e d the c o s t s and d if f i c u l­
t ie s in v o lv e d . I s u g g e s t that the p r o b le m c o u ld be e lim in a te d by r e q u ir in g
that n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s be m a de and then d e fin in g the lim it s o f the o b l ig a ­
tio n to u s e the m e a s u r e m e n t data a s a b a s is f o r a c tio n .
 IA EA-SM-1 6 8/C -1

PLAN NIN G, PERFO RM IN G , AND

IN TE R PR E TIN G F R E Q U E N C Y RESPONSE
TESTS ON POW ER REACTORS

T .W . KERLIN
University o f Tennessee,
Knoxville, T e n n .,
United States o f America

Abstract

PLANNING, PERFORMING, AND INTERPRETING FREQUENCY RESPONSE TESTS O N POWER REACTORS.

Dynamic tests on nuclear power reactors can provide useful information on system performance and
safety that is difficult or impossible to obtain in steady-state tests. The value of these tests is enhanced
by planning, perfomiing and interpreting them efficiently. The technology for all three phases of a
frequency response test program has advanced to the point that the benefits fully justify the routine use of
these tests in commercial power reactors.

1. Introduction

Dynam ics tests in power reactors can provide useful inform ation
on system p e r f o r m a n c e . Measurement of the frequency response is a con­
venient way t o obtain this inform ation. Results from a frequency response
test may b e used for these purposes:

A. checking theoretical models used for analyzing

normal operational transients and for predicting
system behavior in an accident

B. determ ining values of system design parameters

(such as reactivity coefficients)

C. determ ining stability margins

D. providing data that can be used to tune theoretical

models so t h a t they can p r e d i c t plant transient
performance w ith assured accuracy.

The classical frequency response measurement in a nuclear reactor

is the oscillator test involving a sinusoidal reactivity perturbation.
Since, t h is usually requires special (and expensive) hardware and r e q u i r e s
a long time to obtain inform atio n at a number of frequencies, oscillator
tests are not routinely used in power reactors.

Fortunately, it is now p o s s i b l e to measure a p l a n t 's frequency

response using newer methods that require no special hardware and that
can be c o m p l e t e d much more quickly than oscillator tests. These tests
use nonsinusoidal (usually two-level) inputs to excite the system. The
most common i n p u t is reactivity, but other p o s s ib i l i t ie s include steam
valve position and feedwater flow to the steam generators.

It is important to achieve the greatest possible efficiency in

a test program. An efficient test maximizes the inform ation provided,

34 3
344 KERLIN

minim izes the time required, m inim izes the special equipment n e e d e d , and
m inim izes the computer cost for data analysis. Research on testing pro­
cedures has provided the technology needed to design efficient test
programs.

2. Fundamentals

Fourier analysis may be used to obtain frequency response

results from t e s t s that use nonsinusoidal inputs. If the input is
a periodic signal w ith period, T, then the output is also periodic
w ith period, T. The frequency response, G, m a y Ъе obtained as follows:

p nT

G(jw k ) = ^ QJ 0 (t )e _J“kt dt

1 PnT
nT J l ( t ) e " Jalk t dt (1)

Wl3ere 2kir
ш = angular frequency = —
It • 1

n = number of periods analyzed

0(t ) = output

l(t) = input

This may b e w ritten in equivalent form

|g| = Am plitude of G (jw )

=1
=
~r2 -+■ s2
I \
~j3 (2)
" lv2 + w2J
f s v - R W ~1
ф = phase of G( jr n) = a r c t a n | p— — ■
— -( (3)
1 |_RV + SW J
where
pnT

R = — ■ J 0 ( t ) cos lo^t dt _ (It)

pnT

S = ' nT (Г Sin dt ^
pnT

V ~ ñ? СГ cos dt ^
p nT

w = -— QJI(t) sinV dt (7)

Note that a periodic signal contains inform ation only at harm onic fre­
quencies, 2k7T . Valid results can b e obtained only at those frequencies.
T

3. Planning a Test

Most of the work in a frequency response test program should

be done before the test is perform ed. This involves theoretical predic­
tion of plant frequency response functions, evaluation o f equipment
capabilities, selection of input variables and methods of controlling them
during the test, and selection of input test signals.

3a. Role of theoretical analysis. The first use o f the

theoretical calculations is to identify the range of frequencies that
should be measured in the test. For example, the response of the power
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 345

to a reactivity perturbation is influenced by temperature feedback effects

up to some frequency. At higher frequencies, feedback effects are
unim portant, and the system b e h a /e s like a zero power reactor. Since
there is little uncertainty in the zero power k i n e t i c s and since the
feedback effects determ ine transient effects of major i m p o r t a n c e ,-t h e r e
is little interest in measuring the response beyond the frequencies
where feedback is im portant. This is usually around 1 radian per second
for light water reactors and 10 radians per second for sodium cooled
fast reactors. Responses of variables such as coolant temperature w i l l
have even lower m a xi m um frequencies of importance.

The theoretical model is also used to estimate the magnitude

of the input perturbation that should be used in order to obtain outputs
w ith suitable magnitude. Figure 1 shows a typical p ow er/reactivity gain
curve for a pressurized water reactor. (The model used here does not
include the steam g e n e r a t o r s . The inlet temperature to the core is
assumed constant. Inclusion of steam generators would affect only low
frequency re s u lts .) The gain (% c h a n g e i n p o w e r /ф o f r e a c t i v i t y ) varies
from a value of about 0.2 at low frequencies to about 1 .0 at the
highest frequencies of interest. '

Since the coolant temperature is an output that can be

measured in the test, its response should also be considered in the
theoretical study. Figure 2 shows a typical core outlet water tempera­
tu re /r e a c tiv ity gain for a pressurized water reactor. The b r e a k fre­
quency is about 0 .5 radians per second (tim e constant of 2 seconds).
The gain for frequencies below the break frequency is about 0 .0 5 °C /Ф
of reactivity. This means that a reactivity perturbation of a few cents
w ill give a readily observable temperature variation.

Another use of the theoretical model is to predict the sensiti­

vity o f the measureáble frequency responses to changes in im portant design
param eters. Table I shows typical values of the maximum s e n s i t i v i t i e s
of the gain and p h ase to changes in the fuel temperature coefficient of
reactivity, and t h e fuel- coolant overall heat transfer coefficient. These

Fre q ue ncy (ra d ia n s/ se c )

FIG. 1. Power/reactivity gain fot a PWR.

346 KERL1N

FIG.2. Water temperature/reactivity gain for a PWR.

results show t h a t the frequency response gain changes on t h e order of

one p e r cent for every per cent change in these coefficients and the
phase changes f r o m 0 . 0 5 to 0 . 2 7 d e g r e e s for e v e r y p e r cent c h a n g e in th e se
coefficients.

The model should also be used to examine the influence o f power

level on p r e d i c t e d results. Different parameters often ha:ve different
relative importances at different power levels. The test program should
include tests at several different power levels if the theoretical studies
suggest that this w ill yield additional inform ation on p a r a m e t e r s of
interest. Also, tests can furnish the stability margin at each power
level. Results at several power levels allow an extrapolation to estimate
an instability threshold.

Finally, the t h e o r e t i c a l model can aid in a systemmatic deter­

mination of system parameters through a m odel-reference system identifi­
cation^) that w ill be perform ed after the tests are completed. Procedures
for model r e fe r e n c e system i d e n t i f i c a t i o n have been developed prim arily
by workers in non-nuclear industries, but interest is growing in applying
them i n nuclear reactor work. Model r e fe r e n c e system i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
involves systenmatic ad justm ent of selected coefficients in a theoretical
model u n t i l the difference between theoretical predictions and m easured
results is m inim ized. Autom atic computer optim ization methods are used
in the param eter search. Of course, the validity of the .parameters
obtained in this way depends on t h e validity of the theoretical model.
Also, it is possible to obtain sets o f parameters in a valid model that
cause the good agreement between theory and experiment but which are
inco rrect. This is a uniqueness problem. Some w o r k has been done, and
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 347

sufficient criteria for uniqueness of the identified parameters have been

d e v e l o p e d . I t is im portant to complete the m o delling work p r io r
to the test so t h a t the model r e fe r e n c e identification can be im plem ented
as soon as the test results are available.

3b. Evaluation of input equipment capabilities. The theoreti­

cal studies indicate the inputs that are needed, the magnitudes o f these
inputs, and the frequency range that should be measured. The next step
is to find the plant equipment that is best suited for satisfying these
needs. The most obvious possibilities for input hardware are control
rods, steam v a l v e s , steam g ene rato r feedw ater flow, and r e c ir c u l a t io n
flow (for a boiling water reactor). The suitability o f the input hard­
ware is determ ined by whether it can introduce a perturbation of suitable
magnitude in the frequency range of interest. Usually, the question is
whether the hardware c a n mov e fast enough. For example, let us consider
a control rod that moves in a stepw ise fashion (such as ex p erien c ed w ith
a m agnetic jack or lead screw control rod drive m echanism ). The highest
frequency that one is likely to be able to use is

w = -^2 . ra dia n s/se c (8)

P

where

W = rod worth (rea ctiv ity per step)

R = rod speed (steps per second)
p = total reactivity desired.

3c. Evaluation of sensor capabilities. Reactor frequency response

tests w ill norm ally involve measurement of several outputs. The sensors
might be neutron detectors, thermocouples, resistance therm om eters, pressure
sensors, differential pressure sensors for level measurement, and flow
rates. The suitability of a sensor is determ ined by its frequency response
and its sensitivity. For example, thermocouples are usually enclosed in
sheaths and are imbedded in a ceram ic such as m a g n e s i u m oxide. A typical
value for the break frequency for a power reactor therm ocouple is one
radian per second. Sensors are usually intended prim arily for measuring
the absolute, steady state values. For frequency response measurem ents,
the interest is in relatively sm all, dynamic changes. The usual proce­
dure for a frequency response test is to use signal conditioning equip­
ment to b ia s out the steady state. This method is successful if the
sensor has adequate sensitivity to detect the relatively small devia­
tions from ste a d y state accurately.

3d. Selection of a method for controlling inputs. After

suitable input hardware is selected, it is necessary to choose a proce­
dure for using it to introduce the input perturbations. The method
s e l e c t e d must not interfere w ith any p la n t safety equipment, and the
failure of any instruments used for the tests should not affect the plant
adversely. Generally, there are three ways to control the input test
signal: open loop, closed loop, and demand.

The open loop method can be used for perturbations that can
norm ally be made m a n u a l l y . For exam ple, in most plants the operator
has the option o f manual adjustm ent of control rod p o sitio n. Ty pically,
the position changes as long as the operator supplies a move c o m m a nd .
This mo ve co mm an d i s usually a contact closure that supplies a voltage
to a servomechanism. A frequency response test input signal could be
implem ented by autom atically inserting suitable time-varying voltages
to the servomechanism control circuit. The disadvantage of this method
348 KERLIN

H
J
m
<
Ен
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 349

is that it may b e difficult to insure that a continued signal for system

input such as rod motion could not occur as a result of an equipment
m alfunction.

The closed loop method uses a controller that is added to the

system during the test to adjust the voltage supplied to the input hard­
ware servomechanism control circuit. In this case, a signal generator
feeds a set point for the input hardware position to this controller.
The controller then adjusts the voltage to the servomechanism u n t i l the
difference between the set point and the measured hardware position is
zero.

The demand m ethod u s e s the normal p l a n t control system to cause

the desired input perturbations. The plant controllers normally adjust
the inputs to cause selected outputs to match demand v a l u e s . For exam ple,
a controller might adjust control rods to cause nuclear power to match
the power demand for the unit. This controller could be tricked to give
the test input signal by adding an increm ental, tim e-varying input to
the steady state demand signal. This would induce the control system
to adjust the input to satisfy this demand. This varying input can serve
as the test input signal. Of course, the input actually obtained by this
method depends on the transfer function of the system and the controller.

3e. Selection of a test signal. After the input variables

and the method of controlling them i n a test are selected, the form o f
the perturbation must be chosen. Two- level (binary) periodic inputs are
particularly useful. These perturbations (or suitable approxim ations
to them) can usually be introduced in a power reactor using system h a rd ­
ware such as control rods or steam v a l v e s . Periodic signals are
advantageous because they concentrate the energy in the wave in discrete,
h arm onic frequencies. This is important because the quality of the
results depends on t h e signal energy at analysis frequencies relative
to the background noise level. The frequency response is obta in ed by
Fourier analyzing the input and output signals at harmonic frequencies,
then constructing the gain and ph ase as indicated in Equations 2 and 3.

Several different binary input wave forms have been used for
frequency response tests in nuclear reactors. These are the pseudo
random b i n a r y sequency (P R B S ),'5 ,6 ) t he n sequence, > and the m ulti­
frequency b in ar y sequence (M FB S) . ' 6 , 8 , 9 )

P eriodic, binary sequences are characterized by the number of

bits in the sequence. The bit is the shortest pulse in the pulse chain.
A ll pulses have a duration of one bit or an integer m ultiple of one bit.
The most common m e t h o d for generating PRBS signals involves a digital
shift register (such signal generators are com m ercially available), and
these s ig n a ls have 2 R -1 b i t s for integer values of R. The n sequence
is o b t a i n e d "by c h a n g i n g t h e sign of every other bit in a PRBS. This
gives signals w ith 2(2- 1) bits. T y p i c a l PRBS and n sequence signals
and their power spectra appear in Figures 3 and 1*.

The spacing and r e l a t iv e energy contents of the harm onics in

PRBS and n sequence signals are completely determ ined once the number
of bits is chosen. The number of bits needed is determ ined by the
frequency range that is to be covered in the test :

Z = 2 .2 7 N (9)

where
Z = number of bits
Ы = number o f freq uen cies to be measured inthe test.
350 KERL1N

The harm onics in a PRBS are evenly spaced on a linear scale, but the
usual interpretation of frequency response data involves a Bode plot
and a logarithm ic scale. It is usually more desirable to have frequen­
cies evenly spaced on a logarithm ic scale than on a linear scale. This
indicates that a suitable frequency spacing at lower frequencies w ill
give too close a frequency spacing at higher frequencies and a result­
ing waste in signal en e r g y when the PRBS or n sequence is used. The
consequence of this is that the waste of energy in unwanted frequencies
requires a longer test to obtain adequate energy in wanted frequencies.

The M F BS signal overcomes the waste of signal energy in

unwanted frequencies. The signal is obtain ed by a computer optim iza­
tion that finds the binary wave form t h a t gives the frequency spacing
and relative energy contents that best match the desired values. A
128 b it MFBS and its energy spectrum appear in Figure 5. This signal
concentrates 7 5 • 3% o f the signal power in 12 harm onics. A PRBS or n
sequence for the sa me frequency range would spread the energy am ong

timen

о
ui 2 3

Î
о 0.1 ■

S
о

1 0.011

0.001
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
HARMONIC NUMBER

F I G .3 . A 7-b it PRBS and its power sp ectru m .

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 351

<
z
ta

I 2 3 4 5 10 II 12 U

S
o
CL

Ü 0.11

г
o

< O.OIh
tr

0.001
6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14
H A R M O N IC N U M B E R

FIG. 4. A 14-bit n sequence and its power spectrum.

ap proxim ately 56 harm onics for the PRBS and 2 8 harm onics for the n
sequence. The concentration o f power in desired frequencies w ith M FB S
signals gives suitably high signal-to-noise ratios in measurement fre­
quencies in less time than required w ith P RB S or n sequence signals.
The M FB S appears to be the most efficient periodic binary wave form for
use in frequency response testing.

It is also possible to obtain the frequency response w ith non­

periodic inputs such as a pulse or a ste p .° These are easy to perform,
but suffer from sig n a l- t o - n o is e ratio problem s. This is because the
total useful energy is lim ited and t h i s energy is spread am on g a contin­
uu m o f frequencies for nonperiodic signals. The m ain use o f these signals
w ill probably be for prelim inary tests or for frequent rough checks of
the frequency response to determ ine w hether accurate tests involving
periodic inputs are needed.
352 KERLIN

a:
ш

I
«j Û.I
< —к
z
0 • ■ * ■ N O T E . T h e 12
CO • 1* • * d e s ir e d h a r m o n ic s
_l r c o n t a i n 7 5 .3 o / о o f

1
u.
• • t h e t o t a l s ig n a l
p o w e r.

о
z
о
h
o
<
(E

0.01
5 1II 15 20 25 30 35 4 4
H A R M O N IC

FIG. 5. A 128-bit MFBS and its power spectrum.

Perform ing the Test

The first step in this phase of the program is the preparation

of a detailed test procedure. It should contain a step-by-step descrip­
tion of all activities associated w ith the test. This includes setting
up of special equipment, connections to plant sensors, connections to
the plant control system , specification of special modes of control to
be used during testing, special tasks for plant operators d u r in g the
test, actions to be taken in case of equipment failure or u n e x p e c t e d
behavior, and procedures for returning the plant to normal operation.

The e x p e rim e n te r's work at the test begins w ith setting up

and checking the signal conditioning equipment, recorders, and on-line
analyzers that are to be used in the test. Then, the connections are
made to the plant sensors. A very convenient place to make t h e s e con­
nections is the j u n c t io n b o x where analog signals enter the p la n t 's
process computer. The signals to be m onitored during the test may be
fed into signal conditioning equipment where the steady state level is
biased out, the deviation from st e a d y state is am plified and the signals
are low-pass filtered to elim inate high frequency n o is e .

Then the test signal is fed into the system . The first portion
of the response is not useful for frequency response evaluation because
frequency response analysis must be done after initial transients have
died out. After this has occurred (as indicated by repetition of the
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 353

response in two adjacent periods of the periodic wave form ), then record­
ing an d /o r on-line analysis can b e g i n . Recording requires a m ulti­
channel (usually 10 o r m or e channels w ill Ъе n e e d e d t o handle all signals
of interest) analog or digital data acquisition system. If this approach
is used, the recorded signals s u b s e q u e n t l y must b e fed into a digital
computer for Fourier analysis. This procedure suffers in comparison w it h
on-line analysis because the recording equipment introduces an additional
possibility for equipment o r human error and b e c a u s e of the delay in
obtaining test results. On- line analysis p rovides results im m ediately.
This is not only convenient, it also allows the analyst to evaluate the
quality of the results as the test proceeds and to determ ine the test
duration needed to obtain desired accuracy.

On- line analysis can b e perform ed using analog analyzers or

digital computers, but digital analysis has achieved strong preference
in recent years. This is largely due to the development of low-cost
minicom puters and new Fourier analysis methods that are well suited for
digital computer im plem entation. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is
such an algorithm . It computes the Fourier transform very rapidly.
The main disadvantage of this method is that the algorithm requires that
blocks of data (typically containing 512, 1 0 21 * , or 201+8 s a m p l e s in
power rea c to r test ap plications) be stored in the c on ç i ut e r b e f o r e the
analysis starts. The use of interrupts allows continued sam pling during
the analysis of a data block so that no data points .are lost, but ade­
quate m em or y m u s t be available to store a full block of data and all
the prelim inary calculated values of the Fourier coefficients. This
is readily accom plished w ith a rather small computer me m or y (8096 word
memory f o r example) for a single input-output pair. However, the memory
n e e d e d becomes large when the analyzer is required to handle the ten or
m o re signals usually encountered in a reactor test. Other algorithms
are under development that can h a n d le ten o r m o re m u l t i p l e channels
w ith a small c o m p u t e r m em or y (typically 8096 w ord m em ory). These methods
do n ot perform the calculations as fast as the FFT, but are fast enough
to handle the sam pling rate encountered in nuclear reactor tests.

5. Interpreting the Results

Prelim inary interpretation begins as soon as the frequency

response results are available. The analyst asks; "Does it have the
shape that I expected?", "Does it have the am plitude that I expected?",
"Are there any unexpected resonances or breaks in the g ain ? ".

S t a b i l i t y m argins ma y also be obtained quickly. The most common

stability measure is the phase margin obtained from a Nyquist stability
analysis. This is obtained using the open loop frequency response. The
open loop frequency response, GH, is obtained using the measured closed
loop frequency response, G , and t h e zero power reactor frequency response,
G, as follows:

GH = I -1. . (10)
с
G^ is obtained from the test, and G is adequately predicted by theory.

Model and parameter checking can start w ith a visual comparison

of results and p r e d i c t io n s . Frequency regions w ith the greatest differences
are identified and the results of the theoretical sensitivity study are
used to obtain prelim inary clues to the causes for differences. The
availability of experim ental and the o re tica l results for a number of system
354 KERLIN

outputs can aid in identifying causes for differences. If the sensitivities

of different outputs to parameters have different m agnitudes and different
frequency ranges of importance, then the process of elim ination ma y b e
used to help determ ine the parameters responsible for differences between
theory and exp erim ent. Also, if the theoretical analysis included a study
of the assumed form o f the model as w e l l as a parameter sensitivity study,
then the results may aid in evaluating the validity of the m odeling assump­
tions. An example of a m odeling assumption that might be checked by using
test data is a plug flow vs. a well-mixed flow treatm ent of fluid transport.

The next step is a system matic model r e fe r e n c e system identifi­

cation as described in Section 3. This is straightforw ard in principle,
but the application w ill require informed engineering evaluation o f the
results. For exam ple, the analyst should ask whether the identified
parameters are within the known uncertainty range or whether the identi­
fication found unreasonable results because o f uniqueness problems.

Regardless o f the success o f the model reference identification

in determ ining correct values for system d e sig n parameters, it w ill
provide a set o f parameters that cause the model to predict the actual
plant response accurately. This is referred to as a tuning of the plant
model. This t u n e d model can b e used to predict plant responses even if
the parameters used are not ph ysically m eaningful because of uniqueness
or other problems. In so m e cases, this tu n ed model w it h unrealistic
parameters obtained in a prelim inary analysis might be used for plant
response predictio ns until the system identification is completed. Then
a new set of physically reasonable parameters could be used in subsequent
model calculations.

6. Prior Experience

A number of frequency response tests that used binary inputs

and standard system hardware have been performed on research reactors
and on several power reactors. A partial listing o f power reactor tests
appears in Table II.

T A B L E II. P O W E R R E A C T O R T E S T S T H A T U SE D S T A N D A R D SY S T E M
HARDW ARE

Reactor Perturbation used Ref.

Saxton PRBS [1 0 ] '

Yankee PRBS [1 0 ]

Trino PRBS [1 0 ]

Dragon PRBS [1 1 ]

Fermi Pulse [1 2 ]

NPD PRBS [1 3 ]

NRU PRBS [1 4 ]

Halden PRBS & MFBS [1 5 ]

Agesta PRBS & MFBS [1 6 ]

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 355

Work on system identification for nuclear reactor ap plications

is lim ited. However, there has been a great deal o f work reported on the
general theory of system identification and on applications in non-nuclear
system s. Reference 1 gives a good rev iew of this work. All the publica­
tions known to the author on t h e application of system identification
methods to nuclear reactors are listed in references 2 and IT through 26.
These are given in the hope that they w il l help new w orkers to get started
in this important research area.

7. Su m m ar y

Methods for obtaining useful inform ation on n u c l e a r power p la n t

dynamic response characteristics have been developed. Available methods
perm it testing w ith insignificant interference to normal operation and
w ith no expenditure for special test hardware. Efficient analysis proce­
dures are available for on-line or off- line data analysis. Recent progress
on systemmatic data interpretation provides a tool for this im portant
phase of a test program, and further development and exp erien ce should
further increase the power of these methods.

REFERENCES

[1] ASTROM, K. J. and Eykhoff, P ., System Identification - A Survey,

A u t o m a t i c a J_ ( 1 9 7 1 ) 123.

[2] BUCKNER, M. R ., "A Study of the A pplication of System Identifi­

cation Techniques in the Analysis of Nuclear Reactor D yn am ics."
Thesis, Nuclear Engineering Departm ent, The U niversity of
Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee ( 19 6 8 ) .

[3] HOBEROCK, "An Experim ental Method for the Determ ination o f Non­
linear D ifferential Equatio ns to Describe Simple Dynam ic S y s t e m s ,"
Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann A r b o r ,
Michigan ( 19 6 6 ) .

[4] YORE, E. E. and T a k a h a s h i, Identification o f Dynam ic Systems by

Digital Computer M o d e l in g in State S p a ce , Transactions o f the
American Society o f Mechanical Engineers - Journal o f Basic
Engineering. (June 1967) 295.

[5] KERLIN, T. W . , USAEC Rep ORNL-TM-1662 ( 19 6 6 ) .

[6] KERLIN, T. W ., "Methods for Frequency Response Measurements in

Power R e a c to rs," pages 311-333 o f Dynam ics of Nuclear Systems
(Hetrick, D. L ., E d .) U niversity of Arizona Press, Tuscon, Arizona
( 19 7 2 ) .

[7] SIMPSON, H. R ., Statistical Properties of a Class o f Psuedorandom

Sequences, Proc. Inst, of Electrical Eng ineers (England) 113 12
( 19 6 6 ) 20 75 .

[8] VA N D E N B O S , A ., "Construction of Binary Multi frequency Test S ig n a ls ,"

Paper 46 of Preprints of IFAC Symposium on I d e n t i f i c a t i o n in Auto­
m atic Control Systems held in Prague, Czechoslovakia (June 1967).

[9] BUCKNER, M. R ., USAEC R e p o r t ORNL-TM-3198 (1970).

356 KERLIN

[10] RAJAGOPAL, V. and Gallagher, J. М ., Some A p p l i c a t i o n s o f Dynam ic

Measurements in P r e s s u r iz e d Water Reactor Nuclear Power P l a n t s ,
IEEE Trans on N u c l e a r Science NS-lU 2 ( 19 6 7 ) 15.

[11] CUMMINS, J . D . , U K A E A Report A E E W - R - 6 7 1* ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

[12] BATCH, M .L . and K lic k m a n , A. E . , Transfer Functions from R e a c t i v i t y

Pulses G e n e r a t e d Ъу t h e Regulating Rod - Enrico Fermi Reactor,
Atomic Power Developm ents Associates, Inc. Report APDA-NTS-14
( 1967 ).

[13] WATKINS, L. M. and H i n d s , H. W. , AECL Report C R N L - V 78 (1970).

[lU] HIN DS, H . W . , AECL R e p o r t C R N L - 5 8 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

[1 5 ] AGER-HANSSEN, H . , Halden - Operating and Research Exp e rienc e,

N u c l e a r P o w e r , ]_ 7 9 ( 19 62 ) 5 7 .

[16 ] BLISELIUS, P. A. e t .a l., "Physics Experiments at the A g e s t a Power

Station", pp. 3 3 9 - З67 o f P r o c e e d i n g s of the Conference on P h y s i c s
Measurements in Operating Power R e a c t o r s , E uro pean Nuclear Energy
Agency ( 196 6 ) .

[1 7 ] CUMMINS, J. D ., A KAEA R e p o r t AEEW-R-580 (19Ô 7).

[ 1 8] HABEGGER, L . J . , B a i l e y , R. E . , and Kadavanich , K . , "The Use of

Q u a s ilin e a r iz a t io n for the Id e n t if ic a t io n of Nuclear Reactor
P ar a m eter s ," Trans AN S, 10_ 1 ( 1 9 б 7 ) 1 7 6 .

[19] CUMMINS, J. D ., UKAEA Report AEEW-R-571 ( 196 8 ) .

[ 20 ] SWANICK, В. H. and G r a u p e , D . , A n aly s is of On-Line Identification

and Control of a Nuclear Reactor, J. Brit N uclear Energy Soc. 7_
1 ( 19 68 ) 10 0 .

[21] CUMMINS, J . D. , UKAEA R e p o r t A E E W - R - 6 7 1* ( 1 9 Ô 9 ) .

[22] OBEID, M. and L ap sle y , A. C ., Determ ination of the Lumped Heat-

Transfer and R e a c t iv it y Coefficients of a Research Reactor,
J. Nuclear Energy 23 ( 1 9 69) 171.

[23] ROMAN,
tion in
W. S ., Hsu,
a N onlinear
C ., and H a b eg g er ,
Reactor System,
L.
Trans
J . , Parameter
ANS, NS-18 1
Identifica­
(1971) bz6.
[2U] CUMMINS, J. D ., UKAEA R e p o r t A EE W - M - 1 0 1 2 (1971).

[25] SUDA, N. and S h i r a i , S ., Estim ation o f Reactor Parameters by Optimal

Filtering Method, J. Nuclear Sci. & T e c h ., 8_ 8 (1971) ^38.

D IS C U S S IO N

D. H. S T E G E M A N N : Y ou c o n c lu d e d that th e m u lt i-f r e q u e n c y input

is th e m o s t p r a c t ic a b le o n e. W h at f r e q u e n c ie s h a v e b e e n o r ca n b e c o v e r e d
in y o u r t e s t s , and is th e r a n g e s u ffic ie n t f o r t e s t s on L W R s ?
T .W . K E R L IN : T h e r a n g e o f f r e q u e n c ie s th at c a n b e c o v e r e d is d e ­
t e r m in e d b y th e m a x im u m s p e e d o f th e input h a r d w a r e . T h e h a r d w a r e in
L W R s is fa s t en ou g h to m e a s u r e the f r e q u e n c ie s o f in te r e s t .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 1 357

P . J O V E R : In th e m a in y o u h a v e m a d e u s e o f b in a r y s e q u e n c e s f o r
th e e x c it a t io n o f the r e a c t o r . I sh o u ld h ave th ou gh t that in o r d e r to a v o id
e r r o r s in th e v a lu e s -studied it w ou ld b e p r e f e r a b le to e m p lo y t e r n a r y
s e q u e n c e s . Is that c o r r e c t ? W hat h as b e e n y o u r e x p e r i e n c e ?
T . W . K E R L IN : T h e t e r n a r y s e q u e n c e s w e r e o r ig in a lly in tr o d u c e d
b e c a u s e o f t h e ir te n d e n c y to d is c r im in a t e a g a in s t n o n -lin e a r e f f e c t s .
S in c e t h e r e a r e o th e r s ig n a ls that a ls o h ave th is te n d e n c y and a r e e a s ie r
to u s e ( s p e c i f i c a l l y th e n s e q u e n c e and th e M F B S ), th ey a r e p r e f e r r e d f o r
p r a c t i c a l a p p lic a t io n s . W e did u s e t e r n a r y s e q u e n c e s in t e s t s and s u b ­
se q u e n tly d e c id e d that th e y sh o u ld b e a b an don ed.
M . F . E D E L M A N N : Y o u m e n tio n e d that b e s id e s the fa s t F o u r ie r
t r a n s f o r m a lg o r ith m t h e r e m ig h t b e o th e r , p o s s ib ly m o r e e f fe c t iv e ,
n u m e r ic a l m e th o d s f o r d e t e r m in in g the f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f p o w e r
r e a c t o r s . H ave y o u a lr e a d y in v e s tig a t e d su ch m e t h o d s ?
T . W . K E R L IN : Y e s . I h ave d e v e lo p e d an a lg o r ith m that is e s s e n t ia lly
a s p e c ia l d ig it a l f i l t e r . O ne c o m p u te s a s p e c ia l r e c u r s i o n r e la t io n and
c o n s t r u c t s th e d e s ir e d F o u r i e r c o e f f i c i e n t s f r o m tw o o f th e r e c u r s i v e l y
c a lc u la t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s . T h e a lg o r ith m is now u n d e r g o in g t e s t s , the r e s u lt s
o f w h ich w ill b e p u b lis h e d in 1973.
 IAEA-SM-168/C-2

NOISE AN ALYSIS AND PSEUDOSTOCHASTIC

P E R TU R B A TIO N TECHNIQUES FOR
REACTOR P A R AM E T ER E STIM ATIO N

M. KOLB. M .A . RASCHTI, E. ROBINSON, A . WEBER

GKSS, Gesellschaft fur Kemenergieverwertung
in Schiffbau und Schiffahrt m bH .,
Hamburg-Geesthacht,
Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

NOISE ANALYSIS A N D PSEUDOSTOCHASTIC PERTURBATION TECHNIQUES FOR REACTOR PARAMETER

ESTIMATION.
In this paper noise analysis and pseudostochastic perturbation techniques are presented which were applied
to the swimming-pool-type research reactor FRG and the self-pressurized water reactor FDR of the nuclear ship
"Otto Hahn". Noise techniques were chosen as one part of the investigation of the FDR system to measure the
correlation between random fluctuations of acceleration in the reactor compartment owing to rolling and
pitching of the ship and neutron fluctuation spectra. These correlations are induced by pressure variations in the
FDR and may also be influenced by vibrations of control rods. A technique to analyse non-linear random effects
was developed, especially to study the control-rod vibrations. The complexity of the distribution of noise sources
in the FDR system made it difficult to estimate reactor parameters from power noise spectra. A pseudostochastic
perturbation technique was therefore developed to modulate the reactivity balance in a reproducible way by
control-rod movements. This technique was first implemented and tested at the FRG with pseudostochastic
binary sequences and then applied to the FDR. The power reactivity coefficient of the FRG and the power-,
temperature -and pressure coefficients of the FDR were estimated from the measured cross-power spectral
densities. At the ship reactor a modified binary signal (inverse repeat binary) to discriminate against non­
linear effects was also applied.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

A s on e m eth od to a n a ly s e the d y n a m ic s o f the s e l f - p r e s s u r i z e d w a te r

r e a c t o r F D R o f the n u c le a r sh ip "O tt o H ahn" a p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y r e a c ­
tiv it y p e r tu r b a t io n te ch n iq u e w a s c h o s e n . T h is m eth od h as a ls o b e e n a p p lie d
to o th e r n u c le a r r e a c t o r s , ( s e e , e .g ., R e fs [ 1 , 2 ] . T h is p a p e r r e p o r t s s o m e
r e s u lt s o f the m e a s u r e m e n t s o n the F D R -I — i . e . , the f i r s t c o r e o f the
"O tt o H ahn" — and the F R G - I . T h e F R G -I is a 5 -M W s w im m in g -p o o l- t y p e
r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r w ith M T R 1 fu e l e le m e n t s . T h e f i r s t e x p e r im e n t s w ith the
p s e u d o r a n d o m p e r tu r b a t io n s y s t e m w e r e don e at the F R G -I to d e m o n s tr a te
the te c h n iq u e o f r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a t io n b y c o n t r o l - r o d m o v e m e n t, b e f o r e
th is s y s t e m w a s im p le m e n te d at the F D R . W h en th e s e e x p e r im e n t s w e r e
p la n n ed , the data r e c o r d in g and a n a ly s in g s y s t e m s n e c e s s a r y to h an dle
s t o c h a s t ic as w e ll a s p s e u d o s t o c h a s t ic s ig n a ls had a lr e a d y b e e n d e v e lo p e d
and u s e d at the F D R . T h e p o w e r - n o is e s p e c t r a o f the F D R had b e e n stu d ied
e s p e c ia lly to a n a ly s e the in flu e n c e o f sh ip m o v e m e n ts on p o w e r le v e l f l u c ­
tu a tion s by m e a s u r in g a u to - and c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n fu n c tio n s and a u to - and
c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s o f d iffe r e n t s y s t e m s ig n a ls [ 3 ] .

1 ■MTR = materials testing reactor.

359
360 KOLB et a l .

T h e p r e d o m in a n t aim o f the r e a c t iv it y b a la n c e p e r tu r b a tio n m eth od w as

to m e a s u r e the r e a c t i v i t y - t o - p o w e r t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n o f the r e a c t o r . I m ­
p o r ta n t d y n a m ic e f f e c t s o b s e r v a b le in the t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n w e r e e x p e c t e d to
o c c u r in a fr e q u e n c y r a n g e b e lo w 10_1 Hz at the F D R and F R G -I . In th is
f r e q u e n c y r a n g e it is e a s ily p o s s ib le , at both r e a c t o r s , to g e n e r a te r e a c ­
tiv it y s ig n a ls w ith su ita b le c h a r a c t e r is t ic s — i . e . su ita b le a u to p o w e r
s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s — b y m o v in g on e o r m o r e c o n t r o l r o d s in a p s e u d o r a n d o m
b in a r y m a n n e r a rou n d the c r i t i c a l p o s it io n by m e a n s o f the u n m o d ifie d r o d
d r iv e s . B y c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i n g the s ig n a l o f the r o d p o s it io n and the c u r r e n t
o f a f i s s i o n io n iz a t io n c h a m b e r as a s ig n a l p r o p o r t io n a l to p o w e r le v e l f l u c ­
tu a tion s on e o b ta in s a ft e r n o r m a liz a t io n p r o c e d u r e s the t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n
b e tw e e n r e a c t iv it y and p o w e r . T h e s e m e a s u r e d v a lu e s o f the t r a n s fe r
fu n c tio n a r e c o m p a r e d w ith the t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n d e r iv e d fr o m a m o d e l f o r
w h ich r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t s a r e o b ta in e d by le a s t s q u a r e s fittin g m e th o d s .

2. P S E U D O R A N D O M B IN A R Y T IM E SE R IE S

A c o m m e r c i a l n o is e g e n e r a t o r d e liv e r e d the p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a ry
r e a c t iv it y s ig n a l (s e e F i g . l ) . It g e n e r a t e s p e r io d ic b in a r y s e q u e n c e s b(t)
o f the "m a x im u m len gth ty p e " [4] w h ich p o s s e s s a n o r m a liz e d a u t o c o r r e la t io n
fu n c tio n

С ъъ{г) = 1 - ^ ~ г 0 s | t | s T /-Z

( 1)
1 - T / Z S |r| S ( Z - 1 ) T / Z
C bb( T > ' ' Z-

w here
T = Z 'A t = p e r io d o f the b in a ry s e q u e n c e
Z = n u m b e r o f b its in the s e q u e n c e
A t = c lo c k tim e

bina ry sig n a l

U T T n o is e generator

sync, pulse

с ontrol ro d p o s it ion

to re cor d
syste m

ОС n e u tro n f lu x
co m p e n sa ­ flu c tu a tio n
tion

F IG .l. Block diagram of the pseudostochastic reactivity perturbation system.

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 2 361

T h e a u to p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity o f b(t) is o f the fo r m

eo qw

Pbb(f ) = z ? « ( f ) + i f (2 )
Д7Г
4=1 Z

w h e r e ó is the D ir a c fu n c tio n .

E q u a tio n (2) is the e x p r e s s io n f o r a p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y s ig n a l o f the

ty p e sh ow n in F ig . 2 a . T h e output le v e l o f the n o is e g e n e r a t o r ch a n g e s s t e p ­
w is e . It is im p o s s ib l e to p r o d u c e r e a c t iv it y c h a n g e s o f th is " s t e p t y p e " w ith
n o r m a l c o n tin u o u s c o n t r o l - r o d d r iv e s , h o w e v e r the f o r m sh ow n in F ig . 2b
ca n be r e a l i z e d . T h e ch a n g e s fr o m le v e l +1 to le v e l -1 and v i c e v e r s a a r e
" r a m p ty p e " fu n c tio n s o f t im e . T h is m o d ifie d p s e u d o s t o c h a s t ic b in a r y
s ig n a l br(t) h a s a p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity w h ich c a n be c a lc u la te d fr o m Pbb(f)
b y the r e la t io n :
T/2

b r(t) = J b ( t ') D ( t - t ') d t' (3)

-T /2

w h e r e D (t) is a p e r io d ic fu n c tio n h a v in g p e r io d T

fo r jt J < y

D (t) = 1 /2 fo r t = 7Г

0 fo r — < t S T -

(tim e)
la )

FIG. 2. Binary signals.

(a) Step type b(t)
(b) Ramp type br(t)
362 KOLB et al.

Л is the tim e d u rin g w h ich a c o n t r o l r o d is m o v in g (s e e F ig . 2) F rom

E q s (2 ) and (3 ) the e x p r e s s io n f o r Pb ^ (f) is c a lc u la te d :

sin
= pb.b (4 )
* W f> £7гД
T

3. A N A L Y S IS O F P S E U D O R A N D O M T IM E SE RIE S

T h e m e th o d s o f a n a ly s in g p s e u d o r a n d o m data a r e know n [4] and w ill not

be d is c u s s e d h e r e in d e t a il. O ur p s e u d o s t o c h a s t ic s ig n a ls w e r e a n a ly s e d by
the te c h n iq u e u s e d in ra n d o m da ta a n a ly s is , i . e . i f x (t) and y (t) a r e tw o
p s e u d o r a n d o m tim e s e r i e s , m e a s u r e d d u rin g T 1 s e c , the c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n
fu n c tio n is c a lc u la t e d b y :

(a ) f o r T ' > тм ë t S 0
T '- t

С Х у ( т ) = T ;1-, T J [ x ( t ) - x ] [ y ( t + T ) - y ] d t (5a )
0

(b ) f o r - T 1 < - r Má r S 0

J
T ’- T

Сху(т) ty(t)-3?H x ( t + r ) - x ] dt (5b)

0

w ith

T’ T’

X = f J x (t) dt,ÿ = - ^ T J y(t)dt

0 o

B y F o u r i e r t r a n s fo r m a t io n o f С (t ) on e o b ta in s the c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l
d e n s ity Pxy(f) o f x (t) and y ft):

px y (f ) - / v ^ ^ d T (6)

F o r x (t) = y ( t ) E q s (5 ) and (6 ) r e p r e s e n t the r e la t io n s f o r the a u to ­

c o r r e l a t i o n fu n c tio n , and f o r the a u to p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity , r e s p e c t iv e ly .
It sh o u ld be e m p h a s iz e d that one h as to be c a r e fu l, in c a lc u la t in g Pxy
b y E q .( 6 ) , to ob ta in u n b ia s e d r e s u lt s . If T is the p e r io d o f the p s e u d o ­
s t o c h a s t ic s ig n a ls , on e m a y d is tin g u is h tw o c a s e s :

(a) 2rM S T

No im p o rta n t b ia s in g p r o b le m w ill a r is e
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 2 363

(Ь) 2тм > Т

th e fr e q u e n c y r e s o lu t io n 1 /2 т м w hen c a lc u la t in g PXy (f) is s m a l l e r than the

d is ta n c e in Hz b e tw e e n tw o lin e s o f the p o w e r s p e c t r u m o f the p s e u d o r a n d o m
s ig n a ls . A r e a s o n a b le p r o c e d u r e to a v o id b ia s is to c h o o s e 2 t m a s a m u ltip le
o f T and to c a lc u la t e Pxy(f) o n ly f o r f = n / T , n = l , 2 , . . . . . O f c o u r s e , it is
a fu n c tio n o f the m e a s u r in g tim e T 1 how la r g e tm c a n be c h o s e n ( s e e •
E q .( 5 ) ) .

4. TH E P S E U D O R A N D O M B IN A R Y R E A C T IV IT Y P E R T U R B A T IO N SY S T E M

F ig u r e 1 sh o w s the b lo c k d ia g r a m o f the p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y p e r t u r b a ­
tio n s y s t e m . T h e p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y s ig n a l fr o m a n o is e g e n e r a t o r c o n ­
t r o l s the r o d d r iv e s y s t e m b y an in t e r fa c e and c o u p lin g u n it. T h e tim e o f
the c o n t r o l - r o d m o v e m e n t " i n " and " o u t " is s e t s e p a r a t e ly to ta k e c a r e o f
s lig h tly d if fe r e n t v e l o c i t i e s w h en m o v in g the r o d s in and ou t. It w as
p o s s ib le to k e e p the m e a n r e a c t iv it y to z e r o o r at le a s t n e a r z e r o f o r h o u r s
by o c c a s io n a l s m a ll a d ju s tm e n ts o f the t i m e r s . T h u s , d r ift s in p o w e r le v e l
o f the r e a c t o r a r e in h ib ite d w h ich m igh t d is tu r b the r e c o r d in g o f the s ig n a ls .
A n o th e r fe a t u r e o f the c o u p lin g u nit is that the v e r y f i r s t r o d m o v e m e n t o f
a ru n is the " i n " d ir e c t io n and la s t s o n ly h a lf the n o r m a l d u ra tio n . T h is
g u a ra n te e s that the r o d s t a r ts m o v in g s a fe ly and in a b in a r y p a tte r n a rou n d
its c r i t i c a l p o s it io n .
T h e r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a t io n w h ich c a n b e u s e d in th is e x p e r im e n t d ep en d s
on the r e a c t iv it y s p e e d ( c e n t / s e c ) o f th e on e o r m o r e c o n t r o l r o d s a v a ila b le
and the d u ra tio n Д (s e c ) o f the m o v e m e n t s t e p s ( c f . F i g . 2 ) . T h u s, the c h o ic e
o f A w ill b e a c o m p r o m is e b e tw e e n the h ig h e s t fr e q u e n c y o f the p e r tu r b a t io n
p o w e r s p e c t r u m and it s b in a r y a m p litu d e , w h ich a f fe c t s the d is c r im in a t io n
a g a in s t o th e r s o u r c e s o f r e a c t iv it y n o is e in the r e a c t o r at p o w e r .

R ecord Reproduce

F I G .3 . Record and reproduce system for m easurem en ts at the F R G -I.

364 KOLB et al.

5. MEASUREMENTS AT THE FRG

It w a s a lr e a d y s a id in the in tr o d u c t io n that the f i r s t m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e

d on e at the r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r F R G -I to t e s t the m eth od and the c o u p lin g and
in t e r fa c e u nit at the p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a ry r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a tio n s y s t e m [5].
A t th is r e a c t o r the c o n t r o l - r o d v e l o c i t i e s a r e 6.1 m m /s f o r " i n " and
5 .4 m m /s f o r " o u t " . T h e t i m e r s in the c o u p lin g u nit a llo w e d f o r th e s e
d iffe r e n t s p e e d s o f r o d m o v e m e n t. T h e r e a c t iv it y o f the c o n t r o l r o d at its

— T h e o ry Z e ro pow er

д E x p e r im e n t 5 MW

---- Th eory 5 MW

ф = P h ase angle of tra n s fe r function

IWI = Magnitude of tra n sfe r function

F I G .4 . Transfer function “ F R G -I .,
 IAEA-SM-168/C-2 365

c r i t i c a l p o s it io n w a s ab ou t 0 .0 8 3 c e n t s /m m . S e v e r a l ru n s w e r e d on e w ith
d iffe r e n t m a x im u m r e a c t iv it y p e r t u r b a t io n s . O nly the r e s u lt s w ith the
lo w e s t r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a t io n o f ab ou t ± 0 .5 5 c e n t w ill be p r e s e n t e d . T h e
c l o c k tim e in the n o is e g e n e r a t o r w a s s e t at 10 s and the s e q u e n c e len gth o f
the b in a r y s ig n a l at 2550 s .
A t the F R G , the c o n t r o l - r o d p o s it io n w a s not r e a d ily a v a ila b le as an
a n a lo g v o lta g e s ig n a l. T h e c o n t r o l - r o d p o s it io n had t h e r e fo r e to be s im u ­
la te d f o r the c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n c a lc u la t io n s , E q s (5 ) and (6 ), w h ich w e r e don e
w ith the d ig it iz e d data o n a s c i e n t i f i c c o m p u t e r . F ig u r e 3 sh o w s the s ig n a l
r e c o r d in g and d ig it iz in g s y s t e m f o r the F R G m e a s u r e m e n t s . It d iffe r e d
fr o m that f o r the la t e r e x p e r im e n t s at the F D R and u s e d the in s tr u m e n ts
a v a ila b le in the la b o r a t o r y at that t im e . . T h e tw o s ig n a ls f r o m the io n iz a tio n
c h a m b e r and fr o m the s im u la t e d c o n t r o l - r o d p o s it io n w e r e d ig it iz e d in tw o
s e p a r a te r u n s , fu lly u t iliz in g the p s e u d o r a n d o m c h a r a c t e r o f the n o is e
g e n e r a t o r s ig n a l. T h e s y n c h r o n iz a t io n p u ls e o f the n o is e g e n e r a t o r at the
s t a r t o f a b in a r y s e q u e n c e s e c u r e d the r ig h t p h a s e r e la t io n s b e tw e e n the tw o
s ig n a ls .
M e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e d on e in the z e r o - p o w e r r a n g e at 300 W and at a
5 -M W p o w e r l e v e l . T h e z e r o - p o w e r t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n (s e e F ig . 4) r e s u lt s
fr o m the 3 0 0 -W m e a s u r e m e n t . A s im p le d y n a m ic m o d e l o f the F R G w a s
d e v e lo p e d f o r the p o w e r r a n g e b a s e d o n on e m o d e r a t o r t e m p e r a tu r e f e e d ­
b a c k w h o s e s tre n g th is c h a r a c t e r iz e d by a t e m p e r a tu r e r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t
( c e n t / d e g C ). T h e m o d e l w a s fitte d by a le a s t - s q u a r e s m eth od to the
m e a s u r e d v a lu e s o f the r e a c t iv it y to p o w e r t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n . F ig u r e 4
sh o w s the fitte d c u r v e and the m e a s u r e d v a lu e s . T h e r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t
e s t im a te d by the le a s t - s q u a r e s fittin g w a s — -4 .8 c e n t /d e g C (±1 5% ) in g o o d
a g r e e m e n t w ith the e x p e c t e d v a lu e .

A m plifica tio n
Pseudostochastic
S ign al DC-Compensation
Low P a s s Filterinc

Q
A n a lo g
Tape
Recorder

Minicomputer
S y ste m to
Digitize D ata

Autocorrelation functions
C rosscorrelation function

Q
Autopow er spectral d e n s it ie s lncrem ens
id
C ro ssp o w e r spe ctral d ensity
Coherence function Tape Record
T ran sfe r function

FIG. 5. Block diagram of the FDR transfer function measuring system.

366 KOLB e t a l .

6. MEASUREMENTS AT THE FDR

T h e r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a tio n , the s ig n a l r e c o r d in g and d ig it a liz in g , and

the a n a ly s in g s y s t e m s u s e d at the F D R a r e sh ow n in F ig . 5 . C o n tr a r y to the
m e a s u r e m e n t s at the F R G -I , it w as p o s s ib le to o b ta in and r e c o r d an a n a log
s ig n a l p r o p o r t io n a l to the p o s it io n o f th e c o n t r o l r o d s in the sh ip r e a c t o r .
In n o r m a l o p e r a t io n o f the r e a c t o r the fo u r c e n t r a l r o d s a r e u s e d a s c o n t r o l
r o d s w h ich a r é a lw a y s m o v e d in p a r a lle l as a " b a n k " . In the p e r tu r b a tio n
e x p e r im e n t s , t o o , th e s e fo u r r o d s w e r e m o v e d to g e th e r a s a bank in a b in a r y
p a tte r n a rou n d t h e ir c r i t i c a l p o s itio n . T h e m a x im u m r e a c t iv it y d is tu r b a n c e
w a s about ± 1 0 . 5 c e n t s , w h ich is h igh c o m p a r e d w ith the e x p e r im e n t s at the

1.0

0.8

ro d m ovem ent c l o c k tim o 10 sec

s e q u e n c e le n g th 310 se c
37 M W
04

- 0.2

1. 0 .
io n iz a t io n c h a m b e r

08

0.4

0
------------

-0 .2 t (s e c )

0 12.00 24.00 36.00 46.00 60.00 72.00

FIG. 6. Autocorrelation functions, measured at the FDR.

 IAEA-SM-168/C-2 367

FIG.7. Autopower spectral density measured at the FDR.

F R G -1 . T h e r e a s o n w a s that the in h e r e n t p o w e r le v e l flu ctu a tio n s in the

F D R a r e r e la t iv e ly h igh and t h e r e f o r e a l a r g e r r e a c t iv it y p e r tu r b a t io n is
n e e d e d to d is c r im in a t e a g a in s t th e m . T h e r o d s p e e d f o r " i n " w a s 2 .1 4 m m /s
and f o r " o u t " 2 .0 8 m m / s . F o r the m e a s u r e m e n t p r e s e n te d in th is p a p e r,
the s e q u e n c e len g th o f th e b in a r y s ig n a l w a s c h o s e n at 310 s and the c lo c k
tim e w a s s e t at 10 s .
T h e n o r m a liz e d a u t o c o r r e la t io n fu n c tio n s o f the r o d p o s it io n and io n iz a ­
tio n c h a m b e r s ig n a l a r e p lo tte d in F ig . 6 . T h e a u t o c o r r e la t io n fu n c tio n o f
th e r o d m o v e m e n t sh o w s the e x p e c t e d fo r m o f the p s e u d o r a n d o m b in a r y
s ig n a l E q . ( l ) , alth ou g h s lig h tly m o d ifie d a s the a c tu a l r o d m o v e m e n t c o r r e s ­
p on d s to the r a m p -t y p e b in a r y s ig n a l ( s e e F ig . 2 ). T h e a u to p o w e r s p e c t r a o f
the tw o s ig n a ls a r e p r e s e n t e d in F ig . 7. F ig u r e 8 sh o w s the c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n
fu n c tio n and the m a gn itu d e o f the c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a . T h e c o h e r e n c e
fu n c tio n v e r s u s fr e q u e n c y is p lo tte d in F ig . 9 . T h e c o h e r e n c e is g r e a t e r
than 0 .9 in the fr e q u e n c y r a n g e b e lo w 7 X 1 0 "2 H z. O nly v a lu e s o f the
m e a s u r e d t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n w h ich h ave a c o r r e s p o n d in g c o h e r e n c e fu n c tio n
g r e a t e r than 0 . 9 w e r e u s e d f o r the la t e r le a s t - s q u a r e s fittin g c a lc u la t io n s .
F ig u r e 10 sh o w s the m e a s u r e d v a lu e s o f the r e a c t iv it y to p o w e r t r a n s fe r
fu n c tio n in u n its o f % fu ll p o w e r /c e n t ; fu ll p o w e r at the F D R is 38 M W (th ).
T h e s e a b s o lu te v a lu e s a r e b a s e d on the m e a s u r e d r e la t io n b e tw e e n th e r m a l
r e a c t o r p o w e r and io n iz a tio n c h a m b e r c u r r e n t and o n the d iffe r e n t ia l r e a c ­
tiv it y w o rth o f the c o n t r o l r o d s m e a s u r e d in c e n t s /m m b y in v e r s e k in e tic s at
low p o w e r [3 ] .
368 KOLB e t a l .

ro d m ovem ent
io n iz a tio n c h a m b e r (a )

-Д 8 .0 0 - 2 4 .0 0 0 24.00 48.00
(sec)

FIG. 8. Measurements of (a) cross-correlation function and (b) magnitude of the cross-power density at the FDR.

A m o d e l o f the r e a c t iv it y to p o w e r t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n o f the F D R w a s

d e v e lo p e d b y F ie b ig [ 6 ] . T h e m o d e l in c lu d e s d iffe r e n t fe e d b a c k s c h a r a c ­
t e r iz e d b y f o u r r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t s : the p o w e r r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t
a c c e n t s / p e r c e n t fu ll p o w e r ), the s y s t e m p r e s s u r e r e a c t iv it y c o e ffi c i e n t
a 2( c e n t s /a t m a b s . ) , the a v e r a g e fu e l te m p e r a tu r e c o e f f i c i e n t a 3( c e n t s /d e g C ) ,
and the m o d e r a t o r en th a lp y c o e f fi c i e n t a 4( c e n t s / k c a l /k g ) .
T h e t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n c a lc u la te d f r o m th is m o d e l u s in g t h e o r e t ic a l
v a lu e s f o r the fo u r r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t s is a ls o p lo tte d in F ig . 10. T h e
m e a s u r e d v a lu e s o f the t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n a g r e e r e a s o n a b ly w e ll w ith the
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 2 369

F IG.9. FDR measurements of coherence function, at the FDR.

t h e o r e t ic a l fu n c tio n . T h e r e f o r e , an attem pt w a s m a de to e s t im a te the

r e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t s f r o m the m e a s u r e d v a lu e s by le a s t - s q u a r e s fittin g
m e th o d s to g et a b e s t e x p e r im e n t a l c u r v e . A n a n a ly t ic a l e v a lu a tio n sh ow ed
that the fe e d b a c k s d e s c r ib e d by a 1 and a 3 e x h ib it the sa m e b e h a v io u r in the
fr e q u e n c y r a n g e o f the m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , o n ly a 2 and a 4 ca n be
e s t im a te d c o r r e c t l y . In the fittin g p r o g r a m s a a w a s g iv e n , and the o th e r
th r e e c o e f fi c i e n t s w e r e e s t im a te d .

«i a2 «3 «4

Theoretical evaluated: -3.06 -7.29 -0.275 -22.5

By least-squares fit: [-3.06] -8.5 +0.07 -28.2

A s e x p e c t e d a 3 c o u ld not be e s t im a te d a c c u r a t e ly . T h e s ta n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f
a 2 and a 3 is a b ou t ± 5 0 % o f the v a lu e s . E x p e r im e n t s c o v e r in g a g r e a t e r
fr e q u e n c y r a n g e , e . g. fr o m 10-3 to 5 X 1 0 "1 H z, sh o u ld b r in g fu r t h e r i m ­
p r o v e m e n t o f the r e s u lt s .

7. SU M M ARY

E x p e r im e n t s on tw o r e a c t o r s (F R G and F D R ) w ith a r e a c t iv it y p e r t u r b a ­
tio n s y s t e m u s in g o r d in a r y c a lib r a t e d c o n t r o l r o d s m o v e d in a b in a r y p a tte rn
370 KOLB e t a l.

FIG. 10. Transfer function for FDR.

a rou n d t h e ir c r i t i c a l p o s it io n , sh ow that th is m e th o d is su ita b le f o r a n a ly s in g

the d y n a m ic s o f th e s e r e a c t o r s . S p e c ia l t i m e r s in a c o u p lin g unit c o n t r o l the
" i n " and " o u t " m o v e m e n ts o f the o o n t r o l r o d s and m a k e it p o s s ib le to k e e p the
r e a c t iv it y b a la n c e at z e r o o v e r h o u r s , thus in h ib itin g d r ift s in the p o w e r
le v e l o f the r e a c t o r s . R e a c t iv it y c o e f fi c i e n t s e s t im a te d f r o m 't h e m e a s u r e d
a b s o lu te v a lu e s o f the r e a c t iv it y to p o w e r t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n b y m o d e l fittin g
a r e in g o o d a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e o r e t ic a l c o e f fi c i e n t s .
 IAEA-SM-168/C-2 371

R E F E R E N CE S

[13 GODFRY, K .R ., "The theory of the correlation method in dynamic analysis and its application to
industrial processes and nuclear power plants", Measurement and Control 2 (May 1969).
[2] KERLIN, T . W . , BELL, S.J., STEFFY, R .C ., BUCKNER, M .R ., Experiences with dynamic testing methods
at the molten-salt reactor experiment, Nucl.Techn. 10 (Feb. 1971).
[3] KOLB, M ., FŒBIG, R., ROBINSON, E., SCHWIEGER, E., Reactor Dynamic Experiments with the
"Otto Hahn" reactor FDR, Nuclear Ships (Symp.Hamburg, 1971), Studiengesellschaft zur Forderung der
Kernenergieverwertung e .V ., Hamburg (1971).
[4] UHRIG, E.R., Random Techniques in Nuclear Reactor Systems, The Ronald Press Company, New York
(1970).
[5] RASCHTI, M .A ., Reaktordynamische Untersuchungen am FRG-I mit Hilfe eines statistisch gefahrenen
Stellstabes, Diploma Work, University of Hamburg (1971).
[6] FIEBIG, R., Frequenz. Ein Programm zur Berechnung des Response Verhaltens eines Reaktors im Frequenz-
Bereich, GKSS-Int.Rep.71/I/H (1971).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / C -3

FR E Q U E N CY RESPONSE M EASU REM EN TS

O F THE G E N T IL L Y N U C L E A R R E A C TO R
DYNAM ICS

K . J . SE R D U LA *, J . D . K E N D A L L *Î , P . M . C L O U T IE R ** ,
C . B . LAW REN CE*

Abstract

FREQUENCY RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS OF THE GENTILLY NUCLEAR REACTOR DYNAMICS.

The 250-MW(e) Gentilly Nuclear Power reactor is a departure from the CANDU pressurized heavy
water coolant series (CANDU-PHWs) in that its coolant is boiling light water (CANDU-BLW). Retention
of the concepts of maximum neutron economy and natural uranium fuelling have resulted in a system with
a positive power coefficient. Because of this positive power coefficient and the prototypical nature of the
station, a comprehensive program was planned to derive the controlled and uncontrolled frequency response
functions of the neutron flux for reactivity perturbations in both the fundamental mode and the first azimuthal,
or "tilt" mode. Problems caused by the necessity to operate within the limitations for normal station operation
are discussed. The most restrictive constraint, the limited data storage capacity available for this appli­
cation, necessitated digital filtering of data to overcome aliasing problems. Digitizing errors were a con­
sideration for low power tests. The properties of the unique pseusorandom perturbation functions used and
those of other excitation functions are discussed.

1. IN TR ODU C TION

A program to m easure the space- tim e response of the neutron

flux in the G entilly reactor was in itia te d prior to com m issioning.
The program evolved and continued during the com m issioning and
in it ia l operating period. This paper reports on experim ents at
low power to indicate the perform ance of the program at power
by com parison of m easured transfer functio ns to th e o retica l zero
power p red ic tio n s. These com parisons would indicate required
im provem ents or m o dificatio ns.

The 250- M W (e ) G en tilly nuclear power reactor is located

on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River ap proxim ately m id­
way between Montreal and Québec C ity . The station is owned by
Atom ic Energy of Canada Lim ited (AE CL) and operated by Hydro
Q uebec.

The G en tilly nuclear station is a departure from the CANDU1

pressurized heavy water coolant series (C A N D U - P H W ' s) in that its
coolant is b o ilin g light w ater. This reactor type has been
term ed a CANDU-BLW. Further deta ils are given in reference [ 1 ,2 ] .

^Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL),

';o,;Hydro Quebec,
Canada

Î Now at James Kendall Consultants Limited

1 CANadian Deuterium Uranium pressure tube reactors.

373
374 SERDULA et a l .

Use of natural uranium fuel coupled w ith em ph asis on neutron

economy has resulted in a CANDU-BLW system having a positive power
c o e ffic ie n t . Therefore extensive theoretical analyses were initiate
during the design phase and were followed by an extensive exp eri­
m ental program . Since the G entilly nuclear station was the CANDU-
BLW prototype, no operating experience and inform ation was available
to verify theoretical perform ance predictio ns at power. The ex p eri­
m ental program was planned to derive the controlled and uncontrolled
frequency response functio ns of the neutron flux for rea ctiv ity per­
turbations in both the fundam ental mode and the first azim uthal or
"t i l t " mode.

The proposed measurem ents are considered to be the first

d e fin itiv e experim ents of this type done on a power reactor during
com m issioning to obtain inform ation on the spatial response of the
neutron flux to rea ctiv ity disturbances. The prelim inary character
of these measurem ents relegated them to a supplem entary com m issionir
program . Proposed objectives of the frequency response m easurem ent
program were :

1) To pro vide inform atio n to assist in the com m issioning

of the station to fu ll design power.

2) To i n d i c a t e potential problem areas and to e l i m i n a t e

these problem s or r e d u c e their potential consequences.

3) To provide inform ation to help establish optim um routin<

operating procedures.

4) To pro vide inform ation for the further developm ent of

the CANDU reactor concept.

The follow ing ground rules served as constraints on the scope of

the program .

1) The m easurem ents should be perform ed w ithin normal

operating lim its and procedures, and not increase the
p ro bability of a reactor shut-down.

2) The program should be perform ed w ith the physical hard­

ware for normal station operation.

3) The program im plem entation could not disrupt the reactoi

construction and com m issioning schedule.

4) The experim ental m easurem ents should be done in a m ini­

mal tim e and re su It in m inim al interference w ith com-
m issioning and power production.

The program w hich evolved used the normal control absorbers

to pro vide the required rea ctiv ity disturbances w hile they s t ill
perform ed their m ain function of reactor flux control. Neutron
flux response due to the rea ctiv ity disturbances would be determ ine!
from the signals of the regulating ion chambers at zero ("lo w ")
power and from ion chambers and in- core instrum entation at power.
The com plete experim ental program from in it ia t io n of specified
disturbances to the control absorbers to sam pling of data and
term ination of the experim ent was controlled by a special computer
program stored in the controlling com puter of the s t a t io n 's dual
computer control system [3].
 L A E A -S M -1 6 8 /C -3 375

2. THEORETICAL AND PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS

2 .1 Modal Neutronlcs Model

Th eoretical an alysis of spatial s ta b ility was based on the

modal model [4]. For sm all perturb ations, the one neutron- energy
group modal model expresses the space- tim e dependence of the per­
turbed flu x at a tim e t, 3 > '(r ,t ) as,

$ '( r ,t ) = Z A 'M (r ) T (t) (1)

- n n n
n=l

where n = ch aracteristic index of the mode.

= am plitude c o efficien t of the n 1-*1 m o d e .

Tn (t) = tim e dependent functio n of the nth mode.

M (r) = sp atial dependent function of the nth mode.

The M (r) are the eigenfunctions o btain ed from a solution

of the system equations for the unperturbed state. If the eigen ­
functio ns or modes are: (1) an aly tica l and (2) form a com plete
set, then these modes can be characterized and ordered by their
associated eigenvalues. If these conditions are m et, or can be
ap proxim ated, the contribution to the total flux response by
h igher order modes pro gressively decreases as the m agnitude of
their c h a rac teristic eigenvalues increase. Therefore a fin ite
number of term s from eq. (1) yields a good approxim ation to the
behaviour of the flux after a perturbation.

Equation (1) assum es:

1) The modes form a com plete orthogonal set over the

region of in terest.

2) Modal crо ss- coupling does not e x is t .

In the ap p licatio n of equation (1) to the present work,

an ad ditio n al assum ption was introduced.

3) Spatial variables are separable and the z-dependence

can be treated separately. Only the r, 0 dependence
is considered in the subsequent developm ent.

The sig n ific a n t modes are:

1) Fundam ental

2) First azim uthal

3) Second azim uthal

4) First radial

5) Third azim uthal

6) First radial- azim uthal

376 SERDULA et a l.

FIRST AZIMUTHAL
FUNDAMENTAL
M 0| (Г) M ( r l . c o s <e>
M" ( r ) s in (e )

SECOND AZIMUTHAL THIRD AZIMUTHAL

FIRST RADIAL-AZIMUTHAL
M02 I r )

FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of typical spatial neutron flux modes in the context of a modal model.

These modes are shown in schem atic form in fig u re 1. Only the
first two modes were of principal in terest.

A pplication of equation (1) to the flux d istrib u tio n ,

¿ '( r , 0 , t ) , resulting from a reactiv ity perturb ation, AKn ( r , 0 , t ) ,
w hich excites only the nth mode, gives a space- tim e dependence o f:

1( r , 0 , t ) = A 0 M 0 (r , 0 ) T o ( t ) + AjjMn ( r , 0 ) T n ( t )

= A 0 M0 ( r ,0 ) + a n Mn ( r , 0 ) T n ( t ) ( 2)
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / C -3 377

where :
by d e fin it io n , the system is c r it ic a l in the funda­
m ental mode, i .e . T Q (t) = 1 .0 and the fundam ental
mode was not perturbed.
the follow ing d e fin itio n s have been adopted,

Aо 5 A0 + a o .A jJ в an , for all n>0.

Before the perturbation applied at t = 0, the flu x is

given by :

¿ ( r ,0 ,t ’) = A oMo ( r , 0 ) for a ll t 1 < 0.

Therefore the flux perturbation can be expressed as a ra tio ,

Д «S ( r , 0 , t ) a M (r ,0 )T (t)
LX Xl Ï1 / лv
«S(r , 0 , t > ) = A 0 M 0 ( r , 0)i

where A ¿ ( r ,0 ,t ) = ¿ ‘ ( r ,0 ,t ) - ¿ ( r ,0 ,t ')

A flu x response of the form given by equatio n (3) requires

a rea ctiv ity perturbation A K jjC r .O .t ) of the follow ing form ,

Лк M ( r , 0 ) T ( t )

i K n ( r , 0 , t ) ----- к
о
m
о
( r ,~e)---- (4)
where Tn (t ) = tim e dependence of the rea ctiv ity perturbation.

Taking Laplace transform s of equation (3) and (4) and

equating the response to the disturbance y ie ld s,

a M (r ,0 ) Лк M (r ,0 ) t (s)
n n ’ ' n n * n
A M ( r ,0 ) к M (r ,0 ) T (s)
o o o o n

a M ( r , 0) Дк M ( r ,0 )
n n _ n n ’
G (s) (5)
A M ( r ,0 ) к M ( r ,0 )
o o o o ’

where xn ^ s ^
G (s) - —- ,— r- = transfer functio n of the nth mode,
n T ( s)
n
Since T na n d xn are separable, they may be lin e a r ize d to
give a transfer functio n independent of space.

For a rea ctiv ity perturbation w ith spatial dependence

Mn ( r , 0 ) / M 0 ( r , 0 ) over the whole core, equation (5) can be reduced
to ,
an Дк

- - Ï T 11 Gn < s > (6)

о о

For a sp a tia lly uniform rea ctiv ity perturbation in the

fundam ental mode, equation (5) becom es,
378 SERDULA et a l.

Defin ing the higher mode re a c tiv itie s in term s of the

fundam ental mode, as in equatio n (4 ), results in the sim ple form s
of Eq. (6) and (7 ). This d efin itio n gives the am plitude of the
flux perturbation as a fraction of the am plitude of the unper­
turbed flu x.

For the fundam ental mode neutro nics, the transfer function
G0 (s) in the above model can be expressed as,

Gq(s) = ---- i-- -- (8)

sSi
s a* + I
i- 1 S + Xi
where
Z* = e ffec tiv e neutron life tim e in the fin it e system
and the other q uantities have their usual m eaning.

For the first azim uthal mode neutro nics, the transfer
function G ia z (s) in the above model can be expressed as,

G laz ( s ) = л 2А В 2 a z ( r , 0 ) n sB (9)
------î------- + s Z + £ i
i= l s + X±

where
A B 2a z ( r , 0 ) = difference in geom etrical bucklings between
the first azim uthal mode and the fundam ental mode.

In most p ractical situ atio n s, the sim ple form s of E q . (6)

and Eq. (7) cannot be applied to obtain modal transfer functions
directly from the an alysis of m easurem ents because reactiv ity
disturbances can be inserted in the core only at discrete spatial
p oints. In a d d itio n , the flux response has to be measured only
at discrete spatial locations.

The follow ing model was developed to account for discrete

absorbers and flux m easurem ents. The sm all signal frequency
response of the flux ^ ( г ,0 ,ш ), measured by a detector at rx ,0 x
due to the movement of m absorbers at locations i = 1, 2, 3, --- m
can, in the general case, be given by,

00 a M (r ,0 ) 00 m Дк M (r ,0 .)

= * АП
n=l
МП(гХ,0Х)
о о x’ X
= * А
n=l i = l
Лo o
(г,i ’,вГГ
i
° п (ш) (1°

where

A k n i M n ^ r i ’ 0 i> _ rea ctiv ity introduced into the

k M ( r . ,0 . ) п1^ mode by the ith absorber,
o o i i

Equation (10) assumes that superp ositio n of e ffec ts and

linear a n a ly s is are v a lid .

The le ft hand side of Eq. (10) illu strates that, for the
response an to be zero, the sum of the rea ctiv ity contributions
to mode n from all m absorbers must be equal to zero. Th erefo re,
the experim ental system can be made to respond p rin c ip a lly to the
 IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / C -3 379

mode under in v estigatio n by selecting the relativ e am plitudes of

m otion for each absorber. The extent to w hich other modes are
excited w ill be dependent on the number and location of absorbers
in the core.

Selection of rela tiv e am plitudes for each absorber to

approxim ate the required modal re a c tiv itie s can be determ ined from
the follow ing m odel.

One unit of movement of an absorber can be considered as a

spatial im pulse function ap plied to the neutron m u ltip licatio n
factor kœ at (г ^ ,0 ^ ). This rea ctiv ity perturbation can be expressed
in a series expansion of the form :

Дк ô (r . , 0 . ) “ Дк M (r , 0)
°° = z _ai n (id
к ( r . ,0 .) , к M (r ,0 ) '
°° i i n=l о о

where

i > _ a fic t it io u s change required to

k ^ ir ^ .0 ^ ) “ produce the observed e ffe c t.

The c o efficien ts Akn i / k 0 are determ ined by m u ltip licatio n

of Eq. (11) by a mode Mm ( r , 0 ) and integration over the reactor
area using the orthogônal properties of the modal expansion set.

Akni A k oo( r 1 , 0 1 ) Mn ( r 1 , 0 1 ) M o ( r 1 , 0 1 )

ko " M v V W ( r >0 ) d A —

If Д к 0 ^ / к 0 (i.e. the mk w or t h in the f u nd a m e n t a l mode) is

a ssumed to be k n o w n , then,

A k oo(r i > V A koi V o 2 ( r >0 ) d A

k » ( r i > 0 i> " k o

Eq. (12) can be expressed in term s of the fundam ental mode

rea ctiv ity using Eq. (13) to give,

Дк . Дк ( r . ,0 . ) / M2 (r ,0 )d A
ni _ o i n i i A о * (.-,,4
к к M (r, ,0 .) / M2 ( r , 0) dA ( Ц)
o o o i i A n

In ap p licatio n of the above to a physical system , a sim ple

transfer functio n is determ ined between the flux response m easured
at one location and movement of an absorber at another location.
From a knowledge of the rela tiv e ratios of movem ents of the rem ainin g
absorbers, and a model to com pute spatial modes for use in E q . (14)
and to correct the ion chamber response, Eq. (10) can be transform ed
into the form given by Eq. (6 ).

2.2 E x c i t a t i o n Funct i on s

Many types of functi o ns can be used as e x c it a ti o n signals

for dy n am i c t e sting of a system. A s ummary of these is given by
380 SERDULA et a l.

K erlin [5] and others [6, 7]. Our selection of a function was
dom inated by 3 requirem ents:

1) Minim um measurem ent tim e.

2) M axim um signal- to- noise ratio w ithout im pairing normal

o p e ratio n .

3) Ease of generating the function and applying it to

the control absorbers.

This led to the selection of pseudorandom sequences a s

the excitatio n functio n. Their m ulti- frequency content m inim izes

measurem ent tim e and their discrete Fourier com ponents enable
concentration of energy at certain frequencies to pro vide adequate
signal to noise r a tio s . The direct drive of the control absorbers
by the d ig ita l com puter sim plified storage of the sequences and

* PSEU D O RA ND O M S E Q U E N C E
® PSE U D O R A N D O M B IN A R Y SEQUENCE-
2nd L O B E A N A L Y S IS
© PSEU D O R A N D O M B IN A R Y SEQ UEN CE-
4 th L O B E A N A L Y S IS ‘
1.0
P S E U D O R A N D O M B IN A R Y m -SE 0 U E N C E
0.8
EN VELO PE
0.6f
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3

0.2 /0
у «о e
4”
©\
0.1
< 0 .0 8 / \
2
CE \
О
0 .0 6
fi
0 .0 5
0 .0 4
’ *I /c
* 5 ’
0 .0 3

\
j
I / X
X
О
0.02
, 1

0.010
0 .0 0 8

0 .0 0 6
0 .0 0 5
0 .0 0 4

0 .0 0 3

0.002

n nml » < 1 I I —I___I___I-----1___I___ 1___l _

13 15 17 19 23 25 27 29 31 32

FREQ UENCY * nд f

FIG.2. Relative amplitudes of the Fourier coefficients derived from analysis of the pseudorandom and
pseudorandom binary sequences used for test signals.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 3 381

their ap p lic atio n . The sequence was restricted to an even number

elem ents to sim plify the coding and subsequent data an aly sis. Thi
perm itted co llectio n of the data and generation of the ex citation
signal synchronously at m ultiples of a program period of 0 .0 6 4 sec
a period common w ith other program s. A routine was coded in the
d ig ita l com puter so that any arbitrary sequence, either binary or
non- binary could be used and the sequence changed w ith ease.

PRB m - sequences were rejected because they have an odd

number of b its and have a non-zero mean v alu e . Since the e x c i­
tation is in absorber ra te , the mean is accum ulated in absorber
p o sitio n . Under open loop conditio ns a grow ing offset resu lts.

Since we could not find a PRB sequence w hich had its

energy concentrated in the frequencies of interest , we decided
to experim ent w ith other sequences whose energy was concentrated
in the first 10 or 12 harm onics. In it ia l tests of the fundam ental
mode at zero power were made w ith such a synthesized sequence of
64 elem ents. An am plitude factor (p u lses/sec ) was associated
w ith each tim e segm ent, a m ultiple of 0 .0 6 4 sec. The spectral
content of this pseudorandom sequence (PR S) is shown in Fig. 2.
This shows that for this test sig n a l, only seven harm onics have
a sig n ific a n t am plitude. Of these one of the in it ia l four is
very sm all. Results from in it ia l tests indicated an im provem ent
in spectral energy d istrib u tio n was required.

T h eo retically a PRS could be synthesized to yield

optim um resu lts. The problem is to m axim ize the energy in the
desired harm onics, requiring that the 0th harm onic be zero and
the elem ents of the sequence not exceed upper and low er bounds.

Д Т * 4 - n - 0 . 0 6 4 SEC.

z
о
b

<r
Ш
m

о
<

FIG.3. Schematic diagram of (1) the pseudorandom binary sequence used to induce an absorber velocity
disturbance, and (2) the resultant disturbance in absorber position.
382 SERDULA et a l.

The Fourier com ponents are linear functio ns of the elem ents of
the sequence. W hile we believe this is an area for futher
investigatio n [5], in su ffic ie n t tim e was av ailable to develop
optim um sequences.

The sequence used for t h e .r e m a in d e r of the tests was a

m odified PRBS of 16 b it s . This type of PRBS w ith an even number
of term s has a zero mean. The im proved spectral content of this
signal in com parison to the PRS is illu strated in Fig. 2. To
check if a lia sin g was a serious problem in the 2nd lobe when a
filt e r was not used, a spectral an alysis was done w ith 128 sam ples.
The results in Fig. 2 (4*-^ lobe analysis) show there is some
a lia sin g in the 2nd lobe.

The 16 bit PRBS im pressed on absorber v elo city is shown

schem atically together w ith the resultant absorber p o sitio n , in
Fig. 3.

2 .3 A lia sin g of Data and F ilter Requirem ents

In it ia lly it was considered a lia sin g would not be a problem

and filt e r in g of the signals would not be required. This decisio n
was based on the follow ing consideratio ns:

1) The reactor is an e ffec tiv e low - pass filter

2) The in it ia l pseudorandom sequence was synthesized

to have a lim ited frequency content, thereby reducing
ex citatio n at frequencies beyond the proposed analysis
b andw idth .

In it ia l experim ents indicated filt e r in g would be required.

This was due to the follow ing factors:

1) A lia sin g could be a sig n ific a n t problem if rate dependen

(or d iffe re n tia te d ) param eters were considered for
a n a ly s is .

2) Sig n ific a n t noise existin g at frequencies of 0 .1 to

1 Hz could cause a lia sin g problem s in low er frequency
a n a ly s e s .

3) Use of a m o dified pseudorandom binary sequence for

ex citatio n would produce responses at frequencies beyond
the an alysis bandw idth.

To reduce consequences of potential alia sin g problem s, a

second- order, critical- dam ped, low - pass d ig ita l filt e r was
coded.

The d ig ita l filt e r was of the follow ing form :

Y (N) = A *Y (N - l) + B *Y (N - 2) + C *X (N ) + D *X(N - 1) + E *X (N - 2)

where
Y(N ) = filte re d output for the nth sam ple.

X (N ) = u n filtered nth sam ple.

 IAEA-SM-168/C -3 383

N-l = data of previous tim e sam ple.

N-2 = data of second last tim e sam ple.

A, B, C, D and E = constants dependent on required frequency

ch aracteristics of filt e r .

F ilter constants were selected to p rovide a -3 db break

frequency at 1 /3 of the spectral analysis bandw idth equivalent to
the 10th harm onic com ponent.

3. EXPERIM ENTAL

3 .1 Experim ental System

System s and equipm ent used in the frequency response m easure­

m ents w ere; the dual d ig it a l control com puters, the control absorbers,
the regulating ion chambers and the cap ability to record any of
the station param eters m o nitored by the com puter. A schem atic
diagram of the G entilly core, w ith the control absorbers and ion

® ABSORBER ROD (7)

AXIS THROUGH
О FUEL CHANNEL (308) ION CHAMBER “C"

ION
CHAMBER
О О О О О О 'А"
V
\ о о о о о о о о о о
< 5 ^ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00t)00000000000
О О О о\о о о о о о о о о о о о
о О о О о (ХОдО О О CLO O о о о о о
о о о О о о <3 (0 о о О О О о о о о о
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
о о о о о о о о о\о о о о о о о о о о о
О О О О О О О о О 6 О.о О О О О о о о о
О О О О О О О О О 0 1 )0 О О О О о о о о
0 0 0 0 0000000-00000000 0

ION
CHAMBER
"с"
Schematic diagram of the Gentilly reactor core.
384 SERDULA et a l.

INPUTS TO
COMPUTER ‘ “ INDICATES INPUT DATA

FIG. 5. Schematic diagram of the special program used in the frequency response measurements.

cham bers, is shown in Fig. 4. A ll or any of the control absorbers

could be used to provide the required rea ctiv ity disturbance.
Three ion cham bers, A, В and С pro vide a fast signal for bulk
regulatio n. Although both the linear and logarithm ic signals from
these ion chambers were av ailable, the linear output was effec tiv ely
zero for the zero- power m easurem ents. To avo id m o difications to
the system hardw are, only the logarithm ic signals were used in
m easurem ents of the modal flux response. A vailable in- core instrum e
tation also had only a linear response scaled for power operation.

A special computer program , w ritten for the SEL-810A dual

computer control system , was used for the frequency response
measurem ent experim ents. This program controlled the am plitude and
duration of the disturbance to be sent to each absorber in addition
to synchronously sam pling, filt e r in g and storing the data from the
selected v aria bles av ailable to the c o m p u t e r .' Data were output on
punched paper tape at the end of the experim ent for off- line
analysis on the CDC-6600 at CRNL.

The special frequency response computer program is shown

schem atically in Fig. 5. The top third of the diagram indicates
the d is t r ib u t io n , in am plitude and duratio n, of the disturbances
to be sent to each absorber. The bottom third of the diagram
indicates the data sam pling, filt e r in g and storage of data.
 IA E A -S M - 1 6 8 / C - 3 385

T A B L E I. S A M P L IN G P E R IO D S U SED IN F R E Q U E N C Y R E SP O N S E
M EASUREM ENTS

Program Unfiltered - Filtered Period

Series Dura­
Execut ion Sampling Sampling Nyquist of Test
tion of
Interval Rate na Rate F req. Sequence
Experi­
(sec) (Samples/ (Samples (Hz) (sec)
ment
Sec) /Sec)

TI 0.064 15 .625 1 .15.625b 7.8 4.096 45.06 sec

T2 0.064 15 .625 10 1.5625 0.78 40.96 7.51 min

T3 0.064 15 .625 100 0.15625 0.078 409.6 1.25 hr

T4 0.064 , 15 .625 800 0.01953 0.00975 3276.8 10.01 hr

a n x 0.064 = data storage and excitation periods.

bData is not filtered digitally for the TI series.

The central part of the diagram shows the control routine

used to in it ia t e and m anually term inate, if r e q u ir e d ,t h e ex p eri­
m ent, in it ia l iz e counters, e t c ., and synchronize sam pling of data
w ith in itia t io n of disturbances. The control routine operated on
a basic control tim e interval of 0 .0 6 4 sec. Excitation and data
storage were perform ed at m ultiples "n " of this interv al. Values
of "n " and related param eters, used in the various experim ental
series, are given in Table 1.

Durin g normal experim ental operation, the control unit

repeated the test sequence for eleven continuous cycles and in itia te d
data collectio n for only the last ten cycles resulting in 1 0 x 64 =
640 data points for each v a r ia b le . The in it ia l cycle allowed
system and filt e r transients to s t a b iliz e . The number of data
points was a com prom ise between the lim ited data storage area
av ailable for this ap plication and signal- to- noise ratios expected.

3 .2 R eactivity D isturbances

Excitation of the selected modal flux response required

ap plication of a rea ctiv ity disturbance of a sp ec ific modal shape.

Fundamental mode ex citation was induced by m oving all

absorbers sim ultaneously. This was ju s t ifia b le since all seven
absorbers were located in a region of constant flu x , and therefore
their rea ctiv ity worth in the fundam ental mode should be the sam e.
By d e fin it io n the fundam ental mode response Аф0 / ф 0 as detected
by ion chambers A, В or С should be the sam e. C ontam ination of
the fundam ental mode response through ex citatio n of higher flux
modes by the above pattern of absorber m otion should be sm all due
to the lower gain of these modes compared to the fundam ental gain.

Fig. 6- A is a schem atic diagram of the G entilly reactor

dynam ics. For the zero power m easurem ents the power f e e d b a c k is
zero. Th erefo re, sp atial control is not operating and Fig. 6-B
describes the dynam ics. Bulk or fundam ental control, in service
386 SERDULA et a l.

A) SCHEMATIC MODEL OF GENTILLY REACTOR B) SCHEMATIC MODEL OF GENTILLY REACTOR

SYSTEM AT POWER SYSTEM AT ZERO POWER

NEUTRON
TRANSFER
FUNCTION *0
Gn <f)

C) SCHEMATIC MODEL OF SYSTEM FOR

UNCONTROLLED ZERO POWER
MEASUREMENTS

FIG. 6. Schem atic models used in the analysis o f the frequency response measurements.

for all m easurem ents, reduced the perturbation am plitude for the
fundam ental mode experim ents. A response function model between
absorber movement and flu x , shown schem atically in Fig. 6-C, can
be used to derive the fundam ental mode transfer functio n.

The first azim uthal mode response in the presence of bulk

control was measured by selecting a modal rea ctiv ity perturbation
w hich introduced "flu x t ilt in g " about an axis through ion chamber
С and the centre of the reacto r, indicated in Fig. 4. Absorber
am plitudes to produce the required "t i l t " axis were selected to
give zero re a c tiv ity contributions to t h e fundam ental, first
azim uthal cosine, second azim uthal sin e, second azim uthal cosine
m odes, m inim ize response at ion chamber С due to the third azim uthal
sine and cosine modes and introduce a sig n ific a n t reactiv ity in
the first azim uthal sine mode. Values of the absorber am plitudes
were determ ined from the model given in 2 .1 . This resulted in
diam etrically opposite absorbers having equal am plitudes but of
opposite sign w ith an am plitude variatio n Za sin 0, where 0 = angle
from the zero response ax is.

3 . 3 Experim ental Procedure

For zero power m easurem ents, selected v ariables to be

sam pled usually includ ed, the 3 ion chamber log sig n a ls, the 3 ion
chamber log rate sig n a ls, the 7 absorber position- indicating
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 3 387

sig n a ls, the com puted bulk control velocity, and param eters charac­
teristic of the state of the heat transport c ir c u it s . In addition
to selection of the sam pled v a r ia b le s, other data to be entered in
the computer before in it ia tio n of the experim ent included (see F i g . 5)
state of filt e r control, i .e . "i n " or "o u t ", "n " or period of test
sequence and therefore frequency range to be in v estig ated , filte r
param eters if r e q u ir e d ,a n d absorber am plitude facto rs. Several
sets of am plitude factors were tried for each test se rie s, starting
w ith conservative v alu e s, and increased to yield a sa tisfacto ry
response (= 5% pk-pk) or until other constraints prevented a
further increase.

Durin g the zero- power first azim uthal frequency response

m easurem ents, the bulk control algorithm was m odified to fix control
on ion chamber C. Therefore the equal but opposite first azim uthal
responses detected by ion cham bers A and В w ould not result in bulk
control ac tio n . W ith control fixed on ion chamber C, the reactor
protective channel w hich included the protective ion chamber at
this location was opened. If a fault condition occurred during
the experim ents w hich tended to drive ion chamber A or В h ig h , the
protective system operating on a 2- out- of- 3 p rin cip le would be
in v o k ed .

4. DATA ANALYSES

4 .1 Signals for Analyses

At the term ination of an experim ent, data were punched on

paper tape for analyses using the M A C /R A N 2 computer code in stalled
on the CRNL CDC-6600. New data channels, com binations of the
o riginal data, were created for use in determ ining the required
responses. For exam ple, ion chamber responses, in per cent, were
averaged and the absorber position signals averaged to determ ine
the zero power transfer function of the fundam ental mode for the
uncontrolled reactor.

Although the rea ctiv ity disturbance used in the first

azim uthal mode measurem ents was selected to excite only this mode,
noise from the fundam ental mode existed in the m easured flux
responses due to the high gain of the fundam ental. This funda­
m ental flux noise should be reduced by action of the fundam ental
controller. However, control action w ill cause absorber movements
to com pensate for this fundam ental mode rea ctiv ity n o ise. This is
illu strated by Fig. 7-A and В w hich show the filtered and sam pled
a m p lit u d e - v e r sus- tim e data o btain ed from the position indicators
of absorber 7 and absorber 4 during the T3 and T4 series of first
azim uthal frequency response measurem ents. This Fig. 7 should be
compared to Fig. 3 w hich is the rela tiv e synthesized and u n filtered
dem anded absorber 7 p o sitio n . This com parison illu stra te s that
there was only a sm all d isto rtio n of dem anded movement relative
to actual movement by the bulk control, esp ecially for the T3
se rie s, and also that the filte r did not introduce any sig n ific a n t
or unexpected e ffe c ts.

2 M A C /R A N is a code for comprehensive analysis of time series data and was developed by Measure­
ment Analysis Corporation.
388 SERDULA et a l.

PULSES

FIG.7. Signals from the position indicators of absorbers No.T and N o .4 versus time for the T3 and T4
of first azimuthal frequency response measurements.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 3 389

4 .<2 Corrections f or Fundamental Mode C ontam inatio n

Although fundam ental mode contam ination in the first

azim uthal frequency response measurem ents was sm all, two m ethods
were used and r e s u lt s com pared, to e lim in a te the fundam ental mode
flux response in the ion chamber signals and the fundam ental
mode rea ctiv ity disturbance in the absorber position sig n a ls.
These two m ethods w ere:

1) (a) The % response of chamber С was subtracted from

the % responses of chambers A and B. This
corrects cham bers A and В for the fundam ental
mode flux response w hich by d e fin itio n is the
same % at each ion cham ber.

(b) Subtraction of ab so rber #1 movement from the

movement of each of the other six absorbers
corrects for the fundam ental rea ctiv ity d is tu r ­
bance. Absorber #1 movement results from funda­
m ental control action since no disturbance was
ap plied to it during the first azim uthal m easure­
m ents .

Frequency response functio ns were obtain ed for

(corrected Chamber A % sig n a l/c o r r e c te d absorber
X p o sition) and for (c o rrec ted chamber В % sig n a l/
corrected absorber X p o s itio n ).

2. (a) The % response re c o r d e d from the chamber A signal

was subtracted from the % response recorded from
chamber В sig n a l. Fundamental mode contributio n,
of the same sign at both cham bers, would cancel and
the first azim uthal response contributio n of opposite
sign at the chamber A and В p o sitio n s, would add.

(b ) Fundam ental mode rea ctiv ity perturbation in the

absorber position signals due to the action of bulk
control was rem oved by subtracting position signals
of diam etrically opposite absorbers. This pro­
cedure would cancel out movement due to fundam ental
rea ctiv ity control w hile m ovem ents due to the first
azim uthal rea ctiv ity perturbation would add.

Response functio ns were then obtained for the ( (%

Chamber A - % Chamber B ) / (absorber 7 position
- absorber 4 p o s it io n )).

4 .3 Determ ination of Transfer Functions

Response functions were determ ined using the Fast Fourier

Transform (FF T ) processor of the M A C /R A N code on the 10 blocks
of 64 data points w ith results averaged. A veraging of the
tim e series and then analyzing did not yield any sig n ific a n t
increase in accuracy. In addition to response fu n c tio n s, coherence
fu n c tio n s, Y x y (f) were com puted w here,

G (f )
r* (f> =
XY GX X ( f ) G Y Y ( f )
390 SERDULA et a l.

w ith = cross spectral density of X to Y

Gx x ( f ) = power spectral density of signal X.

C onfidence in te rv a ls , using the d e fin itio n given in [8],

were determ ined from the M A C /R A N code. A confidence level of 0 .7 5
was selected for the com putation of these in terv als.

Values of the response function were o btain ed at 32 discrete

frequency values for each series. For the m ajority of these data
com puted coherence functions were < 0 .7 5 and results exhibited
considerable sc atter. Previous work had indicated the shape of
a response function may be d iffic u lt to establish accurately from
data w ith a coherence < 0 .7 5 . Th erefo re, only those values of the
response functio n whose associated coherence was > 0 .7 5 were
considered. These values usually corresponded to those Fourier
components in the test sequence w ith large am plitudes (high pow er).

To convert from the response fu n c tio n , (% flux response/

absorber pulse) to the transfer function (% modal flux response/
modal re a ctiv ity ) the theory given in section 2 .1 was used. Modal
flux shapes, com puted using the one-neutron energy group code
MODES, were used in determ ining the modal rea ctiv ity and modal flux
resp o n se.

IQ-3 2 3 4 6 8 |0 -2 2 3 4 6 8 |Q-I 2 3 4 6 8 |Q0

FREQUENCY (H Z )

FIG.8. Experimental and theoretical point-model results for the zero-power fundamental transfer function
of the Gentilly nuclear reactor.
 IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / C - 3 391

5. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

5 .1 E ffects of Experim ental Constraints

An understanding of the physical constraints and their

effects is necessary to give a perspective of the conditio ns w hich
affected the m easurem ents. Sectio n 3 .1 stated the logarithm ic
ion chamber signal only was av ailable for measurem ent of flux
response. The am plifier output range in com bination w ith the
A-to-D converter bit size gives a reso lutio n of ~ 0 .4 % in flu x /
b it . The resultant error due to this q uantization is * 0 .1 2 %
r .m .s . In ad d itio n , a 4-5% flux response gives an am plitude
signal defined by 10 -*■ 1 2 discrete levels or b it s . Noise due
to the detection process, considering cha rac teristic s of the ion
chamber and flux at their p o s itio n , is also » 0 .1 2 % r .m .s . for a
10 Hz bandwidth at 1 0 -3 of fu ll power, the power level for these
experim ents.

At low freq u en cies, the m axim um possible fundam ental flux

disturbance was + 1 .5 % w ith out im pairm ent of the flux control
system . The m axim um absorber reactiv ity correction rate occurs
for a 3% flux error. When the ex citation signal changes sign,
after reaching an equilibrium , the control system error signal
w ould demand the m axim um absorber rate.

At high frequen cies, approxim ately 1 Hz, the m axim um funda­

m ental rea ctiv ity obtainable was lim ited by the rate of absorber
movement and gave a flux response of ap proxim ately 0 .6 % i .e . 1-2
A-to-D converter b it s . Movement of absorbers at a conservative
slow er ra te , to allow correction c ap a b ility for other reactivity
disturbances, would result in a lower response. For the Tl se rie s,
frequency analysis bandwidth of 0 .2 4 to 7 .8 H z, the observed % flux
response corresponded to a peak-to-peak v ariatio n equivalent to
4 A-to-D converter bits or 1 .6 % . The Tl series was discontinued after
the fundam ental mode test due to the in a b ilit y to induce a reac­
tiv ity disturbance of su ffic ie n t am plitude in the Tl series band­
w idth.

5 .2 Experim ental and Theoretical Transfer Functions

Fig. 8 gives the experim ental results for the zero power
fundam ental transfer functio n. Also shown on this figure are
theoretical point- m odel predictio ns for two sets of param eters
w hich are considered to indicate m axim um model lim its for
the e ffec tiv e delayed neutron fractions and associated decay
constants, sig n ific a n t param eters in the frequency range of 2 x 1 0 -3
Hz to 0 .1 Hz. W ithin this frequency range the experim ental am pli­
tudes in general, fa ll w ith in the band of 1 .5 db defined by the
theoretical curves. To obtain agreement at frequencies above
0 .1 Hz would require use of an effec tiv e neutron lifetim e = 1 .5 -
2 larger than the value used in the theoretical m odels. The
experim ental phase angle data also departs from the theoretical
p redictio ns in the region of 0 .1 to 1 H z . Better agreement between
392 SERDULA et a l.

FREQUENCY (H z]

FIG.9. Experimental and theoretical uniform-model results for the zero-power first azimuthal transfer
function of the Gentilly nuclear reactor.

theoretical and experim ental phase angle data could also be obtained
by use of a larger e ffec tiv e neutron life tim e . However it is
probable this disagreem ent could arise from a number of effects such
as ;

1) A lia sin g effects since no filte r was used for the

fundam ental mode measurem ents.

2) Contam inatio n of the fundam ental mode response by the

first ra dia l mode.

3) The rela tiv ely large errors in experim ental data in

this region -^rhich make it d iffic u lt to accurately
establish the shape of the experim ental curve.

In view of the above factors use of a larger effec tiv e

neutron lifetim e to im prove the theoretical to experim ental agree­
ment could not be ju s t ifie d .

Fig. 9 shows a com parison of the predicted uniform - m odel

first azim uthal transfer function to the experim ental resu lts.
Experim ental am plitude data follow the shape of the predicted
am plitude v aria tio n but are ^ <2 db h igh er. Com parison of ex p eri­
m ental phase data indicate а г 2 - 3° increase in phase lag as
com pared to theoretical p redictio n s. Increased scatter in the
am plitude and phase results in the 3 x 10~ц to 1 .6 x 1 0 -3 Hz region
could be attributed to possible inaccuracies in the corrections
 IAEA-SM-168/C-3 393

for fundam ental mode contam ination. The ratio of fundam ental to
fir s t azim uthal response is very la r g e (* 30 - 40 d b )in this
frequency range. The apparent system atic d ifferen c e of + 2 db in
theexperim ental am plitude data compared to the predicted response
could be due to:

1) C alculation of the conversion factor to be ap plied to

convert (% flux response at location X /p u lses of
absorber movement at location Y) to [(% I )/
(A k az/k 0 )] .

2) D ifference in predicted modal bucklings and the actual

modal buckling ( i .e . ДВ2 (predicted) to ЛВ2 (actual)).
az az

3) Inadequacy of the one neutron- energy group m odels to

accurately predict the responses.

4) Possible contam ination of the response by other m odes.

Data of the first azim uthal frequency response m easurem ents

analyzed using method 1, section 4 .2 indicated ; 10% h igher response
at chamber A than at chamber B. This differen ce was attributed to
a probable im balance of structural m aterial in the core giving
rise to azim uthal asym m etry in the flux p ro file .

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLU SIONS

Experim ental results have indicated the frequency response

measurem ent program should be adequate for m easuring the first
azim uthal frequency response of the G entilly reactor at power.
The high fundam ental controller gain required to correct for the
large fundam ental flux gain at power, com bined w ith possible in t e r ­
feren ce of the induced rea ctiv ity disturbance by external d is tu r ­
bances, would severly restrict m easurem ents of the fundam ental
response function at power.

Measured zero- power frequency responses for both fundam ental

and first azim uthal modes are in agreement w ith theoretical predictio ns
in the frequency range of ~ 1 0 -3 -*■ 1 0 " 1 H z . This is the frequency
range w hich includes the sig n ific a n t feedback tim e constants and
therefore of m ajor interest in the power m easurem ents.

The zero power fir s t azim uthal frequency response m easure­

m ents have indicated existen ce of an azim uthal flux asym metry in
the core.

A m ajor constraint in the present m easurem ents was use of

the logarithm ic signal to m easure the flux response. Accuracy of
measurem ents w ill im prove when the linear am plifier signals from
the ion chambers and other in- core instrum ents can be used for the •
power experim ents.

On the basis of the perform ance of the frequency program

at zero pow er, azim uthal frequency response measurem ents have been
made for the follow ing reactor conditio ns,
394 SERDULA et a l.

1) 25% f u l l pow er, 52%

2) 25% " " ’ 88%

3) 40% " " ’ 88%

4) 40% " " ’ 68%

5) 40% " " ’ 52%

6) 57% ........................... 61%

7) 57% " " ’ 89%

8) 75% " " ’ 68%

9) 75% " " ’ 100%

10). 95^ 1* n » 100%

A prelim inary assessment of these m easurem ents has been made

and results have contributed to re a liza tio n of most of the objective
stated in section 1 w ith indicatio ns of fu ll rea liza tio n upon fin a l
assessm ent of the m easurem ents.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

A program of this size includes contributions from many

people. We are extrem ely grateful to all who so w illin g ly c o n tri­
buted in their way.

^We would e sp ec ially like to thank A. D ah linger (AE CL) and

P .A . Leger (H ydro Quebec) for their co- operation in m aking this
experim ental program p o ssib le . In d iv id u als who have contributed
to the success of the program are; C. Boulay and the G entilly
Operations s t a ff, D. Delorm e, A. Duchesne and L .F . M o nier, all
of Hydro Quebec, W. Cooper, E. C rito ph, P .M . Garvey, E. H inchley ,
D .B . Prim eau, N .J . Spinks and W .R . W h ittall all of AECL and
D .K . Sm ith of I . P . Sharp A ssociates Lim ited.

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] PON, G . A . , "CANDU-BLW-250", Proc. IAEA Symp. Heavy-Water Power Reactors, Vienna (1967) 201.
[2] LEGER, P .A ., MONIER, L .F ., "Etat de la centrale nucléaire deGentilly” , Proc. 1972 Annual
Canadian Nuclear Association Conference, Ottawa, 11-14 June (1972); 72-CNA-304 (1972).
[3] WHITTALL, W .R ., BOSOMWORTH, K .G ., "Dual Digital Computer Control System for the Gentilly
Nuclear Power Station” , Proc. Conf. Int. Federation of Information Processing Societies, Edinburgh,
Oct., 1968, (Information Processing 68), North-Holland, Amsterdam (1969).
[4] CRITOPH, E., "The stability of the CANDU-BLW system", Proc. of Conf. on Industrial Needs and
Academic Research in Reactor Kinetics, 8-9 April 1968, Brookhaven National Lab. BNL-501117 (1968).
[5] KERLIN, T . W . , "Methods for frequency response measurements in power reactors, " Symp. Dynamics
of Nuclear Systems. 23-25 March 1970, Univ. of Arizona Press. Tucson (1972) 311.
[6] LAWRENCE, C .B ., PEARSON, A ., "Measurement Techniques using a Pseudo Random Binary Sequence
and Fourier Transformation for Determining a System's Transfer Function", AECL-3601.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /C - 3 395

[7] UHRIG, R.E ., Random Noise Techniques in Nuclear Reactor Systems, Ronald Press C o ., New York
(1970) Ch. 9.
[8] BENDAT, J .S ., PIERSOL, A .G . , Measurement and Analysis of Random Data. Wiley, New York
(1966) C h .4.

DISCUSSION

T . W . K E R L IN : W hat w a s th e b a s i s f o r s e l e c t in g a c o h e r e n c e fu n c tio n
of 0.75?
K. J. S E R D U L A : T h e d e c is i o n to s e l e c t 0. 75 a s a c u t - o f f p oin t w as
b a s e d on p r e v io u s w o rk . T h is w o r k in d ic a te d that data w ith a c o h e r e n c e
fu n c tio n o f l e s s than a p p r o x im a t e ly 0. 75 c o u ld b e o f lit t le o r n o v a lu e
o w in g t o the la r g e e r r o r e s t im a t e s a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e m . S in c e th e v a lu e
o f 0. 75 is b a s e d on th e la t t e r f a c t o r , it is not u n iq u e. L e t m e e m p h a s iz e
that th e a s s o c ia t e d c o h e r e n c e fu n c tio n fo r m o s t o f th e da ta is > 0. 95.
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY
(Session D)
 C h airm en

Papers D - l t o D - 5 : J . A . G O L D E R (U n it e d K i n g d o m )

P a p e r s D - 6 to D - 9 : P . S T I R S K Ÿ (C z e c h o s l o v a k So c ialist R e p u b lic )
 IAEA-SM-168/D-1

ESTIMATION PROBLEMS
OF SAFETY SYSTEMS

P. K O V A N IC
In stitu te o f T h e o r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n a n d o f A u t o m a t i o n ,
C z e c h o s lo v a k A c a d e m y o f Sc ien c es,
P r a g u e , C z e c h o s l o v a k S o c ialis t R e p u b lic

Abstract

E S T IM A T IO N PROBLEMS OF SA FET Y SY STEM S.

Safety systems should minimize at every moment in time a risk-function of at least two competitive
components: (1) the missing of an actual emergency state, and (2) unnecessary loss of plant availability.
A quantitative base for optimization can be provided by choosing a relevant statistical model of the process,
a proper estimation technique and a system of criteria for an evaluation of the quality of the safety system.
Important specific features and tasks of safety systems involve complications not present in well-known
approaches to the state estimation problem of the control theory. Some results of theoretical investigations
of suitable estimators are given in the paper together with a discussion on the role of a-priori information
within the estimating procedures. These results can be useful in considering the practical consequences of
different trip-level settings of both analog and digital-type safety systems. Solution of these problems and
some conclusions on the choice of estimating algorithms and on the usefulness of process covariance matrices
may also be important for the application of computers directly or indirectly related to a safety system.

1. A S A F E T Y S Y S T E M AS A S T A T IS T IC A L D ECISIO N D E V IC E

A s a fe ty s y s t e m m a y b e c o n s id e r e d to b e w o r k in g w e ll i f it p r o d u c e s
e m e r g e n c y s ig n a ls in a ll a c tu a l e m e r g e n c y s itu a tio n s and p r o d u c e s no
e m e r g e n c y s ig n a ls in n o r m a l o p e r a t io n a l s ta te s o f the c o n t r o lle d o b je c t .
D e c is io n m a k in g b a s e d on o b s e r v a t io n s o f m e a s u r a b le v a r ia b le s o f the o b j e c t
is thus a n e c e s s a r y fu n c tio n o f a s a fe ty s y s t e m . S u ch a d e c is i o n m a y b e
s a id to b e s im p le o n ly in the c a s e o f d ir e c t ly m e a s u r a b le l o g i c a l v a r ia b le s
w ith no n o is e p r e s e n t . T h is p a p e r d e a ls w ith m o r e c o m p lic a t e d s itu a tio n s
o f m e a s u r in g o r r e c e iv in g m e s s a g e s ig n a ls f r o m the o b j e c t in the p r e s e n c e
o f r a n d o m n o is e . T h e s e s ig n a ls m a y a ls o h ave r a n d o m c o m p o n e n ts w hen
s o m e o b j e c t v a r ia b le s a r e r a n d o m q u a n titie s . T h u s the d e c is i o n m a d e
ca n n o t a lw a y s b e the p e r f e c t l y c o r r e c t o n e . T h is fa c t in d ic a t e s that on e
m u s t a s s ig n s o m e s o r t o f l o s s to the m a k in g o f a w ro n g d e c is i o n . T h e r e
a r e tw o k in ds o f i n c o r r e c t d e c is i o n s : no e m e r g e n c y s ig n a l in an e m e r g e n c y
s itu a tio n , and an e m e r g e n c y s ig n a l u n der n o r m a l sta te o f the o b j e c t . T h e
s o lu t io n o f a l o s s fu n c tio n m in im iz a t io n p r o b le m a r is in g in d e c is io n -m a k in g
s itu a tio n s d e s c r ib e d b y the c o n d itio n a l p r o b a b ilit y d e n s ity fu n c tio n s is
a v a ila b le in s t a t is t ic a l d e c is i o n th e o r y [ 1 ] . T h e s t a t is t ic a l a p p r o a c h to the
p r o b le m s o f s a fe ty s y s t e m s m a y b e u s e fu l n ot o n ly in the d e s ig n sta g e o f
the s y s t e m b u t a ls o in d e te r m in in g p r o p e r th r e s h o ld s e ttin g o f the s i g n a l i-
z a tio n . A s a fe ty s y s t e m c a n t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s id e r e d as a s t a t is t ic a l d e c is i o n
d e v ic e . In th is p a p e r the a p p lic a t io n o f a d ig it a l c o m p u tin g s y s t e m is
assu m ed.

399
400 KOVANIC

2. B E T T E R E S T IM A T E - B E T T E R D ECISIO N

U n d er p r a c t i c a l c o n d itio n s the a c tu a l v a lu e s o f im p o r ta n t v a r ia b le s
a r e n ot d ir e c t ly a v a ila b le and it is n e c e s s a r y to e s t im a te th em u sin g o b s e r v e d
v a lu e s c o n ta m in a te d b y n o is e . C h o o s in g an e s t im a tio n m e th o d and a v o lu m e
o f data to b e u se d in e s t im a tio n , to g e th e r w ith the a - p r i o r i a v a ila b le i n f o r ­
m a tio n , th e a c c u r a c y o f the e s t im a t e s is d e t e r m in e d .
A d e c is i o n p r o c e s s , the input o f w h ich is the output o f the e s t im a tio n
p r o c e s s , w ill now b e c o n s id e r e d . T h e tw o d e c is i o n e r r o r s m e n tio n e d a b o v e
a r e m u tu a lly c o n t r a d ic t o r y w hen the c o n d itio n a l p r o b a b ilit y d e n s ity fu n c tio n s
o f t r e a t e d s ig n a ls a r e f ix e d . F o r a s e n s it iv e th r e s h o ld s e ttin g it is i m ­
p r o b a b le that an a c tu a l e m e r g e n c y b e m i s s e d , bu t the fr e q u e n c y o f fa ls e
e m e r g e n c y s ig n a ls w ill b e h igh , and the r e v e r s e a ls o a p p lie s . B u t u sing
a b e t t e r e s t im a tio n m e th o d , o r in tr o d u c in g m o r e in fo r m a t io n , m a y r e s u lt
in d e c r e a s in g b oth d e c is i o n e r r o r s . A s im p le e x a m p le is g iv e n in R e f . [ 1] :
if the a r it h m e t ic a l m e a n o f the o b s e r v e d data is u sed in ste a d o f e a c h v a lu e
o f the o b s e r v e d data f o r m a k in g the d e c is i o n , th en the p r o b a b ilit ie s o f both
k in ds o f i n c o r r e c t d e c is i o n s d e c r e a s e . T h is ju s t if ie s an a ttem p t to c o n s id e r
m o r e g e n e r a l o p tim u m e s t im a tio n p r o c e d u r e s .
E s t im a t o r s f o r p r e lim in a r y tr e a tm e n t o f data o f a s a fe ty s y s t e m sh ou ld
y ie ld e s t im a t e s a s a c c u r a t e as p o s s ib le w ith in a s h o r t tim e in t e r v a l. A
lim it e d o b s e r v a t io n in t e r v a l and the c o r r e l a t i o n o f o b s e r v e d data d o e s not
p e r m it the a c c u r a c y o f the e s t im a tio n to b e im p r o v e d b e y o n d the lim it
a c h ie v a b le v ia an e ff ic ie n t e s t im a t o r . If th e r e i s 'a - p r i o r i in fo r m a t io n a v a il­
a b le it s h o u ld b e u se d in e s t im a tio n to m o v e the t h e o r e t ic a l a c c u r a c y b ou n ds
and to d e c r e a s e the e s tim a tin g e r r o r s . B u t the in fo r m a t io n n e c e s s a r y f o r
e s tim a tin g th e a lg o r ith m sh o u ld n ot in c lu d e p a r a m e t e r s n ot d ir e c t ly a c ­
c e s s i b l e in a r e lia b le e x p e r im e n t a l o r t h e o r e t ic a l m e a n s . T h e a lg o r ith m m u s t
be s t a b le and v e r y s i m p le . It is d e s ir a b le to h a v e e x p lic it f o r m u la e f o r
the e r r o r s o f e s t im a t e s that a r e su ita b le f o r an a - p r i o r i a n a ly s is o f im p o rta n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e e s t im a tio n and d e c is i o n p r o c e s s .
A d e s c r ip t i o n o f a c l a s s o f s u c h e s t im a t o r s f o l l o w s . It r e p r e s e n t s a
s u b s ta n tia l e x te n s io n o f the k now n e s t im a t o r s h av in g fix e d m e m o r y and
u sin g o n ly the f i r s t and s e c o n d s t a t is t ic a l m o m e n t s .

3. TH E M IN IM U M P E N A L T Y E S T IM A T E

O ne h as an n X 1 data v e c t o r in the fo r m

y = x o a0 + e (1)

w h e r e the q X 1 s ta te v e c t o r is a r a n d o m v e c t o r h av in g a know n m e a n
a Q and a know n n o n -s in g u la r c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix , the n o n -r a n d o m n X q m a t r ix
X 0 h av in g ra n k m is g iv e n , th e n X 1 r a n d o m v e c t o r e h as z e r o m e a n and
a know n c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix . ■—►
A m o n g the c o m p o n e n t s o f the v e c t o r a g th e r e a r e s a m p le d v a lu e s o f
d if fe r e n t sta te v a r ia b le s ta k en at d iffe r e n t t im e s o f the r e c e n t o b s e r v a t io n a l
in t e r v a l. H e r e o n e d o e s n ot s u p p o s e any k n o w le d g e o f the m u lt i-d im e n s io n a l
c o n t r o ll e d o b j e c t m o d e l. T h e e s t im a tio n w ill b e b a s e d o n ly o n the k n ow led g e
o f c o v a r ia n c e s o f th e s ta te v a r ia b le s .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-1 401

T h e u s e fu l (in fo r m a t io n a l) c o m p o n e n t o f the o b s e r v e d v e c t o r

Ух = x o “ o (2)

w ill b e w r it te n as

yx = X a (3)

w h e r e the new sta te v e c t o r a is n o r m a liz e d to h ave u n ita ry c o v a r ia n c e

m a t r ix . T h e d e fin it io n o f th e m a t r ix X is c h o s e n to c o r r e s p o n d to th is
n o r m a liz a t io n .
T h e r e q u ir e d r e s u lt o f th e e s t im a tio n sh o u ld b e

z x = £ \Ух| №

w h e r e £ is a g iv e n lin e a r o p e r a t o r , c h a r a c t e r iz in g the o p e r a t io n o f filt r a t io n ,

p r e d ic t io n and d e t e r m in a tio n o f a tr e n d e t c . W e r e q u ir e the s u p p r e s s io n o f
th e n o is e v e c t o r e , t h e r e fo r e

yx + e = zx (5)

T h e e s t im a te w ill b e o f th e g e n e r a l lin e a r fo r m
—>—
>
z = wy + b (6)

—
w h e r e b is a s c a l a r , and w a v e c t o r to b e d e t e r m in e d v ia u n c o n d itio n a l
m in im iz a t io n o f the p e n a lty

с = c 0 eg + c x 4 (7)

w h e r e c 0 and c x a r e s o m e n o n -n e g a tiv e w e ig h ts ,

{ z 0 - (w y + b ) } 2 (8)
and

{ z x - (wyk+ b ) } 2 0 )

T h e m in im u m p e n a lty t h e o r e m f r o m R e f . [2 ] in a s lig h tly s i m p li f ie d v e r s io n ,

s t a t e s : "A m o n g a ll e s t im a t e s h av in g a lin e a r f o r m (6 ), the b e s t on e
m in im iz in g the p e n a lty (V) is th e e s t im a te

z = wy + b (10)

w here

Ъ = zx - wyx (11)
402 KOVANIC

w - [ (zx - zx) ( y - y x)T + r ( z x - z x) ( y - y x)T] [ ( y - y x) ( y - y x)T + г (yx “ УхНУх - Ух)Т]+

(1 2 )

r = c x/ c 0 (13)

and w h e r e a m a t r ix A+ d e n o te s the P e n r o s e 's p s e u d o -in v e r s e o f th e m a t r ix A.

T h ere is a p r o o f o f u n iq u en ess and e x is t e n c e o f th is e s t im a te g iv e n

in R e f. [ 2 ] t o g e th e r w ith its o th e r im p o r ta n t fe a t u r e s . T h is e s t im a te is
u n b ia s e d . A p a r t ic u la r v a lu e o f the p a r a m e t e r r is to b e d e t e r m in e d s o
as to m e e t p a r t ic u la r a p p lic a t io n r e q u ir e m e n t s .

4. SO M E S P E C IA L C A SE S O F M IN IM U M P E N A L T Y E S T IM A T E

T h e fo llo w in g s im p lific a t io n s a r e a s s u m e d :

! \ (14)
(a) z x = p a
—^
(b) T h e 1 X m v e c t o r p c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y E q . (4) is n o n -r a n d o m and g iv e n

(c) T h e r a n k m o f the m a t r ix X is fu ll

(d) m s n (15)
—> —>-j-
(e) В = e e , w here В is a n o n -s in g u la r s q u a r e m a t r ix (16)

(f) T h e r e a r e no c o r r e la t io n s b e tw e e n the s ta te v e c t o r a and th e n o is e

v e c to r e.

U n d er s u c h a s s u m p tio n s the r e la t io n s (10) to (12) m a y b e r e w r itt e n

in the fo r m

z - z x = v? ( y - y x) (17)

1 ~1”1’
w = p XT B- X + XT B- (18)
1+ r

F o r r-* 0 o n e o b ta in s f r o m th e s e e x p r e s s io n s a d is c r e t e v e r s i o n o f the
S e m y o n o v e s t im a te m in im iz in g u n c o n d itio n a lly the m e a n s q u a r e e s tim a tin g
error.
F o r r -» oo an e s t im a t e is o b ta in e d r e s u lt in g a ls o f r o m the d is c r e t e
a n a lo g o f the Z a d e h - R a g a z z in i e s t im a t e . In th is c a s e the m e a n s q u a r e
e s tim a tin g e r r o r is m in im iz e d u nder the c o n s tr a in t

w X = p (19)

v a lid f o r r -» oo
 IAEA-SM-168/D-1 403

F o r a s e t o f m v e c t o r s w(i) c o n s t r u c t e d u sin g m v e c t o r s р(ц h avin g

c o m p o n e n ts

1 fo r i = j
p(i)j = (i, j = 1, . . . , m ) (20)
0 fo r i / j

^ _______у
the m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a te a o f the v e c t o r a is e q u a l to

-l
t , 1
Хт В'1 X + =------- E XT B"‘ (y - y x) + a (21)
1 + r

F o r г -» oo th is e x p r e s s io n g o e s o v e r to the w e ll-k n o w n G a u s s -M a r k o v
e s t im a t e .
It is w o r th m e n tio n in g that an e x p r e s s io n s i m il a r to E q . (21) h as b e e n
ob ta in e d as a r e s u lt o f an a im to im p r o v e the c o n d itio n o f the s y s t e m m a t r ix
Хт В'1X b e f o r e the in v e r s io n n e c e s s a r y f o r the e s t im a tio n [3 ] . T h e r e is
no t h e o r e t ic a l e x p la n a tio n in R e f. [ 3] o f the t e r m lik e (1 /1 + r )E and the
e s t im a t e is p r e s e n t e d in R e f . [ 3 ] as a b ia s e d e s t im a t e .
T h e m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a t e m a k e s u se o f the a - p r i o r i in fo r m a t io n
g iv e n b y th e m e a n o f the s ta te v e c t o r c?0 and by its c o v a r ia n c e . A s i m il a r
a im m o d ifie d the G a u s s -M a r k o v e s t im a te v ia m in im iz a t io n o f a q u a d ra tic
f o r m o f b oth s m o o th in g e r r o r s and e r r o r s a r is in g in tr e a tin g the a p r i o r i
da ta [ 4 ] . E x te n d e d G a u s s -M a r k o v e s t im a te o f th is ty p e c o r r e s p o n d s to
a s p e c ia l c a s e o f E q . (21) f o r r -» 0, to the e s t im a te o f S e m y o n o v ty p e , but
th e r e is no m e n tio n on the S e m y o n o v e s t im a te in R e f . [ 4 ] .
T h u s , th e r e a r e d iffe r e n t w a y s o n how to r e a c h an e s t im a te (21) and
th e r e a r e d iffe r e n t r e a s o n s f o r d oin g it. O n e sh o u ld d e v e lo p the m in im u m
p e n a lty c o n c e p t fu r t h e r to sh o w its m a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

5. E S T IM A T IN G E R R O R S

It c a n b e sh ow n b y d i r e c t s u b s titu tio n in to d e fin itio n s (7) to (9) that the

e s t im a tin g e r r o r s , w h en u sin g the m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a t e , a r e as fo llo w s :

E + ( 1 + r ) 2 Хт В- X E + (1 + r ) Хт В'1 X (22)

E + ( l + r ) X T B- X (23)

T h e m e a n s q u a r e e s t im a tin g e r r o r e 2 is a m e a s u r e o f the e ffe c t o f the

e s t im a t o r on the da ta v e c t o r in the p r e s e n c e o f n o is e . T h e q u an tity e 2
is th e m e a n s q u a r e e r r o r o f e s t im a te that w o u ld ta k e p la c e i f the n o is e c o u ld
404 KOVANIC

d is a p p e a r . T h e m e an s q u a r e e r r o r e 2 r i s e s w ith an in c r e a s in g r f r o m the
m in im u m v a lu e [ e ^ ] r = 0 m o n o t o n ic a lly to a m a x im u m [ e ^ ] r_>oo , the s e c o n d

e r r o r e 2 fa l ls m o n o t o n ic a lly f r o m a m a x im u m v a lu e [ e^ ^_ Q to z e r o
c o r r e s p o n d in g to r -*• » .

6. SO M E S IM P L E E X A M P L E S O F T H E E S T IM A T O R S

O ne p r o c e e d s to s im p le p a r t ic u la r c o n d itio n s :

T h e m a t r ix XQ h as e le m e n ts

Ы р = * r

w h ere

t,- = U - (24)

T h e r a n d o m v e c t o r a Q h as a c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix o f the d ia g o n a l ty p e .
T h e n o is e c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix В is o f a s im p le fo r m :

:в ] ц = k 0q '- l ( i .j = 1 .2 , . . .,n ) (25)

w h ere
q = ex p ( - t 0/ T ) (26)

and T , t Q and k Q a r e p o s it iv e c o n s ta n ts .

T h e in v e r s e o f th is m a t r ix В c a n e a s ily b e p r o v e d to h ave the e le m e n ts

1
fo r i = j = 1, n
k0( l - q2)

1 + q2
fo r i = j j 1, n
k Q(1 - q2) (27)

-q
fo r Ji - j| = 1
M 1 - q2)

fo r |i - j| > 1

D en otin g th e e le m e n t o f the m a t r ix X j B"1 X0

xj B- x0 (28)

on e o b ta in s f o r m = 1, 2 and 3

tl°n
n( 1 - q) + 2q (29)
ll k 0 (l+ q )
 IAEA-SM-168/D-1 405

' 12 = 6g ' 21 (30)

23 32

Un A ( d? n2 n Л1 ,
g ' 22 ~ W '2 / ql ï ' T ' 6 2/J (31)
kn( l - q2)

to {n - iy n3 n2 lin l'N in 3 n2 . 5n 1
13 6 31 k (l-q 2 ) + l 1 + q2A l2 - ~ + T f ’ 2 У _С1^ Т ' Т + 6 2.

(32)
tü In -1) , , o 11 n5 n4 lin 3 3n2 127n 1
33 k 0(l- q 2) l 8 4 W A 8ô- t + -24 -— + 240

nf n^ nî ■ n2 13n (33)
40 ‘ 8 + 12 4 _ 120 ' 8 / J

L e t the d ia g o n a l e le m e n t s o f the d ia g o n a l c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix o f the

s ta te v e c t o r a 0 be k j, k 2 t¿2 and k 3 t"04 . T h e n o n e m a y w r it e the d ia g o n a l
e le m e n t s o f th e m a t r ix H as

1
H XT B" X + 1 + Т Г f ii = g ii w here i = 1 , 2 , 3 (34)
1+ r 1+r kr

and th e o n ly n o n -d ia g o n a l t e r m

■Jk7 k ^ ^
XT B"‘ X + = Si3 = g 3i = — к 13
(35)
1 + r
13 о

w h ere
(36)

T h e in v e r s e m a t r ix H'1 n e c e s s a r y f o r the e s t im a t o r c o n s t r u c t io n is now

a v a ila b le in the f o llo w in g fo r m :
406 KOVAN1C

T h u s o n e h as e v e r y th in g n e c e s s a r y f o r the c a lc u la t io n o f the m in im u m
p e n a lty e s t im a t o r up to m = 3 in th is p a r t ic u la r m o d e l . . F o r the s a m e c a s e
and f o r m = 2 the e r r o r s w ill b e

l + ( l + r ) 2(k 1/ k 0)f 11 l + ( l + r ) 2(k 9/ k n) f 99

+ p2 (40)
11 ! 1 + ( 1 + r ) ( k 1/ k 0)f n p 22 t l + ( l + r ) ( k 2/ k 0) f 22]

= p‘
n [l + a + r x y k ^ ] ' 2 + Pg [ 1 + (1 +r)(k2/k0)f22]-Si (41)

F o r m = 1 the f i r s t t e r m s o f the r ig h t-h a n d s id e o f the e x p r e s s io n s (40) and

(41) a r e r e le v a n t . __ __
T h e e x p r e s s io n s f o r ejj and e2 f o r the c a s e m = 3 a r e n ot g iv e n h e r e
b e c a u s e o f t h e ir in c r e a s e d c o m p le x it y .
Up to th is p o in t o n e h as n ot a s s u m e d p a r t ic u la r v a lu e s o f the p a r a m e t e r
(the d im e n s io n o f the o b s e r v e d v e c t o r ) . S u b stitu tin g s p e c i f i c v a lu e s in to the
a b o v e -m e n t io n e d fo r m u la e o n e o b ta in s the fo llo w in g f o r the e s t im a tio n o f
the q u an tity а г in a m o d e l f o r m = 1:

( l + r ) k i /k
1:
7 Щ 1 + (1 + r ) k 1/ k 0

; _ 1 _________( l + r ) k i / k 0
n = 2; 1 1
n/Tc7 l + q + 2 ( l + r j k j / k

T h e e s t im a tio n o f th e e le m e n t a 2 c a n b e m a d e in the c a s e m = 2 b y m e a n s
o f the fo llo w in g e s t im a t o r s :

n = 2: í =_ i _ ___ lLtr)^/ko ... ii.ihi

2 T k J 2(1 - q) + (1 + r )k 2/ k 0 'I 1 1 I

n = 3: 5? = 1 (1 + r ) k 2/kp
- 1 0 1
2 (1 - q )2 + 2 (1 + r ) k 2/ k 0

T h e f a c t o r s 1 /V~k^ and l / / k ^ a p p e a r in th e s e f o r m u la e as s c a l e f a c t o r s
r e s u lt in g f r o m the n o r m a liz a t io n o f the c o v a r ia n c e m a t r ix . B u t the r a tio
k i / k 0 a s w e ll as the r a t io k ^ k o c h a r a c t e r iz e s the a - p r i o r i s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e
in fo r m a t io n . T h e s e f a c t o r s d is a p p e a r f r o m a ll the fo r m u la e in th e c a s e
r -*•<», th e r e la t e d a - p r i o r i in fo r m a t io n n o t b e in g ta k en in to c o n s id e r a t io n
in th is c a s e .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-1 407

7. DISCUSSION

T h e a c c u r a c y o f th e m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a t e is b e t t e r than the

a c c u r a c y o f an o r d in a r y u n b ia s e d m in im u m m e a n s q u a r e e r r o r e s t im a t e .
T h is is b e c a u s e the a - p r i o r i in fo r m a t io n on c o v a r ia n c e s o f the e s t im a te d
v e c t o r c a n b e u se d in the e s t im a tio n m in im iz in g the p e n a lty . T h e r e s p o n s e
o f the e s t im a t o r s c a n b e fa s t en ou g h i f the s i z e o f the o b s e r v e d v e c t o r is
s u ffic ie n t ly s m a ll . T h e in fo r m a t io n n e c e s s a r y f o r the c o n s t r u c t io n o f the
e s t im a t o r is e a s ily a c c e s s i b l e in p r a c t i c e and is g iv e n o n ly b y m e a n s and
c o v a r i a n c e s . E x p li c it fo r m u la e o f e s tim a tin g e r r o r s c a n b e o b ta in e d .
B oth the f o r m u la t io n and s o lu t io n o f the m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a t e p r o b le m
is g e n e r a l en ou g h to c o v e r a w h o le c l a s s o f in v a r ia b le e s t im a t o r s h avin g
a fix e d v o lu m e o f m e m o r y . T h u s the m in im u m p e n a lty e s t im a te m a y b e o f
b o th t h e o r e t ic a l and p r a c t i c a l v a lu e f o r s o lv in g e s t im a t io n p r o b le m s o f
s a fe t y s y s t e m s .

REFERENCES

[1] SA W A R A G I, Y . , S U N A H A R A , Y . , N A K A M I Z O , T . , Statistical Decision Theory in Adaptive Control

Systems, Academic Press, New York, London (1967).
[2] K O V A N I C , P ., The M inim um Penalty Estimate, Kybemetika 8 5 (1972) 368-83.
[3] BANERJEE, K . S . , CARR, R. N . , A comment on ridge regression. Biased estimation fornon-orthogonal
problems, Technometrics 13 4 (1971) 896-98.
[4] SWERLING, P ., Modern state estimation methods from the viewpoint of the method of leastsquares,
IEEE Trans. Aut. Control AC-16 6 (D ec. 1971) 707-19.
 IAEA-SM-168/D-2

DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY OF THE

T W O -O U T -O F -T H R E E PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
WITH AUTOMATIC TESTING AND REPAIR

E. ZOBOR
C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e fo r P h y s i c s ,
H u n g a r ia n A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s,
Budapest, H ung ary

Abstract

DESIG N FOR RELIABILITY OF T H E TWO-OUT-OF-THREE P RO TE CTIVE SY ST E M S W I T H A U T O M A T I C

T E S T IN G A N D REPAIR.
It has been a current practice in the Central Research Institute for Physics in recent years that the
reactor protection systems are designed with automatic self-checking. Together with the construction of
such systems, theoretical work has also been carried out on the estimation of system reliability. Starting
from results of previous work in this field, the paper presents'the conclusions obtained by solving on a
hybrid computer the state transition differential equations of the Markovian process describing the behaviour
of the "two-out-of-three" protective system with self-checking and repair. Dividing the system states into
successful and unsuccessful ones, the reliability is interpreted as the probability that the system is in one
of its successful states. The effect of design philosophy and repair strategy is discussed in detail and diagrams
to meet the technical requirements (e .g . for how long the reactor can be operated with one unfailed
channel) in the design of such protective systems is given.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

In t h e C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h I n s t itu te fo r P h y s ic s b o th th e
c o n s tr u c tio n of z e r o -p o w e r re a cto rs and th e s a fe ty and i n t e r l o c k
sy stem s have b een d e v e lo p e d c o n t in u o u s ly . An e s s e n t i a l sta g e in
th is d e v e l o p m e n t w as w hen t h e fir s t s e m ic o n d u c to r s a fe ty sy stem
w as d e s i g n e d fo r th e Z R -4 z e r o -p o w e r r e a c t o r in 1966 [ l ] . To
e x p lo it th e h ig h s w it c h in g sp eed o f th e s e m ic o n d u c to r lo g ic e le ­
m ent i t w as d e c i d e d to d e s ig n a s e lf-ch e ck in g s a fe ty and i n t e r ­
lo c k s y s t e m w h ic h w o r k s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t s h o r t com m and and
scram p u ls e s are a p p lie d c o n s e c u tiv e ly to t h e 'i n p u t s of th e lo g ­
ic a l c h a n n e ls . T h ese sh ort t e s t p u ls e s of som e m i l l i s e c o n d s
d u r a tio n do n o t in flu e n c e th e a ctu a l sta tu s o f th e a c tu a tin g
e le m e n ts /e.g., a m agnet h o ld in g th e s a fe ty rod w i l l n o t r e le a s e
a s c r a m / , a n d fr o m th e d e t e c t i o n of th e ir a r r iv a l a t th e lo g ic a l
o u tp u t th e p r o p e r fu n c tio n in g of th e te ste d c h a n n e l can be v e r ­
ifie d [2]. E n couraged by th e fa v o u r a b le o p e r a t in g e x p e r ie n c e ,
fu r t h e r d e v e lo p e d v e r s io n s of th is sy ste m w ere c o n s t r u c t e d fo r
th e s a fe ty sy stem o f th e B u d ap est T e c h n ic a l U n iv e r s it y T r a in in g

409
410 ZOBOR

R e a c to r in 1971 [ з ] , and fo r th e s a fe ty s y s te m o f th e Z R -6 ze ro

power re a c to r w h ic h was b u ilt in c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e CMEA

c o u n trie s fo r power re a c to r co re s tu d ie s . I t went in to o p e ra ­

tio n in D ecem ber, 1972.

In c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s e lf- c h e c k in g s y s te m s d e s c rib e d in

R e fs . [2 -5 ] - i.e . w o rk in g w ith th e o n e -o u t-o f-o n e fu n d a m e n ta l

lo g ic - som e th e o re tic a l in v e s tig a tio n s w e re c a rrie d o u t. The

e x p e c te d tim e d u rin g w h ic h th e re a c to r w o u ld be le f t u n p ro te c t­

ed ("u n p ro te c te d re a c to r tim e ") and th e p r o b a b ility o f th e "un­

p ro te c te d re a c to r tim e " b e in g b e lo w a g iv e n tim e in te rv a l w e re

c a lc u la te d as a fu n c tio n o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l s a fe ty s y s te m and

th e c h e c k in g s y s te m fa ilu r e ra te s and o f th e c h e c k in g fre q u e n c y

[6].
In re a c to r s a fe ty s y s te m s th e s ta tic tw o -o u t-o f-th re e ma­

jo r ity lo g ic s a re a p p lie d m ost o fte n and th e ir r e lia b ility p ro ­

p e rtie s have been in v e s tig a te d [7 ,8 ]. Though a g re a t e ffo rt is

made in th e d e s ig n o f such s y s te m s to f u l f i l th e fa il-s a fe

p r in c ip le , th e y s u ffe r in h e re n tly fro m th e fa c t th a t a ls o un­

s a fe fa ilu re s occur w ith a fin ite p r o b a b ility th a t may le a d to

s itu a tio n s when th e c ir c u it fa ilu re s p re ve n t th e p ro te c tiv e

s y s te m fro m re le a s in g th e scra m a c tio n . To e lim in a te th is d e fi­

c ie n c y , s tu d ie s on th e a p p lic a tio n s o f d y n a m ic lo g ic s have been

re p o rte d and schem es have been recom m e nded [8 ,9 ] fo r te s tin g

th e p ro p e r fu n c tio n in g o f th e tw o -o u t-o f-th re e fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ­

ic s y s te m .

Some p r e lim in a ry re s u lts , o b ta in e d by s im u la tio n on an ana

lo g u e c o m p u te r, o f in v e s tig a tin g th e r e lia b ility o f th e "tw o -o u t

o f-th re e " fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ic s w ith s e lf-c h e c k in g w e re g iv e n in an

e a rlie r paper [lo] . T h is paper fo llo w s th is lin e and th e r e lia ­

b ilit y o f th e "tw o -o u t-o f-th re e " fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ic s y s te m coup­

le d w ith a c h e c k in g s y s te m is in v e s tig a te d as a fin ite -s ta te

M a rk o v ia n p ro cess w here s ta te tra n s itio n s occur as a re s u lt o f

fa ilu r e s , th e ir d e te c tio n and re p a ir. Dependent on th e "m in im u m

o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts " under w h ic h th e re a c to r can be kept

o p e ra tin g , and on th e re p a ir s tra te g y a d o p te d , c e rta in s y s te m

s ta te s w ill be a c c e p te d as "s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te s " w h ile th e

o th e rs w ill be c o n s id e re d as "u n s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te s ". Tak­

in g th e c h e c k in g fre q u e n c y as a p a ra m e te r, th e p r o b a b ility o f

re m a in in g in a g iv e n s y s te m s ta te , and th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e
 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 411

s y s te m can be kept in its s u c c e s s fu l s ta te s fo r lo n g e r th a n a

g iv e n tim e in te rv a l, a re d e riv e d . The re s u lts o b ta in e d v ia hy­

b r id s im u la tio n fo r d iffe re n t o p e r a tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts and re ­

p a ir s tra te g ie s a re d is c u s s e d .

2. M A T H E M A T IC A L M O D E L

In c o n s tru c tin g s a fe ty s y s te m s w ith a u to m a tic s e lf- c h e c k -

in g th e p ro b le m m ust be fa c e d th a t th e num ber o f th e a p p lie d

c ir c u it e le m e n ts is n e c e s s a rily g re a te r th a n in a s ta tic s a fe ty

s y s te m w ith th e sam e fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ic . T h e re fo re , a s s u m in g an

e q u a lly c a re fu l d e s ig n in b o th cases, th e p r o b a b ility o f c ir ­

c u it e le m e n t fa ilu r e w ill be g re a te r fo r a s e lf- c h e c k in g s a fe ty

s y s te m .

T h is c o n tr a d ic tio n , h o w e ve r, can e a s ily be re s o lv e d by

c o n s id e rin g th e r e lia b ility o f re a c to r p r o te c tio n to be o f p r i-

m e ry in te re s t - i. e . , no fa ilu r e in e le c tro n ic c irc u itr y c o u ld

p re ve n t th e s a fe ty s y s te m fro m f u lf illin g its p ro te c tiv e fu n c ­

tio n in th e event o f a scra m c o n d itio n . The consequence o f th e

in c re a s e in th e fa ilu re ra te r e la tiv e to th e c o m p le te s y s te m can

be d e c re a s e d i f th e s e lf-c h e c k in g s a fe ty s y s te m is d e s ig n e d so

th a t no fa ilu r e in th e c h e c k in g s y s te m in flu e n c e s th e c o rre c t

o p e ra tio n o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l s a fe ty ' s y s te m .

F o llo w in g th is d e s ig n g u id e - w h ic h can be re a liz e d p r in ­

c ip a lly in a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd manner by d y n a m ic a lly c o u p lin g

th e s ta tic fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ic s y s te m w ith th e c h e c k in g s y s te m -

one o b ta in s such a s a fe ty s y s te m in w h ic h th e u n s a fe fa ilu re s

cannot re m a in h id d e n fo r lo n g e r th a n a te s t c y c le i f th e check­

in g s y s te m is o p e ra tin g . The fa ile d o p e ra tio n o f th e c h e c k in g

s y s te m , h o w e ve r, can be d e te c te d e a s ily w ith som e a d d itio n a l

c irc u itr y , s in c e th is is an a c tiv e s y s te m , in c o n tr a s t w it h th e

fu n d a m e n ta l s ta tic s a fe ty s y s te m w h ic h is p a s s iv e d u rin g n o rm a l

o p e ra tin g c o n d itio n s .

A c c o rd in g to th e fo r e g o in g a rg u m e n ts th e o n ly ro le o f th e

c h e c k in g s y s te m is to d e te c t th e u n s a fe fa ilu re s o f th e fu n d a ­

m e n ta l lo g ic s y s te m and th e re fo re th e fo llo w in g a s s u m p tio n s

h o ld .

2 . 1 . A s s u m p t io n !

The c h e c k in g s y s te m is in d e p e n d e n t o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l

s a fe ty s y s te m in th e sense th a t none o f its fa ilu re s in flu e n c e s

412 ZOBOR

th e c o rre c t o p e ra tio n o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l s a fe ty s y s te m . The

fa ilu re o f th e c h e c k in g s y s te m is im m e d ia te ly d e te c te d and th e

re p a ir begun. The fa ilu re and re p a ir ra te s o f th e c h e c k in g sys­

te m are u n ifo rm ; i.e . th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e c h e c k in g s y s te m

fa ils o r w ill be re p a ire d in ( t, t + A t) is equal to X - A t

and yv At re s p e c tiv e ly .

T h e re fo re th e b e h a v io u r o f th e c h e c k in g s y s te m can be

d e s c rib e d by th e r e la tio n s

Po v ( t + A t ) = Po v ( t ) ( l - X y A t) + Pl v ( t ) y v At

and

Pl v (t+ A t) = PQV( t ) Av - A t + Pl v ( t ) ( l - y v A t)

w here th e p r o b a b ilitie s o f its c o rre c t and fa ile d o p e r a tio n

a t tim e t a re d e n o te d by PQ v ( t ) and P iv ( t) re s p e c tiv e ly .

2. 2. A s s u m p tio n 2

The fa ilu re s o f th e s a fe ty s y s te m can be c la s s ifie d as

fo llo w s :

"S a fe fa ilu re s " - re fe rre d to as X ^ -ty p e fa ilu re s - re ­

q u ir e re a c to r scra m and a re im m e d ia te ly d e te c te d when th e y oc­

cu r. The p r o b a b ility th a t a "s a fe fa ilu re " o ccu rs in ( t , t + A t)

is X^ • A t.

"U n s a fe fa ilu re s " - re fe rre d to as X2 ~ t y p e fa ilu re s - in ­

d ic a te on th e lo g ic a l o u tp u t th a t th e m e a su re d v a r ia b le is in

th e p e rm itte d ra n g e . These fa ilu re s re m a in h id d e n u n til d e te c t

ed by th e c h e c k in g s y s te m a t t^ = к Tc (k = 1 ,2 ,...) w here

Tc is th e tim e in te rv a l b e tw e e n th e s u b s e q u e n t s y s te m checks.

The p r o b a b ility th a t an "u n s a fe fa ilu re " o ccu rs in ( t , t + A t)

is X2 • A t.

"D e te c te d u n s a fe fa ilu r e s " - re fe rre d to as X2 d ~ ty p e f a il

ure s - a re th o s e fa ilu re s w h ic h had been d e te c te d by th e check­

in g s y s te m . The X 2 -*■ X 2(J tra n s itio n can ta k e p la c e o n ly i f

t = к Tc and th e c h e c k in g s y s te m is o p e r a tin g . The r e p a ir can

be begun o n ly a fte r d e te c tio n .

 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 413

O nce th e s y s te m fa ile d w ith any ty p e o f fa ilu re , i t re m a in s

in th is s y s te m s ta te , i.e . th e -*■ ^ an<i ^2 ^1 tra n

tio n s are n e g le c te d . A fa ile d channel w ill be o p e ra tin g p ro p e rly

o n ly a fte r c o m p le tin g th e re p a ir.

A c c o rd in g to th e above c la s s ific a tio n o f fa ilu re s in th e

fu n d a m e n ta l lo g ic , th e p o s s ib le m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e s ta te s o f th e

s e lf-c h e c k in g tw o -o u t-o f-th re e lo g ic s y s te m a re g iv e n in F ig . 1.

The tra n s itio n s b e tw e e n th e s e s y s te m s ta te s a re dependent on th e

re p a ir s tra te g y and m in im u m o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts th ro u g h th e

fo llo w in g c o n s id e ra tio n s .

System Humber of Type of fa ilu re

stale unfoiled
channels A, хг
1 3 - - -
i г - -

3 ¿ - < -

A г - - /

S i ! -
6 4 - 1
7 ! 2 - -
8 1 - г -
9 1 - i /
10 1 - - г
u - / г -
12 - i i i
13 - 4 - г
ll - г V -
15 - г - i
16 - j - -
17 - - з -
18 - - ¿ i
19 - - 1 г
го - - - j

FIG .1 . Possible system states.

414 ZOBOR

The p o s s ib le s y s te m s ta te s can be d iv id e d in to th e fo llo w ­

in g s e ts :

S u c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te s (s) w h ic h fu lfil th e m in im u m

o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts ;

T e m p o ra rily "u n s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te s " (t ) w h ic h do not

f u l f i l th e m in im u m o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts but fro m w h ic h

re co ve ry in to S is p o s s ib le th ro u g h re p a ir;

F in a l u n s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te s (f ) fro m w h ic h no re ­

c o ve ry is p o s s ib le .

E v id e n tly , th is la s t set is th e " s in k " o f th e s y s te m and

once a s ta te b lo n g in g to i t is e n te re d ,th e s y s te m w ill re m a in in

th is set as shown s c h e m a tic a lly in F ig . 2.

The d e fin itio n o f th e s e s e ts is e x p lic itly dependent on

th e m in im u m o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts . The re p a ir s tra te g y m ust

f u l f i l th e re q u ire m e n t th a t none o f th e s ta te s b e lo n g in g to F

s h o u ld be e n te re d as a re s u lt o f ta k in g a channel in to re p a ir.

For th e d e riv a tio n o f som e q u a n titie s o f in te re s t d u rin g

th e d e s ig n , le t P ^ ( t) A t d e n o te th e p r o b a b ility o f tra n s itio n

fro m s ta te i in to s ta te j in ( t , t + A t). Let fu rth e rm o re

S j ( t / k , t Q) d e n o te th e p r o b a b ility o f b e in g in s ta te j€ S a t

U = T +F
A * S *T

FIG . 2. Classification of system states.

 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 415

t w ith o u t le a v in g th e set S in ( to ,t), p ro v id e d

th a t th e s y s te m s ta rte d fro m s ta te kSS a t t < t. For th is

p r o b a b ility th e fo llo w in g r e la tio n h o ld s

S .(t+ A t/k ,tn) = I SA ( t / k , t 0 ) PA j ( t ) A t +

I
¿es
H i

:n
/1/

n^j

w h ic h y ie ld s

d t Sj ( t / k , t o )
I Р Я ^ >
s . ( t / k , t o) I P.n (t)
Г ■ " O ' £ "DI
£es nf j
m
/ 2/

A fte r s u m m a tio n o f E q /2 / over j6S one o b ta in s

à 3( t / k ' V = - P s u ^ ^ ' V /3/

w here we have d e fin e d

S ( t/k ,t ) = I S ( t / k , t ) /4 /
j J
jes

as th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e s y s te m s ta y s in th e set o f its

s u c c e s s fu l s ta te s in th e in te rv a l ( t Q,t) s ta rtin g fro m kSS

a t t , and

Ps u ( t / k , t o ) A t = I I S . ( t /к ,t ) P . ( t ) A t /5 /
j n J J
jes neu

as th e p r o b a b ility o f tra n s itio n fro m th e set S in to th e set

U = T + F in ( t , t + Дt ) .

I t is w o rth n o tin g th a t th e fu n c tio n s E ( t / k , t o )=

= 1 - S ( t / k , t Q) and Pg u ( t / k , t o ) can be re g a rd e d as th e c o n d i­

tio n a l p r o b a b ility d is tr ib u tio n and d e n s ity fu n c tio n s , re s p e c ­

tiv e ly . T h e re fo re th e p r o b a b ility o f m a in ta in in g th e s y s te m in
416 Z.OBOR

its s u c c e s s fu l s ta te s by re p a ir fo r a p e r io d lo n g e r th a n Tg

can be e xp re sse d as

P (T S > t) = 1 - FS (T S /1 ,0 ) =S ( T g / 1 , 0 ) /6 /

w here we supposed th a t th e s y s te m s ta rts w ith th re e u n fa ile d

c h a n n e ls a t t = 0. I t fo llo w s a ls o fro m th is a s s u m p tio n th a t

in s o lv in g th e s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s g iv e n by E q ./2 /

one has to ta k e th e in it ia l c o n d itio n s

Г 1 i f 3 = 1
S j(0 /1 ,0 ) = < /7 /

[ o i f j ф 1

w h ic h im p lie s th e in it ia l c o n d itio n s a ls o fo r E q /3 / as

S (0 /1 , 0) = 1 / 8/

S im ila rly to E q /1 /, th e p r o b a b ilitie s o f s ta y in g in th e

set T can be c a lc u la te d . T h is is ve ry im p o rta n t s in c e d u rin g

th is tim e th e re a c to r is not p ro te c te d fo r th a t p a ra m e te r and

som e a d d itio n a l m e a su re s may have to be ta k e n to c o n tin u e th e

o p e r a tio n .

For th e in v e s tig a tio n le t T^ (t; p, t ^ / j, t^ ; k, t ) de­

n o te th e p r o b a b ility o f b e in g in s ta te i a t t w ith o u t le a v ­

in g th e set T in (t^ , t) on th e c o n d itio n th a t th e s y s te m

s ta rte d fro m s ta te k6S a t t and a fte r s ta y in g in th e set S

in ( t Q, t^ ) i t e n te re d any s ta te p6T. fro m th e s ta te jes

in ( t j/ *-]_ + A t]_ ) • F o r th is p r o b a b ility one can w rite th e f o l­
lo w in g r e la tio n :

Ti ( t+ A t; k , t Q) = I Tm ( t ; p , t x /j t 1(- k , t o )P m i ( t) A t+
m '
m6T
тф х

+ Ti (t; p , t 1/ j , t 1; k , t Q) 1 - I Pi r ( t ) A t /9 /

r^i
 IAEA -SM-168/D-2 417

fro m w h ic h

_d _
T ^ (t; p , t ^ / j, t ^ ; k , t o> - 1 Tm( t ; p , t ^ / j, t ^ ; k , t Q)
d t - m
ш ет
m ^i

- Ti (t; p, / j , t-j^ ; k , t o) I Pi r ( t) /Ю /

r^ i

M u ltip ly in g E q /1 0 / by th e c o n d itio n a l p r o b a b ility

p(5t = j/5 t es) w here d e n o te s th e s y s te m s ta te a t t- ^

and s u m m in g over jes, one o b ta in s

T ^ (t; p ,t^ /S ,t^ ; k , t o) = £ T ^ C t; p ,t^ /S ,t^ ; k , t Q)

m
m6T
m ^i

- T (t; p , t 1/S ,t1; k ,t ) I P± r ( t ) /1 1 /

r
r * i

w here

T i( t ; p , t 1/S ,t1 ;k ,to ) = I Ti ( t ; p , t 1 / j , t 1 ; k , t o ) P (Ç =j / 6S)

jes /12/

was in tro d u c e d as a q u a n tity no t ta k in g in to account th e s ta te

in th e set S fro m w h ic h th e s y s te m e n te re d th e s ta te p6T.

The in it ia l c o n d itio n s fo r s o lv in g th e s y s te m o f d iffe r ­

e n tia l e q u a tio n s g iv e n by E q /1 1 / can be o b ta in e d fro m th e c o n d i­

tio n th a t th e s y s te m e n te re d th e s ta te p in th e set T fro m

th e set S a t t^ . T h is can be e x p re sse d as

Tj_ î P* / S, t ^ ; k,t^) = T^( t ^ ; p , t ^ / S , t ^ ; k,t^) =

=N I Sj ( t l /k,t0) Pjp(t l) /13/

jes
418 ZOBOR

w here N i s a n o r m a liz a tio n fa c to r d e te rm in e d b y th e r e la tio n

p6T jes

I t has to be re m a rk e d th a t th e s o lu tio n o f E q /1 1 / w ith th e

in it ia l c o n d itio n s /1 3 / d e s c rib e s th e s y s te m b e h a v io u r o n ly i f

th e set T is e n te re d fro m th e set S th e f ir s t tim e . W ith a

som ew hat m o re e la b o ra te d m a th e m a tic a l tre a tm e n t b e tte r in it ia l

c o n d itio n s w ill be d e riv e d fo r lo n g o p e ra tio n a l p e rio d s , as ex­

p la in e d la te r. For in te rp re ta tiv e p u rp o s e s , h o w e ve r, some c o n c is e

n o ta tio n s w ill be in tro d u c e d f ir s t .

D e fin in g th e p r o b a b ility

T ( t ; t ^ /S, t ^ ; к , tQ) = £ £ T± ( t;p, t ^ S , t^-k , t ) /1 5 /

P i
рет ieT

and th e p r o b a b ilitie s o f set tra n s itio n s , s im ila r to E q /5 /

PTS( t ; t 1 / S , t ; k , t ) = p1 1i 1 r T ( t ; p , t / S , t ; k ,t )P (t)

рет ieT res

/1 6 /

and

P ( t ; t , / S , t ;k ,t ) = 1 1 1 T . ( t;p ,t /S ,t ;k ,t )P i r ( t )
p i r
рет ie T r€F

/1 7 /
c o n s e c u tiv e s u m m a tio n s over i6 T and p6T y ie ld fro m E q /1 1 /

T ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ,-k ,to ) = -P T S ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) -

-P T F ( t ; t 1 /S ( t 1 ; k , t 0 ) /1 8 /

A s th e n o r m a liz a t io n f a c t o r d e fin e d in E q / 1 4 / is a lr e a d y ta k en
in to a c c o u n t in E q / 1 5 / , on e g e ts

F ( t ; t 1) = 1 - T ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t Q)
 IAEA -SM-168/D-2 419

is a p r o b a b ility d is tr ib u tio n fu n c tio n . T h e re fo re th e p roba­

b ilit y th a t th e in te rv a l TT d u rin g w h ic h th e s y s te m s ta y s

in T is s h o rte r th a n Tm can be o b ta in e d fro m th e re la -

To
tio n

P (T T < TT )= 1 - T C t ^ T .j ; =
о о

V T To
PT S ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) + P ^ t ^ / S ^ j k , ^ ) d t

/1 9 /

The a ve ra g e tim e in te rv a l spent in th e set T b e tw e e n

e n te rin g i t a t t^ and le a v in g i t fo r any one o f th e s e ts

S + F, S and F can be c a lc u la te d by th e fo llo w in g e x p re s ­

s io n s re s p e c tiv e ly :

PT S ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) +
TS+F( t l } NS +F ( t l ) i (t- ti )

+ PT F ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t 0 ) d t / 20/

OO

N s (t ( t - t 1) PT S ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) d t / 21/
TS ( t l> =

TF ( t l ) = NF ( t l ) Î PT F ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t 0 ) d t /2 2 /

fcl

w h e r e th e n o r m a liz a t io n f a c t o r s a r e d e t e r m in e d b y th e r e la t io n s :

d t= l
NS + F ( t l ) PT S ( t ; t l / S ' t l ; k ' t o ) + p TF ( t ; t l / S ' t l ; k ' t o)

/2 3 /

NS ( t l ) 1 PT S ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t 0 ) d t = 1 /2 4 /
420 ZOBOR

oo

S , t 1 ; k , t Q) d t = 1 /2 5 /

t
1

The m a th e m a tic a l m odel and th e m e th o d o f in v e s tig a tio n

d e s c rib e d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s y s te m b e h a v io u r in th e s e ts

S and T m a ke it p o s s ib le to answer fu rth e r q u e s tio n s o f in ­

te re s t d u rin g th e d e s ig n . S in c e th e d e riv a tio n o f th e c o rre ­

s p o n d in g r e l a t i o n s is based on s tra ig h tfo rw a rd e x te n s io n o f th e

p re v io u s c o n s id e ra tio n s , we re s tric t o u rs e lv e s o n ly to th e in ­

te rp re ta tio n and th e m a in re s u lts in th e fo llo w in g

s e c tio n .

T a k in g th e se t o f th e " a c c e p ta b le s y s te m s ta te s ", d e fin ­

ed as A = S + T, one o b ta in s th e s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l equa­

tio n s :

A A ( t/k ,to ) = -P A F ( t / k , t o )

/2 6 /

w ith th e in it ia l c o n d itio n s (fo r th e sake o f s im p lic ity к = 1

a t t Q = O ).

1 i f i = 1

/2 7 /

D e fin in g th e p r o b a b ilité s

S * ( t / k , t Q) = A± ( t / k , t 0 ) if j = íes /2 8 /

and

T *( t / к , t ) = A .( t/k ,t ), i f i6 T /2 9 /
1 О 1 о

th e s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s /2 6 / s e p a ra te s in to th e

fo llo w in g c o u p le d s y s te m
 IAEA -SM-168/D-2 421

and

p*m(t/kft0)
' ST
-P*
TS( t / k , t o) -P T F ( t / k , t o ) /3 1 /

w here th e n o ta tio n s a re in a g re e m e n t w ith th o s e p re v io u s ly used.

The fu n c tio n s S *(t/k , t 0) , and T * (t/k , t Q) , d e n o te

th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e s y s te m is in th e set S, o r in th e

set T, a t t w ith o u t le a v in g th e set A = S + T in ( t D,t)

on th e c o n d itio n th a t i t s ta rte d fro m th e s ta te kGA a t t Q.

' The tim e in te rv a l t i l l e n te rin g th e set F ( if th e set

F is d e fin e d as th e set o f th o s e s y s te m s ta te s in w h ic h a re a c ­

to r s cra m is re le a s e d , th e n th is is equal to th e tim e in te rv a l

t i l l re a c to r s cra m ) can be c a lc u la te d fro m th e r e la tio n

CO

TA F = \ T PA F ( T / k ' t 0 ) d T /3 2 /
о

D e n o tin g th e s o lu tio n o f E q /1 1 / by T ^ ( t ; p , t ^ / S , t ^ ; k , t Q)

o b ta in e d w ith th e in it ia l c o n d itio n s

T '( t 1 ;p , t1/S ,t1 ;k ,to) = T '( t , ; p , t 1/S ,t1 ;k ,to )

= N' I S * ( t , / k , t Q) P jp C tjL ) /3 3 /

jes

and

рет jes

one g e ts th e p r o b a b ility o f s ta y in g in th e set T in ( t^ ,t)

i f th e s y s te m e n te re d T fro m S a t t^ on th e c o n d itio n th a t

i t d id not le a v e th e set A = S + T in an<^ ^ s ta rte d

fro m th e s ta te kSS a t t Q.

A p p ly in g th e s o lu tio n s T ^ ( t ; t ^ / S , t ^ ; k , t Q) to th e d e fin i­

tio n s o f th e se t tra n s itio n p r o b a b ilitie s , w ith th e use of

422 ZOBOR

E q s 1 2 0 1- 1 2 5 / , th e tim e spent in th e set T a fte r e n te rin g i t

a t t-^ can be c a lc u la te d as

TM ( t l > = NM ( t l } \ ( t - t 1 )P ^,M ( t ; t 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) d t /3 5 /

and

CO

NM ( t l ) \ PTM( T ; t l / s , t l ; k , t o )d T = 1 1361

■w here M d e n o te s any one o f th e s e ts S, T and S + F.

In c o n tr a s t w ith th e use o f ( t ;t ^ /S , t ^ ; k ,t ) and o f

E q s /20/-/25/, th e re s u lt o f th is c a lc u la tio n does not ta k e in to

account w h e th e r or no t th e set T is e n te re d fro m th e set S

th e f ir s t tim e a t t^ and th e re fo re i t g iv e s a b e tte r p ic tu re

o f th e s y s te m b e h a v io u r a fte r lo n g o p e ra tio n a l p e rio d .

D is re g a rd in g th e tim e t^ o f e n te rin g th e set T fro m

th e se t S , th e a ve ra g e tim e in te rv a l spent in th e s e t T, i.e .

th e a ve ra g e "u n p ro te c te d re a c to r tim e " can be g iv e n b y th e re ­

la tio n s :

00

TM = NM J 1
) ( tt -- tt 1 ) Pp ^T M
M ( tt ; tt 1 / S , t 1 ; k , t o ) d t dt l /3 7 /

tl=o t=tl

and

N¿ J J P 'M ( t ; t l / S , t i ; k , t o ) d t d t l = 1 /3 8 /

t^=o t=t^

A fu rth e r im p o rta n t q u a n tity , "th e re a c to r down tim e ",

i.e . th e tim e n e ce ssa ry fo r th e re p a ir b r in g in g th e s y s te m

fro m th e s ta te fe F to th e s y s te m s ta te N o .l., can be o b ta in ­

ed by s o lv in g th e s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s fo r th e set

С = S + T + F e x c lu d in g th e s y s te m s ta te N o .l. In th is case th e

in it ia l c o n d itio n s fo r th e s ta te s in F have to be c a lc u la te d
 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 423

fro m th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e set F was e n te re d fro m th e set

A a t t = t-^ and fo r a ll th e o th e r s y s te m s ta te s th e y a re

ta k e n equal to ze ro .

3. R E P A IR S T R A T E G Y A N D M IN IM U M O P E R A T IO N A L R E Q U IR E M E N T S

I t is g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d th a t fo r m ost lo g ic s y s te m s

th e m e a s u rin g channel shows "s a fe fa ilu r e " on its o u tp u t

d u rin g re p a ir. T h is c o n v e n tio n can be re g a rd e d as a c o m p ro m is e

fa v o u rin g th e r e lia b ility o f re a c to r p ro te c tio n a g a in s t th e

a v a ila b ility o f o p e ra tio n .

The m in im u m o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts a re d e te rm in e d by

c o n s id e rin g th e a c c e p te d h a za rd s, th e in h e re n t s a fe ty , th e com ­

p le te in s tru m e n ta tio n s y s te m e tc ., and th e a n a ly s is can re s u lt .

in th e c o n c lu s io n th a t in proper o p e r a tio n one channel out

o f th e th re e can be to le ra te d , m aybe fo r a lim ite d p e rio d . In

th is case i t is th e g e n e ra lly a p p lie d ru le , i.e . th a t th e chan­

n e l under re p a ir shows a "s a fe fa ilu r e " w h ic h p r o h ib its th e s i­

m u lta n e o u s re p a ir o f tw o c h a n n e ls .

The a p p lic a tio n o f s e lf-c h e c k in g and th e p o s s ib ility o f a

m o re e la b o ra te d d a ta -h a n d lin g p e rm it th e s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m

s ta te s to be e x te n d e d a ls o fo r th is case. For th e in v e s tig a tio n

we have th e re fo re th e fo llo w in g a d d itio n a l a s s u m p tio n s .

3.1. A s s u m p t io n 3

Any lo g ic a l channel shows "s a fe fa ilu r e " on its o u tp u t

whenever i t is b e in g re p a ire d . The p r o b a b ility th a t th e re p a ir

o f a X2d fa ilu r e b e g in s in ( t , t + A t) is v A t, w h ile th e

p r o b a b ility th a t th e re p a ir is c o m p le te d in ( t , t + A t) is

ta k e n as y .A t. In th e above p r o b a b ilitie s v is c h a ra c te ris tic

of th e w a itin g tim e b e fo re b e g in n in g th e re p a ir;th e v a lu e o f

ц , h o w e ve r, is c o n n e c te d w ith th e a ve ra g e tim e n e ce ssa ry fo r

th e re p a ir.

3.2. A s s u m p t io n 4

The m in im u m o p e r a tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts a llo w us to re g a rd

a ll th e s y s te m s ta te s as s u c c e s s fu l ones w here a t le a s t one

channel is o p e ra tin g p ro p e rly (s y s te m s ta te s Nos. 1 -1 0 ).

424 ZOBOR

In th is re s p e c t, h o w e ve r, th e s y s te m s ta te N o .7 (tw o

"s a fe fa ilu r e s " ) is e x c e p tio n a l: i f th e c o n v e n tio n a l "tw o -o u t-

o f-th re e " s y s te m is used th e n th e tw o "s a fe fa ilu r e s " re le a s e

re a c to r s cra m and th is s ta te has to be c o n s id e re d as an un­

s u c c e s s fu l s ta te ; i f th e c irc u itry is m o d ifie d in a cco rd a n ce

w ith th e e a rlie r d is c u s s io n , th e n th is s y s te m s ta te can a ls o

be a c c e p te d as a s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s ta te . C o rre s p o n d in g to

th e s e tw o p o s s ib ilitie s , th e tra n s itio n to s y s te m s ta te N o .7

w ill be w e ig h te d by th e fa c to r fo r w h ic h = О i f th is

s ta te is r e je c te d and Ky = 1 i f i t is a c c e p te d . I t s h o u ld

be m e n tio n e d , h o w e ve r, th a t in th e la tte r case th e c h e c k in g

s y s te m w ill be in v o lv e d not o n ly in d e te c tin g th e fa ilu r e s

but a ls o in m a k in g d e c is io n s w h ic h in fa c t re s u lt in a m o re

c o m p le x c irc u itr y and in lo s in g th e a d v a n ta g e s o f its in d e ­

pendence fro m th e fu n d a m e n ta l s a fe ty lo g ic s .

4. H Y B R ID S IM U L A T IO N E X P E R IM E N T

U s in g th e a s s u m p tio n s 1-4 , th e s ta te tra n s itio n p r o b a b il­

itie s w e re d e riv e d as g iv e n in F ig . 3 a -3 d . The fa c to r ta k e s

in to account w h e th e r or not th e s y s te m s ta te N o .7 is a c c e p te d

as a s u c c e s s fu l s ta te . The re c o v e ry fro m u n s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m

s ta te s is c h a ra c te ris e d by th e fa c to r K, th e re p a ir o f th e un­

s u c c e s s fu l s ta te s by th e fa c to r K '. The s ta te tra n s itio n s con­

n e c te d w ith th e d e te c tio n o f u n s a fe fa ilu re s a re d e s c rib e d w ith

th e K ro n e cke r im p u ls e fu n c tio n , d e fin e d as

f 1 , i f t = 0

5(t) = j /39/

1 .0 , i f t f О

D e n o tin g th e tra n s p o s e o f th e s ta te tra n s itio n m a trix by

Й, i.e . М.. = P . . ( t ) , we c a n w r i t e
' i j ] i ' '

P ( t+ A t) = M-P(t) /40/

w h e re P '( t) = {P ^ (t), ... P2 0 ( t ) } is th e v e c to r o f s y s te m

s ta te p r o b a b ilitie s . T a k in g i n t o a c c o u n tth e s tru c tu re o f th e

s ta te tra n s itio n m a trix , we c a n m o d i f y E q / 4 0 / in to th e fo rm

 IAEA -SM -168/D-2 425

P (t+ A t) = P (t) + MxP ( t ) A t + M2P ( t ) 6 (t-k T c )

2
/41/
/к = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . /

w here Tc is th e in te rv a l b e tw e e n th e subsequent te s ts .

I t is seen th a t th e s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s /41/

is s in g u la r a t th e c h e c k in g in s ta n ts , so i t can be s o lv e d d i­

re c tly o n ly in th e in te rv a ls (k T c+ 0, (k + 1) Tc- 0 ). The

v a lu e s o f th e s te p w is e changes o f s y s te m s ta te p r o b a b ilitie s are

o b ta in e d fro m Eq/41/ and a re g iv e n by th e r e la tio n

AP(kT) = P (k T +0) -P (kT -0 ) = M ,(k T -0 ) P (k T -0 ) /42/

С С С ь С L>

То s tu d y th e s y s te m s ta te p r o b a b ilitie s and th e o th e r

q u a n titie s d e s c rib e d , a h y b rid s im u la tio n e x p e rim e n t was p e r­

fo rm e d . As we had no in d iv id u a lly c o n tro lla b le in te g ra to rs

a v a ila b le on our a n a lo g u e c o m p u te r, th e d is c o n tin u itie s g iv e n by

Eq/42/ w e re ta k e n in to account by in tro d u c in g th e c o m p o n e n ts

d iffe r e n t fro m ze ro o f th e fu n c tio n

f (t) l Д р(кТ ) /43/

0<kT<t

in to th e c o m p u te r s e t-u p , d e s ig n e d p r in c ip a lly to s o lv e th e

s y s te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s

/44/

on a sp e e d e d -u p tim e s c a le . (T h e tim e -s c a le fa c to rs a are

g iv e n in th e fig u re s .) A c c o rd in g to th e . m a th e m a tic a l tre a tm e n t

o f th e p re c e e d in g p a ra g ra p h s , th e m a trix is e x te n d e d o n ly

to th e s y s te m s ta te s b e lo n g in g to th e set o f in te re s t. For i l ­

lu s tra tiv e p u rp o se s, a p a rt o f th e a n a lo g u e c o m p u te r d ia g ra m is

g iv e n in F ig . 4 w here th e in p u t c o n n e c tio n s fo r s o lv in g th e sys­

te m o f d iffe re n tia l e q u a tio n s fo r th e s e ts S, T and A a re

a ls o in d ic a te d i f th e s y s te m s ta te N o .7 b e lo n g s to th e set F.

The re s u lts o f th e s im u la tio n e x p e rim e n t are g iv e n in

F ig s . 5 to 14. fo r d iffe re n t m in im u m o p e ra tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts

and re p a ir s tra te g ie s , as shown in th e re s p e c tiv e fig u re s . In

426 ZOBOR

•£ч
i <3
л4
О о о «и
о о о о о С) о •ч о о о о Q ç> Ç)

а* V
09
ж
-LS -
^ -i
о о <3 о о сэ
«Ni о О о ’Ч о о о о о 0) о о
* - §Ос

State transition matrices.

3>

??
stale

-£ч
1 V

<1
о о м сь о о о О О о о о о о о о о о
=*,
system

-< ч.ср

-L о?

?
Into

íT <3
о о о о < *м о О о о о о о о
о о о * о
-< -<* «о

FIG.3b.
<\|
V V
$
\г

<] л
<-0 о о О о о О А о о о о о о о о о
\
-Г -£ *М «ч
Ьс
QP

- м (О I-* со Oí 5 •NÏ UJ <о Г-. о

- 3 $ 22 OJ

В]0\т U J d ¡$fe LU0JJ

State transition matrices.

F IG .За.

ajo je ш з /sñs- luojj

 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 427

V
'^0 •'•чГ
о о
20
о Q Ci о Q о о о о о сэ о о о 1

5 Í
'"t *п
i о?

i Y

о Q Q Ci О о Q о Ci <1 о о о Ci Ci о о о
м

State transition matrices.

-< V 0?
stole

-*■
V
1 «а
CO о о Ci Q о о о о о о Ci о о О о о о о
system

>1^

5<
Into

о о Ç> о о о о о о о о о о о о о о о

F IG .3d.
\
э?
ой

«0 о о Ci о о о <1 о о о о о о о <3 о о о о
*
V

*■
* *5 <0 С-х. со О* о Ç\j «О 50 со <т> о
- - «м

э /0 / f u jdftfis u jojj

С4
I
Ci о о Я Ci о <¿o
¡S Ci Ci О о о О о Ci о о о
* 3-
-к V о? <\j
<м
0,0
Y
<5 с> о 1^0
О о сэ о <3 о •м о о •я О Q о о о о о
-Г -< »
S-S State transition matrices.
Т 4*
st ate

о о о о о о О о
<^0 I о о о о о о
-<
1
system

о? о? *
•n
йб Ор
1V
Into

£У о о Ci Ci о « о О <3 С) о О о о о о о Ci
-<* -< *> Q? V
<\J
FIG.3c.

« о о Ci es <
-ч
мо о
<1
-ч о
о |'| О о о Ci о о я
* о о
1.1 "х
^ 0?
j

- •м -» ‘О <л г- со сг> q 5¿ *3 3 «2 (О f» л О) о
f\l

d /O f f UJdjsñs- UJOJJ
428 Z.OBOR

х c o n n e c te d
о d is c o n n e c te d in p u t
Ni in p u t
p p o te n tio m e te r s e ttin g
Wj in p u t weight

A S T w¿

X О X

X О X

X о X
x О X
■10%
X о X
О О О

X О X
0.06
О.Ов -0,/Р/
x o x
X o x ЮР5
-0,1 и ю s 0,1 h ( t) -O .IÏP ov( t) % ( t ) ¿ ( l- K T c )
0йкГс<1
ОМ Ж .
X О X 'Pu ■
0,4 Pi -Pu
X о x ЮР&

F IG .4 . Part of the analog computer diagram.

th e e x a m p le in v e s tig a te d we have ta k e n A, = = 10 ^ s e c - "*"

and p = v = 5 .1 0 ” ^ sec“ l ; X = 10 ^sec- l; u = 5 .1 0 ^sec.

5. D ISCUSSION O F R E S U L T S

In o rd e r to draw th e c o n c lu s io n s on th e e ffe c t o f s e lf­

c h e c k in g , som e re m a rks a re due to F ig . 5. w here th e s y s te m

s ta te p r o b a b ilitie s a re g iv e n fo r th e tw o -o u t-o f-th re e s a fe ty

s y s te m w ith re p a ir bu t w ith o u t s e lf-c h e c k in g . The p r o b a b ility

th a t a ll th e th re e c h a n n e ls are w o rk in g p ro p e rly ( P x) de­

cre a se s ra p id ly and th e s y s te m s ta te s w ith fa ile d c h a n n e ls be­

com e m o re and m o re p ro b a b le . The s a fe fa ilu re s a re re p a ire d

q u ic k ly , th e re fo re th e p r o b a b ility o f th e s y s te m s ta te s con­

ta in in g s a fe fa ilu re s (P 2 , P 5 , P 7) is ve ry s m a ll. The d o m in a n t

s ta te s a re th o s e c o n ta in in g u n s a fe fa ilu re s e x c lu s iv e ly . A t th e

b e g in n in g th e s ta te w ith one u n s a fe fa ilu re (P 3) b e c o m e s i m ­

p o rta n t, bu t a fte r a m a x im u m , as th e o ccu rre n ce o f th e second

u n s a fe fa ilu r e can be e x p e c t e d , ( P 3) b e g i n s to d e c re a s e and th e

IAEA -SM-168/D-2 429
 430

P; ( t) = S: (t/1.0)

z
- Z

o.'*
-2
J
ZOBOR

FIG. 6. System behaviour in its successful states (state N o . 7 accepted as a successful state).
 P: (t) = S: ( t /1.0)

FIG.7. System behaviour in its successful states (state N o .7 accepted as a successful state).
 p¡(t) = S ;(t;i.O ) а = 2хЮ
432
ZOBOR

Influence of testing frequency on system states Nos.l and 7 (state No. 7 accepted as a
 x
2x10'

o s:^

о
о

CL?
IAEA-SM-168/D-2

<л
F I G . 9. Influence of testing frequency on system reliability (state No. 7 accepted as a successful state).
433
 ¡ (t) = S i( t/1.0)
434
ZOBOR

FIG. 10. System behaviour in its successful states.

 P,(U=5-, (tn.Oh йф7)
LAEA-SM-168/D-2
435

FIG. 11. System behaviour in its successful states.

 436

s 0.1 sec
Z O B OR

FIG. 12. System behaviour in its successful states.

 г 0.1 s e c

о
•
О
о
.
IAEA-SM-168/D-2

о
Í_;
о
—.
FIG. 13. System behaviour in its successful states.
437
 438

= 2x10
ZOBOR

FIG. 14. Influence of testing frequency on system reliability.

 IAEA-SM-168/D-2 439

s ta te w ith tw o u n s a fe fa ilu re s (P 8) becom es th e m ost p ro b a b le .

L a te r on i t d e cre a se s and th e s te a d y ris e o f P^7 , th e s ta te

w ith th re e u n s a fe fa ilu re s , in d ic a te s th a t th e s y s te m te n d s to

have th is s ta te a s y m p to tic a lly .

The a p p lic a tio n o f s e lf-c h e c k in g changes th e s y s te m behav­

io u r e s s e n tia lly , as shown in F ig s . 6 to 14. The ra te o f s y s te m

d e te rio ra tio n ( P x) becom es m uch s m a lle r and th e s ta te s c o n ta in ­

in g o n ly u n s a fe fa ilu re s (P 3 , P 8 ) c a n n o t d e v e lo p because th e s e

fa ilu re s a re d e te c te d w ith a h ig h p r o b a b ility /e.g. th is p ro b ­

a b ility is a p p r o x im a te ly 98% fo r a te s tin g s y s te m w ith a m e a n tim e

b e tw e e n fa ilu re s o f 200 h r. and re p a ir tim e o f 5 h r . / . The p ro b ­

a b ilitie s o f s y s te m s ta te s w ith s a fe fa ilu re s in c re a s e and show

h ig h peaks a t th e c h e c k in g in s ta n ts because o f th e re p a ir o f th e

d e te c te d u n s a fe fa ilu re s ( P 2 , P 7 )• The p r o b a b ilitie s th a t th e

s y s te m can be kept in its s u c c e s s fu l s ta te s fo r lo n g e r th a n a

g iv e n tim e in te rv a l a ls o in c re a s e s , as can be seen d ire c tly in

F ig s . 9 and 14.

The fo r e g o in g d is c u s s io n o f th e re s u lts o f th e s im u la tio n

e x p e rim e n t a llo w us to make th e c o n c lu s io n th a t th e s e lf-c h e c k in g

in c r e a s e s th e s y s te m r e lia b ility , as c o m p a re d w ith th e cu rve s

o b ta in e d w ith o u t s e lf-c h e c k in g . T h is g a in in r e lia b ility in ­

c re a s e s w ith th e c h e c k in g fre q u e n c y and becom es m o re and m o re

e s s e n tia l fo r lo n g o p e ra tin g p e rio d s .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I t is a p le a s u re fo r th e a u th o r to e xp re ss h is g ra titu d e

to M r. J. V ig a s s y fo r h is v a lu a b le d is c u s s io n s and to M r. Á.

S z e n tg á li fo r h is k in d h e lp in p e rfo rm in g th e h y b rid s im u la tio n

e x p e rim e n t.

REFERENCES

[ 1] BOL L O K , L ., LEVAI, F. et a l ., Instrumentierung und Steuersystem des Atomreaktors ZR-4f

Atompraxis 14 6 (1968) 243.
[2] Z OB OR , E ., BOLLOK, L ., A self-checking reactor safety and interlock system, Atomkernenergie 13 5
(1968) 377.
[3] S Z A B O , F ., DIOS, I . , HEJJ, A . , SZ IV O S , K . , T O T H , K . , Nuclear Reactor for Research - Educational
Purposes of the Budapest Technical University, EROTERV Publications No. 9 (1971), in Hungarian
(English and Russian translations in press).
440 ZOBOR

[4] BOLLOK, L ., ERDOS, P ., ZOQOR, E ., Die Entwicklung logischer Steuersysteme fCr Kernreaktoren
im Zentralforschungsinstitut fiir Physik, Kernenergie 15 (1972) 48.
[ 5] ZOBOR, E. . ’’Status report on reactor control and instrumentation in Hungary", Nuclear Power Plant
Control and Instrumentation (Proc. Working Group Meeting Vienna, 1971), IA EA, Vienna (1972) 135.
[6] ZOBOR, E . , BO L L O K , L . , Som e Safety and Reliability Considerations about the Self-checking
Safety and Interlock System of the ZR-4 Zero Power Reactor, Reactor Conference, Warsaw, Dec. 1968.
[7] RASMUSSEN, J. , T IM M E R M A N N , P . , “A n attempt to predict the reliability of electronic instruments
and redundant systems", Reactor Safety and Hazards Evaluation Techniques (Proc. Symposium Vienna,
1962) 1, IAEA, Vienna (1962) 433.
[8] UNDERKOFFLER, V . S . , C O CKRELL, J .L ., M A G EE , J . H . , Nuclear protective system design for
reliability, (Paper presented at the Joint Nuclear Instrumentation Symposium, Raleigh, N . C . 1961),
I .R .E . Trans. Nucl. Sci. (1961) 130.
[9] W IL S O N , I ., W H Y A R D , R .E ., K E A T S , A . B . , "Pulse coding techniques for reactor safety logic
systems”. Nuclear Electronics (Proc. Symp. Bombay, 1965), IAEA, Vienna (1966) 497.
[ 10] ZOBOR, E. , Preliminary Report on Predicting the Reliability of "Two-out-of-Three" Logic Systems
with Self-checking and Repair, Instrumentation for Nuclear Power Plant Control (Proc. Panel
Vienna, 1969), unpublished Rep. IAEA-119, IA EA , Vienna.
 IAEA-SM-168/D3

RELIABILITY PROBLEMS
THROUGH THE USE OF COMPUTERS
IN REACTOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

H . HOERM ANN
L a b o r a t o r iu m fur R e a k t o r r e g e l u n g
u n d A n la g e n s ic h e ru n g G a r c h in g ,
T e c h n i s c h e U n iv e r s itâ t M ü n c h e n ,
F e d e r a l R ep u b lic o f G e r m a n y

A b stra a

RELIABILITY PROBLEMS T H R O U G H T H E USE OF C OM P U TE R S IN R E AC TO R P R O TE C TION SY STEM S.

T h e first part of the paper describes the problem of ensuring the correct operation of the system
assuming a faultless hardware configuration to secure an error-free software package. Particular attention
is given to possible program part interferences, which make a complete software test very difficult. The
specifications for an overall hybrid simulation are described, which is planned in connection with the
developments for a LW R protection system to check the correctness of the designed computer functions.
Methods for the continuous hardware fault supervision are the second subject óf interest. In this way any
component failure has to be recognized instantly, to guarantee a safe reaction of the associated trip line
in order to maintain the effectiveness of the two-out of-three principle. Programmed failure detection
routines for memory, instruction and I/O-system tests combined with a program flow control function
are described as possible means for a fast recognition of an incorrect computer operation. Basic aspects
of the necessary new ways for reliability assessment of computerized safety systems are pointed out.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

B e f o r e d is c u s s in g th e p r o b le m s in tr o d u c e d b y the u s e o f c o m p u t e r s
in r e a c t o r p r o t e c t io n s y s t e m s , th e d e g r e e o f n e c e s s it y o r u s e fu ln e s s o f
th is a p p lic a t io n m u s t f i r s t b e d e t e r m in e d . W ith r e g a r d to lig h t -w a t e r
r e a c t o r s t h e r e is at th e m o m e n t no a b s o lu te n e c e s s it y to r e p la c e the c o n ­
v e n t io n a l h a r d - w i r e d s a fe ty s y s t e m . A n e x te n d e d and m o r e s o p h is t ic a t e d
s u p e r v is io n b y th e r e a c t o r s a fe ty s y s t e m is , h o w e v e r , a d v is a b le f o r fu tu re
la r g e p o w e r p la n ts , w h e r e m u c h m o r e p r o c e s s v a r ia b le s m u st b e taken
in to c o n s id e r a t io n . T h is is the c a s e in p a r t ic u la r f o r the L M F B R s u n d er
d e v e lo p m e n t w h e r e l o c a l c o r e e x c u r s io n s m u s t b e c o v e r e d b y the s a fe ty
s y s t e m to su ch an ex ten t that a h a r d - w i r e d t r ip u nit and m a jo r it y v o tin g
s y s t e m w ou ld b e o v e r - t a x e d b y th e am ou n t and c o m p le x it y o f the n ew ta s k s .
T h e s ta n d a r d s o f r e lia b ili t y and a v a ila b ilit y w h ich sh o u ld be f u lfille d
b y c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty s y s t e m s a r e in p r in c ip le the s a m e a s th o s e a c h ie v e d
b y m o d e r n s e l f - c h e c k i n g e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m s u s e d up to n ow , i. e. th ey
s h o u ld e x c e e d th e c o r r e s p o n d in g f ig u r e s o f the e n g in e e r e d s a fe g u a r d s by
f a c t o r s o f 10 to 1 0 2. T h e r e s p o n s e tim e sh o u ld s i m il a r ly b e kep t lo w in
r e la t io n to th e d y n a m ic fe a t u r e o f th e a c tiv a te d m e c h a n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts .

2. S Y S T E M FU N C T IO N S A N D TH E R O L E O F S O F T W A R E

A c o m p le t e ly n ew c o m p o n e n t in tr o d u c e d b y th e u s e o f a f r e e l y p r o ­
g r a m m a b le s y s t e m is th e s o ft w a r e p a ck a g e w h ich c o n ta in s the d e s ig n f o r a ll
n e c e s s a r y d e c is i o n p r o c e s s e s .

441
 442

'\
X й
£
3
и

U
Q)
•P
HOERMANN

СП>ч~

FIG. 1. Simplified block diagram of a hard-wired and a computerized safety system (BWR).
 IAEA-SM-168/D3 44 3

s ig n a l groups s ig n a l groups

1 2 1 2
О О О i o9 <
9* i o «j

p ro gram m ed p r o c e s s i n g

(started by tim er in te rru p t)

action 1-2 action n action 1-2 a c tio n n

a) b)

F I G .2 . Functional diagram of a hard-wired (a) and a computerized (b) reactor safety system.

T o m a k e th e s itu a tio n c l e a r e r le t u s r e f e r to F ig . 1, w h e r e th e p r in c ip a l
s t r u c t u r e o f a c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty s y s t e m is sh ow n . A s c a n b e s e e n fr o m
th is f ig u r e th e fu n c tio n s ta k en o v e r b y th e c e n t r a l p r o c e s s i n g u nit and its
in t e r f a c e a r e th o s e o f the t r ip u n its and th e t r ip s ig n a l m a jo r it y v o tin g .
P a r t s su ch a s p o w e r su p p ly , lin k a g e t o th e m e a s u r e m e n t u n its and the
sh u td ow n s y s t e m , a s w e ll a s fu r t h e r a c tiv a te d s a fe ty e le m e n t s , a r e not
e s s e n t ia lly d iffe r e n t f r o m o th e r k n ow n s y s t e m s .
T h e a b o v e -m e n t io n e d c e n t r a l t a s k s , n ow p e r f o r m e d b y th e c o m p u te r ,
a r e c a r r i e d out in a v e r y d iffe r e n t m a n n e r . T h e p r in c ip le o f d iv e r s it y
f o r d iffe r e n t ta s k s is n o lo n g e r f u lfille d b y the u s e o f a c o m p u t e r iz e d
s y s t e m but o n ly a s e q u e n tia l s e p a r a tio n is g iv e n . F ig u r e 2 sh o w s th is fu n d a­
m e n ta l d iffe r e n c e and illu s t r a t e s th e b a s i c p r o b le m o f p o s s ib le u n d e s ir a b le
in t e r f e r e n c e s o f s e v e r a l s y s t e m fu n c tio n s o r a c t io n s . U n d er th e a s s u m p ­
tio n o f a fa u lt le s s h a r d w a r e c o n fig u r a tio n , s e n s it iv e s o ft w a r e e r r o r s c o u ld
c a u s e any n u m b e r o f fu n c tio n s to b e b lo c k e d , c h a n g ed o r d e s t r o y e d at o n c e
in p a r t ic u la r input data c o n fig u r a t io n s . T h e r e a s o n s f o r su ch m a lfu n c tio n
c o u ld b e:

(a) T h e i n c o r r e c t u s e o r ch a n g e o f data, e. g. a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f
f a l s e a d d r e s s in g w ith in th e p r o g r a m ,

(b) A n u n w an ted p r o g r a m flo w a s a r e s u lt o f fa l s e in fo r m a t io n

d ep en d en t d e c is i o n s .

(It sh o u ld b e m e n tio n e d that u n d e r th e a s s u m p t io n s o f a g o o d o v e r a ll

d e s ig n an in fin ite p r o g r a m lo o p sh o u ld n ot be d a n g e r o u s but sh o u ld b r in g
th e s y s t e m to a f a i l - s a f e s t a t e .)
B e c a u s e o f p o s s ib le m u tu a l in flu e n c e s s u c c e s s f u l t e s t s o f the p a r ­
t i c u la r fu n c tio n s w ill not e n s u r e th e c o r r e c t fu n c tio n in g o f the s y s t e m in
any situ a tio n . A c o m p le t e t e s t w ou ld r a t h e r d em a n d the s im u la tio n o f
444 HOERMANN

safety com puter s i m u l a t i o n c o m p u ter

. ( h y b r i d sy st e m )

F I G .3 . Simulation diagram for the safety computer program test.

any p o s s ib le s y s t e m (data) sta te . E v e n a s s u m in g a c o m p u te r s y s t e m

w h ich r u n s in d e c o u p le d c y c l e s in itia te d b y a h a r d w a re t i m e r — w h ich
im p lie s that the s ig n a l h is t o r y is o f no in t e r e s t — an in a c c e p ta b ly h igh
n u m b e r o f t e s t c y c l e s w o u ld be n e c e s s a r y f o r su ch a p r o o f. It h as b e e n
sh ow n in R e f. [1] that a b ou t 1065 te s t c o n d itio n s and r u n s w ou ld h ave to
b e p e r f o r m e d f o r a r e la t iv e l y s m a ll c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty s y s t e m a s p la n n ed
b y A E G [2] . If on e h as no fu r t h e r in fo r m a t io n about th e p r o g r a m s t r u c t u r e s
and d e c o u p lin g s to r e d u c e th e t e s t e x p e n s e c o n s id e r a b ly s u c h a c o m p le t e
sim u la t io n is u n fe a s a b le . T h e on ly e x p e d ie n t m e th o d in th is c a s e is to
ru n a r e a s o n a b ly h igh n u m b e r o f s t a t is t ic a lly d is tr ib u te d c a s e s to a c h ie v e
the d e s ir e d r e lia b ili t y f ig u r e s . T h e d is tr ib u tio n o f the input data s e t s f o r
su ch a s im u la t io n h a v e to be c h o s e n v e r y c a r e f u lly to get a s m a ll c o n fi­
d e n c e in t e r v a l in a c c o r d a n c e w ith the sta te m e n t about th e s y s t e m fa ilu r e
p r o b a b ilit y . T h e fu n c tio n a l d ia g r a m f o r su ch a s im u la t io n a s p la n n ed at
o u r in stitu te a s p a r t o f a p ilo t study is g iv e n in F ig . 3. It co n ta in s a m o d e l
o f th e c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty fu n c tio n s to c h e c k the r e a c t io n s o f the s y s t e m
u n d e r t e s t in r e a l t im e and th u s it a llo w s the n e c e s s a r y h igh n u m b e r
( s e v e r a l m illio n s ) o f t e s t r u n s . T h e e x p e n s e o f su ch a s im u la tio n is s t ill
c o n s id e r a b le and r e s t r i c t s th e fle x ib ilit y , s in c e e a c h fu r t h e r p r o g r a m
ch a n g e sh o u ld b e a v o id e d s o as n ot to l o s e the c o n s is t e n c y w ith the p r e v io u s
r e s u lt s . F o r th is r e a s o n it is n e c e s s a r y to lo o k f o r o th e r m e a n s to e n s u r e
th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f th e s o ft w a r e d e s ig n . T h e r e a r e in d e e d s e v e r a l p o s s i ­
b i lit ie s to im p r o v e th e s o ft w a r e r e lia b ili t y in a d v a n ce and s im u lta n e o u s ly
r e d u c e th e te s t e ffo r t :

(a) U s e o f s t r a ig h t fo r w a r d p r o g r a m m in g te c h n iq u e s to g et a p r o g r a m
flo w , w h ich is in dep en d en t o f input da ta a s m u c h as p o s s ib le .

(b) S e c tio n in g o f th e p r o g r a m in s u c h a w ay as to ob ta in c o u p lin g s

w h ich a r e e a s y to s u r v e y .
 IAEA-SM-168/D3 445

(c ) U s e o f a p r o g r a m s u p e r v is io n w h ich c o n t r o ls the (fix e d ) p r o g r a m

flo w .

(d) U s e o f in d iv id u a l w r it e lo c k - o u t f a c i l i t i e s f o r d iffe r e n t p r o g r a m
s e c t i o n s to in h ib it in a d m is s ib le ch a n g e s o f e x tr a n e o u s m e m o r y
fie ld s .

T h is lis t m u st n ot b e c o n s id e r e d as a c o m p le t e s p e c if i c a t io n but c o n ­
ta in s s o m e v a lu a b le t o o l s to in c r e a s e r e lia b ili t y , to fa c ilit a t e th e t h e o r e t ic a l
p r o o f and to s im p lif y the e x p e r im e n t a l t e s t o f th e s o ft w a r e p a ck a g e . T h e r e
a r e s o m e o th e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s in th is d ir e c t io n , e. g. p r o g r a m m in g in
h i g h e r - l e v e l la n g u a g e s w h ich o f f e r s p o w e r fu l d e b u g g in g a id s and r e d u c e s
th e r i s k o f p r o g r a m - s e n s i t i v e e r r o r s , o r the u s e o f p r o g r a m m e d r e ­
d u n d an cy to o v e r c o m e th e c o m m o n m o d e fa ilu r e p r o b le m .

3. D E T E C T IO N O F H A R D W A R E M A L F U N C T IO N S

T h e c e n t r a lis m o f th e c o m p u t e r iz e d s y s t e m sh ow n in F ig . 1 a ls o le a d s
to an im p o r ta n t d iffe r e n c e in th e e f f e c t s o f h a r d w a re c o m p o n e n t f a i lu r e s .
T h e r e s u lt in g fa u lty a c t io n s ca n n ot b e d e t e r m in e d in a d v a n c e but depen d
on the m o m e n t a r y p r o g r a m sta te and h ave a c e n t r a l in flu e n c e s in c e any
n u m b e r o f fu n c tio n s o f on e s y s t e m lin e ca n b e a ffe c t e d at o n c e . T h e r e f o r e ,
it is im p o s s ib l e to sa y i f a p a r t ic u la r fa ilu r e w ill b e d a n g e r o u s o r n ot and
it h a s to be s e c u r e d b y m e a n s o f su ita b le s u p e r v is io n a id s s o that any
fa u lts w ith in th e c o m p u te r a r e d e te c te d w ith in a s h o r t t im e , e n a b lin g the
s y s t e m to b e b r o u g h t to a f a i l - s a f e sta te .
T o d e fin e th e t im e c o n d itio n f o r th e fa u lt r e c o g n it io n w h ich h a s to be
r e a liz e d b y b u il t -in h a r d w a r e c h e c k s and a d d itio n a l o n - lin e c h e c k in g —
o r b e t t e r s t ill , d e b u g g in g — r o u t in e s in F ig . 4 , th e p r o b a b ilit y f o r the
b r e a k d o w n o f a 2 - o u t - o f - 2 s y s t e m in c a s e o f a s c r a m c o n d itio n is o u tlin e d
a s a fu n c tio n o f th e f a i lu r e d e t e c tio n t im e . T h e c u r v e s f o r d iffe r e n t

t (s e c )

F I G .4 . Probability for a dangerous system breakdown at shutdown condition (P^J as a function of failure-
detection time (tp) for different computer MTBFs for a 2 -out-of-3 system.
446 HOERMANN

a c c e p t a b le c o m p u te r M T B F s sh ow that a fa ilu r e d e t e c tio n w ith in s o m e

s e c o n d s e n s u r e s a r e a s o n a b le o v e r a ll r e lia b ili t y . T h is sta te m e n t is v a lid
a s s u m in g that e v e r y h a r d w a r e d e fe c t w h ich le a d s to fa u lty a c tio n s is in d eed
r e c o g n i z e d and that th e fa u lty s y s t e m lin e is s w itch e d o ff, i. e. the s y s t e m
is b r o u g h t in to a 1 - o u t - o f - 2 co n d itio n .
T o fu lf il th is d em a n d f o r a s y s t e m u s in g t h r e e in d ep en d en t c o m p u te r s
th e fo llo w in g p r o g r a m m e d s e l f - c h e c k i n g fe a t u r e s w e r e p r o p o s e d in R e f. [3] :

(a) A n o n - lin e s e l f - m o n it o r in g p r o g r a m w h ich ru n s at th e b e g in n in g

and the end o f e a c h m o n it o r in g c y c l e o f th e s a fe ty fu n c tio n p r o g r a m s
and c h e c k s if a ll p r o g r a m p a r t s h a v e b e e n ru n th r o u g h

(b) A n in s t r u c t io n te s t w h ich ta k e s in to a c c o u n t d iffe r e n t a d d r e s s e s

and in s t r u c t io n m o d ific a t io n s

(c ) A c o r e s t o r e t e s t w h ich c o n t r o ls th e a b ility f o r s e t tin g and

r e s e t t in g o f a ll m e m o r y c e l l s

(d) A c o r e s t o r e t e s t e n s u r in g that a ll m e m o r y lo c a t io n s s t o r in g c o n ­
stan t v a lu e s h ave u n ch a n g ed con ten t

(e) A I / O - c o n t r o l t e s t u s in g a n a lo g and d ig it a l te s t lo o p s

T h e s e t e s t in g a id s sh ou ld b e s e e n t o g e t h e r w ith a h a r d w a re r e a c t io n
c o n t r o l unit w h ich h as to b e t r ig g e r e d at r e g u la r in t e r v a ls (e a c h c o m p u tin g
c y c l e ) , o t h e r w is e a f a ilu r e w ill be s u p p o s e d and the a s s o c ia t e d s y s t e m
lin e w ill b e s w it c h e d o f f ( i. e. the c o m p u te r is s to p p e d ).
W h e r e a s it s e e m s to b e no p r o b le m to f u lfil the tim in g c o n d itio n s
m e n tio n e d a b o v e it w ill b e d iffic u lt to e n s u r e th e c o m p le t e n e s s and c o r r e c t ­
n e s s o f th e t e s t f a c i l i t i e s . F o r s m a ll s y s t e m s th is p r o o f c a n p e r h a p s b e
don e b y e x p e r im e n t a l m a n ip u la tio n s o f e v e r y l o g i c s ig n a l w ith in th e c o m p u te r .
B y th e u s e o f e n la r g e d s y s t e m s th is p r o c e d u r e w ill no lo n g e r b e p r a c t ic a b le
s o that a d e t a ile d e x p e n s iv e h a r d w a re s im u la tio n on a n o th e r c o m p u te r m ig h t
be n e ce s sa ry .
F u r t h e r p r e c a u t io n s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d o r n e c e s s a r y su ch as a m e m o r y
p r o t e c t io n f o r the h a r d w a r e c h e c k in g p r o g r a m s , a m u tu a l s u p e r v is io n o f
th e c p u 's o r the u s e o f r e d u n d a n c y in e a c h s a fe ty s y s t e m lin e . T h e s e
m e t h o d s and a d d itio n a l d e b u g g in g and d ia g n o s in g fu n c tio n s c a n im p r o v e
n ot on ly th e r e lia b ili t y w ith r e g a r d t o d a n g e r o u s s y s t e m f a i lu r e s , but
s im u lta n e o u s ly r e d u c e th e r i s k o f n o n -d a n g e r o u s s y s t e m b r e a k d o w n s
p r o d u c in g u nw an ted and u n n e c e s s a r y r e a c t o r sh u td ow n s. T h e p r o b a b ilit y
f o r s u c h a (s a fe ) s y s t e m b r e a k d o w n d ep en d en t u p on the o p e r a t io n tim e o f
th e s y s t e m ca n b e d e r iv e d f r o m F ig . 5 f o r d iffe r e n t M T T R ( M e a n - T i m e - T o
R e p a ir ) v a lu e s and an a c c e p t a b le M T B F (M e a n - T im e - B e t w e e n - F a ilu r e s )
o f th e in d iv id u a l c o m p u t e r s [4] . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n sh o w s th e im p o rta n t
in flu e n c e o f th e M T T R w h ich is s t r o n g ly a ffe c t e d b y the tim e n e e d e d fo r
fa ilu r e lo c a t io n . T h is m e a n s that fa s t fa u lt lo c a t io n is v e r y im p o rta n t as
a p r e c o n d it io n f o r an im m e d ia te r e p a ir . F u r t h e r m o r e , th e r e p a ir tim e
is d ep en d en t u p on c o n s t r u c t io n and r e p a ir t e c h n iq u e s , s in c e a p o s s ib le
r e p la c e m e n t o f w h o le fu n c tio n m o d u le s f a c ilit a t e s the ta sk . If the fig u r e s
a c h ie v e d b y th e s e m e th o d s a r e not s a t is f a c t o r y it m ig h t be r e c o m m e n d a b le
to u s e an a u to m a tic s w i t c h - o v e r to a sta n d b y u nit a ft e r r e c o g n it io n o f a
h a r d w a r e m a lfu n c tio n in on e c o m p u tin g s y s t e m .
 IAEA-SM-168/D3 447

— ■
■ты ' x10‘

FIG. 5. Probability for a (safe) system breakdown (Ps) of a computerized 2-out-of-3 system as a function
of operation time (computer - MTBF = 10s h).

4. R E L IA B I L IT Y A S S E S S M E N T A N D CO M M ISSIO N IN G

B e c a u á e o f th e d e s c r ib e d b a s i c d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n a h a r d - w i r e d and
a c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty s y s t e m , a r e lia b ili t y a n a ly s is f o r a g iv e n s y s t e m
o f th e la tte r ty p e r e q u ir e s th e u s e o f new m e th o d s .
A p r o o f o f th e fu n c tio n a l d e c is i o n l o g i c im p lie s that an in v e s tig a t io n o f
th e s o ft w a r e in th e a b o v e -m e n t io n e d w a y s h as to b e m a d e . In a d d itio n
t o th e p r o b le m s d is c u s s e d th is ta s k r e q u ir e s to a la r g e ex ten t k n o w le d g e
o f m a c h in e - o r ie n t e d p e c u l ia r it i e s . T o r e d u c e th e d iffic u lt y that a r i s e s
f r o m th e se is a fu r t h e r r e a s o n f o r u s in g h i g h e r - l e v e l p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e s
as f a r a s p o s s ib le . It m u s t a ls o be an a im o f the s o ft w a r e p a ck a g e d e s ig n
n ot o n ly to f u lfil th e r e lia b ili t y r e q u ir e m e n t s but to f a c ilit a t e the w o r k
o f th e e x p e r t s .
F o r the r e lia b ili t y a n a ly s is on th e h a r d w a re s id e , f i r s t l y th e s a m e
m e th o d s a r e a p p lic a b le a s w e r e p r o p o s e d in m y d is c u s s io n o f the h a r d w a r e
fa ilu r e p r o b le m s . A f t e r s e c u r in g th e p r o o f that th e h a r d w a r e t e s t fu n c tio n s
a r e c o m p le t e and c o r r e c t it is n e c e s s a r y to e v a lu a te i f the g iv e n tim e c o n ­
d itio n s y i e l d s a t is f a c t o r y v a lu e s f o r r e lia b ili t y and a v a ila b ilit y . P a r t ic u la r
a tten tion h as to b e p a id s o that the c h e c k in g r o u t in e s ca n n ot b e d is tu r b e d
in su ch a w ay that th e s y s t e m is b r o u g h t to an u n d e fin e d sta te o r to u n p r e ­
d ic t a b le (d a n g e r o u s ) a c tio n s .
In s o f a r a s p a r ts o f the in t e r fa c e a r e not c o n t r o lle d b y co n tin u o u s
s u p e r v is io n fu n c tio n s , a f a ilu r e m o d e a n a ly s is ca n and m u s t b e c a r r i e d
out f o r the a s s o c ia t e d e le m e n t s . A t th e output s y s t e m th is m ig h t b e done
d e fin in g th e (o n ly ) d a n g e r o u s e v e n t, i . e . a m i s s i n g t r ip s ig n a l, and
c h e c k in g e a c h h a r d w a r e c o m p o n e n t a s a p o s s ib le c a u s e o f su ch a s y s t e m
448 HOERMANN

fa ilu r e . D u r in g th is p r o c e d u r e n ew d e fin it io n s o f the d a n g e ro u s ev en t

at d iffe r e n t s y s t e m le v e l s w ill be n e c e s s a r y [3] . A s i m il a r p r o c e d u r e
w ill in g e n e r a l b e n e c e s s a r y f o r p a r t s o f th e input in t e r fa c e and o th e r
c o n n e c t e d s y s t e m s , e. g. p o w e r su p p ly u n its o r th e h a r d w a re t i m e r . C o n ­
c e r n in g p r o d u c t o r s y s t e m s p e c ifi c a t io n data o b ta in e d b y e x p e r im e n ts o r
lo n g -t e r m e x p e r i e n c e s w h ich a r e u s e d f o r the r e lia b ili t y c o n s id e r a t io n s ,
c a r e m u s t b e ta k en in d e c id in g w h e th e r th e s e da ta a r e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f
r e a l o p e r a t in g c o n d itio n s f o r the fu tu re in s t a lla tio n at th e plant.
It sta n d s to r e a s o n th at, in a d d itio n to w o r k s h o p and la b o r a t o r y t e s t s
d u rin g th e c o m m is s io n in g , e x te n s iv e o n - s it e t e s t s h ave to b e p e r fo r m e d
f o r th e fin a l c h e c k -o u t o f th e s a fe ty s y s t e m u n d e r r e a l o p e r a t in g c o n ­
d itio n s .

5. CO N C LU SIO N S

C o n c e r n in g th e a p p lic a t io n o f c o m p u t e r s f o r r e a c t o r p r o t e c t io n fu n c ­
t io n s c o r r e s p o n d in g in s i z e and p e r f o r m a n c e to th o s e don e b y h a r d -w ir e d
s y s t e m s , o u r in v e s tig a t io n s ju s t if y the o p in io n that it is p o s s ib le to o v e r ­
c o m e th e p r o b le m s o f c o m p u t e r iz a t io n and to a c h ie v e the n e c e s s a r y s a fe ty
and r e lia b ili t y fig u r e s b y u t iliz in g th e t e c h n ic a l p o te n tia l a v a ila b le at
p r e s e n t . If on e w ou ld lik e to p r o g r e s s fu r t h e r ( i. e. to u s e the g r e a t e r c a ­
p a c it y o f th e c o m p u te r to im p r o v e th e s u p e r v is io n and p r o t e c t io n fu n c tio n
qu an tita .tively and q u a lita tiv e ly , w h ich sh o u ld be th e a c tu a l r e a s o n f o r its
e m p lo y m e n t) on e w o u ld n e e d m o r e e x p e r ie n c e and k n o w -h o w to d e v e lo p
im p r o v e d m e th o d s and te c h n iq u e s f o r th is im p o rta n t ta sk .

REFERENCES

[1] EHRENBERGER, W . t A Hybrid Method for Testing ProcessComputer Performance,EHPG-Meeting,

Loen (Norway), 1972 (to be published).
[2] SCHRÜFER, E . , Comparison between a permamently wired anda freely programmed reactor protection
program, Atom und Strom 9/1 0 18 (1972) 131.
[3] SCHÜLLER, H . , Self-checking features of a process computer, EHPG-Meeting, Loen (Norway), 1972
(to be published).
[4] GORKE, W . , ZuverlSssigkeitsprobleme Elektronischer Schaltungen, Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim
(1969).

DISCUSSION

J. F U R E T : H ow d o e s the r e lia b ili t y o f y o u r c o m p u t e r -b a s e d sa fe ty

s y s t e m c o m p a r e w ith that o f th e c a b l e - f e d s y s t e m ?
H . H O E R M A N N : A s th e d e v e lo p m e n t w o rk on the c o m p u t e r iz e d sa fe ty
s y s t e m s h a s not y e t b e e n c o m p le t e d I ca n n ot g iv e any d e fin it e a n s w e r to that
q u e s t io n . A s I h a v e s a id , w e a r e w o r k in g on a s im u la tio n to fit th e A E G
s y s t e m a s p a rt o f a p ilo t stu d y f o r th e r e lia b ili t y a s s e s s m e n t .
J . F U R E T : H as y o u r s a fe ty s y s t e m b e e n a c c e p t e d b y th e s a fe ty
a u t h o r it ie s ?
H . H O E R M A N N : N o , the A E G s y s t e m h a s not y e t b e e n lic e n s e d b y
the F e d e r a l G e r m a n a u t h o r it ie s .
 IAEA-SM-168/D3 449

J . F U R E T : T o a v o id c o m m o n m o d e fa i lu r e s , do you a n ticip a te
u ltim a t e ly u sin g t h r e e c o m p u t e r s o f d iffe r e n t ty p e s o r w ill you a im at in ­
s t a llin g th e s p e c ia liz e d s m a ll p r o c e s s c o m p u t e r s ? I b e l ie v e that ev en f o r
the c o n t r o ls e ffe c t e d at p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e s t r o n g a r g u m e n ts in fa v o u r o f
the u se o f s m a ll c o m p u t e r s .
H . H O E R M A N N : A s fa r a s I k n ow , it is the a im o f A E G to u s e w id e ly
s p r e a d s m a ll c o m p u t e r s , o f w h ich th e c o m p a n y h as e x t e n s iv e e x p e r ie n c e ,
e v e n a s r e g a r d s r e lia b ili t y . I do not think it w ou ld b e a d v a n ta g e o u s to
in s t a ll th r e e c o m p u te r s o f d iffe r e n t t y p e s : ju st as it i s p r e f e r a b le to u se
id e n t ic a l redu n da n t s y s t e m s f o r c o n v e n t io n a l s a fe ty e q u ip m e n t, s o it w ou ld
b e h e r e . I a g r e e that t h e r e a r e s t r o n g a r g u m e n ts in fa v o u r o f the u se o f
s m a ll c o m p u t e r s .
W . B A S T L : I sh o u ld lik e to c o m m e n t on M r . F u r e t 1 s q u e s t io n r e ­
g a r d in g th e c o m p u t e r iz e d s a fe ty s y s t e m . It i s fe lt that th e u se o f c o m p u te r s
in s t e a d o f a h a r d - w i r e d s y s t e m ca n c o n s id e r a b ly r e d u c e th e tim e and c o s t
o f in s t a lla tio n , b e c a u s e the fu n c tio n s o f m a n y lin k a g e s a r e th en f u lfille d
b y the p r o g r a m .
In p o w e r p la n ts o f th e ty p e s b e in g b u ilt in th e F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f
G e r m a n y th e s a fe ty s y s t e m s ca n be o p e r a t e d w ith ou t c o m p u t e r s a s th ey a r e
r a t h e r s im p le , p a r t ic u la r ly in c o m p a r is o n w ith th o s e o f th e CAN D U o r
M A G N O X r e a c t o r s , w h ich a r e e v id e n tly e m p lo y in g m o r e s o p h is tic a t e d
input s ig n a ls o r c o m b in a tio n s and d e r iv a t io n s o f th e s e s ig n a ls .
L . N O V IE L L O : M r . H o e r m a n n h a s e x p la in e d h ow to a c h ie v e h igh
r e lia b ili t y in th e l o g i c p o r t io n o f the p r o t e c t io n s y s t e m . It s e e m s to m e
that a g o o d r e a s o n f o r u s in g c o m p u t e r s is that th ey a llo w m o r e e ffic ie n t
c h e c k in g o f the c o r r e c t o p e r a t io n o f the s e n s o r s .
H. H O E R M A N N : I a g r e e w ith you that th is c a p a b ility o f a c o m p u t e r iz e d
s a fe ty s y s t e m i s , o r c a n b e , an a d v a n ta g e . A n o th e r s i m il a r ad va n tag e is
that p r o b le m s a r e r e d u c e d b y t r ip lim it s , a s th e s o ft w a r e p r e s e n t s n o d r ift
p r o b l e m s . Such p o s s i b i l i t i e s h a v e to b e ta k en in to a c c o u n t in a c o m p le t e
c o m p a r a t iv e stu d y.
J . A . G O L D E R (C h a ir m a n ): It i s q u ite p r a c t ic a b le to p r e d ic t h a r d w a re
p e r fo r m a n c e b y e s t a b lis h e d m a th e m a tic a l t e c h n iq u e s , and d iffe r e n t n e tw o rk s
ca n b e d ir e c t ly c o m p a r e d . T h e r e q u is it e r e lia b ili t y data on c o m p u te r c o m ­
p o n e n ts and a s s e m b li e s a r e a v a ila b le . T h is i s not tr u e o f th e a s s o c ia t e d
s o ft w a r e , h o w e v e r , and it i s in th is a r e a that I h o p e to s e e s o m e p r o g r e s s
in the fu tu r e .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-4

THE QUALITY ASSURANCE POLICY

ADOPTED BY THE CEGB FOR
NUCLEAR CONTROL AND
INSTRUMENTATION

B . G . E L L IS , B . H . M A L I N S
C e n t r a l E le c tric ity G e n e r a t i n g B o a r d H e a d q u a r t e r s ,
L o n d o n , U n ite d K in g d o m

Abstract

T H E Q U A L IT Y A SSU RA N C E POLICY A D O P T E D BY T H E CEGB FOR NUCLEAR C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N ­

T A T IO N .
The performance of a nuclear power station is dependent upon the control and instrumentation
equipment operating correctly and reliably. The CEGB policy is to encourage and direct manufacturers
to develop management techniques for the control of quality. The manufacturer's overall quality control
methods should extend into every part of his organization which will include design, purchasing, manufacture,
test and inspection, despatch, site installation and commissioning. Involvement in purchasing must ensure
that supplies and services from sub-contractors conform to the specification requirements. Tools, process
plant and working conditions must be suitable to meet a defined quality. A n effective inspection and test
procedure, throughout the manufacturing process, is necessary for the maintenance of quality standards. The
methods of packing for protection during storage and despatch should be clearly defined to ensure the safety
and condition of equipment. Experience gained from site commissioning and subsequent service is used to
develop the quality assurance procedures that are applied.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

The sec u rity and o p e ratio n of the Central E lec tricity G en er atin g
B o a r d 's (C E G B ) n uclear power statio n s depends upon the correct fu n c tio n in g
and re lia b ility of the control and in s t r u m e n t a t io n eq u ip m en t. To ac h ie v e
th is req u irem en t, the CEGB p o l i c y is to encourage and d irect eq u ip m en t
m anufacturers to develo p e ffe c tiv e m anagem ent te c h n iq u es fo r the control of
q u a lity and to ap ply ap p rop riate lev els of q u a lity control su rv eilla n ce,
in sp e c tio n and test in order to ensure that the sp e c ifie d req u irem en ts are
m et.

2. CEG B O R G A N IS A T IO N FOR Q U A L IT Y ASSURANCE ( F i g . 1)

The re s p o n s ib ilit y for the p r o v is io n of c ertain e n g in e e r in g and

m anagem ent in fo rm a tio n services as so c ia te d w ith the c o n stru c tio n and
m a in te n a n c e of the CEGB pow er statio n s and tran sm issio n system rests w ith the
E n g in e e rin g Serv ic es Departm ent.

The P ro d u c tio n , In sp e c tio n and Test Branch ( P . I . T . B . ) w it h in the

E n g in e e rin g Se rv ic e s Departm ent has the c o m m it m e n t of se cu rin g tim ely
d eliv ery of eq u ip m en t fr o m the m anufacturers w orks and the p r o v is io n of
assurance that the r eq u ire m e n ts for q u a lity and correct o p e ratio n have been
a c h ie v e d . The P .I .T .B . o rg an isatio n has a total staff of 322, of w h ich 200
are Chartered E n g in e e r s (h a v in g p ro fessio n al s t a t u s ). The staff is
distrib u ted betw een a Headquarters M anagem ent U n it and n in e R e g io n a l O ffices
located in t h e m a in U .K . centres of m anufacture.

451
452 ELLIS and MALINS

£< < |

I st; IL m -> >

O
m $ IL CL Ш
2 О <л СС

UJ
Ш
rr О
Э z ^
h- Z ш° 1Л
U о
if «л
(Л
Q
D
г
ш
о
"И
< о
а.

О z
LU ш
о?

for the control of quality.

н
а
ш
а

Z
%(Г >
о о Z
о
CEGB

К
I- а : 5 5 _
_1

management system
Z - S- g- S
о ь ■a - g - t r
и <
Z (Л Ш

а о
D Ш QJ Q.
D Û н О
Z
< о 1/>

<
1Л

CEGB
и
i *
<<л FIG. 1.

ос о
о ш ш (Л
Z о о.
се
0É (О jO¡7)
ф UJ
<
X □
и а о Z
кО
а. а а. о
э э
а а)

<§
 IAEA-SM-168/D-4 453

3. DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURERS' QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS

Manufacturers of equipment for the CEGB are required to e s ta b lis h

and m aintain e ff e c t iv e q u ality control management procedures in harmony with
the other a d m in istr a tiv e , technical and contract control systems which are
necessary to achieve d e s ig n , m anufacture, d e l iv e r y , erection and correct
operation of r e l ia b l e equipment.

The CEGB Qu ality Assurance Engineers a s s is t the manufacturers to

e s ta b lis h quality control systems in areas where none e x is t and to develop
those that may be d e f ic ie n t in some respects.

3 .1 Documentation

An essen tial requirement of a quality management system is

documentation recording the d eta ils of an accepted system, providing
a standard a g ain st which the procedures can be monitored.

Q u a lity documentation can be extensive and should include d e ta ils

of the organ isation al stru c tu re , adm inistrative in s t r u c t io n s , reference
to process s p e c if ic a t io n s , test and inspection schedules e tc . For the
custom er's b e n e f i t , this documentation needs to be condensed into a
usable form and c o llected together in a sin g le document usually referred
to as a Q u a lity M anual. Such a Manual w ill concentrate a ttention on
the Org an isation al aspects of the quality management system and should
be issued with the authority of the Company's senior management.

The Q u a lity Manual should r e f l e c t the a c t iv it ie s which are part of

a system of Total Q u a lity C o n trol, a system which extends into a ll parts
of an o rg an isation in clu din g d e s ig n , p u rchasing, m anufacture, test and
in sp ec tio n , despatch and s ite commissioning.

3 .2 О тн я т sati on and Management

Since the c o n t ra c to r's q u a lity org an isation system and procedures

w il l depend on the size of the Company, the nature of the product and
the type of contracts in v olv ed , no r ig id pattern or form of
organisation can be in s is ted upon. The m an ufacturer's overall quality
controls should be co-ordinated by a member of Management with
the r e s p o n s ib ilit y for ensuring that h is quality system is clearly
documented and that the methods are e f f e c t iv e ly implemented. It is
p o ssib le however, for the r e s p o n s ib ilit y for the various q uality actions
to be vested in a number of Management members. This arrangement can
be acceptable p r o v i d e d there is adequate l ia is o n and means of
communication to m aintain a continuous lin k to ensure the quality of
a product.

3 .3 Engineering Design

Manufacturers are required to comply with CEGB s p e c ific a t io n s and

standards. These are based as far as po ssible on B r it is h Standard
S p e c if ic a t i o n s , but where no su ita b le ones e x i s t , a number of CEGB
documents have been prepared. These cover general constructional and
design p r in c ip l e s , for example, e le c tr o n ic and control equipment and
also in d iv id u a l instrum ents. These S p e c ific a t io n s have been
developed over many years from operational ex perience, and embody the
best engineering p r a c tic e s .
454 ELLIS and MALINS

C EGB C o m m ittees fo rm ed o f m e m b e rs rep re sen tin g the D esign and

C o n stru c tio n , O p e r a tio n and E n g in e e r in g S erv ic es Departm ents are
resp o n sible for the selec tio n and approval of p ro tectio n, co ntro l,
m easurem ent and in d ic a tin g in s tr u m e n ts and th e ir com ponents.

The instrum ents m ay be sp e c ific a lly d esig n ed to m eet the

p a rtic u la r r e q u ire m e n ts of the CEGB or t h e y m ay be selected fr o m the
best c o m m e rcia lly av a ilable and m o d if ie d w here necessary to a c h ie v e the
req uired re lia b ilit y for the p a r tic u la r duty.

N ew d e s i g n s produced by a m a n u fa c tu re r’ s D e s ig n D epartm ent should

be rev iew ed at an early stage in co llab o ratio n w ith h is other depart­
m ents for fitn ess for purpose, m aterial c o m p a tib ility , p h y sical
p ro p e rtie s and d im e n s io n a l tolerances, fe a s ib ility of m anufacture,
in sp e c tio n and test, safety, re p a ir and m a in te n a n c e .

The E n g in e e rin g and D e s ig n Departm ents sh ould have su itab le m ethods'

of do c um e ntatio n to ensure com p lete co m p lian ce w ith the c u s t o m e r 's
req u ire m e n ts and for im p le m e n tin g p o s s ib le changes to d e s i g n .

The m a n u fa c tu re r is resp o n sib le for e n su r in g that all m a terials

and com ponents procured fr o m h is su p pliers and sub- contractors con form
to the CEGB req u irem en ts. H is selec tio n of sup p liers and the control
req uired w ill depend on h i s past ex p erien ce of proven relia b ility and
q u a lity .

3 .4 P u r c h a s in g

P u rc h a s in g S p e c i f ic a t i o n s should p recisely d efin e the q u a lity

acceptance lim its e sta b lis h e d by the E n g in e e rin g and D e s ig n Departm ents.

Purchase orders placed w ith su p p liers should in clud e the

r eq u irem en ts for a n aly sis, testin g and c e r tific a tio n and be su bjec t to
in sp e c tio n by the purchaser and the CEGB In s p e c to r a te .

For reasons of c o m p a tib ility w ith th e ir n u c lear en v iro n m en t, it

is necessary to e sta b lis h and preserve the p u rity of m a terials;
stain less steel, for exam p le, m ust c o n tain less than 0 .0 7 b % m a n g a n e s e
and less than 0 .0 1 % co balt, for use in neutron flu x instrum ents.

The q u a lity of elec tro n ic com ponents sp e c ifie d by the CEGB for
n u c lear control and in s t r u m e n t a t io n eq u ip m en t is of the h ig h e s t
category d efin ed in the B ritish Standard 9000 series of sp e c ific a tio n s
for e lec tro n ic com ponents. C o n fo rm ity w ith the standard is assured by
rig o ro u s su rv eilla n ce of in s p e c tio n procedures c arried o u t by the U .K .
Governm ent E lectrica l Q u a lity Assurance D ire cto r ate of the Procurem ent
E x ecu tiv e, M in istry of D efence.

M a terials and com ponents m ust be su b jected to in sp e c tio n upon

rec eip t to the extent necessary to ensure that they con form to the
techn ical re q u irem en ts. M anufacturers' in s p e c tio n of m aterials and
com ponents re c eiv ed m ay be a d ju s t e d a c c o rd in g to the q u a lity control
m ethods e x e r c is e d by the su p p lier. The q u a lity control system m ust
ensure that m aterials used in fa b ric a tio n or p r o c e s s in g of eq u ip m en t
c o n for m to the a p p lic a b le p h y sical, c h e m ic a l and other te c hn ical
req u irem en ts. The d ie le c tr ic p ro p e rtie s of the c e r a m ic com ponents used
in neutron flu x m easurem ents m ust be of a h ig h order, a re s is tiv ity
b e tte r than 1 0 ^ П / с т З bein g necessary is an exam p le of one of the
s p e c i a l pro blem s encountered.
 IAEA-SM-168/D-4 455

Batch sa m p lin g tests based on statistica l an aly sis sh o uld be

e m p lo y ed. M aterial and com ponents in sp ected and ap proved m ust be
clearly id e n tifie d and co ntro ls e sta b lis h e d to ensure correct storage and
use. Raw m a t e r i a l s and com ponents aw aiting in s p e c tio n and those
rejec ted m ust be segregated to p re v e n t inadvertent use.

Strict c ontrols and p rec au tio n s sh ou ld be e x e r c is e d over m a rkin g

and id e n tific a tio n and w here p h y sica l surface m arks or defo rm atio n
are in v o lv ed, only ap p ro v ed m arkin g m ethods and stam ped c o n fig u ratio n s
and lo catio n s should be em p lo yed. S u c h m ethods m ust not be used if
they are likely to be hazardous to the in teg rity or safety of the
m aterial or eq u ip m en t w h ich it is a part.

3 .5 M anufacture

Docum ented d e ta ile d m anu factu rin g and process in stru c tio n s m ust
be issued and co m p lied w ith for all eq u ip m en t in m an u factu re to ensure
c o n fo r m ity w ith the d esig n . The degree of su p erv isio n and in sp e c tio n
m ust be adequate to a c h ie v e th is req u irem en t.

The m an u factu rer m ust have e ffe c tiv e m eans fo r the selec tio n and
train in g of s ta ff» and the to o ls, process pla n t and en v iro n m en tal
c o n d itio n s m ust be su itab le to m eet the defined q u a lity req u irem en ts.

The w h o le gas c ir c u it and core h an dling eq u ip m en t of a n u c lear

reactor m u st be kept free fro m any fo rm of c o n ta m in a tio n ; sp ecial
p rec au tio n s m ust be observed w hen m a n u fa c t u r in g and as se m b lin g
com ponents that are to be lo c ated in , or connected to, the reactor
gas stream , or w h ic h are used th e m selv es to insert the fu el elem ents
and charge chutes in to the gas c ir c u it.

C ertain p recau tio n s m u s t be taken w ith all com ponents d u r in g

prelim inary fa b ric a tio n , m a ch in in g and other processes of m a n u fa c t u r e ,
alth o ugh th is w ork need not n ec essa rily be carried out in areas set
a s id e sp e c ific a lly for nuclear work. The danger in v o lv ed here is that
durin g m anufacture, the nuclear com ponent can com e in to p h y sical contact
w ith any of the in co m p atible m aterials and can be c o n tam in a te d w ith them .
Because such c o n t a m in a t io n is d iffic u lt to lo c ate and c lean o ff, n u c lear
com ponents m ust be read ily id e n tifia b le as such throughout all cycles
and th e ir w ork process in stru c tio n cards should th e refo re be stam ped
w ith a c lear leg en d .

A p p en dix I su m m arises CEGB r e q u ir e m e n t s for c lean c o n d itio n s .

3 .6 M anu factu rin g In sp e c tio n and Test

T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r 's q u a lity system m ust ensure that all b a sic

m anu factu rin g and process o p e ratio n s are a c c o m p lish e d under controlled
c o n d itio n s in accordance w ith the sp e c ific a tio n req u irem en ts. P h y s ic a l
exam in atio n , in s p e c t io n , m easurem ent or test of the m a terial or
com ponent is necessary for ea ch w ork o p e ratio n . There m ust be an
e ffe c tiv e procedure fo r re c o rd in g q u a lity levels and d e v iatio n s.
Adherence to selected m ethods of in sp e c tio n and test should be c o m p lete
and c o n tin u o u s. There m ust be an adequate procedure for ap p ly in g
co rrectiv e m easures when the p ro cess or com ponent fails to co m p ly w ith the
s p e c ifie d req u irem en t.

The in itia l a c h ie v e m e n t of q u a lity is ac c o m p lish e d by the o p e rativ e,

c o n fo r m in g to the sp e c ifie d req u irem en t. Process checks can be
456 ELLIS and MALINS

e ffe c tiv e ly carried out by m a n u f a c t u r i n g sup erviso rs. The CEGB

req u ire the m anufacturer to em p lo y an In sp ectio n Departm ent under the
in d e p e n d e n t control of a d e sig n ated C h ief In sp e c to r or Q u a l i t y Control
M anager to p r o v id e o verall m o n ito r in g and control of q u a lity .

An exam p le of a m an u fac tu rin g process test to ensure adequacy of

m eta l- to - c e ra m ic seals (a s used in io n cham bers) the assem bly is
su b jected to ten sile, leak and e lec trica l in su latio n resistan ce tests.
To c o m p ly w i t h the sp e c ific a tio n req u irem en ts, a leak rate e x ce e d in g
7 .6 x 10 lusec is su fficien t grounds for rejectio n , d e te r m in e d by
usin g h e liu m gas pressure and a m ass spectrom eter. Th e in su latio n
resista n ce m ust be of the order of 1 0 ^ 4 fi.

A ll g a u g in g and m easurem ent eq u ip m en t p r o v id e d m ust be adequate and

of sufficien t accuracy to e st a b lis h c o n fo r m ity w ith the desig n lim its
an d m ust be reg u la rly checked and c alib ra te d in r e la tio n to the
req u ired accuracy, am ount o f use and degree of im p o rta n c e.

R eference sh o uld be m ade to n a tio n al p h y sica l standards through

the U .K . N a tio n a l C alib ratio n S e rv ic e w hich has approved a g e n c ie s.

3 .7 F in al T es tin g

A ltho u g h approved m an u factu rers m ust d em onstrate to the CEGB the

e ffe c tiv e n e ss of th e ir q u a lity control m ethods, it has been fo u n d
necessary to prove correct perfo rm an ce of in s tr u m e n ts and control
system s over a range of c o n d itio n s of e n v iro n m en t and o p e ratio n . These
m ay in clu d e the effects of extrem es of tem perature, h ig h h u m id ity ,
adverse e n v iro n m en ts of dust and c o r ro s iv e atm ospheres and hazards due
to m e c h a n ic a l shock and vib ratio n . W here a p p lic a b le , test procedures
have to cover those control and in s t r u m e n t a t io n e q u ip m en ts exposed to
the w eather.

F in al in sp e c tio n and test procedures m ay be c o n sidered as fallin g

in to type tests, ro u tin e tests, and system tests.

3 .7 .1 Type Tests

Type tests are those a p p lie d to all new d e s i g n s of apparatus

and are to prove the perfo rm an ce w ill be m a i n t a i n e d , w ith in
acceptab le lim its , over the total range of tem perature and h u m id ity
when abnorm al c o n d itio n s of elec trica l, pneu m atic or h y d ra u lic
su p p ly system s p re v a il.

The p erfo rm an ce of e le c tro n ic eq u ip m en t can be affected

by its am b ien t and in te rn a l tem peratures. It is e s s e n tia l that
equipm ent m ust be tho roughly tested at the h ig h e st tem perature
likely to be reached in se rv ic e a llo w in g a m a rg in for safety and
com ponent tolerances. Equ ip m e n t for p l a n t m o u n tin g should also
be tested at low tem perature w hich can affe ct p erfo rm an ce in
other w ays. T em perature c y c lin g is an e ffe c t iv e m ethod of
c a r r y in g out an accelerated life test to prove that there w ill be
no sig n ific a n t d e g r a d a tio n in perfo rm an ce w ith tim e.

The sm all p h y sica l dim ensio n s found in e le c tro n ic com ponents,

and e q u i p m e n t m ake the in g ress o f m o is tu r e even in sm all am ounts a
p a rtic u la r hazard and even in d o o r eq u ip m en t m ust be tested as proof
ag ain st c o n d en s atio n .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-4 457

M a terials m ust also w ith sta n d lon g term h u m id ity effects

such as w ater ab sorp tion le a d in g to breakdown of in su latio n ,
m o u ld growth and c o r r o s io n

E q u ip m e n t m ust be tested to ensure that it possesses

su fficien t m e c h an ic al strength to su rv iv e norm al h an d lin g , transport
and m a in t e n a n c e , and it m ust often also be cap able of op e ratin g
under plan t c o n d itio n s of v ib ratio n and shock.

S m a ll v ibratio n s can ea sily s e t up resonances w h ich le a d to

fatig u e and fra c tu re s of very sm all w ir e s , so ld ered jo in ts, or
com ponent seals.

E q u ip m e n t req u ired to operate under c o n d itio n s of dust,

w etness, or exposure to w e a th e r m ust have its enclo sure tested for
ab ility to w it h s t a n d such hazards.

Tests m ay also in c lu d e exposure to in d u stria l fu m e s , salt or

c h e m ic a l lad en atm ospheres.

E q u ip m e n t m ust be run for a p erio d of t im e c o n tin u o u sly

e n e r g is e d to prove its s ta b ility and r e lia b ility w ith o u t the
n ecessity of freq u en t a d ju s t m e n t or m a in t e n a n c e . T h is test w ill
also reveal any com ponents w h ich are overstressed or su b je c t to
breakdown. The usual s p e c ifie d tim e is fo r 100 hours under
c o n d itio n s a p p ro p riate to norm al op eratio n.

3 .7 .2 R o u tin e Tests

The m a n u f a c t u r e r 's fin al ro u tin e tests a p p lie d to all

pro du ctio n item s m ust be su fficien tly exte n siv e to ensure that
the approved d esig n has been correctly reproduced. Tests in c lu d e
a fu ll v isu al in s p e c tio n , in su la tio n , pressure and lea k tests,
and an agreed c o m p re hen siv e fu n c tio n a l and p erfo rm an ce test.
F in ally , a soak test is carrie d out to run in the eq u ip m en t and
elim in ate an y early failu res of com ponents.

In the event of changes in desig n or processes, type tests

m ay b e req uired to be repeated.

3 .7 .3 System Tests

In the case of a system c o n sistin g of a num ber of in ter­

connected u n its, it is co n sid ered e sse n tia l to set up a sim u latio n ,
as re a lis tic as p o s sib le , in the fac to ry for tests under c o ntro lled
c o n d itio n s.

A com puter study of the theo retical heat tran sfer in the
reactor p r o v id e s the data fro m w h i c h the p erfo rm an ce of a system
can be ev alu ated .

3 .8 Despatch

In order to ensure the safety and proper c o n d itio n of eq u ip m en t

du rin g despatch and p o s s ib le storage, the m ethods of p a c k in g and
pro tectio n m ust be clearly d efin ed and c o m p lie d w ith by the m a n u fac tu re r
to the satisfactio n of the CEGB.
458 ELLIS and MALINS

3.9 D e fe c t Reporting

A m a n u f a c t u r e r 's q u a lity m anagem ent system sh o uld be ab le to detect

all d iffic u ltie s an d pro blem s t h a t affect q u a lity . Any d ev iatio n
w h ich co uld result or has resu lted in unacceptab le lev els of defec tiv e
com ponents or any other elem en t of eq u ip m en t p erfo rm an ce w hich co uld
create a d d itio n a l costs or d e la y , should be id e n tifie d and r e m e d ia l
ac tio n co n sid e red .

The id e al defect re p o rtin g system sh ou ld cover m a t e r ia ls ,

m an u factu re, in sp e c tio n and test, defects found during tran sp o rta tio n ,
in sta lla tio n , subsequent c o m m issio n in g and o p e ratio n . T h is defect
re p o rtin g system sh ou ld be used to ap p ly the necessary d is c ip lin e to
in itia te prom pt co rrective ac tio n to the ap p ro p riate delinq uent s e c tio n .

4. CEGB Q U A L IT Y ASSURANCE

R e lia b ility and correct o p e ratio n of control and in s t r u m e n t a t io n

eq u ip m en t for nuclear power station s depends upon the q u a lity of each
com ponent p a r t , the fitn ess and clean lin ess of assem bly, and the subsequent
p ro ce ss in g ad ju s tm e n t and c alib ra tio n . The CEGB Q u a l it y Assurance
In sp e c t o r a t e evaluate the m a n u fa c t u r e r s ' q u a lity control system s and
ap ply su rv eilla n ce and a p p ro p riate lev els of in s p e c tio n and test to ensure
co m p lia n ce by the m anufacturer to the sp e c ifie d CEGB r e q u i r e m e n t s .

5. C O N C L U S IO N

E xp erien ce has shown that t r a d it io n a l m ethods of in s p e c tio n and

testin g of eq uip m ent at in te rm e d ia te stages and on c o m p le tio n of m anufacture
do not, by th em selves, n ec essa rily result in the req uired standard of
q u a lity and r e lia b ility . In lin e w ith recent trends of m anagem ent control,
the CEGB q u a lity assurance p o lic y is to prom ote e ffe c tiv e and co m p re hensive
q u a lity control procedures by the m a n u factu rer and h is su p p liers.

M anufacturers who h a v e adopted planned q u a lity control m anagem ent

system s acknow ledge the b e n e fits that result fro m econom y and in creased
efficien cy . The CEGB lik ew ise expect b e n e fit s fro m tim ely deliv ery and
in cr e a se d con fid en ce in p erfo rm an ce and r e lia b ility of in stalled plant.

APPENDIX I

S U M M A R Y O F C E G B R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R C L E A N CO N D ITIO N S

C o n d itio n s to b e o b s e r v e d d u rin g m a n u fa c tu r e and p r e lim in a r y a s s e m b ly

(a) Prior to commencing work on a nuclear component, the machine tool or its equivalent must be
carefully cleaned down and all traces of swarf or loose incompatible material removed from it
and the immediate surrounding area. In particular:

Grinding wheels must be dressed before use

Led or copper hammers ate not permitted - new hide or nylon

is acceptable

Brass drifts must not be used

Tools and slings should be compatible

Rope must be new and grease free
 IAEA - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 4 459

Shot must be compatible and clean

Pickling and degreasing processes must have been approved and

the solutions not previously used with incompatible materials

(b) After completing its manufacturing cycle, the component must be protected from corrosion
by normal commercial means, providing the protective coating can be completely removed
prior to that component being taken into a clean conditions area.

Clean conditions to be observed during the final a ss e m b ly stage of gas

circuit components
The highest standards of cleanliness must be maintained during assembly of the following classes of
equipment and such work is undertaken in special workshops or enclosures known as clean conditions areas.

(i) Equipment in the reactor core

(ii) Equipment comprising the gas circuit
(ili) Equipment which comes into close contact with or handles fuel elements
(iv) Equipment whose associated gas flow passes over fuel elements or passes through the reactor core

Components arriving at the clean conditions area will be deemed to be dirty from a nuclear point
of view, unless they have been previously cleaned and packed under clean conditions.
If these processes are carried out in areas remote from the clean conditions area, adequate precautions
should be taken to prevent contamination of components in transit.
Where applicable, vacuum cleaning should be applied to components and their packing on arrival at
the clean conditions area.

Clean conditions a reas — enclosures and ventilation

(i) Any building standing alone from other workshops, the whole of which will be for clean conditions
work, and whose ventilation is effectively dust free. The inference here is that ventilation may
be from the outside atmosphere provided it is not heavily contaminated; otherwise filters will
require to be fitted and a sufficient positive air pressure maintained to exclude the entry of dust.
(ii) Any part of a building that is so arranged to be completely isolated from other workshops within
the building and whose ventilation is arranged as in (i) above.
(iii) A temporary building constructed, within a workshop, of say hardboard whose ventilation is as
in (i) above.
(iv) A circuit or part of any circuit during site construction that is isolated by temporary blanking
and ventilated as in (i) above.

The clean area must be constructed so that the floors and walls shall be smooth and easily cleaned.
All internal fittings, including light fittings to the door handles, storage racks etc. shall not be made of
incompatible materials. Any fittings made of incompatible materials which cannot be removed or changed
shall be suitably taped or enclosed (PVC or polythene). All equipment and measuring instruments containing
mercury must not be used.
All personnel entering a clean area must wear suitable protective clothing including overalls, caps,
footwear, gloves. All personal articles such as rings, watches, pens etc. should normally be left in a
suitable change area, but if taken into the clean area, they must be securely fastened to prevent
accidental loss.

D IS C U S S IO N

F. V E L O N A : T h e Production, Inspection and Test B r a n c h ( P I T B ) of

C E G B has an im p r e s siv e n u m b e r of staff. D o its activities extend to
system s and com ponents other than those related to nuclear p o w e r plants?
B . G . E L L I S : P I T B has a staff of 320 , including engineers and clerks,
but the n u m b e r of actual inspecting engineers is approxim ately 120. T h e
460 ELLIS and MALINS

B r a n c h is responsible for ensuring that all equipm ent p urchased by C E G B

for generation and tra n sm issio n is delivered on schedule and is in accordance
with the specified requirem ents.
G. V A N R E I J E N : Y o u have put forw ard reco m m e nda tio ns for a defect
reporting system , and it s e e m s to m e that the establishm ent of such a
sy stem on an international basis would in fact be an important step forw ard.
D o e s C E G B already have s o m e experience in using a system of this type
and in feeding back the results to the m an ufacturers? A n d does it m aintain
contacts for this purpose with non-nuclear industries, and with interested
utilities outside the United K in g d o m ?
B . G . E L L I S : I w a s referring in the paper just presented to the in ­
spection and defect reporting procedures of a m anufacturer. W ithin C E G B
there are a n u m b e r of defect reporting system s in operational plant. T h o se
relating to the control and instrumentation of nuclear p o w er plants are
de sc ribe d in paper I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 2 1 . C E G B also operates defect reporting
system s for other types of tran sm issio n and generation plant. I believe
that information on them could be obtained through the Electricity Council
in the United K in g d o m . C E G B is definitely in favour of an international
reliability and defect reporting procedure.
J. A . G O L D E R (C h a ir m a n ): The recent specialists' m eeting in O s lo
m a d e a r ec o m m e n d a tio n to the I A E A that s o m e fo r m of international
reliability data reporting s y s t e m should be established. Attention w a s
d r a w n to the limitations of existing reporting s y s t e m s, w hich are secondary
to the m aintenance function and not as p re cise as they should be.
J. F U R E T : But are the recom m endatio ns m a d e at the specialists'
m eeting in O s lo realistic? T o m e they s e e m to belong to the r e a lm of
d r e a m s , in view of the difficulties encountered in resolving the p ro b lem
even at the national level.
J. A . G O L D E R : T h e limitations of present reliability data system s
are fully appreciated, but the success of the U K S y stem s Reliability
Service (SRS) and in particular the value of its w o r k to design organizations
has be en so encouraging that an international system b a s e d in principle
on the S R S m o d el, but with an internationally a greed and sim ple reporting
form at, would s e e m to be feasible. T h e I A E A w a s considered to be the
organization m ost likely to be able to achieve this objective.
B . S. P R A B H A K A R : It s e e m s logical to a s s u m e that specifications
calling for quality assurance beyond n o rm a l c o m m e r c ia l standards m ust
add to the p u r c h a s e r 's costs. W hat has be en the experience of C E G B
in these respects?
B . G . E L L I S : C E G B does not agree that correctly applied quality
a ssurance should increase the cost to the p u r ch a se r. In fact, m anufacturers
usually obtain cost benefits fr o m quality control p ro c ed u re s. CEGB
norm ally places contracts only with m anufacturers that offer an acceptable
level of quality a ss u r a n c e , but in cases w h e r e this is not otherwise
possible a special p aym ent m a y be granted for the establishm ent of quality
control system s.

1 These Proceedings
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /D -5

A P P L IC A T IO N OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION
TECHNIQUES TO M A T E R IA L DIAGNOSTICS

H . N AKASA
Central Research Institute o f Electric Power Industry,
Tokyo, Japan

Abstract

A PP L IC A TIO N OF A C O U S T I C EMISSION TECH N IQ U E S T O M A TERIAL D IA G N O S T IC S .

Solid materials undergoing deformation or fracture emit characteristic sonic energy knwon as acoustic
emission (AE). The major parameters available for characterizing AE signals are amplitude, rate of emission,
and frequency content or wave shape. These are affected remarkably by material properties and inherent defects,
as well as by external conditions such as stress and temperature. Hence, various types of material diagnostics
can be performed on the basis of the precise analysis of the AE characteristics. The following AE characteristics
have been examined: (1) in tensile testing of various specimens of steel and other metals degraded by neutron-
irradiation embrittlement or pre-straining; and (2) in the process of crack extension due to fatigue cracking
in model testing for primary piping components of a fast breeder reactor. These test results have demonstrated
that the AE techniques using the above-mentioned system are very useful for material diagnostics such as
inspection of integrity, monitoring of degradation and anticipation of fracture.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e a s s e s s m e n t of structural integrity is one of the m ost important

p ro b lem s for ensuring the safety and availability of nuclear p o w er plants.
T o prevent reactor p re ss u r e boundaries fro m catastrophic failure it is
n ec e ss a ry to m onitor any deterioration and to detect flaw formation and
growth before incipient failure occurs.
M aterial diagnostics for a ss e ss in g structural integrity can be divided
into two types:

(1) Periodical determ ination of the soundness or degrees of degradation

by m aterial testings of the representative test sp e c im e n such as the s u r ­
veillance test s p e c im e n s of p re ss u r e vessel steel;
(2) Detection of incipient failure and continuous monitoring of flaw
growth in structural com ponents un der operation.

T en sile test s p e cim e n s , C h a r p y V notch spe cim e ns and W O L test

s p e cim e n s are usually tested for the type (1) diagnostics in order to deter­
m ine irradiation em brittlem ent as part of reactor vessel surveillance [1].
H o w e v e r , one cannot expect structural integrity to be determ ined from
these test results alone. O n the other hand, the practical application of
acoustic em iss io n to a continuous surveillance technique for the type (2)
diagnostics has attracted special interest recently and considerable r e ­
sea rch and developm ent efforts have been expended in the United States of
A m e r i c a , United K in g d o m [2 ,3 ] and else w h ere.
Acoustic em iss io n ( A E ) is defined as the elastic w a v e s produced in a
solid m aterial by energy released as the m aterial is deform ed to fracture [4].
T h e m a jo r p a ra m eters available for characterizing A E signals are a m p li­
tude, e m iss io n rate and frequency content. T h e s e are rem ark a b ly affected

461
462 N AK ASA

by m aterial properties and inherent defects, as well as by external con­

ditions such as stress and tem perature. H e n c e , both types of m aterial
diagnostics can be m a d e on the basis of p recise analysis of the A E
characteristics.
T h is paper discusses an instrumentation system developed for detecting
and analysing A E signals, and deals with the application of A E techniques
to the m aterial diagnostics for various tensile-test specim ens degraded by
neutron irradiation or prestraining and for m o del pipings of a fast breeder
reactor.

2. B A S IS O F T H E A C O U S T I C E M I S S I O N A P P R O A C H

W h e n a m etal is stressed, a stress concentration occurs at the tips of

defects contained in the m etal. A s stress increases, relaxation occurs in
these regions and m a y take the form of plastic flow, m icro- cracking or
large-scale cracking. T h e s e p ro c esse s produce continuous em issio ns of
sm all amplitude and discrete bursts of higher amplitude. T h e s e A E signals
show the following characteristics [5, 6 ]:

(1) Continuous type of e m issio n s are usually o bserved in plastic

deform ation, associated with micro-defects such as dislocation pile-up or
break- aw ay, twinning and granular re-orientations. T h e signal is of
extrem ely low energy and consequently difficult to detect without high
amplification, but the amplitude and em issio n rate of the signal in as low a
frequency range, as 100 k H z can be seen to increase rather dramatically as
gross yielding o ccu rs. Continuous type of A E displays an irreversible
nature n a m e d the "K a i s e r effect", that is, a m etal once stressed gives little
or no em issio n during a subsequent deformaticn up tothe previous stress level.
(2) Burst-type e m issio n s increase in the course of plastic deform ation
to fracture and are associated with larger defects such as micro- and
m a c r o - c r a c k s . T h e signals are significantly higher in energy than continu­
ous em iss io n s , and appear as bursts of sharp im pulses with large amplitude,
low em ission-rate and frequency contents as high as 1 M H z . T h e K a ise r
effect in burst-type A E is not so evident, since micro- or m acro- crack
extension in a m etal creates a new fracture surface w hich m a y cause the
stress redistribution in the m etal.
T o p erfo rm m aterial diagnostics by utilizing the above-mentioned
characteristics of both types of em iss io n s , the following p ara m eters must
be ex a m in ed in detail;

(1) Am plitude spectrum per unit time and its time-dependency

(2) E m i s s i o n rate or integrated count and its time-dependency
(3) F r e q u e n c y spectrum or w a v e shape

3. D E T E C T I O N A N D A N A L Y S IS

T h e A E instrumentation system for m aterial diagnostics consists of

such parts as for the detection of A E signals, m onitoring display of A E
respo n se, data recording and analysis of A E characteristics. F ig u r e 1
show s a block dia gra m of the system in u s e.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /D -5 463

ÍAE DETECTOR 1

Ip r e a m p l i f i e r !
О -A C O N V E R T E R
d is c r im in a t o r (e m is sio n r a t e ) CHART
Ih . p . f il t e r I A N O GATE RECORDER
(S c h m id t trig g e r ) S U M M A T IO N
COUNTER
Л
1

Im a i n a m p l if ie r !
■
TÔ S C IL L O S C O P E l

i
ae s ig n a l -e n v e l o p e
frequency converter T r a n s ie n t recorder ]

R E A L - T IM E
Ia u d i o ' t a p e recorder I ^ H IG H - S P E E D DATA R E C O R O E R b SPECTRUM AN ALYSER
(fr e q u e n c y c o n t e n t )

[p u l s e ^c o n v e r t e r !—

^ 0 0 -channel P ULSE- HEIGHT A N A LY S E R

(a m p litu d e a n d e m iss io n r a t e )

IC O N T R O L UN IT f- 1 E L E C T R IC TY P E W R IT E R

F I G .l . Block diagram of the A E instrumentation system for material diagnostics.

SHIELD WIRE

TEFLON
BNC CONNECTOR
RUBBER
PZT SENSOR (100kHz)
,TEFLON
'/ / , _ ■ - RR ASS HOUSING

BRASS DISC
PZT SENSOR (100kHz)

BRASS HOUSING SHIELD WIRE

EPOXY RESIN
PZT SENSOR (1MHz)
TEFLON
iRASS HOUSING
(cm)
(a ) CLOSED-TYPE DETECTOR (Ы OPEN-TYPE DETECTOR

FIG. 2. Structure of the AE detectors.

3 .1 . Detection of A E signals

T h e em iss io n , propagating as an elastic w a v e through a m aterial, can

be detected at the m aterial surface by using a piezo-electric sensor, and
converted to an electrical signal. T h e sensors used are longitudinally
poled and disc-shaped P Z T (lead-zirconate-titanate) sensors with resonant
frequency of 100 k H z , 600 k H z and 1 M H z .
T h e structure of the A E detectors which contains the P Z T sen sor in a
metallic housing is show n in F ig . 2, w h e re (a) is a large detector for struc­
tural com ponents and (b) is a sm all one for tensile test pieces. T h e A E
detector can be bonded to the test sp e cim e n by m echan ical stress, and a
thin paper with silicone grea se is interposed betw een them for acoustic
464 NAKASA

coupling and electrical insulation. In the high-temperature fatigue test of

m o del pipings m entioned later, the detector is bonded in the s a m e w a y to the
low-temperature end of an acoustic w a v e guide of a 6-m m - d i a m .X 250- m m
-long stainless-steel stick w elded to the piping (cf. F i g . 12).
T h e sen so r output is amplified through a pream plifier with high gain
and low noise, filtered in o rder to r em o v e any extraneous low-frequency
noise and amplified again through a m ain- am plifier. T h e pream plifier is
another important com ponent because the system noise level is estab­
lished h e re . T h e one in use has a voltage-gain of 20, 40 or 60 d B with a
noise level of 5 ц У (peak-to-peak) referred to input.

3 .2 . D isplay of A E response

M onitoring displays of A E data consist of w a v e shape, em issio n rate

and total cumulative e m is s io n . W a v e shape is vie w ed by a cathode-ray
oscilloscope and a transient r eco rd e r. O n the other hand, the signal goes
to discriminator-gate circuits w h e re a shaped pulse is produced for every
inco m ing signal above a preset voltage level. T h e s e shaped pulses go to a
count-rate and a count-summation circuit, w h e re they are read out on a
chart re c o r d e r.

3 .3 . Data recording

T o analyse A E characteristics precisely it is n ece ssa ry to record A E

data on a m agnetic tape and to exa m in e it from various angles. A n audio-

(b ) Tape- recorder output sign a ls

(c ) P u lse- h eïg ht апаТугег in p u t sign a ls

F I G .3 . AE signal conditioning.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /D -5 465

tape-recorder w hich records amplitude-modulated com ponents of A E

original signals is used for long-time recordings, together with a high-speed
data reco rder for short-time recordings of A E original signals.
T h e signals recorded by the audio-tape-recorder are a rectified im age
of the envelope of the original signal, and m a y be rather suited for analysis
of A E characteristics than the original signals w hich are affected from a
resonant characteristic of the P Z T sensor ( F i g .3 ) .

3 .4 . An alysis of A E characteristics

A 400-channel pulse-height analyser is us ed for precise analysis of

amplitude and em iss io n rate characteristics of the recorded signals. A
shaped pulse with a duration as short as 1 /js is needed for the input signal of
the pulse-height analyser. A pulse converter has been developed w hich can
produce a shaped pulse w h o se pulse-height is in proportion to the amplitude
of the reco rded signal ( F i g . 3).
T h e pulse-height analyser can analyse the A E characteristics of the
following three types:

(1) P H A m o d e ; a m p lit u d e /e m is sio n rate, or amplitude/total e m iss io n

(2) Multi-scaler m o d e ; t im e /e m is s io n rate
(3) Analo gue m o d e ; p h a s e /e m is s io n rate or phase/total em issio n.

A n alysed data can be displayed graphically on an X - Y plotter and

digitally by an electric typewriter.
T h e frequency content characteristics of A E signals and various environ­
m ental noises can be analysed using a real-time frequency-spectrum
analyser, but ve ry little w o r k has been done at present on this analysis and
its application, w h ich is the subject for a future study.

4. D E G R A D A T I O N D IA G N O S T IC S U SIN G A E C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

T o evaluate degrees of irradiation em brittlement, A E characteristics in

tensile tests have been investigated for several metal spe cim e ns w hich w e r e
degraded by neutron irradiation or strain aging.

4 .1 . Irradiation effects on A E characteristics

Sm all tensile-test spe cim e ns of pure copper, pure a lum in ium , pure
iron, and pure van adium and its alloys are irradiated to exa m in e irradiation
effects on A E characteristics.
F ig u r e 4 gives a typical result of A E detection, w h e re a high-purity
(9 9 . 9 9 9 % ) copper s p e c im e n w a s annealed at 5 00 °C for 1 h and then irradiated
for 164 h in the H T R reactor to total dose of 2 .0 X 1017 n / c m 2 by fast neutron
(> 180 k e V ) and 1.1 X 1 0 ls.n /c m 2 by therm al neutron. A s a P Z T sen sor with
100- kHz resonant frequency w a s used for A E detection, A E response a s s o ­
ciated with plastic deform ation appears in this figure. T h e A E e m i s s i o n - r a t e
spectrum of the as-annealed sp e c im e n (F ig . 4 , (a)) shows that the em iss io n
rate is m a x i m u m n ea r the yield strength and d e cre a se s in the work- hardening
ran ge. O n the other hand, the em iss io n rate of the irradiated sp e c im e n is
466 NAK ASA

TIME (s)
(a) AS-ANNEALED

TIME (s)
(b ) IRRADIATED ( 2.0*1017n/cm2 (>180k«V))

F IG .4 . Neutron-irradiation effect on AE characteristics of the 5 0 0 ° C x 1 h annealed pure copper (99.999 % ) .

Gauge length: 20 m m
Strain speed : 2 m m /m in
Cross-section: 8 m m x 0 .2 5 m m
A E detector : 10 m m diam. P Z T sensor (100 kHz).

see n to dec re a se rem ark a b ly ( F i g . 4 .( b ) ) . A sim ilar tendency of emission-

rate de c re a sin g near the yield strength w a s observed for all spe cim e ns of the
9 0 0 °C X 1 h annealed vanadium - boron alloy (F ig . 5) and other m etals tested.
F ig u r e 6 shows a result of P H A - m o d e analysis w hich gives the relation
betw een A E amplitude and the n u m b e r of em issions for 60 s after the b e ­
ginning of tension. It is evident from F i g . 6 that the A E amplitude and the
n u m b e r of em issio ns lie almost on a straight line with the negative slope
after plotting on logarithmic graph paper, and that the slope of the straight
line increases with irradiation. This m e a n s that the amplitude as well as
the n u m b e r of A E em issions relating to plastic deform ation d e cre a se s with
irradiation. Such a sim ilar tendency w a s see n in the V- B alloy and other
m etals.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5 467

TIM EIs)
( q ) A S -A N N EA LED

r
40 -

<
о

i,
¿o
ID
Sí
2г
o g 20
<лО
(ЛU
2W
ш
1 к
0
,
0 тМ._1 .. I Jl I
t00
A .i
200
IL»,
300
к ¿00
TIME (s)
íb ) IRRADIATED ( 2.0* 10t7n/cm2 ( > 180 keV))

FIG. 5. Neutron-irradiation effect on AE characteristics of the 900°C X 2 h annealed V-B (600 ppm) alloy.
Gauge length: 20 m m
Strain speed : 1 m m /m in
Cross-section: 4 m m x 0 .4 m m
AE detector : 10 m m diam. P Z T sensor (100 k H z ).

T h e above-mentioned results for relatively low neutron dose indicate that

A E characteristics near yield stress are sensitive to changes of m aterial
properties by irradiation.

4 .2 . Em brittlem ent by strain aging

Ch an ges of A E characteristics by strain aging have been investigated in

o rder to sim ulate those of irradiation em brittlement of steel. Tensile
spe cim e ns of low-carbon steel w e r e embrittled at different stages of strain
aging, w hich w e r e done by 2 5 0 °C X 1 h heat treatment after 0 .2 , 1, 2, 3 and
1 0 % pre-straining.
468 NAK ASA

F IG .6 . PHA mode analysis of the copper specimens.

(k g /m m 2 )
STRESS
R A T E Ic o u n t s /s )
EMISSION

T IM E (s) A M P L IT U D E a (C H A N N E L N U M B E R )
(a ) M U L TI- S C A LER M O D E (b ) P H A MODE

F I G .7. AE characteristics for an as-received specimen of low-carbon steel (Gauge length: 100 m m ;
strain speed: 2 m m /m in ; cross-section: 100 m 2).
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5 469

)
(kg/mm
STRESS
(counts/s)
RATE
EMISSION

(a ) M U L T I- S C A L E R M O D E (Ь ) PHA MODE

FIG. 8. AE characteristics for a low-carbon steel specimen embrittled by 3%-strain aging. (Gauge length:
100 m m ; strain speed: 2 m m A n in ; cross-section: 100 m m 2).

FIG. 9. Dependency of m (AE non-dimensional parameter), Y (yield stress) and S (Charpy-impact absorption
energy) on the percentage of pre-straining for low-carbon steel.
470 NAK ASA

A test result of the 100- kHz A E detection in the tensile test of an as-
received s p e c im e n is presented in F i g . 7, w h e re (a) is the load-elongation
curve and the corresponding emission-rate response, and (b) is the relation
betw een the A E amplitude and the n u m b e r of em issio ns for 160 s after the
beginning of tension. T h e amplitude of A E signals is so large in the low-
carbon steel that the sensitivity of A E detection w a s low ered to about 1 %
c o m p a r ed with that in the copper spe cim e ns and others of the previous
section. It is seen in this figure that the em ission-rate spectrum has a
sharp peak near the yield strength and that the linear relationship between
the logarithm s of A E amplitude and the n u m b e r of em iss io n is sim ilar to the
case of copper in F i g . 6.
F ig u r e 8 shows typical A E characteristics in the tensile test of the
d egraded s p e c im e n w hich w a s kept at 2 5 0 °C for 1 h after 3 % pre-straining.
In F i g . 8 , (a) and (b) are the results of multi-scaler m ode and P H A m ode
analysis, respectively. T h e linear relationship is observed likewise in ( b ) ,
but the slope of the straight line is sm aller than that of F i g . 7 (b) for the
as- received s p e c im e n . T h is trend differs from the case of the above-
m entioned irradiated m etals. -The dissim ilarity is considered to c o m e from
the difference of A E detection sensitivity, that is the A E signals for the
sm all-sized irradiated spe cim e ns w e r e detected with a higher sensitivity
than those for large-sized steel s p e cim e n s . Accordingly, the fo r m e r m ay
be related to plastic deform ation but the latter m a y be related to both plastic
deform ation and m icr o - c ra c k s . O n the basis of above consideration, the
change of A E characteristics by strain aging m a y be explained to occur by
d e c re a se of plastic deform ation and increase of m icr o crack.
T h e linear relationship between the logarithms of the A E amplitude, a,
and the n u m b e r of em iss io n s , n(a), can be written as follows;

log n(a) = - m log a + log n (1)

or
n (a ) = n Qa (2 )

w h e re m and log n Q are the slope and the intercept of the straight line
respectively. T h e value of m is independent of the signal amplitude, a, as
far as E q . ( l ) holds, and so m is not affected by the factors originating from
instrumentation such as the bonding condition of the A E detector.
F igu re 9 shows dependency of m , yield stress, Y , and Charpy- im pact
absorption en ergy , S, on the percentage of prestraining for the tested low-
carbon steel s p e c im e n s . F r o m this figure, the following experim ental rela ­
tionship m a y be obtained:

(3 )

w h e re v i s a constant with the dim ension of the volu m e.

F u r t h e r w o r k is needed to m ak e sure w hether or not the above relation­
ship holds generally for various m aterials and test conditions. H o w e v e r ,
m , the A E non-dimensional p a ra m eter, can be at least a n indicator to esti­
m ate the degree of m aterial degradation. A s the m-value can be obtained
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5 471

easily fro m the relationship between A E amplitude and the n u m b e r of e m i s ­

sions n ea r the yield stress of a tensile sp e cim e n , A E techniques utilizing the
m-value m a y be applicable to diagnostics for irradiation em brittlement in
reactor v e sse l surveillance.

5. M O N I T O R I N G F A I L U R E P R O C E S S E S IN F A T I G U E T E S T S

Prevention of the fatigue failure of the reactor coolant system is

important for the safe operation of nuclear p o w er plants. T o a s s e ss the
low-cycle fatigue strength of the piping com ponents such as elbow and
b ranch connections for the p r im a r y coolant system of a fast b r ee d e r reactor,
several m ock-up tests are being carried out at the P o w e r R eactor and
N uclear F u e l Dev elo p m ent Corporation (Jap an). S om e of these mock-up
tests have been m onitored by using A E techniques. A typical result is
p resented here as well as the results of basic study for fatigue tests of sm all
stainless-steel s p e c im e n s .

5.1. Fatigue tests on sm all specim ens

A basic study of A E characteristics in the fatigue-failure p rocess of

1 8 % C r - 8 % Ni stainless steel spe cim e ns have been done for its application
to the above-mentioned mock-up tests. S o m e of the results are given in
F ig s 10 and 11.
F ig u r e 10 show s the A E responses of 100- kHz and 600- kHz A E detectors
corresponding to three stages of the loading cycle w hich are initial cycles,
cycles after crack-initiation and cycles shortly prior to failure. The
following results are see n from this figure:

(1) Stainless steel is generally one of the m ost difficult m etals for
detecting the A E signals. D u r in g repeated loading at lower stress level, the
K a is e r effect can be seen in the 100- kHz A E response but is not so evident
in the 600- kHz A E respon se.
(2) T h e A E em iss io n rate is relatively high at the initial stage of
stationary loading cycle, and d e cre a se s gradually to very low level. H o w ­
ever, both the 100- and the 600- kH z A E e m iss io n rates increase after initia­
tion of fatigue cr a c k s.
(3) T h e above-mentioned facts show that the 100- kHz detector m ay
catch the e m issio n s relating to plastic flow followed by crack propagation,
and that the 600- k H z detector m a y catch the em issio n s relating to micro-
and m a c r o - c r a c k s .
T o investigate further the relation betw een the A E response and the
p ro cess of fatigue failure, the s a m e loading-cycle test as in F i g . 10 w a s
carried out using a sp e c im e n with a 2- m m rectangular notch. T h e result
is s h o w n in F i g . 11, w h e re in time variation of the 100- kHz A E total e m i s ­
sion is displayed against the n u m b e r of cycles. It is evident from this
figure that crack initiation and its extension are related to changes of the
slope in linear relationship between the A E total em iss io n and the n u m b e r of
cycles.
472 N AK ASA

FIG. 10. AE response of a 18 Cr-8Ni stainless-steel specimen in loading cycle. (Gauge length: 50 m m ;
cross-section: 2 .9 m m x 1 5.1 m m ; strain speed: 10 m m /m in (stationary cycle)).

FIG* 11. Tim e variation of the 100 kHz-AE total emission in loading cycle of a 1 8 % C r- 8% Ni stainless-steel
specimen with 2-rnm rectangular notch. (M axim um load : 1 .7 2 t; minimum load: 0 .3 2 t).
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5 473

FIG. 12. Model piping and location of AE detectors.

5.2. A E diagnostics for fatigue in m odel piping components

A E characteristics in the p rocess of crack extension due to fatigue

cracking w e r e ex a m in ed in several mock-up tests for the p rim a r y piping
com ponents of a fast b ree de r reactor. W e present a typical result in the
high-temperature (5 5 0 °C ) strain-cycle test of a S U S 304 T P stainless steel T
piping show n in F ig . 12. In this test, the jack w a s driven up and dow n at
the rate of 8 cycles per m in , and its amplitude w a s ± 5 m m before
100 000 cycles and ± 7 .5 m m after 100 000 cycles.
T h e A E characteristics in the fatigue test of piping com ponents at high
tem perature is strikingly different from that of sm all stainless-steel
spe cim e ns at ro o m tem perature. F ig u r e s 13 and 14 show dependency of the
A E characteristics of the multi-scaler m o de and the P H A m o de on t e m p e r a ­
ture, respectively, during repeated loading at constant low-stress level
w h e n the T-piping com ponent w a s heated at the beginning of the test. It is
see n from these figures that the A E amplitude and the A E em issio n rate
increase r em ar k a b ly as the tem perature r ises.
In F i g . 15 is s h o w n the variation of the A E total em issio n in the process
of fatigue failure in this test, w h e re the crack starting and progressing
corresponds with the slope of the total-emission r ise. Shortly before
140 000 cycles w h e n failure occu rred is seen the steep increase in the total-
em iss io n .
F ig u r e 16 gives the P H A - m o d e A E characteristics at 101 000 , 112 100,
128 500 and 139 700 cycles. It is seen in this figure that both the A E a m p li­
tude and the A E em iss io n rates increase as fatigue cracks p ro g re ss, and
474 N AK ASA

300°C

20

о 0 A_Lt
<Л
2 AO
2 1 3 0 eC

20

Ш L

i
20 40 60
TIM E (s)

F IG .1 3 . Temperature dependency of the AE response of the stainless-steel piping component. (Loading cycle:
± 0 .5 t, 3 cycle/min).
)
I C O U N T S /C Y C L E
EMISSION
OF
NUMBER

A M P LITU D E (C H A N N E L N U M B E R )

F IG . 1 4 . T em p erature dep en dency o f the P H A -m o d e AE characteristics o f the sta in le ss-stee l piping com p o n e n t.
 IAEA-SM-168/D-5 475

COUNTS)
(*10
CYCLES
100000
FROM
COUNTS
TOTAL
AE

FIG. 15. Typical test result in the high-temperature (550®C) fatigue test of T piping component.

FIG. 16. Variation of the PHA-mode AE characteristics in the high-temperature (550 °C) fatigue test of T
piping component.
476 NAKASA

that the m-value, defined in E q . ( l ) , at 101 000 cycles w h e n the crack had not
yet o ccu rred , is different from that after it had o ccu rred .
T h e above-mentioned results indicate that A E techniques are very
p ro m isin g for application to the monitoring of fatigue p roc esses and the
anticipation of failure.

6. A P P LIC A T IO N T O N U C LEA R P O W E R PLA N TS

A s seen from above it has been dem onstrated that the A E technique is
very useful for m aterial diagnostics such as the inspection of integrity,
monitoring of degradation and anticipation of fracture. H o w e v e r, m an y
p ro b lem s r e m a in unsolved, w hich will now be discussed.

6.1. Perio dic inspection of degradation

T o a ss e ss and s ecu re structural integrity, periodic inspection of

deterioration using a representative test piece from structural m aterial is
considered n ece ss a ry as well as the continuous in-service m onitoring of a
structure, although there are inherent difficulties in applying quantitatively
the results from a test piece to the structural m aterial. T h e testing m ethod
for such purpose m ust satisfy the following conditions:

(1) It m ust be easily adaptable to field conditions

(2) It m ust have a high sensitivity and fidelity

Acoustic m e a s u r e m e n t s on test pieces have the advantage that the above

conditions can be satisfied and that m an y factors can be investigated in
o rder to supply m u c h information. T h e above-mentioned A E diagnostics,
w hich utilize the A E characteristics near the yield stress of a tensile speci­
m e n , m a y be easily applicable to the present surveillance test pieces such as
sp e cim e n s of the tensile test, the Ch a rp y impact test, and the W O L test.
M a jo r areas of the A E technique requiring further study a re:

(1) Frequency-content characteristics and their applicability to m aterial

diagnostics
(2) Dev elop m ent of standards for evaluating A E information
(3) E stablishm ent of the relationship between A E characteristics and
m aterial properties.

6.2. Continuous monitoring of structural com ponents

E v e n in stainless steel, w hich generates few detectable A E signals, its

piping structure emitted such large amplitude A E signals that they could
be easily detected in the fatigue test at high tem perature. Accordingly, the
A E technique w a s effectively applied to monitoring the process of fatigue
failure.
In continuous m onitoring of structural com ponents in nuclear p o w er
plants, h o w e ver, m a n y p rob lem s m a y o ccu r. In such a case, long-term
stability of the A E instrumentation and absolute calibration of standards for
evaluating A E signals are important' p ro b lem s to be solved, because the
 IAEA-SM-168/D-5 477

fatigue test to be carried out is a short-period accelerated test and differs

fro m the actual conditions.
F u r t h e r m o r e , p ro blem s due to interference from transmitted m echan ical
noise or spurious electrical signals b e c o m e serious in the p o w er plant. T o
reduce electrical noises, it has been found that the use of a 50- Hz band-pass
filter to the a . c . p o w er supply system and electrical insulation of the A E
detector are effective, as w ell as the use of the differential type of sensor
and pream p lifier. O n the other hand, to reduce acoustic noises, the use of
a high-pass filter alone m a y be insufficient, therefore necessitating other
noise-elimination techniques, such as coincidence or anti-coincidence
spatial gating using m aster sen sors surrounded by several slave sen so rs.
T h e n it is possible to decide whether the em iss io n has originated in the
critical test region itself or from so m e extraneous sources such as a bolted
connection and support structures.

7. SUMMARY

In this report, it has be en dem onstrated with various typical test results
that the A E technique is very useful for m aterial diagnostics for assessing
structural integrity. T h e A E instrumentation system m entioned for the
p recise analysis of basic A E characteristics w a s shown to be especially
effective for both degradation diagnostics and for m onitoring failure p ro c e s se s.
At present, an A E instrumentation has not yet been sufficiently applied
to nuclear p o w er plants. A s the usefulness of the A E technique b e co m e s
clear, h o w e ver, m aterial diagnostics by the A E technique will receive wide
application in the n ea r future.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

T h e author w ish es to extend his grateful acknowledgem ent of the support

and contributions provided by D r . Y . T o m o d a and others of the Central
R e s e a r c h Institute of Electric P o w e r Industry staff in the course of the w o r k
discussed, and the co-operation of the P o w e r R eactor and N uclear F u e l
D ev elo p m ent Corporation in obtaining piping fatigue data.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1] IAEA. "Recurring inspection of nuclear reactor steel pressure vessels". Tech.Rep.Series No. 81, IAEA,
Vienna (1968).
[2] HUTTION, P .H ., JOLLY, W .D . , VETRANO, J.B., Acoustic emission for periodic and continuous flaw
detection in pressure vessels, United States Japan Joint Symp. Acoustic Emission, Tokyo, Japan, 4-6 July,
1972.
[3] KIRBY, N .. BENTLEY, P .G ., A note on acoustic emission measurements at REML, IIW Document,
IX-802-72 (1972).
[4] GREEN, A . T ., Detection of incipient failures in pressure vessels by stress-wave emissions, Nucl.Safety
10 1 (1969) 4.
[5] NAKASA, H ., T O M O D A , Y . , On the method of measuring acoustic emission signals emitted in the
process of deformation and fracture of solid materials, CRIEPI Tech.Rep.71064 (1972).
[6] NAKASA, H ., Measurement of acoustic emissions in tensile tests of several materials, CRIEPI Tech.Rep.
71069 (1972).
478 NAKASA

DISCUSSION

E . T O M A C H E V S K Y : In view of the fact that frequency modulation does

not allow the recording of such high frequencies (except possibly by m ea n s
of very expensive equipm ent), do you m a k e your m agnetic tape recordings
in direct m o d e?
H. N A K A S A : A 2-channel audio-tape-recorder (2 0 H z to approximately
25 k H z ) for long-time recordings of the amplitude-modulated components of
the original acoustic e m iss io n signals is used in conjunction with a high­
speed data rec o rde r ( D C approxim ately 2 M H z ) for short-time recordings.
D irect- m ode recordings by the latter are needed for analysis of acoustic
e m iss io n characteristics, such as the frequency contents or w a v e shape,
w hich have not hitherto been adequately analysed.
E . T O M A C H E V S K Y : H o w m an y sam p les are us ed for any one m aterial?
H. NAKASA: T h r e e sam p les have been tested for each m aterial.
E . T O M A C H E V S K Y : In F i g . 10 two sensors are indicated, one of
100 and one of 600 k H z . A r e they mounted on one and the s a m e sam ple and
un der the s a m e conditions, and are the signals received p rocessed
simultaneously?
H . N A K A S A : Y e s , that is correct.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D -6

SURVEILLANCE DES REACTEURS

PAR LES METHODES DE DETECTION
D'EMISSION D'ONDES DE CONTRAINTE
ET DE DETECTION ACOUSTIQUE

B. GASC, E. G. TOMACHEVSKY
CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires
de Saclay, France

A b stract-R ésum é

R E A C TO R SURVEILLANCE BY STRESS-WAVE D E T E C T IO N A N D A C O U S T IC D E T E C T IO N .
In any nuclear power station it is important to receive the earliest possible warning of an emergent
defect and to follow its evolution so as to be able to take the necessary action in good time. For this
reason there is a need for a variety of reactor surveillance systems. Among non-destructive monitoring
techniques, methods based on stress-wave detection and acoustic detection are sure to be further elaborated
in the near future. Both these methods are described in the paper; the results obtained, the difficulties
encountered and the improvements envisaged are described. The first method allows the integrity of a
structure and the second method the proper operation of a system to be checked. The investment required
is minimal.

SURVEILLANCE DES REACTEURS PAR LES M E T H O D E S DE D E T E C T IO N D 'EM ISSIO N D 'O N D E S DE

C O N T R A IN T E E T DE D E T E C T IO N A C O U ST IQ U E .
Dans toute centrale nucléaire il est important d'être averti le plus tôt possible de la naissance d'un
défaut et d'en suivre le développement afin de pouvoir prendre à temps les décisions qui s’ imposent. De
ce fait il est indispensable de multiplier les moyens de surveillance des réacteurs. Parmi les techniques
de contrôle non destructif, les méthodes de détection d'émission d'ondes de contrainte et de détection
acoustique sont promises à un développement certain à courte échéance. Ces deux méthodes sont décrites
dans le mémoire, qui rend également compte des difficultés rencontrées, des résultats obtenus et des
améliorations envisagées. La première de ces méthodes permet de contrôler essentiellement l'intégrité
d'une structure et la seconde, le bon fonctionnement d’ un ensemble, cela au prix d'un investissement minime.

(T) - IN T R O D U C T IO N

Dans toute installation un tant soit peu complexe, il est important d'être
averti le plus tôt possible de la naissance d 'u n défaut et d 'e n suivre le développement
afin de pouvoir prendre à temps les décisions qui s'imposent et éviter ainsi d 'arrive r à
une situation gênante sinon catastrophique.

Bien entendu plus l'in sta lla tio n est coûteuse ou dangereuse, plus les
moyens mis en oeuvre sont nombreux et sophistiqués. Dans les centrales nucléaires, on
y consacre une part de plus en plus importante du budget. Comme les conditions sont
assez particulières parce que bien des parties deviennent inaccessibles après la mise
en marche, pour des raisons de sécurité, il est indispensable de se prémunir au maximum
contre le risque d 'u n grave accident, et de ce fait, de m ultiplier les moyens de sur­
ve illan c e . C 'e st pourquoi les spécialistes de la sûreté des réacteurs sont toujours à
l'affût de toute nouvelle technique de contrôle non destructif susceptible de leur donner
une m eilleure image de la réalité.

479
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 6 481

Parmi les moyens de surveillance des réacteurs nucléaires, deux

méthodes complémentaires sont actuellement en cours de développement :

- la détection d'ém ission d'ondes de contrainte

- la détection acoustique.

/ La première contrôle essentiellement l'intégrité d'une structure et la

seconde le bon fonctionnement d 'u n ensemble.

( ? ) - D E T E C T IO N D 'E M IS S IO N D 'O N D E S DE C O N T R A IN T E

Curiosité de laboratoire il y a à peine quinze ans, la détection de

l'ém ission d'ondes de contrainte1éveille maintenant l'intérêt des contrôleurs qui
lui ont déjà trouvé des applications industrielles et nucléaires bien entendu.

Tout programme de surveillance et d'inspection en service par

détection d'ém ission d'ondes de contrainte se divise naturellement en trois phases
bien distinctes :

- Recherche des caractéristiques des matériaux

- Etude de la propagation des signaux dans les structures
- Localisation des sources émissives.

2.1 - Recherche des caractéristiques des matériaux

O n sait que les émissions d'ondes élastiques de contrainte accompagnent

les libérations d 'énergie d 'u n matériau solide soumis à une déformation plastique et
lors de ses ruptures localisées. Une partie de l'énergie libérée se transforme en ondes
élastiques qui se propagent dans le solide et qui peuvent être détectées â fa surface de
ce solide par un capteur suffisamment sensible. La figure 1 montre l'é ch e lle des
dimensions du phénomène.

De nombreux essais effectués un peu partout dans le monde ont montré

que les émissions différaient d 'u n matériau â l'autre et q u 'e lle s avaient en moyenne la
même allure pour un même matériau sollicité dans des conditions identiques. Ils ont
montré aussi que pour un même matériau elles pouvaient être très différentes selon
que les éprouvettes étaient entaillées ou non.

Si on veut suivre le comportement d 'u n élément du circuit primaire

d 'un réacteur, il est préférable de connaître la caractéristique des matériaux qui le
composent et particulièrement l'influence d'une entaille.

Pour effectuer ces essais, un équipement relativement simple est

suffisant. O n en trouve maintenant de nombreux modèles sur le marché, mais on peut
aussi le monter soi-même avec des modules standards d'électronique nucléaire.

1 "L'émission d ’ondes de contrainte" est appelée "émission acoustique" par certains

auteurs. A notre avis cette appellation ne correspond pas à la réalité car on se
trouve dans le domaine des ultra-sons et, de plus, elle risque de créer une confu­
sion avec "la détection acoustique" et la "signature acoustique" qui utilisent
effectivement des fréquences audibles.
482 G A S C et T O M A C H E V S K Y

FIG .2 . Schéma fonctionnel d'un équipement de détection d'émission d'ondes de contrainte.

L'équipem ent classique comprend (voir figure 2) :

- un capteur piézoélectrique généralement taillé pour être sensible aux ondes transver­
sales parce que le signal délivré a un front de montée raide et une décroissance lente.
M a is il existe aussi des capteurs sensibles aux ondes longitudinales ou de surface.

- un préamplificateur à très bas bruit dont le gain varie de 20 db à 60 db suivant les

constructeurs, destiné à relever le niveau du signal et lui permettre de parcourir la
longueur de câble nécessaire pour arriver à l'unité centrale sans être gêné par les
parasites.

- une unité centrale où le signal est traité. Le traitement consiste à le filtrer, l'a m p li­
fier pour atteindre un ga in total de l'ordre de 80 â 100 db, et à compter les dépasse­
ments d 'u n certain seuil de tension préréglé. O n peut compter le nombre total de ces
dépassements durant le temps de l'essai ou encore le taux de ces dépassements durant
des intervalles de temps pouvant être fixés du 1/10 seconde jusqu'à la dem i-heure.

- des organes périphériques collectant les informations aux divers stades du traitement
selon leur utilité pour l ’expérimentateur.

Le signal à l'état brut peut être observé sur l'oscilloscope ou

enregistré sur bande magnétique en vue d 'un traitement ultérieur (éventuellement en
adoptant d'autres valeurs de réglage).

Le signal au stade numérique peut être enregistré sur un télétype, une

imprimante ou une perforatrice.

En fin de traitement le signal peut être envoyé sur un enregistreur

analogique.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D -6 483

Lo recherche des caractéristiques des matériaux s'effectue en général

dans un laboratoire où l'o n peut ve ille r à opérer dans les meilleures conditions possibles
en évitant au maximum d'engendrer des parasites.

Les machines d'essais mécaniques donnent bien naissance à des bruits

parasites mais comme ils se situent dans des fréquences relativement basses, on n 'a pas
beaucoup de mal à les élim iner en filtrant les signaux d'entrée à 50 ou 100 K H z .

D 'a ille u rs il existe des préamplificateurs équipés d 'un filtre passe-

bande 100 à 300 K H z et, dans ce cas, l'unité centrale ne comporte pas de tiroirs filtre.

Les éprouvettes sont de petite taille et le capteur reçoit non seulement

le signal de base mais aussi les nombreux échos dus aux réflexions sur les parois de
l'éprouvette. Comme il y a peu de perte, les gains nécessaires sont de l'ordre de 70 à
80 db ce qui représente déjà une am plification par 10^ du signal détecté.

2 .2 - Etude de la propagation des signaux dans les structures

Le spectre des fréquences émis par une source est très large, il couvre
en effet toute la bande allant de quelques Hertz à quelques M égahertz. Comme l'a tté ­
n uation croît avec la fréquence, les signaux de faible fréquence peuvent être perçus
beaucoup plus loin de la source émissive que les signaux à haute fréquence. Plus la
fréquence de travail est basse, moins il faudra de capteurs pour surveiller une structure
car l'étendue de leur zone de surveillance dépend de la portée.

M a is de nombreux bruits parasites se superposent justement aux signaux

de faible fréquence, et là, contrairement aux essais effectués en laboratoire, on ne
peut pas toujours les élim iner à leur source. Il est donc nécessaire de filtrer les signaux
jusqu'à un certain seuil dépendant du "b ru it" ambiant de l'e ssai.

Lors des épreuves hydrostatiques en atelier ou sur site, il est possible

de prendre certaines précautions pour empêcher les tuyauteries de vibrer, mais des
bruits d 'o rigin e hydraulique peuvent perturber plus ou moins les essais. Ils peuvent être
éliminés par un seuil de filtrage de 300 K H z . Si le seuil de 50 K H z s'est avéré nette­
ment insuffisant, il a été néanmoins possible de travailler convenablement avec un
filtre 100-300 K H z associé à un capteur résonnant à 160 K H z car le niveau des signaux
provenant du pompage de l'e a u était dans ces conditions bien inférieur à celui des
signaux provenant de la c u v e .

Un montage d'essai effectué sur un coude de circuit primaire est

visible sur le figure 3 et les enregistrements obtenus sur la figure 4.

O n voit que le choix de la fréquence de travail est un élément impor­

tant du succès d 'u n essai. C 'e st ainsi qu'une mission de surveillance à la Centrale de
C hooz pendant l'épreuve hydrostatique d 'août 1971 n 'a donné aucun résultat intéressant
à cause des nombreux signaux parasites émis par des ouvriers travaillant sur la cuve et
le circuit primaire pendant l'épreuve alors que l'éq uip e de détection ne disposait que
d 'une fréquence de 160 K H z sur son équipement et d 'u n seuil de filtrage de 100 K H z
seulement.

Dans le cas du réacteur Phénix le problème est d'échapper au bruit

provenant du sodium contenu dans la cuve. Une étude du spectre de fréquence a montré
484 G A S C et T O M A C H E V S K Y

FIG .3 . Montage d'essai sur un coude de circuit primaire.

 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /D -6 485

F I G .4. Enregistrement de l’ émission de la pression et de la déformation du coude pendant sa mise en

pression.

que ce bruit décroissait fortement après 500 K H z et q u 'il disparaissait pratiquement

dans le bruit de fond à 700 K H z . C 'e st pourquoi les capteurs utilisés pour la surveil­
lance de la cuve ont une fréquence de résonance de 700 K H z .

La répartition des capteurs sur la structure a aussi son importance et

le ch o ix de leur emplacement est souvent limité par des conditions d 'a c c e ssib ilité . Le
problème ne se pose pratiquement pas pendant les essais effectués sur des structures en
atelier où les conditions sont favorables puisque les contrôleurs doivent pouvoir inspec­
ter toute la surface extérieure.

Il a été constaté au cours de ces essais que si les signaux se propa­

geaient bien par la boulonnerie, il n'en était pas de même par les ¡oints métalliques,
même abondamment enduits de graisse pour améliorer le couplage. Il faut donc placer
des capteurs de part et d'autre des plans de ¡oints.

Les ¡oints soudés ne semblent pas introduire d'atténuation.

486 G A S C et T O M A C H E V S K Y

Lorsque pour des raisons particulières, il y a lieu de placer un capteur

sur une tuyauterie aboutissant à un piquage ou même à l'extrémité d 'un guide d'onde,
il faut tenir compte de la valeur moyenne de l'atténuation qui, pour de l'a c ie r, est de
3 db/m â la fréquence de 160 K H z et de 6 db/m à la fréquence de 700 K H z .

Lorsque tous les capteurs sont placés aux endroits choisis, il est
prudent de vérifier leur réponse associée à celle de toute la chaîne de détection. Un
dégrossissage est effectué en frappant la structure de place en place à l'a id e d 'un
objet m étallique. Un moyen plus fin consiste à exciter la structure à l'a id e d 'un cap­
teur lui-même excité à la fréquence de travail à l'a id e d 'u n générateur ou encore b
émettre de vrais signaux de rupture en rompant des tiges entaillées en acier dur,
couplées à la structure pour favoriser la transmission des signaux.

Enfin à cause de la grande dispersion des signaux dans la structure,

les gains se situent aux environs de 90 à 100 db, soit une am plification de l'ordre de
10^. Certains auteurs citent même des exemples d'am plification de l'ordre de 106.

Pour effectuer la surveillance globale d'une structure, on suit l'é v o lu ­

tion du taux ou du total cumulé de l'ém ission de chacun des capteurs couplés sur la
structure. O n peut aussi mixer les informations de tous les capteurs et les dirigier sur
un seul compteur.
Une augmentation de pente de la courbe d'ém ission dénote un regain
d 'activité et un réarrangement interne de la matière pouvant, dans certains cas, former
l'am orce d'une microfissure dont il convient de suivre le développement.

Comme les fuites sous pression engendrent des ultra-sons, elles sont
facilement détectées grâce â la grande sensibilité de toute la chaîne de détection.

2 .3 - Localisation des sources émissives

La figure 5 montre trois enregistrements effectués pendant l'épreuve

hydrostatique d'une cuve de réacteur. Les informations ont été enregistrées simultané­
ment sur place sur bande magnétique et traitées individuellement piste par piste en
laboratoire sur le même appareil en ramenant le gain total â la même valeur.

O r on constate que chacun des trois capteurs a réagi différemment aux

mêmes signaux. C 'e st ainsi q u 'b l'instant "repère 1 6" l'é ne rgie arrivée au capteur situé
sur la virole supérieure est plus grande que celle qui est arrivée aux autres, au "repère
1 22" c'est le capteur situé sur le piquage qui a été le plus excité et enfin au "repère
136" c'est le cas du capteur situé sur la virole inférieure. C ela montre que dans ces
trois cas on a eu affaire à trois sources émissives distinctes, situées chacune au v o isi­
nage d 'un capteur différent.

Au lieu de comparer des niveaux d 'énergie essentiellement variable

d 'u n signal à un autre, on peut comparer les écarts du temps d 'arrivée d 'u n même signal
aux différents capteurs. Connaissant la vitesse de propagation de ce signal, il sera
donc possible, à l'a id e d'une méthode de triangulation d 'e n déterminer le lieu d'ém is­
sion.
Il faut donc comparer les temps d 'arrivée d 'u n signal à trois capteurs
au minimum. M a is comme avec trois capteurs il peut y avoir des solutions doubles, il
vaut mieux utiliser quatre capteurs.
 IAEA-SM-168/D-6 487

10 coups/seconde

CAPTEUR SUR V IR O LE S U P E R IE U R E

О,в

0,6

0 ,4

0/2

0 111 I III 111III I. ll HII lililí ll I I I

10 coups/seconde
0,8
CAPTEUR SUR P IQ U A G E

E
\в 0,4

0,2

■I ll i.lll .. il. ■ I I I .!■ n\

103coups/seconde

0,8 CAPTEUR SUR V IR O LE IN FER IEU R E

0,4

0,2

Lk ill lili. Üli

50 100 150 200 250 300
Repère d e t e m p s

FIG. 5. Enregistrement des signaux provenant de trois capteurs différents pendant l'épreuve hydrostatique
d'une cuve de réacteur.

Un appareil d 'acquisition  t maintenant commercialisé avec la

licence du C . E . A . permet d'effectuer une comparaison des temps d'arrivée d 'u n même
signal à quatre capteurs. Pour éviter la mise en oeuvre d 'un équipement trop lourd on
peut n'utilise r q u'u n seul dispositif de localisation en le branchant sur quatre capteurs
de surveillance générale couvrant toute la structure. Lorsqu'une émission a été détectée
au voisinage de l'u n des quatre capteurs de surveillance générale, si on désire obtenir
488 GASC et TO M AC H EVSK Y

Capteurs de

surveillance
g énérale

Zone de localisation —

p ar les U capteurs considérés \

F IG .6. Localisation fine d'une source émissive.

une localisation plus fine on déconnecte alors les trois capteurs de surveillance géné­
rale les plus éloignés de la source émissive et on branche à leur place les lignes
provenant de trois capteurs situés au mieux dans le secteur du capteur de surveillance.
(V o ir figure 6).

Les bruits parasites d 'origin e électrique se superposent à tous les

signaux et de ce fait, n'affectent pas un capteur particulier sauf dans le cas d 'un défaut
spécifique à la ligne de ce capteur que l'o n ne tarde pas à mettre en évidence au cours
d 'un changement de connexion.

Les bruits parasites d'origine mécanique se comportent comme une

source et peuvent, tout comme elle, être localisés. L'opérateur interprétant les résultats
peut n 'e n pas tenir compte si c'est par exemple le cas d 'u n frottement de support, d 'u n
écoulement de fluide, e t c . ..

M a is la localisation pose encore des problèmes :

- Si l'ap pare illage permet la mesure d'écart de temps avec suffisamment de précision,
il faut être certain de la vitesse de propagation. O r cette vitesse dépend beaucoup
- pratiquement du simple au double - de la nature des ondes : longitudinales,
transversales ou de surface.

- Pour éviter une triangulation manuelle longue et fastidieuse il faut utiliser un pro­
gramme de c a lc u l. La mise au point d 'u n tel programme pour une structure donnée
est compliquée par la présence d'irrégularités qui allongent les temps de parcours,
qui modifient la nature des ondes ou qui provoquent des dispersions ou des échos.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D -6 489

2 .4 - Am éliorations envisagées

Depuis leur utilisation hors du laboratoire, les capteurs ont été bien
améliorés. M a is pour les faire travailler dans un environnement plus sévère, il y a lieu
d'augmenter leur résistance à la température, à la pression et au rayonnement.

II faut également s'affranchir des bruits parasites d 'origin e s les plus

diverses.

Enfin une miniaturisation encore plus poussée de l'équipement facilitera

son implantation et dans ce domaine les progrès sont spectaculaires.

(T) - D E T E C T IO N A C O U S T IQ U E

Les diverses parties d 'un circuit où s'écoule un fluide émettent des

bruits caractéristiques qui sont perceptibles extérieurement à proxim ité.

Ces bruits résultent :

- des résonances acoustiques du circuit, d 'ailleu rs parfaitement calculables2

- des vibrations des structures environnant le capteur3
- du bruit de fond

captés par u n m i c r o p h o n e , ces bruits so nt t ransform é s e n sig n a u x c o m p o r t a n t d e s pics d e fré q u e n c e

caractéristique, ap p elés signature, et qui se m anife ste n t par u n niv eau m o y e n o u m i e u x u n e valeur efficace

m o y e n n e , é g ale m en t caractéristique.

Certes la détermination des pics nécessite un traitement du signal

mais la mesure et l'enregistrement graphique de la valeur efficace de tout ou partie du
signal est réalisable avec des moyens réduits et l'expérience a montré que cet enregis­
trement est déjà riche d 'in fo r m a t i o n (voir fig .7 ).

N ous sommes ainsi conduits à proposer de compléter l'équipement des

Centrales par quelques chafhes acoustiques simples dont les micros seraient placés
extérieurement au circuit dans des endroits judicieusement choisis. (Dans certains cas
on pourra préférer des accéléromètres placés sur des structures particulières). L e traite­
ment du signal serait réduit au seul calcul de la valeur efficace après filtrage éventuel.

3 Le C E A dispose d ’un code de ca lcu l, dénomné Vibraphone, qui permet de calculer

l'acoustique des circuits complexe compte tenu de leurs formes géométriques.

3 Le C E A dispose également d 'un système de codes de calcul permettant d'obtenir les

modes propres de vibration de structures de formes très variées.
490 G A S C et T O M A C H E V S K Y

STRUCTURE

FIG .7 . Schéma fonctionnel d'un équipement de détection acoustique.

3.1 - Caractérisation рог les modalités de détection

3.1 .1 - Incidents dont les conséquences sont_indirectes_sur le fon£tionnement

C e type d 'in cid e n t n'est généralement pas détecté au moment de son

apparition, les dégâts risquent d'augmenter, et à la longue, peuvent menacer la
sécurité.

Exemples :

- l'arrachement de la peau d'étanchéité de l'isolem ent thermique de la partie

inférieure du caisson du réacteur Chinon 3 a été détecté fortuitement au cours
d 'u n e visite ( 1 0 0 m 2 d e tôle fine et gaufrée)

- à la suite d 'un e rupture du diffuseur d'une soufflante du réacteur EL 4, la

pièce arrêtée par un coude commençait à entamer par frottement la paroi
du collecteur. Là encore, l'in cid e n t a été détecté au cours d'une visite

- nombreux exemples de rupture d'ailettes dans les coudes.

 IAEA-SM-168/D-6 491

3.1 .2 - In c id e n t £ ^ j s w n t ^ lu ^ w jnomsjdirectement sur l £ fonctionnement

a) Détectables par les effets sur l'environnement

Exemples :

- rupture de soufflet provoquant une augmentation de la teneur en С О £ dans

la ventilation

- fuite dans les échangeurs ayant pour conséquence la présence de vapeur

dans le g a z et/ou la présence de g a z dans la vapeur.

b) Détectables par les effets directs sur le fonctionnement

La constatation d'une variation nette dé certains paramètres ne

permet pas toujours d'id e n tifie r l'in cid e n t. Des vérifications sont nécessaires pour le
déterminer exactement.

Exemples :

- rupture de doigt de gant de mesure de température

- rupture de pièce d'organe de réglage de débit.

3 .2 - Caractéristiques générales des incidents non prévus

M is à part les cas d 'in cid e n ts dont les causes sont imputables à des
défauts de fabrication, à la corrosion ou à l'erreur humaine la plus grande partie de
ces incidents trouvent leur origine dans des vibrations induites par les écoulements.
Bien que ce phénomène d 'excita tio n vibratoire des structures placées dans les écoule­
ments soit très général et se manifeste par la fatigue alternée de ce lle s-ci en conduisant
6 la rupture au bout de quelques années de fonctionnement, le contrôle commande des
Centrales ne comprend pas en général de traitement d'inform ation concernant ce type
de phénomène.

O r, contrairement à ce q u 'o n pourrait penser, il n'est pas indis­

pensable de disposer d 'un arsenal important d'analyseur en temps réel pour obtenir des
informations valables sur les risques dus aux vibrations.

3 .3 - Exemple d 'ap plications dans le réacteur EL 4

Un m icro est placé â 2 cm du calorifuge d 'un collecteur de refou­

lement des turbo-soufflantes du réacteur EL 4 (Centrale N u clé a ire des Monts d 'A rrée
à Brennilis - Finistère).

Le signâl enregistré en salle de commande peut être utilité comme

un véritable “m ouchard".

La moindre variation de vitesse des soufflantes est visib le . Les

petits chocs sur les tuyauteries se traduisent par des pics nettement visibles. La rupture
d 'un e pièce d 'u n organe de réglage de débit pourtant situé à plusieurs mètres a été
enregistrée, . . . e tc .
492 G A S C et T O M A C H E V S K Y

F1G. 8. Exemple d’enregistrement d'un choc.

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 6 493

Le personnel d 'exploitation apprécie vivement ce type d'inform ation

car il estime que des incidents éventuels dans le circuit primaire ne sauraient passer
inaperçus et q u 'il dispose d 'u n moyen de contrôle supplémentaire indépendant du
contrôle-comm ande.

3 .4 - Perspective d'am élioration du procédé

Avant de se lancer à fond dans un traitement important du signal

q u'o n entrevoit assez bien : comparaison des signaux à un signal de référence mis en
mémoire, analyse des variations des fréquences des pics, étude des fonctions de
transfert entre les sources et les capteurs, etc. il nous semble q u 'il serait extrêmement
profitable que les exploitants de Centrale installent quelques micros et observent les
signaux, y compris acoustiquement. Ils ne manqueront pas d'am éliorer ainsi leur
connaissance sur le fonctionnement de la Centrale et éventuellement détecteront des
risques insoupçonnés.

Lorsqu'une large moisson d'inform ations de ce genre aura été récoltée

et que d'autre part les études théoriques et expérimentales sur les vibrations induites
par les écoulements auront permis de mieux connaître ces phénomènes, le moment sera
venu de choisir le traitement du signal qui conviendra le mieux au but poursuivi.

II ne faudrait pas croire que la méthode d'écoute extérieure des

bruits est limitée aux vibrations induites par les écoulements car tout phénomène
engendrant un bruit caractéristique est détectable (voir fig .8 ).

( 4) - C O N C L U S I O N

La surveillance globale d 'u n e structure fournit une quantité importante

d'inform ations les plus diverses. La détection et la localisation des sources d'ém ission
d'ondes de contrainte apporteront des éléments d'appréciation sur l'intégrité de la
structure alors que la détection acoustique permettra de constater une anomalie de
fonctionnement, signe a va nt- coureur d 'u n incident aux conséquences parfois coûteuses.
G râ ce à cette surveillance, les exploitants, alertés â temps, pourront prendre les
mesures nécessaires soit pour arrêter la progression de l'in cid e n t soit pour en limiter
les effets.

II est heureux de constater que toutes ces précieuses informations

peuvent être obtenues avec un investissement réellement minime en comparaison du
coût d'autres détections plus spécialisées et surtout en rapport du prix de l'in stallatio n
surveillée, sans omettre l'aspect sécurité.

L'investissement peut être encore réduit et l'e ffica cité accrue si

cette méthode de surveillance est envisagée au stade de la conception de la Centrale.

DISCU SSION

G . V A N R E I J E N : In the last two interesting p apers I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 5

and D- 6 it is stated that m aterial failures can be detected fro m stress-wave
e m iss io n . W o r k is being done along these lines in m a n y countries (e. g.
494 G ASC et TO M ACH EVSKY

the United States of A m e r i c a and the United K in g d o m ). I a m particularly

interested in learning w hether practical experience on operational p o w er
plants has been obtained.
E . G . T O M A C H E V S K Y : N u m e r o u s full-scale tests in situ a re required.
E x p e r ie n c e is currently being obtained in the countries you m entioned, in
F r a n c e and els e w h er e.
A . E . S O U C H : W ith respect to M r . v a n R e ije n 's question, I should like
to s a y that in the United K in g d o m three groups, U K A E A ( R E M L Risley), the
N a v y (A dm ira lty M aterials Laboratory) and C E G B (B e rk ele y N uclear
L aboratories) have all developed, or are developing, computer-controlled
multi-detector on-line location techniques. So far as reactor inspection is
co ncerned, w e have collaborated with R E M L in testing s o m e magnox-steel
p r e s s u r e ve ss e ls. W e have looked m ain ly at signal background conditions
and do not think that w e can u s e the system while the reactor is on load.
H o w e v e r , w e can apply it during re- pressurization on a return to p o w er
and hope to m a k e localization m e a s u r e m e n t s v e r y soon using the full
com puter s y s t e m . M aterial investigation conducted on reactor steel is of
great im portance.
A . M I Í K A L : W h a t are your thoughts about h o w to determ ine the best
frequency range for the detection of stress- wave signals (acoustic em ission)?
E . G . T O M A C H E V S K Y : T h e propagation conditions a re better at low
frequencies, but a frequency range higher than that of the parasitics has to
be u s e d in o rder to avoid th em . In the laboratory 100 - 300 k H z is generally
high enough. A p a r t fro m that, everything depends on the circum stances.
A . M I Í K A L : W h a t is the situation as regards introducing diagnostic
system s based on acoustic em iss io n for the type of quality control w o rk
w hich M r . Ellis de scribes in p aper IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 4 ?
E . G . T O M A C H E V S K Y : S o m e industrial applications a r e in the course
of developm ent, e . g . the control of stam ped brake shoes.
A . M I Í K A L : Lastly, what is your opinion regarding the possibility of
using these diagnostic techniques in a nuclear p o w e r station for in-service
inspection?
E . G . T O M A C H E V S K Y : T h e developm ent of the technique of detection
by m e a n s of stress-waves is in fact a im e d at providing an in-service control
sy s tem .
I should just like to m ention in this context that in N o v e m b e r 19 72 the
E u r o p e a n Stress W a v e E m is s io n W o r k in g G roup held a m eeting at Po o le in
the United K in g d o m , w hich w a s attended by s o m e 50 experts. T h e a im of
the W o r k in g G r o u p is to enable E u r o p e a n experts on the subject to m eet,
exchange information on their w o r k and establish contact with United States
and J a p a n e s e bodies.
 IA EA-SM -1 6 8 /D -9

АЛГОРИТМ РАСЧЕТА НАДЕЖНОСТИ

СЛОЖНЫХ СИСТЕМ С ТОЧКИ ЗРЕНИЯ
ЗАВИСИМЫХ ОТКАЗОВ

Б . К У К Л И К , В . С Е М Е Р А Д , 3. Х Ы Л Е К
Научно-исследовательский
институт энергетики,
П ра га,
Чехословацкая Социалистическая Республика

Abstract-Аннотация

T H E A L G O R IT H M F O R T H E C O M P U T A T IO N O F T H E R E L IA B IL IT Y O F C O M P L E X
SY STEM S R E G A R D IN G D E P E N D E N T F A ILU R ES .
In the report the algorithm for the computation of reliability of complex systems
and devices with dependent failures is presented. In fact the special algorithm which
enables to work with algebraic expressions is discussed. Its principle consists of
attaching of two convenient vectors to any individual algebraic expression and of a s ­
signing such operation with this vectors so that logical rules applicable to dependent
failures m a y be respected. Regarding to the logical scheme it is necessary to work
with algebraic expressions as for as the level where the dependencies still occur.
Then the calculation passes from the alternative with dependent failures to the alterna­
tive free of them and only the real values of reliability characteristics of the object
elements are treated. To illustrate the possibilities of the method the calculation of
reliability of the representative control circuit is presented at the end of the report.

А Л Г О Р И Т М Р А С Ч Е Т А Н А Д Е Ж Н О С Т И С Л О Ж Н Ы Х С И С Т Е М С Т О Ч К И З РЕ Н И Я
ЗАВИСИМ Ы Х ОТКАЗОВ.
В докладе представлен алгоритм для вычисления надежности сложных систем и
приборов с зависимыми отказами. Фактически обсуждается специальный алгоритм,
который дает возможность работать с алгебраическими выражениями. Его принцип
заключается в присоединении двух подходящих векторов к любому индивидуальному
алгебраическому выражению и в выборе такой операции с этими векторами, которая
позволяет учитывать логические правила, применимые к зависимым отказам. Что
касается логической схемы, то необходимо проводить работу с алгебраическими
выражениями до уровня, где все еще имеют место зависимости. Затем расчет пере­
ходит от альтернативы с зависимыми отказами к альтернативе без них и рассматрива­
ются только реальные величины характеристик надежности элементов объекта. Для
иллюстрации возможностей метода в конце доклада приводится расчет надежности ха­
рактерной контрольной схемы.

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Наглядное изображение в о зм ож ны х комбинаций отказов, посл ед­

ствием которы х является результирующий опасный отказ системы ,
представляет собой схему надежности системы , которая иногда о б о з н а ­
чается как "д ер ев о о т к а зо в ". В такой схем е надежности применяют­
ся обозначения математической логики. При соблюдении правил п е ­
рехода от логических операций к операциям вероятностны м и при вве­
дении подходящих алгоритмов эту логическую схему м о ж н о применить
для расчета надежности рассматриваемой с и стем ы , т. е. для вычисле­
ния вероятности упом я нутого результирующего отказа.

495
496 К УК Л И К и др.

В м е с т о первоначальных входных величин, которые м огу т прини­

м ать два значения, обозначающих состояние отдельных элементов
системы (0 - элемент исправен, 1 - элемент отказал), вводятся веро­
ятности отказа элементов q¡ (t).
Для логического сложения и логического умнож ения действитель­
ны при вычислении вероятностей следующие соотношения:
Л огическое сложение

q (t ) =■q (t ) + q (t ) - q (t ) X q (t )
z 1 2 1 2
Л огическое умнож ение

q (t ) = q. (t ) x q (t )
z 1 2
Логические операции при наличии более двух входов м о ж н о разло­
жить на несколько просты х операций с двумя переменны ми входными
величинами. Если составлена логическая схема надежности и изв ест­
ны характеристики надежности элементов, то надежность устройства
легко определить. Для более сложных систем вычисление целесооб­
разно производить при помощ и Ц В М (цифровой вычислительной м а ш и ­
ны ), особенно в случаях, когда его необходи мо повторять при и з м е н е ­
нии входных данных.
Н е обх од и м о обратить внимание на то, что вышеприведенные с о о т ­
нош ения действительны только при предположении, что "д ер ев о от к а ­
з ов " не содержит зависимые отказы ; здесь имеется в виду зависимость
проявляющаяся таким о б р а зо м , что действие определенного отказа
появляется одновременно на нескольких входах схемы надежности.
При анализе н а д е ж н о с т и ,о с о б е н н о сложных систем с резервиро­
ванием, зависимые отказы , как правило, имеют м е с т о. В более п ро­
стых случаях зависимые отказы м ож н о исключить путем логических
рассуждений. В большинстве более сложных случаев это практически
н е в оз м о ж н о . При пренебрежении зависимыми отказами, возникающую
ошибку трудно предварительно оценить.
Если выражения для расчета схемы надежности вплоть до места
окончательного стыка ветвей "дерева о т к а зо в ", которые содержат
зависимый отка з, преобразованы к виду простого многочлена, то
результирующее соотношение м о ж н о преобразовать в соответствии с
правилами, действительными для зависимых отказов:

q. д q . = q¡

v q¡ = q¡
Т а ки м о б р а зо м , зависимости м ож н о устранить еще перед вычисле­
ни е м , если такое преобразование выражения для вероятности отказа в
уп ом я н у т ом месте"дерева отказовнне слишком сложно.
При более сложных с хе м а х , в которых имеются зависимые отказы,
необходи м о для расчета применить другой алгоритм, который даст
возм ож н ость обрабатывать алгебраические выражения при помощ и Ц В М

АЛГОРИТМ РАСЧЕТА

При расчете надежности системы , содержащей зависимые отказы,

логическая с хем а которой и м е ет ся , необходи мо различать характер
 IA E A -SM - 1 6 8 /D - 9 497

отдельных отказов на входе. В случае независимы х отказов опери­

ру ем прямо с числовыми значениями вероятностей этих отказов, между
т е м как в случае зависимых отказов оперируем с общими значениями, а
следовательно весь расчет производим с алгебраическими вы ражени­
ями до того уровня логической с хе м ы , на котором зависимости еще
проявляются. В э том случае в о зм ож но подставить вм ес то общих
значений вероятности их числовые значения и расчет переходит в вы ­
числение, аналогичное вычислению без зависимых отказов.
При всех операциях с алгебраическими выражениями необходимо
принимать в расчет вы ш еупомянуты е логические правила для зависи­
м ы х отказов. Т аким о б р а зо м , зависимости исключаются в процессе
расчета.
А л горитм этого расчета основан на т о м , что к отдельным алгебра­
ическим вы ражениям относятся два подходящих вектора и запрограмми-
руются необходимы е операции над этими векторами. Т аким об р а зо м ,
в о з м о ж н о при помощ и Ц В М обрабатывать алгебраические выражения,
чего без этого нельзя было бы осуществить.
В качестве примера рассм отрим устройство, содержащее только
два зависимых отказа: Q j и Q 2 . Для э того случая показана после­
довательность расчета надежности устройства, если известна логичес­
кая с х е м а , содержащая все комбинации отказов, последствием которых
является результирующий отказ устройства.
В каж дом м е ст е "дерева отказов" выражение для вероятности
отказа м о ж н о представить в ф орм е:

+• a q +■а 1 + а Q q
2 П 12 4 М1 Ч 2

где q2 , q 2 - вероятности зависимых отказов и Q 2, a¡ - числовые

коэффициенты , которые включают все остальные независимые отказы.
К оэфф иц иент а1 включает все члены первоначального выражения,
которые после преобразования не со держ ат зависимых отказов qj и
q 2 . Следующие коэффициенты a¡ включают только те члены первона­
чального выражения, которые содержат соответственно зависимые
отказы q^ , q 2 и q 1q2 • Коэффициенты а. числа, независимые от
q j , q 2 и вычисленные уже в течение расчета. В случае, если в р а с­
см атри ва ем ом м е ст е "дерева отказов" один или оба зависимых отка­
за не встречаются, то соответствующие коэффициенты а. равны нулю.
К алгебраическому выражению вероятности отказа в рассм атри ­
в а е м о м месте с хе м ы , приведенному к вышеуказанной ф о р м е ,о т н е с е м
два вектора.
Э л ем е н та м и первого вектора являются числовые коэффициенты
а. данного выражения, элементы второго вектора содержат общие зна­
чения q. вероятностей зависимых отказов, записанные с помощью л о ­
гических символов.
Каждый из обоих векторов содержит столько элементов, сколько
им еется членов в данном алгебраическом выражении. Если число за ­
висимых отказов - п, то алгебраическое выражение содержит 2 членов
и каждый из векторов состоит из стольких же элементов. К аж д ом у
члену алгебраического выражения соответствует по одному элементу
каж дого вектора.
498 К У К Л И К и др.

Первый вектор алгебраического выражения А , образованный дей ­

ствительными коэффициентами отдельных членов этого выражения,
обозначим а :

" = { a i a 2 a 3 a4 }

Эл ем ен ты второго вектора n -порядковые числа, причем на м е с ­

те соответствующего порядкового числа i -того элемента находится
единица или ноль в соответствии с т е м , содержит или не содержит
соответствующий i -тый член алгебраического выражения данный
зависимый отказ. Если обозначить второй вектор К , то для рассм атри ­
в а ем о го случая действительно выражение:

i
К = 1 00 01 10 11 j

Первый член выражения А не содержит зависимых отказов, п оэ ­

т ом у соответствующий элемент вектора К им еет нулевое значение.
Второй член выражения А содержит отказ qj , поэтом у второй элемент
вектора К имеет значение 01. Аналогично образованы и следующие
два элемента вектора К .

Логическое произведение двух алгебраических выражений

Для производства логического ум нож ения в о зь м ем вероятностные

алгебраические выражения А и В , заданные следующим образом:

A- a + a q + a q + a q q
1 2 1 з ч2 4 1 2

В = b -f -b q + b q + b q q
1 21 32 4 1 2

Э т о опять случай с двумя зависимыми отказами.

К выражению А отнесем вектора:

а а а а \
1 2 3 4 J

к = I 00 01 10 11 J

К выражению В отнесем вектора:

е = { Ь 1 Ь2 Ь 3 Ь 4}

К =I 00 01 10 11 j

Результирующее алгебраическое выражение С будет т ого же

с а м ог о вида:
 IA EA -SM -1 6 8 /D -9 499

Т о же сам ое с двумя отнесенны ми векторами:

■У = { с i с2 с з с 4 }

к = 1 00 01 10 11 j

С обственны е операции с векторами протекают следующим образом:

1. В с е элементы вектора а поочередно перемножаются со всеми
элементами вектора /3 .
2. Одинаковы е произведения необходи мо соединить так, чтобы обра­
зовались соответствующие элементы вектора у . Правильное соеди­
нение всех отдельных произведений в соответствующий элемент вектора
у производится с помощью векторов К .
И з в е с т н о , что отдельным эл ементам векторов а и ,8 однозначно
соответствуют определенные элементы векторов К . При каж дом у м ­
ножении элементов векторов а и j? соответствующие элементы век­
торов К слагаются по логическим правилам:

0 + 0 = 0

0 + 1 = 1

1 + 1 = 1

С у м м а элементов векторов К однозначно определяет, к которому

элементу вектора у относится произведение соответствующих э л е м ен ­
тов векторов а ,
П ри ведем пример описанной операции.
Вт оро й элемент вектора а перемнож ается поочередно со всеми
элементами вектора ¡3 . Произведения этих элементов принимают
значения а2 bj , а2 Ь2 , а2 Ь 3 , а2 Ь4 .
Далее складываются логически соответствующие элементы векто­
ров К .

01 01 01 01

00 01 ж п_
01 01 и 11

С у м м а 01 означает, что соответствующие ей произведения а2 и

а 2 fc>2B результирующем векторе входят в элемент с2 ; с у м м а 11 озн а ­
чает, что соответствующие ей произведения а2 Ь 3 , а2 Ь4 входят в
элемент с.
4
Аналогично поступаем и при умножении остальных элементов
векторов а и (I . В результате получим вектор у , из которого с п о ­
мощью вектора К м о ж н о получить результирующее алгебраическое
выражение С .
Векторы К для всех алгебраических выражений данной схемы оди­
наковы. Они определяются количеством рассматриваемы х зависимых
отказов q. и числом их комбинаций. Последовательность вычисле­
ния аналогична и для более сложных алгебраических выражений.
500 К УК Л И К и др.

Логическая с у м м а двух алгебраических выражений

При логическом сложении вероятностных алгебраических вы раж е­

ний будут опять применены операции с отдельными векторами.
Если рассматривать случай двух зависимых отказов, то суммой
алгебраических выражений А и В будет алгебраическое выражение D ,
которое подобно предшествующему случаю определяется двумя вектора­
ми:

Э л ем е н ты вектора t определяются вы ражением:

d = а +• b - с для i = 1 ,2 ,3 ,4

Здесь а. , Ь ; - элементы первоначальных векторов а и в алгеб­

раических выражений А и В ; с. - элемент вектора у логического
произведения С = А л В . Следовательно^ прежде всего необходимо
вычислить значения элементов вектора 7 и из них значения элементов
вектора <5.

Программ и рование

При программировании на Ц В М обе логические операции м ож н о

программировать с овм естно как одну операцию. При э т о м , в первой
фазе вычисляются значения элементов вектора у , а в последующей -
значения элементов вектора б . При вычислении логического произ­
ведения вторая фаза операции выпускается.
П рограм ми рование упрощается т е м , что второй вектор К имеет
одинаковое значение для всех алгебраических выражений данного "д е р е ­
ва о т к а зо в ". Ц В М использует при каждой операции предварительно
подготовленную таблицу его элементов.
С помощью вспомогательны х векторов в любом м е ст е схемы надеж ­
ности м о ж н о создать соответствующее алгебраическое выражение и,
вычисляя его, найти значение вероятности отказа в данном месте.

П РА К Т И ЧЕ С К О Е ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ

При помощ и вы шеописанного алгоритма разработана п рогра м м а,

служащая для анализа систем управления. Р еш ени е основных логичес­
ких операций и м е тод составления "дер ев а отказов" аналогичны м е т о ­
д а м , приводимы м в литературе.
О б ъ е к т о м анализа надежности в наш ем случае была система
автоматического регулирования температуры теплоносителя атомной
электростанции А 1 . Нам и определялась вероятность такого отказа
с и стем ы , последствием которого была бы аварийная остановка реак то­
ра. Логическая схем а надежности содержит более 150 входных э л ем ен­
тов.
 IA E A -S M -16 8 /D -9 501

Результирующее нежелательное собы тие, вероятность которого

определялась', с одной стороны , был отказ, ведущий к недопустимому
повышению заданной мощ ности реактора, а, с другой стороны , отказ,
препятствующий необх од и м ом у понижению мощ ности.
В ходн ы е данные (интенсивности отказов) отдельных элементов
с и стем ы , которые являются входами "дерева о т к а зо в ", определялись,
с одной стороны , по данным поставщиков отдельных приборов, а, с др у­
гой стороны , по данны м, приводимым в доступной нам литературе для
аналогичных приборов.
И с сл едуем ое "д ерево отказов" содержало три зависимых отказа,
зависимость которы х необходи мо было учитывать при помощ и описан­
ного алгоритма.
Анализ надежности вы шеупомянутой системы регулирования р е ­
шен сначала без учета влияния рем онта и восстановления отдельных
элементов системы . На дальнейшем этапе анализа упомянуты е влия­
ния уже учитывались. Несколько ра ссмотренны х альтернативных р е ш е ­
ний анализа надеж ности, при которых учитывалось влияние р ем онта и
восстановления, м о ж н о в основном отнести к двум видам. Р е зу л ь т а ­
т о м решений первого вида является вероятность т ог о, что в рассм атри ­
ваемый м о м е н т система находится в неработоспособном состоянии.
При э том нас не интересует поведение системы перед рассматриваемы м

Рис. 1. Вероятность отказов в некоторых местах системы регулирования отдельных

исследованных вариантов в зависимости от времени.
1 - без учета влияния ремонта и восстановления;
2 - решение первого вида - вероятность неработоспособного состояния с учетом
влияния ремонта;
3 - решение второго вида - с учетом влияния восстановления;
4 - то же самое как 3, но предельный случай.
502 К УК Л И К и др.

м ом ентом. При реш ениях этого типа учитывалось влияние р е м онт а , а

в случае необходимости,и влияние восстановления отдельных элементов
системы .
Ре з у л ь та том решений второго вида является вероятность появле­
ния отказа системы в течение рассматриваемого отрезка времени.
При этих решениях учитывалось влияние восстановления элементов
системы . Р а з у м е е т с я , что вероятность, полученная при решениях
второго вида, сущ ественно вы ш е, чем при решениях первого вида.
Вычисления рассматриваемы х вероятностей произведены в интер­
валах от 100 вплоть до 1 0 .0 0 0 часов. Таким о б р а зо м , получены зави­
симости вероятности отказа от времени для отдельных альтернативных
решений анализа надежности. Вероятность отказа исследовалась для
нескольких различных м е ст системы.
Резул ьтаты расчетов подтвердили благоприятное влияние резерви­
рования, восстановления и регулярного ремонта элементов системы .
Анализ показал, что зависимые отказы выявляют слабые места системы.
Н а основе анализа надежности также определены другие слабые места
систем ы , даны рекомендации улучшений схемы и указаны м е с т а , к о т о ­
р ы м необходи мо уделять повышенное внимание при периодическом к о н ­
троле системы . Сравнение результатов отдельных альтернативных
решений анализа дало возмож ность обсудить пригодность отдельных
альтернатив.
В качестве примера на рис. 1 приведены результаты вычисления
различных альтернатив в м е ст е выхода цепи одного из двух взаимно
резервируемы х главных регуляторов рассматриваемой системы.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7

A M E LIO R A T IO N DE L ’ IM MUNITE A U X
P A R A SIT E S DES E N SE M BLES DE
MESURE N UCLEAIRE A IMPULSIONS
J. BUISSON
CEA, Centre d’ études nucléaires
d e Saclay, France

Présenté par P. Jover

Abstract-Résumé

REDU CING TH E SUSCEPTIBILITY T O INTERFERENCE OF N U CLEA R PULSE C O U N T I N G ASSEMBLIES.

In neutron monitoring systems the measurement assemblies most susceptible to interference are
frequently those operating in a pulsed regime. This paper analyses the mechanism of interference and shows
that, whatever the origin of the interference (mains supply, radiation, differences in ground potential), the
resultant phenomenon is always the same: the circulation of a current in the equipment screening. This
current is the basic cause of measurement interference. The mechanism of action of this current, in relation
to plugs, electronic component screening and cable screening, is considered. The concept of transfer
impedance (characterizing the immunity of cables to interference) is explained. Results are given for different
cables, in particular a new cable with mu-metal screening recently developed by the CEA,

A M EL IO R A TIO N DE L’ IM M U N IT E A U X PARASITES DES ENSEMBLES DE MESURE NUCLEAIRE A IMPULSIONS.

Sur les installations de contrôle neutronique, les ensembles de mesure les plus perturbés par les
parasites sont souvent ceux fonctionnant en impulsions. Dans cette note, on présente une analyse du
mécanisme d’ action des parasites et on montre que quelle qu’en soit l’ origine (parasites véhiculés par le
secteur, parasites rayonnês, différences de potentiel entre terres), les parasites se traduisent toujours par
le m ê m e phénomène, à savoir: la circulation d’un courant sur le blindage de l’ installation; la seule cause
de perturbation des mesures est l’ action de ce courant. On étudie ensuite le mécanisme d'action de ce courant
au niveau des connecteurs, des blindages de l’ électronique et des câbles. On définit la notion d’ impédance
de transfert, caractéristique de l’ immunité aux parasites des câbles, et on donne les résultats obtenus avec
différents câbles, en particulier avec un nouveau câble à blindage mu-métal récemment développé par
le C EA.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

Cette note est relative aux p ro b lèm es rencontrés et aux solutions

adoptées pour réduire la sensibilité aux parasites des e n s e m b le s de m e ­
sure de contrôle de s réacteurs et installations nucléaires fonctionnant en
im p ulsio ns.

L e s e n s e m b le s de m e s u r e considérés com prennent un détecteur,

éventuellement un préam plificateur et un sous-ensem ble électronique
ainsi que leurs liaisons. L e s signaux à véhiculer sont de l'ordre de quel­
ques dizaines de m icrovolts, la longueur de la liaison coaxiale entre le
détecteur et l'électronique est en m oyenn e de 200 m ètre s et la bande p a s ­
sante de l'électronique s !étend de quelques k H z à 50 M H z .

L e s considérations abordées dans cette note peuvent s'appliquer

égalem ent à d'autres systèm es de m e s u r e . L e s p ro b lèm es rencontrés ne
sont pas spécifiques aux installations nucléaires et chacun pourra trouver

503
504 BUISSON

dans ce qui suit certaines applications et r eco m m a n da tio n s s'appliquant

à des cas particuliers qu'il aura rencontrés. Ceci dans la m e s u r e où
l'amplitude des signaux et la g a m m e de fréquences sont com parables à
celles é no n cées.

Cette note a pour but égalem ent de démystifier les p roblèm es

posés par les parasites en présentant une analyse sim ple qui p erm et de
voir clair dans ce dom ain e et de résoudre les p rob lèm es non plus c o m m e
autrefois d'une m a n iè r e em pirique m a is d'u ne façon technique et logique.

Son application nous a toujours conduit en pratique à des résultats

positifs et à l'explication des p hénom ènes à priori aberrants que l'on
rencontre souvent dans ce do m a in e.

2. O R IG IN E D E S P A R A S IT E S

O n rencontre souvent une distinction entre différentes sortes de

parasites :

- parasites secteur,

- parasites rayonnes,

- parasites engendrés par des différences de potentiel entre les

t e r re s .

E n fait, cette distinction est illusoire car, c o m m e nous allons le

voir en exam inant le p ro b lèm e, on s'aperçoit que le m o d e d'action de ces
différentes sortes de parasites fait appel à un m é c a n is m e identique pour
les différents ca s.

2.1. P arasites secteur

D a n s la g a m m e des fréquences qui nous préoccupe ces parasites

ne sont gênants que lorsqu'ils apparaissent sous la fo r m e de signaux tran­
sitoires à fronts raides superposés à la sinusoide du r é s e a u . L 'a n a ly s e
harm o n iq ue de ces signaux conduit à des com posantes à fréquence élevée.
C o m m e en général les lignes d'alimentation secteur ne sont pas blindées
et, de plus, de longueur importante, ces aériens peuvent rayonner un
c h a m p électrom agnétique de parasites et dans ces conditions on se r e ­
trouve alors en p ré sence de parasites ray o n n é s.

Une autre voie par laquelle les parasites secteur peuvent agir est
la "t r a n s p a r e n c e " des alimentations. Souvent on r e c o m m a n d e alors l'uti­
lisation de filtres secteur. N ous considérons que de tels filtres ne r éso l­
vent pas le p r o b lè m e . E n effet, les parasites véhiculés par la ligne d'a li­
mentation agissent de préférence aux endroits les plus sensibles c'est-à-
dire sur l'am plificateur d 'e n t ré e . E n général l'alimentation de cet
amplificateur est c o m m u n e à d'autres fonctions (discrim ination, m is e en
fo r m e d'im p u lsio n s, e t c . . . ) lesquelles, m alg ré la faible valeur de la
résistance interne de l'alimentation stabilisée, peuvent développer sur la
ligne d'alimentation des tensions perturbatrices quelquefois plus im p o r ­
tantes que les parasites venant du secteur (autoparasitage).
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7 505

D 'a u t r e part, m ê m e si aucune fonction n'induit des signaux p a r a ­

sites sur l'alimentation, les liaisons entre l'am plificateur et l'alimentation
peuvent avoir des longueurs telles que des perturbations peuvent y être
induites par d'autres sources de parasites, par couplage capacitif, par
ray o n nem ent, e t c . . . et peut-être m ê m e par les parasites provenant des
lignes secteur situées en amont de filtres équipant l'e n s e m b le de m e s u r e . . .

Com pte tenu de ces r e m a r q u e s , la seule solution est de prévoir des

découplages sérieux de l'alimentation au niveau m ê m e de l'am plificateur,
le plus près possible du point d'entrée des alimentations dans ce bloc.
D a n s ces conditions, l'em p loi de filtres secteur est un luxe inutile. C 'est
au stade de la conception du m atériel que l'on doit tenir compte des p ro ­
b lè m e s posés par les p arasites. Si l'appareillage électronique a été bien
conçu la seule voie d 'a c c è s pour les parasites reste alors l'entrée de
l'am plificateur et seule l'énergie rayonnée par les lignes véhiculant le
secteur et ses parasites sera à prend re en considération.

2.2. P a ra sites rayonnés

L e s parasites secteur constituant un cas particulier des parasites

ray o n nés, il reste à voir le m o d e d'action de ces derniers ainsi que celui
dû à des tensions parasites entre t e r r e s . N o u s ve rr o n s que leurs actions
sont sim ilaires et en résolvant les p ro b lèm es posés par les parasites
rayonnés on résout de la m ê m e m a n iè r e ceux posés par les t e r r e s .

3. M O D E D 'A C T I O N D E S P A R A S IT E S

Suivant l'installation considérée, différents m o d e s d'action des

parasites sont p o ssibles. Quoiqu'il en soit le résultat reste toujours le
m ê m e , à savoir : circulation d 'u n courant de parasites sur le blindage de
l'installation (câble, connecteurs, électronique, e t c . . . ) .

E n effet, considérons l'e n s e m b le de m e s u r e fo rm é par le détec­

teur, le câble coaxial de liaison, un préam plificateur (ou un systèm e de
r ac c o rd em en t) et l'électronique (voir figure 1). L e détecteur peut être en
contact avec la terre locale ou isolé m a is il présente toujours une certaine
capacité par rapport à celle-ci et par conséquent, le blindage de l'instal­
lation fo r m e avec la terre une boucle.

a) Si un ch a m p électromagnétique de parasites traverse cette

boucle, la com posante m agnétique du cham p v a induire un courant de
parasites I sur le blindage.

Sous-ensemble
de mesure
Détecteur Préamplificateur

'y / ^ z / Z / T / / / / ^ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

FIG. 1 . C ircu lation de courant de parasites dans le b lin d age.

506 BUISSON

b) L a distance entre le détecteur et l'électronique pouvant être de

plusieurs centaines de m è tre s des différences de potentiel parasites r is ­
quent fort d'exister entre des terres aussi éloignées. C e s différences de
potentiel provoquent égalem ent la circulation d 'u n courant de parasites
sur le blindage.

Quelle q u'en soit l'origine, l'effet des parasites se caractérise tou­

jours par la circulation d 'u n courant de parasites sur l'en se m b le du blin­
dage de l'installation et sur un en sem b le de m e s u r e bien conçu, la seule
cause de perturbation des m e s u r e s est due à l'action de ce courant. Nous
v e rr o n s plus loin co m m e nt il agit sur les différentes parties de l'instal­
lation : câbles, connecteurs, blindage de l'électronique, e t c . . .

L e s m é c a n is m e s d'apparition d 'u n "courant de gaine" donnés ci-

d e ss u s ne sont pas les seuls, on peut en im a gin er d 'a u t r e s . E n particulier
dans le cas où le détecteur est isolé de la terre, on peut concevoir que
toute la longueur de la liaison se com porte c o m m e une antenne réceptrice
résonnant en Л / 4 .

D 'u n e autre m a n iè r e , sur les installations de contrôle neutronique

le câble est toujours disposé à l'intérieur de "c h e m in s de c â b le s ", fo rm é s
de plaques m étalliques. Sur des longueurs de plusieurs centaines de m ètre s
ce ch e m in de câbles est le siège de courants de circulation parasites. Entre
le blindage du câble de m e s u r e et le c he m in de câble on a alors affaire à
une ligne de tra n sm iss io n et le m o de de circulation du courant parasite sur
le câble est encore différent de s m é c a n i s m e s précédents. D a n s la pratique
on aura toujours affaire à un m élange de différents m o d e s d'apparition.

4. M E C A N I S M E D 'A C T I O N D U C O U R A N T D E G A IN E

Quelle q u 'en soit l'origine, il im porte de co m p r en d r e c o m m e n t le

courant circulant sur les blindages peut agir au niveau des endroits sen si­
bles de l'e n se m b le de m e s u r e . A u départ, le p roblèm e des parasites est
un ph én o m ène diffus; par des considérations sim ples et vérifiées en p r a ­
tique, on r a m è n e les choses à une notion beaucoup plus concrète de courant
de circulation. Po u r agir efficacement sur l'im m un ité aux parasites de
l'e n s e m b le de m e s u r e , il s'agit m aintenant de connaître le m o d e d'action de
ce courant.

Amplificateur

F I G .2 , C réation de tension parasite à cause des résistances d e c o n ta ct.

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7 507

4.1. A u niveau des connecteurs et de l'électronique

Considérons un connecteur présentant une résistance de contact

de m a s s e R (figure 2 ). L e câble est adapté au niveau de l'am plificateur sur
son im p édance caractéristique Z . L a portion du câble situé en amont du
connecteur représente une certaine charge Z dont la valeur tend v e r s l 'i m ­
pédance caractéristique du câble lorsque la longueur de ce dernier a u g m e n ­
te. Si un courant (I) est induit sur le blindage, une partie de ce courant (i)
se r a dérivée sur l 'â m e centrale dans une proportion d'autant plus im p o r ­
tante que R sera grand vis-à-vis de 2 Z . Ce courant i développera aux
bo rnes de l'im p é d a n c e d'entrée de l'am plificateur la tension parasite.

Q u 'il s 'a g is s e d 'u n couple de connecteurs situé au m ilieu de la

liaison ou d 'e m b a s e s équipant les am plificateurs ou préam plificateurs, il
y aura lieu d'utiliser des m o dèle s présentant les plus faibles résistances

Signal d'attaque identique

pour tous les connecteurs Y=V5A/cm

\ X = 2(1$/cm

Signal parasite sur

l'èlectrode signal

N Connecteur LEMO
FH IC 100 Y =200 |LV/cm

Connecteur HN
Y =10 iiV /cm

F I G .3 . Réponse de différents connecteurs à une im p u lsion de courant sur leur b lin d age .
508 BUISSON

de contact possibles en série avec les m a s s e s à r a c c o r d e r . L e s connec­

teurs que nous utilisons sont les types H N , N et T N C . L a figure 3 m ontre
la rép o nse de différents connecteurs coaxiaux du m a r c h é à une im pulsion
de courant injectée sur leur blindage.

A u niveau de l'électronique, le m é c a n is m e d'action du courant de

gaine est identique à celui rencontré pour les connecteurs, et dans la con­
ception m é can iq ue des amplificateurs et préam plificateurs, il y a lieu
d 'o b s e rv e r de grandes précautions pour a ss u r e r un écoulem ent du courant
de parasites à travers les blindages et d'éviter toute discontinuité entraî­
nant des résistances de contact (R ' ). U n sous- ensem ble de m e s u r e doit
pouvoir supporter sur son blindage tout le courant de parasites a m e n é par
le reste de la liaison sans apporter de perturbation. C e s principes entraî­
nent souvent une conception m écan iq ue différente de celle qu'on a l'habi­
tude de rencontrer, par ex e m p le connecteurs d'entrée et de sortie des
préam plificateurs disposés sur la m ê m e face du boîtier.

4 . 2. A u niveau des câbles

P o u r les câbles nous rencontrons le m ê m e m é c a n is m e d'action.

M a is alors que dans les deux cas précédents, il s'agissait de résistances
(ou im p é da nc e s) de contact localisées, on a affaire pour les câbles à des
p ro b lèm es d 'im p é d a n c e de tresse répartie.

A ce p h én om ène peuvent s'ajouter égalem ent des effets parasites

(résonances inter-tresses, effet de tre sse , e t c . . . ) . G r o ss iè r em en t on
peut e x a m in e r ce qui se p asse au niveau d 'u n câble de la façon suivante :

Considérons (figure 4) le cas d 'u n câble coaxial comportant un

blindage plein. L e courant de parasites est induit sur la face externe du
b lin da ge. P a r effet de peau, on aura une atténuation de ce courant en
fonction de l'ép a isseu r m a is il existera un courant résiduel i sur la face
interne du blindage, et c'est ce courant qui développe sur l'im p éd a nce de
charge Z c la tension parasite e . O n peut ainsi définir pour un câble donné
en fonction de la fréquence son im pédance de transfert : = — par
unité de longueur, caractéristique de l'im m un ité aux parasites du câble.

F I G .4 . C réation de tension parasite par induction de courant sur l 'â m e c en tra le .

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7 509

L 'e x p r e s s io n générale de l'im p éd a n ce de transfert d 'u n câble est

donnée par :
R

Z t ’ Ü , ^ , °2 - 8 , 2 * 1Z ,
\r ”6l * TÔT- * т т г ^ + •••

avec
2 4 ,ге% 0Mr
x

= résistance linéique du blindage

e = épaisseur du blindage

f = fréquence

M0Air perm éabilité relative du blindage

p = résistivité du blindage.

L 'a llu re de cette courbe est donnée sur la figure 5 (relevé exp é ri­
m enta le m en t). L a form ule n'est valable que pour un câble à blindage plein
Si l'on considère le cas pratique des câbles à tre ss e s, il faut alors intro­
duire des facteurs de correction pour tenir com pte de la diminution de
l'efficacité de blindage des tre ss e s v e r s les fréquences élevées, cet effet
étant dû en partie au fait qu'une tresse présente une self parasite non
couplée à la self du conducteur constituant l'â m e centrale. D 'u n e façon
générale l'exp érien ce m ontre que la sensibilité aux parasites d'u ne instal­
lation est due la plupart du tem ps à des défauts de câblage, des défauts de
510 BUISSON

conception de l'électronique, des résistances de contact au niveau des con­

n ecteurs, et qu'enfin lorsque tous ces p ro b lèm es sont résolus on voit ap pa­
raître seulem ent l'influence des câbles.

P o u r les installations nucléaires, étant donné la faible amplitude

des signaux à véhiculer, il est pour nous exclu d'utiliser des câbles ne
comportant qu'une seule tresse de blindage. L e s câbles que nous utilisons
ont été développés spécialem ent, ils comportent en général trois tresses
s up erp o sées et suivant le m o d e d 'a r ra n g e m e n t de ces tre ss e s et leur
m ontage sur les connecteurs, les résultats quant à leur im m unité aux
parasites peuvent être très différents.

4. 2 . 1 . Câbles à double et triple blindage

Différents types de câbles ont été utilisés au C . E . A . en particu­

lier des câbles comportant c o m m e blindage deux et trois tre sse s isolées.
Cependant, ils présentent un grave défaut, en particulier ceux à deux

LONGUEUR DES CABLES 10 m

DIAMETRE EXTERIEUR 13 mm

Impulsion de courant sur le blindage

/ ( identique pour les ЭсйН“ * ' ■■

\
échelles
X = 1 tLs/cm
Y = 1,5 A/cm

SIG N AL P A R A S IT E RECUEILLI SUR L'A M E C EN TR A LE

^(Saturation positive de l'amplificateur de mesure)

( Résonances
inter-tresses )

Echelles \ : а ы е cp
(3tresses Isolées)
X =1(is/cm
Y =100 viV/cm

\ Câble Ц m ita i

\
Echelles
X = 1 (LS/cm (3 tresses non isolées
+2 rubans (i métal )
Y =100 (iV/cm

F I G .6 . Réponse de différents câ b les â une im pulsion de courant circu lan t sur le b lin d age.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /D - 7 511

tre ss e s isolées : l'efficacité de blindage de tels câbles est considérable­

m ent réduite par un effet de résonan ce inter-tresses. C e s résonances
apparaissent au niveau de la ligne coaxiale fo rm é e par les deux blindages;
cette ligne, court-circuitée aux deux extrém ités par les connecteurs, est
le siège d'o n d es stationnaireb. Ce p h én o m è ne est considérablem ent
atténué lo rsq u'o n dispose de trois t re ss e s isolées m a is les résonances ne
sont pas com plètem ent s u p p r im é e s . L'explication théorique de cet
effet n 'a pas été abordée (voir figure 6 ). U n autre problèm e apparaît lors­
q u'on a affaire à de grandes longueurs de câble. O n observe alors une
diminution de l'im m u n ité globale qui n'est pas proportionnelle à l 'a u g m e n ­
tation de longueur. E n effet, si le détecteur est isolé de la terre, le blin­
dage du câble se com porte c o m m e une antenne réceptrice résonnant en
Л / 4 . L o rs q u e la longueur augm ente, cette résonance se déplace ve rs les
fréquences b a s se s pour lesquelles l'im p éd a n ce de transfert a u g m en te. D e
la m ê m e façon tin contact à la terre du détecteur favorise la circulation
de courants parasites à b a s se fréquence et dans ces conditions, il y a lieu
d'irtiliser des câbles présentant une plus forte im m unité vis-à-vis des
b a s se s fr éq u e n ce s. L a tendance actuelle sur les réacteurs étant de sup pri­
m e r l'isolem ent du détecteur par rapport au bâti du réacteur et de dispo­
ser de longueurs de câble de plus en plus importantes, il devient alors
n éc e ssa ire de développer une nouvelle génération de câbles.

4.2.2. Câbles à blindage m u-m étal

L e dernier câble que nous ayons fait développer com porte un blin­
dage constitué par trois tresses de cuivre et deux rubans de mu-m étal

FIG. 7 . Im pédances de transfert pour différents câ b les.

512 BUISSON

enroulés en hélice (diam ètre extérieur 13 m m ) . P a r rapport à un câble

comportant seulem ent trois tre ss e s de cuivre, le gain obtenu sur l 'i m m u ­
nité aux fréquences b a s s e s (5 0 K H z ) est de plus de 3 décades (voir figures
6 et 7 ). Ce câble destiné au réacteur P H E N I X a été réalisé par deux
s o c ié t é s ,B IC C (Grande- Bretagne) et F I L E C A (F r a n c e ). O n note une diffé­
ren ce importante de l'im m u n ité entre ces deux fabrications. L e s raisons
de cette différence ne peuvent être m entionnées, car elles mettent en jeu
des p rocédés de fabrication pro p res à la Société F I L E C A .

C e dernier câble à hautes p er fo rm a n c e s est fabriqué actuellement

sous licence C . E . A . Notons enfin que la m e s u r e d'im pédancesde transfert
aussi faibles présente de grandes difficultés et qu'il devient n écessaire de
faire appel à des techniques d'extraction du signal noyé dans le bruit et
d'injecter des courants de plusieurs a m p è r e s sur le blindage du câble
s o um is à l 'e s s a i.

E n conclusion, on peut dire que le but r echerch é a été atteint avec

ces câbles puisque le signal dû aux parasites est largem ent inférieur au
bruit électronique de l'am plificateur d'im p u lsion des voies de m e s u r e .

5. C O N C L U SIO N S

L 'e x p é r ie n c e nous a m ontré que l'application des principes qui

viennent d'être évoqués a toujours conduit sur les installations à des
résultats valables et quelquefois spectaculaires.

A partir du m o m e n t où l'on considère l'action des parasites sous

l'angle que nous venons de présenter; on dispose d'u ne base de raisonnem ent
sur laquelle on peut s'ap p uy er pour concevoir et am éliorer d'u ne m an ière
efficace et reproductible toute installation, la bonne com préhensio n du m é c a ­
n is m e de capture des parasites conduit à une solution technologique valable.

L e s difficultés résident surtout dans le fait que les m o y e n s à mettre

en oeuvre sont difficiles à im a gin er et que tous les élém ents constituant
l'e n s e m b le de m e s u r e étant m ontés en série il suffit que lU n d 'e u x soit
défaillant pour obtenir un résultat d é sa stre u x . U n câble aussi bon soit-il
ne po urra ja m a is c o m p e n s e r la résistance de contact du connecteur sur
lequel il est b r a n c h é .

L e "p r o b lè m e des p a ra site s" ne doit pas être traité c o m m e autre­

fois en appliquant sur le site des "r e c e t t e s " plus ou m o in s efficaces et
reproductibles d'u n e installation à l'a u tre . П s'agit d 'u n pro blèm e sim ple
que l'on résout facilem ent la plupart du tem ps au m o y e n de la loi d 'O h m .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-8

THE DESIGN AND USE OF HIGH P ER FO R M AN C E

SCREENED C AB LE S FOR REDUCING
E L E C T R IC A L IN TE R FE R EN C E E F F E C T S
IN NEUTRON F L U X MEASURING CHANNELS

I. WILSON, E.P. FOWLER

A tom ic Energy Establishment, Winfrith,
Dorchester, Dorset,
United Kingdom

Abstract

T H E DESIGN A N D USE OF H IG H PERFORMANCE SCREENED CABLES FOR R E D U C IN G ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE

EFFECTS IN N E U T R O N FLU X MEASU RING C H A N N E L S .
The paper discusses the levels of interfering signals which can be tolerated by pulse counting, mean d .c .
and Campbell type neutron flux channels. In the light of current knowledge of the coupling mechanisms
which are likely to occur between electrical plant and instrumentation it is concluded that the screening
performance of instrument cables should not fall below levels which can be calculated for specific installations.
Designs of cable are described which enable the necessary degree of screening to be achieved and which confer
other advantages, such as a greater degree of freedom in choosing locations for the electronic equipment. If
an adequate degree of screening is to be achieved in practice, particularly when a combination of mineral
insulated and braided cables is employed, it is essential that care be taken in the choice and design of
connectors and electronics. The interpretation of the relevant design factors is discussed.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

A n important aspect of the design of instrumentation system s is the need

to ensure that switching surges on electrical plant do not interfere with the
satisfactory operation of m e a s u r e m e n t and control equipm ent. In the case
of neutron flux m e a su rin g channels the difficulties are often particularly
severe for a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . Signal levels tend to be low and bandwidths
can be in the m egah ertz region. A ls o the location of neutron detectors,
cables and electronic equipm ent is dictated by considerations w hich often
conflict with the reduction of interference effects. A s has been stated
elsew h ere [ 1 , 2 ] , probably the m ost likely causes of interference arise from
disturbance of the c o m m o n earth structure. M a n y techniques have been
devised for dealing with interference induced in this w a y [2-4] but one of the
m o r e effective is the use of adequately screen ed signal paths, particularly
w h e re signal levels are below the 1- m V level. T h is often necessitates the
use of scre en ed cables w hich provide ve ry m u c h m o re effective screening
than those having conventional braided s c re e n s. T his paper attempts tc
quantify the cable p erfo rm a nce needed in three typical situations and d e ­
scribes im p ro v ed cables, now co m m e rcia lly available in the United K in g d o m ,
w h ic h achieve the n e c e ss a ry p erfo rm a nce and w hich have enabled satis­
factory m e a s u r in g system s to be engineered in circum stances considered
virtually unw orkable several y ea rs ago.
T h e effect of switching electrical equipm ent is to induce switching
surges into any cable sharing the s a m e general earth structure, these
surges consisting of a series of d a m p e d h a rm o n ics of the cable resonant

513
514 WILSON and FOWLER

frequency for frequencies above a few k H z . In practice it is found that for

switching operations involving a 240- V single phase (or 415 V , 3 phase)
supply currents of up to 100 m A r m s can be induced in cables at their
first resonant frequency, w hich naturally depends upon their lengths and
capacity to ground. H e n ce the designer m ust anticipate induced currents of
100 m A r m s in the screen s of screened cables, in u n scre en ed cables and
as a c o m m o n m o d e signal in twisted p airs. High-frequency currents of this
surprisingly high amplitude can therefore appear on m an y cables entering or
leaving instruments and can flow in signal-cable connector shells and in
instrument housings and screening enclosures. A ls o , magnetic fields p ro ­
duced by these currents, or by currents flowing in the adjacent earth struc­
ture, can couple into the circuits within instruments through any w e a k points
in the screening or housing of an instrument. T his is s o m e tim es referred
to as " s h i n e ".
W ith one exception, all the above effects can be reduced to an acceptable
level by attention to the design of the instrument and its housing. F o r
exam ple, high-frequency decoupling or filtering can be carried out at the
point of entry into an instrum ent of leads carrying p o w er supplies and low
bandwidth control or indication signals at relatively high signal levels.
Shine can be dealt with by suitable screen ed enclosure design. T h e e x c e p ­
tion is the low level signal input connection. Unw anted interference induced
here can be reduced only by using screen ed cables of sufficiently good
screening efficiency fitted with connectors of com parable screening
p er fo rm a n ce .

2. P E R M IS S IB L E I N T E R F E R E N C E S IG N A L L E V E L S

It has b e e n stated that the m ost likely path for interference to penetrate
a nucleonic channel is through the screen s of signal cables. T h e cable
connecting the detector to the channel input is the m ost vulnerable. It is
useful first to know the level of sinewave disturbance, over a wide range of
frequencies, w hich can be tolerated by an instrument.

2.1. P u lse counting channels

In the solid state pulse counting channels us ed in the United K in g d o m it

is standard practice to arrang e that the am plifier terminates the input cable
in its characteristic im p ed a n ce . T h is m in im ize s reflections w hich could
lead to double counting. F o r a typical channel u s in g a fission ch a m ber,
having an electron collection time of 200 nS, it is found that an induced
signal of 10- ^V r m s will just trigger the discrim inator at the frequency
of m a x i m u m gain, about 2 . 5 M H z as shown in F i g . l . At other frequencies
the sensitivity is redu ced by pulse- shaping networks and so a larger induced
signal is n e c e ss a ry to trigger the discrim inator. Typical threshold levels
are show n for channels having gains and pulse-shaping networks optim ized
for a range of fission- cham ber collection tim es.
T h e cable between a head amplifier and a m a in amplifier m a y also allow
interference to penetrate. A s the sensitivity of the m a in amplifier is less
than that of the head am plifier by the head am plifier gain, so a correspondingly
higher threshold will be found. T h is will be typically in the range
0 . 5 to 10 m V r m s .
 IAEA-SM-168/D-8 515

FIG. 1. Pulse amplifier input sensitivity to sinewaves.

2.2. C a m p b ell channels

T h is type of neutron flux m e a s u r in g channel operates on the principle

that the m e a n square fluctuation of a detector output signal is proportional
to neutron flux so long as the m e a s u r in g bandwidth is kept constant [5].
It can be s h o w n that this system , while giving extrem ely effective d is crim i­
nation against g a m m a radiation and other unwanted effects can be sensitive to
interference. T h e sensitivity for a particular channel (a logarithmic amplifier
with period m eter) is show n in F i g . 2 . Note that the sensitivity d e cre a se s
rapidly either side of the centre frequency so that this channel is m o re
sensitive than a pulse-counting channel only over a band of frequencies below
5 00 k H z .
A s the interfering currents flowing in cable screen s produce voltages in
series with those sc re e n s, the whole of this voltage does not necessarily
ap pear at the am plifier input. W ith cables term inated at both ends (as in
the case of a head-to-main amplifier signal cable) half the interference
voltage generated will appear at either end and the coupling1 coefficient: is
0 . 5 . F o r a cable open circuit at one end (a n ionization c h a m b e r is effectively
open circuit at all except ve ry high frequencies) the coupling coefficient will
approach unity at the first (A /4 ) r esonan ce. H o w e v e r, at low frequencies it

1 Coupling coefficient is the proportion of the total induced voltage which appears as an interfering
516 WILSON and FOWLER

A - RMS INPUT VOL T A G E O F 100mS BURST CAU S I N G 0 . 2 d p m P E R I O D INDICATION

В - RMS INPUT VOL T A G E WHICH TRIGGERS DISCRIMINATOR

FREQUENCY

FIG. 2. Tolerable interference levels for a pulse/Campbell channel.

will drop rapidly as the reactive im pedance of the cable capacitance be c o m e s

m u c h larger than the amplifier input im p ed a n ce . T h e coupling coefficient
for a typical C a m p b e ll channel with an input cable capacitance of 7 500 p F is
0 . 0 2 5 at a frequency of 16 k H z w h e n the am plifier input im p edance is
33 Í2. (T h is latter value m atches the characteristic im p ed ance of the
particular cables em ployed with a com bined pulse counting and C am pb ell
channel. )

2. 3. M e a n current logarithm ic and period channels

In principle, m e a n current ( d . c . ) amplifiers need not be sensitive to

radio frequency interference as it is possible to restrict their bandwidth so
that the am plifier is not overloaded by any incident high frequency inter­
ference s u p er im p o se d on the m e a n d . c . input signal. H o w e v e r, in an
amplifier with a logarithmic response, the w ide dynam ic range d e m a n d e d in
reactor control applications dictates that the logarithmic elem ent be placed
at the input. All such logarithmic elements are intrinsically interference
sensitive ow ing to their rectifying action. T h e addition of a period m eter
or differentiating amplifier following a logarithmic am plifier leads to even
higher sensitivity in such instrum ents. T h e worst case occurs w h e n inter­
ference induced into the input cable at high frequencies co m es in bursts2, a
very good description for a great deal of interference.

2 Bursts in this context means short intervals during which interference is present and which can occur
several times per second.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /D -8 517

FREQUENCY

F IG .3 . Tolerable interference levels for log d .c . amplifier/faeriod meter, (rms voltage of 100 ms burst
induced at input through 15 000 pF input cable capacitance).

Sensitivity curves for several logarithmic am plifiers with period m eters

are given in F i g . 3. T h e s e curves are for bursts of 100- m s duration and
are plotted for a period m e t e r deflection of 0 .2 dp m (d ecades p er m inute)3 .
T h e period m eter deflection v e rs u s injected interference curve has a square
law , or higher o rder, response so that an increasing level of interference
rapidly approaches a threshold, as in the case of pulse-counting channels.
It is evident that the level of interference im m unity varies significantly
betw een different instrum ents. This is a function of detailed differences in
the circuit design so it is worth ensuring that the circuit is not intrinsically,
and possibly unnecessarily, sensitive to interference.

3. SU R F A C E TR A N SF E R IM P E D A N C E OF C A B L E S (ZT ) A N D
CONNECTORS

A s , in general, signal cables are found to be the m ost sensitive of all

parts of a system to interference, one can calculate the allowable screening
efficiency fro m the input sensitivity to interference, from the coupling
coefficient and on the assum ption that the s cre en current will reach 100 m A
r . m . s . at cable resonant frequencies. T h is screen ing efficiency, w hich is
a transfer im p ed a nc e , can be c o m p a r e d with the screening efficiency of the
chosen cable w h ich can be calculated from the surface transfer im p edance
per unit length of the cable ( Z T) and its length, and a factor (< 1 . 0 ) w hich
takes account of the non-uniform current distribution dow n the cable at
r eso nan ce.

3 0 .2 dpm ="100 s doubling time or 140 s period.

518 WILSON and FOWLER

T h e surface transfer im p edance of cables varies with the w a y the cable

is m a d e and very significantly between different types of cable [6]. Several
types are considered h e re .

3.1. B ra id e d cables

A large variety of coaxial cables are m a d e with one or two braided

s creen s as the outer conductor. F o r single-braided cables at low frequen­
cies Z T = R 0 (the d . c . resistance per unit length of the outer conductor). At
higher frequencies several effects com bine together and can raise the value
of Z x w ell above R 0. F o r exam ple, sim ple cables, such as U R 4 3 or R G 5 8 C / U ,
can have a Z T as high as 100 m f2 /m at 10 M H z (F ig . 4).
A double-braided s creen is effective in reducing the value of Z T signi­
ficantly as also show n for R G 2 2 3 / U in F i g . 4. It is important to note that
aging in the fo rm of repeated flexing can degrade the Z T of such cables
significantly at high frequencies.

3.2. Solid s creen ed cables

M in e r a l insulated cables are used frequently in neutron flux m ea su rin g

channels for their good radiation resistance and environm ental properties.
If they are m a d e with a copper s creen and insulated from ground by, for
exam ple, using another insulated outer sheath of stainless steel to form a
triaxial configuration, then ve ry good screening efficiency can be obtained
com bined with excellent in-pile compatibility. T h e basis of this assertion is
the w a y Z T is reduced by skin effect in the copper inner sheath at high
frequencies. M ethods for calculating this are given in the literature [6-8];
here it is sufficient to note the values that can be obtained in a typical

FREQUENCY

FIG.4 . Frequency domain Z-p o f simple cables.

 IAEA-SM-168/D-8 519

100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz

FREQU E N C Y

FIG. 5. Surface transfer impedance (Z^.) of typical cable types.

copper-copper-stainless steel m in era l insulated cable designed for in-core

neutron detection use (F ig . 5). Sim ilar p er fo rm a n ce can also be obtained in
solid-screened cables using dielectrics such as P T F E (Teflon).

3.3. S u p er sc re en ed cables4

It is ea sy to deduce that the p erfo rm a nce of even a short length of

braided cable is inadequate for pulse counting applications or C a m p b ell
channels. A range of cables has be en developed in w hich the s cre en con­
sists of alternate layers of copper braid and m etal tape having high m agnetic
perm eability [ 6 , 9 ] . T h e s e cables achieve Z T values w hich are several

4 Superscreened is a term used in the United Kingdom to denote cables having composite screens and
possessing exceptionally high screening efficiency over a wide range of frequencies.
520 WILSON and FOWLER

o rders of m agnitude better than conventional braided cables. Z T curves for

two typical su p ersc re en ed cables, of overall diam eter 7 m m , are shown in
F i g . 5 w h e re a c o m p a riso n is m ad e with single- and double-braided cables
of the s a m e fundam ental size.
W it h larger- diam eter sup erscreen ed cables containing m o re copper in
the braids it is not difficult to achieve considerably better screening p e r ­
fo rm an ce than that shown in F i g . 5 for cable type M M 0 6 / 3 3 B . H o w e v e r , as
cable Z T is reduced so the screening p erfo rm a nce of connectors and elec­
tronic equipm ent housings b e c o m e s m o re significant and it is doubtful
w hether substantial further cable im p rovem en ts are econom ically justified
in reactor instrumentation sy stem s.

3.4. Connectors

T h e interference im m un ity of s up ersc reen ed cables is such that at m ost

frequencies the screening perform ance of associated connectors be c o m e s
significant and can be critical. Ex p erie n c e has shown that a s c re w e d locking
ring (as distinct from a bayonet fixing) is important to get good and lasting
p er fo rm a n ce , by ensuring uniform coaxial current distribution at the mating
faces. Suitable high screening perform ance connectors can therefore be
found in the N , H N and T N C series but not in the С and B N C serie s. T h e
m ating faces of production sam p les of the fo r m e r connectors should be
capable of achieving, at frequencies above 1 M H z , a transfer im p edance
figure of better than 10 ц£2.
T h e contact between the cable braid and the shell of a plug or socket
should be no w o r s e than that achieved betw een the m ating faces. C a r e in
the design of the cable grip and the use of correct m aterials can ensure that
a sufficiently good contact is achieved and will be maintained in the presence
of tem perature changes that can occur during life. If insufficient care is
taken in the design and a ss e m b ly of high p erform ance connectors then u n ­
suspected high interference susceptibility can result ow ing to excessively
high initial overall transfer im p edance or owing to subsequent aging effects
caused by tem perature cycling.
A well-designed pair of plated br a ss connectors, plus their cable braid
cla m p s, will typically have a d. c. resistance of 100 ц О. O w in g to skin
effect in the connector shells the transfer im p edance will begin to fall, at a
frequency in the region of 100 k H z , to a value of better than 10 iuU above
1 M H z , T h is is a n e c e ss a ry p erform ance for the input connector of a pulse
channel of the type represented by the lowest curve in F i g . 1.

4. EFFECTS OF CABLE RESONANCE

W it h a cable such as a solid sheathed type, the screening efficiency of

w hich im p ro ves ve ry rapidly as the frequency is raised, it is so m e tim es
beneficial to control the resonant frequency of the cable sheath with respect
to the earth structure..

4.1. Q u a rter w a v e resonance

In the sim plest cable connection, the lowest sheath resonance is at

X / 4 and hence the cable length is | wavelength of the equivalent standing
 IA EA -SM -168/D -8 521

w ave. T h is a p p l i e s f o r a c a b le g r o u n d e d o n l y a t o n e e n d ( t h e h e a d a m p l i f i e r )
an d u n g ro u n d e d e ls e w h e r e , in c lu d in g th e d e t e c t o r . W h e n a p u ls e n e u t r o n
d e t e c t o r i s f i t t e d w i t h m i n e r a l i n s u l a t e d t r i a x i a l c a b le o f t h e t y p e r e f e r r e d t o
i n s e c t io n 3 .2 i t is u s u a lly c o n v e n ie n t to c o n n e c t a le n g th o f f le x i b l e c o a x ia l
c a b le b e t w e e n t h e e n d o f t h e m i n e r a l i n s u l a t e d c a b le a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d h e a d
a m p lifie r . T h is c a n le a d to a s ig n if ic a n t lo w e r in g o f t h is r e s o n a n t fr e q u e n c y ,
b y m o r e th a n a fa c t o r o f tw o in s o m e c a s e s , o w in g t o th e r e la t i v e l y h ig h
c a p a c i t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e i n n e r s c r e e n a n d o u t e r s h e a t h o f t h e t r i a x i a l c a b le .
A s c a n b e s e e n in F ig . 5 a r e d u c tio n f r o m 1 . 5 M H z to 75 0 M H z ( ty p ic a l A /4
r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c i e s f o r 1 5 m o f t r i a x i a l m i n e r a l i n s u l a t e d c a b le ) g i v e s a
t e n fo ld r i s e in Z T f r o m 4 0 /лП/тп t o 4 0 0 /лП/ m . I f t h is h ig h e r v a lu e o f Z T is
u n a c c e p t a b l e i t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o a c h ie v e t h e h i g h e r r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y
b y g r o u n d i n g t h e c o p p e r s c r e e n o f t h e m i n e r a l i n s u l a t e d c a b le w h e r e i t j o i n s
t h e s o f t c a b le i n s t e a d o f a t t h e h e a d a m p l i f i e r .
\

4 .2 . H a lf- w a v e re s o n a n c e

A c a b le s c r e e n g r o u n d e d a t b o t h e n d s o r u n g r o u n d e d a t b o t h e n d s w i l l
r e s o n a te a t th e A / 2 fre q u e n c y . I f g r o u n d e d a t b o th e n d s , s e r io u s in t e r f e r e n c e
c u rre n ts m a y a ls o f lo w a t lo w e r fr e q u e n c ie s s o t h is p r a c t ic e is s e ld o m re ­
com m ended. H o w e v e r, a s im u la t e d u n g ro u n d e d s c r e e n a t th e h e a d a m p l i f i e r
e n d o f a c o m b in e d m in e r a l in s u la t e d a n d f le x ib le c a b le r u n c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y
t h r e a d in g s e v e r a l f e r r i t e r in g s o v e r t h e f l e x i b l e c a b le t o i n c r e a s e t h e s c r e e n
in d u c t a n c e . T h e r e s u ltin g in c r e a s e in r e s o n a n t fr e q u e n c y m a y b e s u f f ic ie n t
to e n s u re g o o d im m u n ity f r o m in t e r f e r e n c e i n th e d e t e c t o r t o h e a d a m p l i f i e r
c o n n e c tio n .
W h ile th is m e th o d o f in c r e a s i n g th e in d u c ta n c e o f th e f l e x i b l e c a b le
c h a n g e s th e fu n d a m e n ta l t r a n s m is s io n lin e re s o n a n c e f r o m A /4 to n e a r e r A /2 ,
g iv in g a f a c t o r a p p r o a c h in g tw o in c r e a s e s i n r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y , i t a ls o
c re a te s a re s o n a n c e a t a m u c h lo w e r fre q u e n c y , t y p i c a ll y 70 k H z . I t is
n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h a t a t t h i s l o w e r f r e q u e n c y th e p u ls e - c o u n t in g c h a n n e l
c o n c e r n e d is s u f f ic ie n t ly in s e n s it iv e to th e c a b le - in d u c e d in t e r f e r e n c e .

5. T Y P IC A L A P P L IC A T IO N S

T o i n d i c a t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s t o b e g a in e d f r o m u s in g im p r o v e d s c r e e n e d
c a b le s t h r e e e x a m p l e s o f a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i l l b e o u t l i n e d b r i e f l y .

5.1. P la n t n e u tr o n m o n it o r c h a n n e l

I n t h i s e x a m p l e B F 3 p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r s w e r e u s e d t o m e a s u r e d e la y e d
n e u t r o n a c t i v i t y i n th e c o o la n t g a s d u c ts o f a p o w e r r e a c t o r . T h e la y o u t o f
th e p la n t w a s s u c h th a t th e d e te c to r s h a d to b e m o u n te d in a n e x p o s e d p o s it io n
s o m e d is ta n c e a w a y f r o m th e r e a c t o r b u ild in g . U s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l c a b le s
i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n n e c e s s a r y to lo c a t e h e a d a m p l i f i e r s c lo s e to th e d e t e c t o r s
i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e a c c e s s f o r m a in t e n a n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a d e d i f f i c u l t
b y e x p o s u r e to w e a t h e r a n d b y h ig h a m b ie n t r a d ia t io n le v e ls d u r in g r e a c t o r
o p e r a t io n . B y u s i n g s u p e r s c r e e n e d c a b le s i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o l o c a t e t h e h e a d
a m p l i f i e r i n a n o r m a l e n v ir o n m e n t a n d i n a r e a d i l y a c c e s s ib le p o s it io n
in s id e th e r e a c t o r b u ild in g , e v e n th o u g h t h is in v o lv e d a le n g th o f a b o u t 5 0 m
522 WILSON and FOWLER

o f c a b le b e t w e e n t h e d e t e c t o r s a n d h e a d a m p l i f i e r s . T h e a d v a n ta g e s o f
b e i n g a b le t o c h o o s e t h i s l a y o u t a r e o b v i o u s . ( T h is in s t a lla t io n is a ls o
re fe rre d to in s e c tio n 6 . 4 . )

5.2. R e s e a r c h r e a c t o r c o n t r o l p u ls e c o u n t i n g c h a n n e l

T h is p a r t i c u l a r r e a c t o r is h o u s e d i n a s t e e l c o n ta in m e n t s h e ll, th e
i n t e g r i t y o f w h ic h m u s t b e g u a r a n te e d a t a l l t im e s w h e n th e c o r e is f u e lle d .
T h e o r ig in a l n e u tr o n f lu x in s t r u m e n t a t io n u s e d h e a d a m p lif ie r s m o u n te d
c l o s e t o t h e n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r s w h i c h c o u ld b e e i t h e r B F 3 p r o p o r t i o n a l
c o u n t e r s o r p u ls e f i s s i o n c h a m b e r s , d e p e n d in g u p o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
e x p e r im e n t a l p h y s ic s p r o g r a m . E a c h o f th e f o u r o p e r a t io n a l c h a n n e ls r e ­
q u ir e d t h r e e c o a x ia l a n d o n e s i x - w i r e s c r e e n e d c a b le p e n e t r a t i o n s , a ll w ith
t h e i r c a b le s c r e e n s i n s u l a t e d f r o m g ro u n d , a n d a ll r e q u ir in g to be te s te d
f o r le a k t ig h tn e s s f r o m t im e to t im e . R e c e n tly , th e o ld e le c t r o n ic e q u ip m e n t
h a s b e e n r e p la c e d b y c u r r e n t , a l l s o lid s ta te , d e s ig n s . A t th e s a m e t im e
t h e e x i s t i n g c a b le s w e r e r e p l a c e d . U s i n g s u p e r s c r e e n e d c a b le s i t h a s b e e n
p o s s ib le t o m o u n t th e h e a d a m p l i f i e r s i n th e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l r o o m a r e a a lo n g
w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r o f th e p u ls e c h a n n e l e q u i p m e n t . T h e n u m b e r o f p e n e tra ­
t i o n s h a s b e e n r e d u c e d t o o n e p e r c h a n n e l a n d th e p e n e t r a t i o n d e s ig n i s
s i m p l e r s i n c e t h e n e w c a b le d o e s n o t n e e d t o h a v e i t s s c r e e n in s u la t e d f r o m
g r o u n d a t th e p e n e tr a tio n s . T h e l e n g t h o f c a b le u s e d b e t w e e n e a c h d e t e c t o r
a n d h e a d a m p lif ie r is a b o u t 50 m . In te r fe r e n c e r e je c t io n is s t i l l m u c h
b e t t e r t h a n w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l e q u i p m e n t a n d c a b le s a n d a c c e s s f o r m a i n ­
te n a n c e o f th e e le c t r o n ic s is n o w m u c h e a s ie r . ( T h is c h a n n e l is r e f e r r e d to
in s e c tio n 6 . 1 . )

5.3. H ig h - te m p e r a tu r e in - p ile c o n t r o l c h a n n e ls

I n a p a r t i c u l a r g a s - c o o le d p o w e r r e a c t o r , n e u tr o n d e t e c t o r s a r e lo c a t e d
in - p ile in a h ig h - p r e s s u r e , r a d ia t io n a n d t e m p e r a t u r e (5 0 0 ° C ) e n v ir o n m e n t .
P u ls e f i s s i o n d e t e c t o r s a r e in v o lv e d a n d th e p e r m is s ib le in t e r f e r e n c e s ig n a l
le v e ls a r e s i m i l a r t o th o s e d is c u s s e d i n s e c t io n 2 . 1 . T o e a c h d e te c to r
a b o u t 20 m o f h ig h - te m p e r a tu r e , m i n e r a l i n s u l a t e d c a b le i s a t t a c h e d . In
th e c a s e o f t h e p u ls e c o u n t i n g c h a n n e l s t h e h e a d a m p l i f i e r s a r e c o n n e c te d
t o t h e o u t - o f - p i l e e n d o f t h e d e t e c t o r c a b le s b y a b o u t 5 m o f m o r e f l e x i b l e ,
s o lid s c r e e n e d c o a x ia l c a b le . C a b le s c r e e n i n d u c t a n c e l o a d i n g i s u s e d ( a s
d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 2 ) t o r a i s e th e r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y o f t h e d e t e c t o r t o
h e a d a m p l i f i e r c a b le l i n k s o a s t o e x p l o i t t h e g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d s c r e e n i n g
e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e s o l i d s c r e e n e d c a b le s at h ig h e r fr e q u e n c ie s . A s a r e s u lt o f
t h e s e m e a s u r e s i t h a s b e e n p o s s i b l e t o c o n v e y d e t e c t o r s i g n a l s o v e r a c a b le
le n g th o f 2 5 m , th e m a j o r i t y b e in g c o n ta in e d i n a n e x t r e m e ly h o s t ile
e n v ir o n m e n t .

6. C O M M IS S IO N IN G A N D O P E R A T IN G E X P E R IE N C E

A la r g e n u m b e r o f i n s t a ll a t i o n s o f n u c le o n ic c o n t r o l in s t r u m e n t s h a v e
b e e n c o m m is s io n e d i n w h ic h a l l o r p a r t o f th e c a b lin g u s e d i s s u p e r s c r e e n e d
A l l th e s e s y s te m s w o r k v e r y w e ll a n d a r e e x t r e m e ly im m u n e to in t e r f e r e n c e
I f m a d e a s d e s ig n e d , a l l th e s e s y s t e m s w o u ld h a v e b e e n c l e a r o f in t e r f e r e n c e
fro m th e s t a r t , b u t in fa c t s o m e r e m e d ia l w o r k w a s n e c e s s a ry o n n e a r ly a ll
 IA EA -SM -168/D -8 523

o f th e m . T h e re a s o n s f o r th is , w h ic h s te m fro m th e p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e o f
c o n n e c to rs , s c r e e n in g c a n s a n d o t h e r s m a ll e q u ip m e n t d e fe c ts , w e re
d e te c te d b y in te r fe r e n c e te s ts d u r in g c o m m is s io n in g . M o r e r e c e n tly ,
d e fe c ts o f t h is ty p e h a v e b e e n r e v e a le d d u r in g p r o d u c t io n t e s t s o n th e c o m ­
p o n e n ts a n d e q u ip m e n t c o n c e r n e d . E x a m p le s o f th e s e s h o r t c o m in g s a r e
g iv e n to in d ic a t e th e s o r t o f th in g th a t c a n o c c u r a n d a s j u s t i f i c a t io n f o r
100% in t e r f e r e n c e t e s t in g d u r in g c o m m is s io n in g o n s it e a n d f o r m o r e
r ig o r o u s p r o d u c t io n t e s t in g o n c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n ts .

6.1. H e a d a m p l i f i e r in p u t s o c k e t

T h e in p u t s o c k e t s h e ll o f a h e a d a m p l i f i e r u s u a lly c o n d u c ts th e w h o le o f
th e in t e r f e r in g c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n t h e i n p u t c a b le s c r e e n . In one p a r tic u la r
h e a d a m p l i f i e r t h e h o le p i e r c e d i n t h e f r o n t p a n e l w a s p u n c h e d s o t h a t t h e
p a n e l s u rfa c e w a s n o t f la t . P o o r c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e fla n g e o f th e c o n n e c t o r
a n d th e h e a d a m p l i f i e r h o u s in g g a v e t r a n s f e r im p e d a n c e v a lu e s o f o v e r
10 m f2 . T o t a l a llo w a b le t r a n s f e r im p e d a n c e f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c h a n n e l w a s
140

6.2. C a b le p lu g

O w in g to th e a b s e n c e o f a d e q u a te a s s e m b ly i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
ty p e o f c o n n e c to r, i n w h i c h t h e c a b le s h e a t h w a s m e a n t t o b e s o l d e r e d t o a
fe r r u le , th e s h e a th w a s a c t u a lly t r a p p e d u n d e r th e f e r r u l e . T h is g a v e t r a n s ­
f e r im p e d a n c e v a l u e s a t 1 0 M H z o f a b o u t 6 0 ;uf2 w h e n 6 цО. w a s t h e h i g h e s t
v a lu e a c c e p t a b le .

6 . 3. S o ld e r e d c o n n e c tio n s i n p e n e t r a t io n u n it

D u r in g t e s t s o f a c o n ta in m e n t p e n e t r a t io n a s s e m b ly a t a m a n u f a c t u r e r 's
w o r k s th e t r a n s f e r im p e d a n c e s b e tw e e n m e t a l - t o - g l a s s s e a ls a n d c a b le
s c r e e n s w e r e f o u n d t o b e a b o u t 6 0 0 д Г2, a f a c t o r 10 to o h ig h . O n in s p e c tio n
i t w a s fo u n d th a t, o w in g to a m is u n d e r s t a n d in g , s o m e s o ld e r e d jo in t s h a d
b e e n i n c o r r e c t l y c a r r ie d o u t, r e s u lt in g i n l o c a l e x c e s s iv e ly h ig h s c r e e n
im p e d a n c e s . I n s p e c t io n w a s n o t e a s y a s th e a s s e m b lie s h a d b e e n w e ld e d u p .
H o w e v e r, h a d t h is d e fe c t n o t b e e n lo c a te d u n t i l a f t e r in s t a lla t io n o n s it e
th e r e m e d ia l w o r k w o u ld h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e in c o n v e n ie n t a n d c o s t ly .

6.4. O p e r a t in g e x p e r ie n c e o n n e u t r o n m o n it o r in g c h a n n e ls

T h e c a b le s b e t w e e n B F 3 p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r s a n d h e a d a m p l i f i e r s a re
a b o u t 50 m lo n g , a n d a r e l o c a t e d p a r t l y o u t s i d e o n t h e s t e e l - w o r k o f th e
r e a c t o r b u ild in g . D e s p ite ju s t s a t is f a c t o r y in t e r f e r e n c e im m u n it y te s t
r e s u lt s o b ta in e d o n c o m m is s io n in g , s o m e o f th e s e c h a n n e ls h a v e b e e n s u s ­
c e p t ib le to in t e r f e r e n c e d u r in g c lo s e t h u n d e r s t o r m s . It has now been
e s ta b lis h e d th a t, o n th e c h a n n e ls g i v in g t r o u b l e , in s u f f ic ie n t c a r e h a d b e e n
t a k e n d u r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e c a b le s w h i c h h a d b e e n d a m a g e d a s a r e s u l t .
T h i s h a d l e d t o p o o r c a b le p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h h a d b e e n n o t e d d u r i n g c o m ­
m is s io n in g c o m p a r e d w it h o th e r , s im ila r , c h a n n e ls . I t n o w s e e m s th a t,
s u b s e q u e n tly , d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e d a m a g e d c a b le s h a s c o n t i n u e d , th o u g h t h is
h a s n o t o c c u r r e d o n o t h e r c h a n n e l s f o r w h i c h c a b le s w e r e c o r r e c t l y i n s t a l l e d
in itia lly .
524 WILSON and FOWLER

R e m e d ia l a c tio n , n o w c o m p le te d , h a s i n c l u d e d r e p l a c i n g th e o r i g i n a l
c a b le s a n d r e - i n s t a l l i n g i n c o n d u i t o r c a b le d u c t s w h e r e t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y
p ro te c te d . I t r e m a in s to be s h o w n h o w m u c h im p r o v e m e n t s te m s f r o m th e
r e - i n s t a l l a t i o n in s t e e l c o n d u it i n a s it u a t io n w h e r e v e r y l i t t l e s c r e e n in g f r o m
lig h t n in g - in d u c e d in t e r f e r e n c e is p r o v id e d b y th e b u ild in g s t r u c t u r e .

R E F E R E N C E S

[1] HARRISON, D ., The m echanism o f interference pick up in cab les and electro n ic equipm ent. Radio
Electronic Engineer 29 3 (1965) 149.
[2] HARRISON, D ., WILSON, I , , COX, R . J . , Reducing the effe cts of e le c tr ic a l interference on nuclear
instruments, Proc.IA EA , N uclear Electronics C o n f., Bombay (1965) 157.
[3] FOWLER, E .P ., СОХ, A .E ., The p ractical application of e le c tr ic a l interference testing methods, ŒE
C o n f., Publication N o .65 (1970) 6 0 .
[4] WILSON, I . , Susceptibility testing of instrumentation installations, Proc.IEEE EUROCON Conf.Lausanne,
19 71.
[5] FOWLER, E .P ., METCALF, A ., Cam pbell systems for reactor control. ŒE C onf.P ublication N o .47
(1968) 6 0 .
[61 FOWLER, E .P ., On the in terferen ce immunity o f co a x ia l cables, Proc. IEEE EUROCON Conf. Lausanne,
19 71.
[7 ] SCHELKUNOFF, S . A ., The electrom ag n etic theory o f co a x ia l transmission lines and cy lin d rical shields,
Bell Systems T e c h .J . 13 (1934) 53 2 .
[8 ] LEVELL, R. W ., A prelim inary study o f the ch aracteristics of m in eral insulated c a b le for reactor control
pulse counting channels, UKÁEA Rep.AEEW - M 369 (1963 ).
[95 FOWLER, E .P ., Som e re ce n t work on the screening effic ien cy o f braided and m ulti-screen ed signal cables,
IEE Conf. Publication N o .65 (1970) 23.

D IS C U S S IO N

A.R. O S T R O W S K I: I s a s ta n d a r d d is t u r b a n c e s o u r c e o f s o m e k in d u s e d
f o r c h e c k in g th e c h a n n e ls d u r in g i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d c o m m is s io n in g ?
J. F U R E T: P e r h a p s I c a n a n s w e r th a t q u e s tio n . In p r a c tic e , w e do
c a r r y o u t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t e s t in g b y m e a n s o f a c i r c u l a t i n g c u r r e n t i n th e
c a b le s c r e e n i n g . In p a r tic u la r , w e h a v e c a r r ie d o u t te s ts o f th is ty p e o n
p a r t o f th e P h é n ix in s t r u m e n t a t io n , w h ic h w a s d is c u s s e d b y M r . C h a p e lo t.
I ta k e t h is o p p o r t u n it y to m e n t io n th a t s o m e o f th e in s t r u m e n t a t io n o f
th is r e a c t o r is s u b je c t t o v e r y s e v e r e p a r a s it ic c o n d itio n s ; th e re a re 120 m
o f c a b le b e t w e e n t h e d e t e c t o r ( a f i s s i o n c h a m b e r ) a n d t h e e l e c t r o n i c e q u i p ­
m e n t. T h i s h a s l e d u s t o h a v e a c a b le d e v e l o p e d t h a t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s e n ­
s it iv e to p a r a s it ic s . T h e c a b le h a s a l a r g e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n t h a n t h e o n e
M r. W ils o n u s e s ; i t a ls o c o n ta in s m o r e c o p p e r a n d is m o r e e x p e n s iv e .
W ith th is c a b le i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e a 3 0 0 - m l i n k u n d e r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
b e tw e e n th e d e t e c t o r (a b o r o n - c o a t e d c o u n te r ) a n d th e e le c t r o n ic e q u ip m e n t.
T h is is w h a t h a s b e e n d o n e d u r in g a d e m o n s t r a t io n r u n a t th e C h o o z s t a t io n .
A.R. O S T R O W S K I: A r e t h e s c r e e n s i n t h e s u p e r - s c r e e n e d c a b le i n t e r ­
c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e n g t h o f th e c a b le , o r is t h e r e s o m e k in d o f in s u la ­
t io n b e tw e e n th e b r a id s ?
I. W IL S O N : T h e s c r e e n s a r e n o t in s u la te d . In fa c t, i t is im p o r ta n t
t h a t t h e y s h o u ld n o t b e in s u la t e d ; s u c c e s s iv e s c r e e n s o f c o p p e r a n d m u m e t a l
a re w o u n d in d ir e c t c o n ta c t w ith e a c h o th e r .
C . S IM Á N E : D o e s t h e m u m e t a l m a k e t h e s u p e r - s c r e e n e d c a b le s v e r y
s e n s it iv e to m a n ip u la t io n — t o b e n d in g , f o r e x a m p le ?
 IA EA -SM -168/D -8 525

I. W IL S O N : T h e m u m e ta l p e r m e a b ility , w h ic h is v e r y h ig h i n i t i a l l y ,
fa lls c o n s id e r a b ly d u r in g th e m a n u f a c t u r e o f th e c a b le . H o w e v e r, i t is
s t i l l h i g h e n o u g h t o e n s u r e a d e q u a t e c a b le p e r f o r m a n c e . O u r e x p e r ie n c e
in d ic a te s th a t d u r in g in s t a lla t io n , an d in s u b s e q u e n t u s e , th e s c r e e n in g
p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c a b le s d o e s n o t c h a n g e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , p r o v id e d th a t th e y
a r e n o t a c t u a lly d a m a g e d b y g r o s s m is h a n d lin g .
DETECTION OF LOCAL INCIDENTS IN
SODIUM-COOLED FAST REACTORS
(Session E)
 C h a ir m a n

J .R . C O X ( U n i t e d K in g d o m )
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1

USE OF A COMPUTER TO IMPROVE

THE SA FET Y OF A FAST REACTOR Co r e -

м . s . AUDOUX
C o m m is s io n o f the E u ro p ea n C o m m u n it ie s ,
D i r e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l fo r I n d u s t r i a l ,
T e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d S c i e n t i f i c A f f a ir s

Abstract

USE OF A COMPUTER TO IMPROVE THE SAFETY OF A FAST REACTOR CORE.

One o f the main concerns about the safety o f a fast reactor is the necessity o f identifying lo c a l incidents
to prevent an evolution which may lead to a serious core dam age or even to a m ajor accid en t. The
detection o f disturbances in the coolin g channels o f a sodium -cooled fast-breeder requires the use o f an in -
core instrumentation and the processing o f the outcom ing signals. T he number of these signals is esp ecially
large and the detection o f the disturbance requires a discrim ination betw een tem perature thresholds and
operating tem peratures which are just a few degrees apart. The operating conditions o f the sensing elem ents
are so severe th at a substantial percentage o f detector failures has to be taken into accoun t. The use of
customary lo g ica l circuits does not perm it one to distinguish the determ inistic ch aracter which would lead to
the id en tification o f a coolin g disturbance from stochastic events lik e the decalibration o f a therm ocouple.
These considerations have led to the proposal o f another solution where a first step sorts the apparently
disturbed subassemblies by using a sp ecial grouping tech n ique. The sorting operation involves a sp ecific
com bination o f the signals which is not based on the classical use o f lo g ica l functions but on a more flex ib le
method where different num erical w eighting factors can be applied to include the safety criteria , the
redundancy o f the instrumentation, the cred ib ility o f the signal and the background o f the detectors. The
sorting process can be so fast that most o f the c y c le tim e is le ft to carry out som e detailed investigations on a
minority o f suspicious cases. These detailed investigations are divided according to their priority and use
algorithms which are applied not on single values but on sequences o f points. The process can form ulate
better diagnostics by verifying the steadiness o f the signals, by classifying the critic a l profiles, and by
checking the co in cid ence o f such profiles. A pplication o f the method to a fast breeder shows that a reduction
o f the false scram signals could be achieved by using such a m ethod. This approach differs somewhat from
the cla ssica l applications o f computers to the nuclear safety. One has not tried to adapt a com puter to a
safety schem e but rather an attem pt has been made to analyse the safety problems which could be efficien tly
solved with the help o f a com puter.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e d e s ig n o f a s a f e t y s y s t e m r e q u ir e s a tw o - fo ld a p p ro a c h w h o s e
a s p e c ts m a y g e n e r a lly a p p e a r s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d ic t o r y . O n th e o n e h a n d ,
o n e w o u ld l i k e t o u s e th e m o s t m o d e r n te c h n iq u e s , o n th e o th e r h a n d i t
w o u ld s e e m h ig h ly d e s ir a b le t o d e p e n d o n ly u p o n im p r o v e m e n t s w h ic h h a v e
u n d e rg o n e a lo n g p e r io d o f t e s t in g . S u c h a ty p ic a l d u a lity m a y b e c le a r ly
o b s e r v e d f o r th e d if f e r e n t a tt e m p t s w h ic h a r e m a d e to p r o m o t e a s o -
c a lle d " c o m p u te r iz e d s a fe ty s y s te m " .
T h is is s u e is o n e o f th e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s ia l o n e s c o n c e r n in g s a fe ty
q u e s tio n s , p a r t l y b e c a u s e s o m e o f th e p r o p o n e n ts o f a c o m p u te r iz e d s a fe ty
t r i e d v e r y e a r l y t o s e l l th e id e a o f r e p la c in g a c o m p le te s a f e t y s y s t e m b y

This work has been done at the Institut fUr Reaktorentwicklung (D irector: Professor D . Smidt) within the
association in the field o f fast reactors between the European A tom ic Energy Community and G esellschaft fiir
Kernforschung mbH, Karlsruhe.

529
530 AUDOUX

a c o m p u t e r iz e d e q u ip m e n t. T h is te n d e n c y o b v io u s ly m e t s o m e o p p o s itio n
fro m s a fe ty e n g in e e r s w h o a r e p r o m p t t o r e f e r to p r o v e n c o n c e p ts l i k e
p h y s ic a l s e p a r a t io n , d iv e r s ity , c o m m o n m o d e fa ilu r e e tc . A m o re m o d e st
a p p r o a c h c o n s is t s in t r y i n g t o f in d s o m e d e lin e a t e d a r e a s t h a t in v o lv e
c o m p le m e n ta r y a s p e c ts o f th e r e a c t o r s a fe ty a n d w h e r e a c o m p u te r m a y b e
r e a d i l y a c c e p t a b le b e c a u s e i t c a n d o t h e j o b b e t t e r , c h e a p e r, fa s te r o r
e v e n w it h m o r e d is c e r n m e n t .
A lth o u g h th e s y s t e m a t ic u s e o f s a fe ty c o m p u te r s m a y s t i l l lie a fe w
y e a r s a h e a d , i t s e e m s w o r t h w h ile to e x a m in e th e a r e a s o f a p p lic a t io n w h e r e
a n e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e s a f e t y f u n c t i o n c o u l d b e a c h ie v e d b y c o m b i n i n g t h e
r i g o r o f th e s a fe ty m e th o d s w it h th e e x te n s iv e p o s s ib ilit ie s o f c o m p u te r iz e d
s y s te m s . A c a s e w h e r e s u c h a c o m b in a t io n c o u ld b e f e a s ib le a n d e v e n
h a r m o n io u s i s r e la t e d to th e c o n t r o l f o r th e s a fe p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e L M F B R
s u b a s s e m b lie s .
S o d iu m - c o o le d f a s t b r e e d e r s a r e p r o b a b ly a s s a fe a s o t h e r ty p e s o f
re a c to rs [ 1 ] a n d t h e ir s a fe ty s y s te m d o e s n o t d if f e r fr o m th e c o n v e n tio n a l
s a fe ty s y s te m s . I f s o d iu m - c o o le d f a s t r e a c t o r s e x h ib it f a v o u r a b le s a fe
d e s ig n f e a t u r e s s u c h as a g o o d r e te n tio n o f f is s io n p r o d u c ts o r a n o n ­
p r e s s u r iz e d p r im a r y lo o p , th e y m a y b e s o m e w h a t v u ln e r a b le to d if f e r e n t
t y p e s o f c o o lin g d is t u r b a n c e s .
T h e h i g h c o r e p o w e r d e n s i t y , t h e d a n g e r o u s a s p e c t s o f s o d iu m b o i l i n g
[ 2 , 3 ] a n d th e f u e l- c o o la n t in t e r a c t io n o r th e r i s k o f a d a m a g e p r o p a g a tio n
[ 4 ] a r e m a n y f a c t o r s w h ic h m a y j u s t i f y th e i n s t a ll a t i o n o f s o m e c o m p le ­
m e n t a r y s a fe ty e q u ip m e n t. S uch a fe a tu re is n o lo n g e r o r ie n t e d to w a r d s
th e s a fe ty o f th e w h o le c o r e b u t t o w a r d s th e s a fe p e r f o r m a n c e o f in d iv id u a l
s u b a s s e m b l i e s a n d r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l l y d e s ig n e d i n - c o r e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .
T h e in s t r u m e n t a t io n n e c e s s a r y t o m o n it o r th e i n t e g r i t y o f th e s u b a s s e m b lie s
a n d th e c o r r e c t o p e r a t io n o f t h e c o o lin g c h a n n e ls m a y m a in l y c o m p r is e :

T h e r m o c o u p le s
F lo w m e te rs
N o is e d e t e c t o r s ( f a s t t h e r m o c o u p le s u s e d a s t h e r m a l n o is e t r a n s d u c e r s )
C y c lo n e s ( h e a tin g e le m e n t + T / С t o d e te c t th e g a s o r s te a m b u b b le s i n
a s u b - a s s e m b ly ) .

O n e m a y a d d th a t th e u lt r a s o n ic d e te c to r s [ 5 ] a n d a s p e c if ic r e a c t iv it y
m e t e r w o u l d b e v e r y h e l p f u l f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d i s t u r b a n c e s w i t h o u t b e in g
a b le t o l o c a t e t h e m .

2. D E R IV A T IO N O F A S A F E T Y S IG N A L

O n c e th e p r o p e r in s t r u m e n t a t io n h a s b e e n p la c e d in t o th e c o r e , th e
o u t c o m in g s ig n a ls m u s t b e p r o c e s s e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t a n y s e r io u s
s it u a t io n w i l l b e b r o u g h t to th e a t t e n t io n o f th e o p e r a t o r a n d a n y a la r m
c o n d itio n w i l l c a u s e a r e a c t o r s c r a m . I f on e a s s u m e s th a t a ty p ic a l s u b -
a s s e m b ly in s t r u m e n t a t io n m a y t y p i c a ll y in c lu d e th r e e th e r m o c o u p le s , a
f lo w m e t e r a n d a c y c lo n e , a n d i f one a s s u m e s th a t 20 0 is a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e
n u m b e r o f s u b a s s e m b lie s , o n e is fa c e d w it h th e s im u lta n e o u s p r o c e s s in g
o f 1 0 0 0 s ig n a ls . S in c e i t w o u l d b e u n r e a l i s t i c t o c o n n e c t t h e s e s i g n a l s t o
1000 t r ip c ir c u its o f a s a fe ty s y s te m , i t s e e m s b e tte r to p e r f o r m som e
lo g ic a l c o m b in a tio n b e tw e e n th e s e s ig n a ls in o r d e r to d e r iv e s ig n if ic a n t
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 531

TIME (d )

S M 0 M D F S
TIME (d )

F I G .l . (a) Scram due to two failures (open type).

(b) Undetected blockage with two damaged therm ocouples.

in f o r m a t io n . A tw o - o u t- o f-th re e c i r c u i t w o u ld b e fe a s ib le f o r th e th r e e
t h e r m o c o u p le s o f a s u b a s s e m b ly b u t i t le a v e s tw o o t h e r s ig n a ls w h ic h w o u ld
h a v e to b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a te ly . A n e x te n s io n t o t w o - o u t - o f - f o u r o r t h r e e - o u t -
o f - f o u r n e c e s s i t a t e s a c h o i c e b e t w e e n t w o d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n s a n d t h e c h o ic e
i s n o t o b v io u s . A th r e e - o u t- o f- fiv e o ff e r s a m o r e a tt r a c tiv e f r a c tio n a l
c u t b u t th e c o m b in a tio n o f f iv e s ig n a ls r e m a in s q u e s tio n a b le s in c e th e y
d i f f e r i n n a t u r e a n d th e c y c lo n e d e liv e r s a s ig n a l u n d e r s u c h s p e c if ic
c o n d it io n s t h a t i t c a n h a r d ly b e c o m b in e d w it h th e o t h e r s in a s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d
w ay.
5 32 AUDOUX

TA B LE I. R A N D O M D IS T R IB U T IO N O F T R A N S D U C E R S F A IL U R E S
(F M = flo w m e t e r , TC = th e r m o c o u p le )

°k IN T A C T 1T C 2TC 3TC FM FM + 1TC FM+2TC FM + 31

0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 185 10 1 0 4 0 0 0
2 184 11 0 0 5 0 0 0
2 184 13 0 0 3 0 0 0
2 184 11 0 0 5 0 0 0

4 168 26 0 0 6 0 0 0
4 168 25 0 0 7 0 0 0
4 169 25 1 0 5 0 0 0
4 170 26 1 0 2 1 0 0

6 157 28 2 0 10 3 0 0
6 158 21 3 1 16 1 0 0
6 155 31 3 0 11 0 0 0
6 155 36 1 0 6 2 0 0

8 139 47 2 0 11 1 0 0
8 141 37 2 0 17 3 0 0
8 138 49 2 0 11 0 0 0
8 141 40 3 0 14 2 0 0

10 130 51 1 0 9 3 0 0
10 132 41 5 0 15 7 0 0
10 132 51 4 0 5 8 0 0
10 132 46 1 2 13 5 1 0

12 119 44 5 1 24 6 1 0
12 121 48 10 0 15 5 1 0
12 118 52 2 0 16 12 0 0
12 121 52 7 0 10 10 0 0

14 110 55 11 0 13 11 0 0
14 111 54 8 0 17 5 5 0
14 110 56 11 0 13 9 1 0
14 107 61 3 1 16 10 2 0

16 104 52 15 0 17 8 3 1
16 105 44 10 0 20 19 2 0
16 101 49 9 0 24 14 3 0
16 102 56 12 0 13 16 1 0

18 88 63 14 1 20 12 2 0
18 88 65 9 0 19 15 4 0
18 90 61 16 2 18 12 1 0
18 94 55 7 3 20 17 4 0

20 85 59 12 2 18 19 5 0
20 77 65 11 0 24 20 3 0
20 85 53 12 2 26 16 5 1
20 88 53 10 2 24 13 9 1

22 66 76 12 1 25 13 6 1
22 75 61 17 1 20 20 6 0
22 69 71 13 1 23 17 5 1
22 79 68 19 2 12 11 6 3

24 62 69 14 1 24 22 8 0
24 61 66 21 2 28 16 6 0
24 63 62 15 2 29 23 5 1
24 62 69 22 1 20 22 4 0

26 56 64 24 2 25 23 5 1
26 67 48 32 2 22 20 8 1
26 59 70 16 3 15 30 6 1
26 61 68 21 2 18 18 10 2

28 51 73 20 7 18 21 10 0
28 50 71 20 5 23 20 9 2
28 51 67 19 1 18 35 s’ 1
28 42 79 26 4 22 22 5 0
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 533

F u rth e rm o re , s u c h a s o lu t io n r e q u ir e s t h a t t h r e s h o ld s b e s e t w h ic h a r e
n o t s im p le t o s p e c if y b e c a u s e th e s a fe ty r e q u ir e m e n ts o f d iffe r e n t p h e n o m e n a
a r e n o t e x a c t ly th e s a m e . I f o n e t r i e s t o a v o id f r e q u e n t t r i p p i n g b y s e le c t in g
s o m e " g e n e r o u s " s e tp o in ts , th e r i s k e x is t s th a t th e d is tu r b a n c e s w i l l n o t
b e d e te c te d in t h e i r e a r ly s ta g e .
A n o t h e r v ie w p o in t i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 1 (a ) w h ic h a s s u m e s t h a t a
t h e r m o c o u p le h a s b e e n d a m a g e d a n d th a t a fe w d a y s la t e r a s e c o n d o n e f a i l s .
W ith a 2 - o u t - o f - 3 lo g ic , a s c ra m w o u ld b e d u e . T h e fa c t th a t a n in t e r v a l
o f a fe w d a y s e x is t s b e tw e e n th e tw o e v e n ts ( f a ilu r e s o f th e T C s ) is n o t
c o n s id e r e d , a lth o u g h a f t e r th e f i r s t f a i l u r e th e g o o d b e h a v io u r o f th e
r e m a in in g s ig n a ls h a s s h o w n t h a t th e s u b a s s e m b ly w a s n o t i n a c r i t i c a l
c o n d itio n . T h is s h o w s th e w e a k n e s s o f c o n v e n tio n a l lo g ic w h ic h i s in c a p a b le
o f e s t a b lis h in g a n y r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e s ta t e o f a g iv e n s ig n a l a n d th e
e v e n ts w h ic h b e lo n g t o t h e t r a n s d u c e r h i s t o r y . F ig u r e 1 (b ) r e f e r s to a c a s e
w h e r e s o d iu m h a s b e e n le a k in g t h r o u g h th e t h e r m o c o u p le w it h a r e s u l t i n g
e m ig r a t io n o f th e e f f e c t iv e ju n c t io n . I f t h is h a p p e n s to tw o t h e r m o c o u p le s ,
th e tw o s ig n a ls m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o a z o n e lo c a t e d a fe w in c h e s a w a y f r o m
th e t r u e o u t le t a n d in c a s e o f b lo c k a g e a t w o - o u t - o f - t h r e e w i l l b e in h ib it e d .
In s u c h a c a s e , e.g. w h e r e tw o th e r m o c o u p le s w o u ld b e s h o r te d , i t w o u ld
s e e m h ig h ly d e s ir a b le to c o n s id e r m o r e s e r io u s ly th e o n ly c r e d ib le s ig n a l.
S u c h a c r i t i c a l a t t it u d e to w a r d s th e c o n v e n t io n a l l o g ic i s n o t g e n e r a l a n d
i s o n ly j u s t i f i e d i n t h is c o n te x t w h e r e s u c h a h ig h n u m b e r o f s ig n a ls h a v e to
b e m o n ito r e d . It i s in t e r e s t in g t o n o te th a t a r e la t i v e l y s m a ll f a i l u r e r a t e
o f th e in s t r u m e n t s m a y h a v e s e r io u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o n th e n u m b e r o f
u n ju s t if ie d s c r a m s . T a b le I s h o w s th e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t p e r c e n t a g e s o f
r a n d o m ly d is t r ib u t e d f a ilu r e s . T h e c a s e s h a v e b e e n r u n f o u r t im e s to
u n d e r lin e th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e v a r ia t io n s a n d th e y c le a r ly s h o w th a t a
s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d lo g ic m a y b e tr o u b le s o m e a s s o o n a s th e n u m b e r o f f a i l u r e s
r e a c h e s a fe w p e r c e n t.

3. ELEM ENTS OF A C O M P U T E R IZ E D S O L U T IO N

O n ly f r o m f in a n c ia l c o n s id e r a t io n s w o u ld i t b e p o s s ib le to j u s t i f y a
c o m p u t e r iz e d s o lu t io n . T h e r e p la c e m e n t o f 2 0 0 g r o u p s o f lo g ic a l c ir c u it s
b y a s o f t w a r e lo o p is a lr e a d y e c o n o m ic a l. I t m a y b e r e c a lle d th a t th e
r e a c t o r i s p r o t e c t e d b y a c o n v e n tio n a l s a fe ty s y s te m a n d t h e r e f o r e th e
r e l i a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s s ir e n o t s o s t r i n g e n t a s t h e y w o u l d b e f o r th e
p r in c ip a l lin e o f d e fe n s e . T h e m a in r e a s o n w h ic h j u s t i f i e s th e u s e o f a
c o m p u te r iz e d s y s te m i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t s a r e u n a b le
to d is c r im in a te a g a in s t th e p r o b a b i l is t ic e v e n ts a n d t h i s p o in t h a s a lr e a d y
b e e n e x p la in e d . T h is a s p e c t is s t i l l m o r e e v i d e n t i n o u r c a s e w h e r e th e
s y s te m s p e c if ic a t io n s r e q u ir e e q u i p m e n t t o b e d e s ig n e d t h a t i s a b le t o
p e rfo rm a n e a r ly w a r n in g fu n c tio n a s w e ll a s a t r e n d a n a ly s is . T h is la s t
c o n d itio n [ 6 ] im p lie s a r e a s o n a b le s a m p lin g i n t e r v a l o f 0 .5 s ( f = 2 H z ).
T h e n e c e s s it y t o t r e a t a s ig n a l a n d n o t a s in g le v a lu e le a d s to th e im p le m e n ­
ta t io n o f a m in im u m s to r a g e o r g a n iz a t io n w h ic h is c o n s id e r e d o n a f o u r -
le v e l b a s is :

L a s t s a m p le d v a lu e
E ig h t la s t s a m p le d v a lu e s
S h o rt h is to r y ( d ir e c t a c c e s s )
C h r o n ic le o r lo n g t e r m h is t o r y ( o p tio n a l a n d o f f - l i n e ) .
534 AUDOUX

Jк 1 \
111 DAMAGED ?l IV DAMAGED I
-------------------- 1-------------,
C R IT IC A L I
II CONDITION OR
DECALIBRATION A ? j
' ' ~l 1
I ALARM TREND 1 1
l_ -L
0 DEAD ZONE (NORMAL) 0 DEAD ZONE ¡

1 I ALARM TREND j
T
A (a)
C R IT IC A L
II CONDITION OR I
DECALIBRATION |
_______ ____ 1
1
1 1
rv DAMAGED?. 111 DA MA GED ? i
1 1
1 1
TEMPERATURE FLOW

FM TC I TC2 TC 3

IV 10 L L L

A 7 -1 -1 -t
(E XPECTED
0 0 0 0 0
RANGE)
I 2 1 1 1

ALSO
П Ù 2 2 2 DEFAULT
III 10 L L L

0— 3 L — 7 8— 9 10— 22

NONE P III P 11 P I

(b )

F IG .2 . (a) Organization o f the thresholds

(b) Attribution o f the priorities.
FM = flow m eter; P - priorities

3.1. P r e l i m i n a r y e v a lu a t io n o f a s u b a s s e m b ly

T h e in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e d if f e r e n t s ig n a ls o f a s u b a s s e m b ly r e q u ir e s a
d e ta ile d in v e s t ig a t io n w h ic h c a n b e t im e - c o n s u m in g a n d w h ic h c a n n o t b e
p e r f o r m e d f o r a l l th e s u b a s s e m b lie s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e a d v is a b le t o p r o c e e d
f i r s t w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y e v a lu a t io n a n d t h e n t o r e s e r v e s o m e t i m e f o r a
d e t a ile d e x a m in a tio n o f th e c r i t i c a l c a s e s w h ic h w i l l h a v e b e e n d e te c te d b y
th e f i r s t s c r e e n in g .
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 535

3.1.1. D e t e r m in a t io n o f th e t h r e s h o ld s

F o r a c o n v e n tio n a l s y s te m i t is c u s t o m a r y t o s p e c if y a t r i p l e v e l w h ic h
s h o u ld n o t b e e x c e e d e d d u r in g th e n o r m a l o p e r a t io n , a n d th e le v e l is set
h ig h e n o u g h t o a v o id to o m a n y s p u r io u s t r i p s . In fa c t, f o r a g iv e n r e a c t o r
p o w e r le v e l, th e s ig n a ls a r e e x p e c te d to b e w i t h i n a b a n d w id th w h ic h is
l i m i t e d b y tw o t h r e s h o ld s . I f a s ig n a l d o e s n o t m e e t t h is c o n d itio n , it is o f
g r e a t i n t e r e s t to k n o w i n w h ic h d ir e c t io n a n d h o w f a r i t h a s d r if t e d ( F ig . 2 ).
T h is w i l l p e r m it th e d e te c tio n o f a t r e n d , a n a la r m in g s itu a tio n , or a
c o n s id e r a b le d e v ia t io n w h ic h m a y in d ic a t e a d a m a g e d t r a n s d u c e r . It m u st
b e a d d e d th a t w it h a s o f t w a r e c o m p a r is o n t h is e x te n s io n i s in c lu d e d in a
D O - lo o p a t a lm o s t n o s p e c ia l e x p e n s e a n d s in c e o n ly a fe w t r a n s d u c e r s f a l l
in t o t h is c a te g o r y th e e x t r a t im e in v o lv e d r e m a in s s m a ll. In s u c h a c a s e
i t s e e m s d e s ir a b le t o u p d a te th e t h r e s h o ld s , b u t s in c e th e f lo w - t e m p e r a t u r e
p a i r s o f a p o w e r r e a c t o r a r e n a r r o w l y d e fin e d a n d s in c e o n ly t h e c e n t r a l
v a lu e s w i l l v a r y s lo w ly , it is a r e la t iv e ly e a s y ta s k . T h e th r e s h o ld s can be
c h a n g e d b y in c r e a s in g b y in c r e m e n t s a n i n i t i a l v a lu e a c c o r d in g to a s i m ­
p lifie d e x p r e s s io n , a n d th e s iz e o f th e in c r e m e n t s w o u ld in c lu d e s u c h
f a c t o r s a s th e o r if ic i n g in e q u a lit ie s o r th e b u r n - o u t v a r ia t io n s w h ic h a r e
n o t f r e q u e n t ly u p d a te d . T h e f a c t th a t th e e x a c t e q u a tio n i s n o t l i n e a r i s n o t
v e r y r e le v a n t , b e c a u s e o f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e m a r g i n a n d b e c a u s e th e s e t p o i n t s
w i l l b e c o m p u te d i n e l e c t r i c a l u n it s w it h o u t l i n e a r i z i n g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e t r a n s d u c e r s a s r e q u ir e d f o r th e c o n v e r s io n in t o i n d u s t r i a l u n it s .

3.1.2. S ta tu s in d e x

W h e n e v e r a s ig n a l le a v e s th e b a n d w h e r e i t w a s e x p e c te d t o r e m a in , it
m a y c o n tr ib u t e to a r e a c t o r s c r a m a n d i t s e e m s r e a s o n a b le to q u e s tio n th e
c r e d i b i l i t y o f s u c h a s ig n a l b e f o r e u n d e r t a k in g a n y s e r io u s a c t io n . The
c r e d i b i l i t y o f a s ig n a l i s th e c o n fid e n c e o n e h a s i n th e m e s s a g e c a r r ie d b y
th e tr a n s d u c e r . S u c h a c o n fid e n c e s h o u ld r e m a in in t a c t a s lo n g a s th e
b e h a v io u r h a s b e e n fo u n d c o r r e c t a n d w i l l b e s to r e d u n d e r th e n a m e
"S ta tu s in d e x " . T h e s ta t u s in d e x a llo w s th e in f o r m a t io n t o b e w e ig h e d
a c c o r d in g to th e d e g re e o f i n t e g r i t y o f a t r a n s d u c e r a n d m a y f u r t h e r b e

TA B LE II. O R G A N IZ A T IO N O F T H E S T A T U S IN D E X

Credibility V alue T y p ica l situation

0 Normal

1 Free (not used)

Correct
2 "Extensive ca re ”

3 Recalibrated (offset)

4 Loose co n tact (interm ittent)

5 Spurious - noisy
Bad
6 Damaged (open)

7 Damaged (short)
536 AUDOUX

u s e d b y th e s e r v ic in g t e a m to s e le c t th e d a m a g e d in s t r u m e n t s w h ic h w i l l
h a v e to b e r e p la c e d . S u c h a n i n d e x c o u ld b e o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o
T a b le I I .

3.1.3. T r a n s d u c e r in d e x

T h e p o s it io n o f a s a m p le d v a lu e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o th e d i f f e r e n t
t h r e s h o ld s d e t e r m in e s th e a t t r ib u t io n o f a t r a n s d u c e r in d e x . T h e v a lu e o f
s u c h a n u m e r ic a l in d e x r e f l e c t s th e i m p lic a t io n w h ic h th e a m p lit u d e o f a
s ig n a l m a y h a v e o n th e s a fe ty s it u a t io n o f a s u b a s s e m b ly . F o r in s ta n c e , in
th e s e le c t e d e x a m p le ( F ig . 2 ) z e r o i s th e n e u t r a l v a lu e w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s t o
th e s ta n d a r d p o s it io n a n d th e f lo w m e t e r w h ic h i s s in g le i s w e ig h te d m o r e
h e a v ily th a n th e th e r m o c o u p le s . A n e g a tiv e v a lu e c a n b e s e le c t e d f o r a
s l i g h t l y lo w e r t e m p e r a t u r e to c o m p e n s a te f o r a l i g h t s t a t is t ic a l d e v ia t io n .
A d a m a g e d tr a n s d u c e r i s f i r s t ta k e n in t o a c c o u n t a t a n a la r m le v e l, b u t
w h e n i t h a s b e e n fo u n d th a t th e in f o r m a t io n i s i n f a c t d u e to a lo s s o f
c r e d ib ility , a d e fa u lt v a lu e is a p p lie d . T h e a la r m w e ig h t i s som ew hat
r e le a s e d b u t th e p e n a lt y , w h ic h i s th e s a m e f o r a s h o r t a s f o r a n o p e n
c ir c u it, w i l l c a u s e th e s u b a s s e m b ly to b e m o r e c lo s e ly w a tc h e d .

3.1.4. S u b a s s e m b ly in d e x

T h e s u b a s s e m b ly in d e x i s o b ta in e d b y s u m m in g a l l th e e le m e n t a r y
t r a n s d u c e r in d e x e s . T h e r e s u lt is a n u m b e r w h ic h c a n b e b e tw e e n 0 a n d
22 a c c o r d in g to th e v a lu e s s h o w n in th e e x a m p le . I t m u s t b e p o in t e d o u t
th a t, a t th is s ta g e , o n e i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h a l o g i c a l d e c is io n b u t o n ly w it h
a f i g u r e w h i c h c a n g i v e s o m e s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o v i s i o n a l e s t i m a t i o n f o r th e
s ta t e o f a s u b a s s e m b ly . A s ta n d a rd c o m p u te r p e r f o r m s s u c h a n a d d itio n
w it h a s m u c h e a s e a s a n y A N D / O R c o m b in a tio n a n d th e r e s u lt w i l l b e m o r e
a d a p te d t o th e s o r t in g o p e r a t io n d e s c r ib e d h e r e a f t e r .

3.1.5. D e te r m in a tio n o f th e p r io r it ie s

O n c e th e s u b a s s e m b ly in d e x i s k n o w n , i t i s p o s s ib le to e s t im a t e th e
c o n d it io n o f t h i s s u b a s s e m b ly w h ic h c a n b e n o r m a l o r a la r m . S in c e t h i s
n u m b e r d e t e r m in e s th e o p p o r t u n it y t o r e q u e s t a d e ta ile d in v e s t ig a t io n , it
i s m a tc h e d a g a in s t t h r e e m a r k s to c h e c k i f o n e o f th e c la s s e s o f p r i o r i t y
m a y b e a p p lic a b le . F o r in s ta n c e i f th e in d e x o f th e 1 2 3 r d s u b a s s e m b ly h a s
r e a c h e d th e v a lu e 8 , th e n u m b e r 123 w i l l b e w r i t t e n i n th e s e c o n d s ta c k
(2 n d p r i o r i t y ) a n d th e s ta c k in d e x w i l l b e in c r e m e n t e d b y o n e . W h e n th e
c la s s if ic a t io n is te r m in a t e d , t h e s y s t e m i s a b le t o k n o w e x a c t l y t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c o m p u t i n g v o l u m e w h i c h l i e s a h e a d s i n c e th e t i m e n e e d e d
f o r th e d e ta ile d in v e s t ig a t io n s is a lm o s t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o th e s t a c k in d e x e s .

3.2. D e t a ile d e v a lu a t io n

T h e d a ta a c q u is it io n a n d th e s o r t in g o p e r a t io n w h ic h d e t e r m in e s th e
p r io r it ie s c a n b e p e r f o r m e d v e r y r a p id ly a n d i t h a s b e e n c a lc u la te d th a t
a b o u t 8 0 % o f a 5 0 0 - m s c y c l e w i l l s t i l l b e a v a i l a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e th e
d e t a ile d in v e s t ig a t io n s o n a m i n o r i t y o f s u s p e c t s u b a s s e m b lie s . I t w o u ld b e
d i f f i c u l t to d ia g n o s e a d is t u r b a n c e a c c o r d in g to th e e x a m in a tio n o f a s in g le
v a l u e w h i c h c o u ld b e e l e c t r i c a l l y d is tu r b e d w h e n e v e r a la r g e c o m p o n e n t
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 537

h a s b e e n s w itc h e d . E v e n th e u s e o f to o s m a l l a n u m b e r o f p o in t s w o u ld b e
q u e s tio n a b le f o r th e c o m p u ta tio n o f f i n i t e d if fe r e n c e s a s s o o n a s a s ig n a l
b e c o m e s s lig h t ly s p u r io u s . E ig h t v a lu e s h a v e b e e n s e le c t e d b e c a u s e ,
b e s id e s th e f a c t t h a t a 2 N f o r m i s v e r y c o n v e n ie n t, th e y r e p r e s e n t a
r e a s o n a b le m in im u m to p e r f o r m a s t r a ig h t f o r w a r d a n a ly s is .

3.2.1. S te a d in e s s e v a lu a t io n

T h e e x a m in a tio n o f d if f e r e n t ly s h a p e d s ig n a ls i s s o m e w h a t e a s ie r i f o n e
i s a b le t o s e p a r a te th e p r o f ile s w h ic h a r e s te a d y f r o m th o s e w h ic h h a v e th e
a s p e c ts o f tr a n s ie n t s . T h is d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w h ic h i s c a lle d s te a d in e s s
c o n t r o l c o u l d b e f a i r l y w e l l a c h ie v e d b y a f e w s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n s , som e
o f w h ic h a r e n o w g iv e n .
T h e m e a n v a lu e d e fin e d a s
8

i=l

w o u ld b e c o m p u te d i n s u c c e s s iv e s te p s a n d t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y r e s u l t s w o u ld
b e s t o r e d ( F i g . 3)

w h e re M „ t o M 00 a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o M ( l ) .............. M ( 8 )
81 oo

**21= (M 4 1 + M 42)/2
M 22 = ( M 4 3 + M 44) / 2
D C = ( M 21+ ! V y / 2

T h e s e p a r t i a l s u m s c o u ld b e b a la n c e d a g a in s t e a c h o t h e r to d e t e r m in e th e
s ig n ific a n t p r o f ile s .
I n e q u a litie s such as

or

a r e e x t r e m e ly i n t e r e s t i n g f o r th e q u ic k a n a ly s is o f p r o f i l e s .
A n o t h e r p a r a m e t e r w h i c h c o u ld g i v e a f a i r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e s t e a d i n e s s
m a y b e c o m p u te d a s

1=1

T h i s v a lu e i s th e s u m o f th e d e v ia t io n s b e tw e e n th e d i f f e r e n t p o in t s a n d
th e m e a n v a lu e . T h is p h y s ic a l m e a n in g m a y b e c o m p a r e d t o a v a r ia n c e
w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n s q u a r e d . B y t a k in g th e a b s o lu te v a lu e , i t i s p o s s ib le to
538 AUDOUX

1_ _ г т м, - м21 + м22----“ма, —м88

DÇ= УаМ,
(MEAN VALUE)
8
M ei |M 8 2 I М 8 Э | М 01 M 05 I М 06 | ^ 8 7 l M 0 A Ç = J_ Z I DC - M (Г )|
8 1=1

*43 | (SUM OF THE DEVIATIONS)

(a) INCREASING
(b) (DECREASING

(a),(b)
-О—О ц - О — o-o—o —o- O NE -P OIN T
DISTURBANCE

( a ) ,( b )

N / * NOT IDENTIFIED

F IG .3 . Control o f the steadiness (p rin cip le).

o b t a in v a lu e s w M c h w i l l b e a lw a y s p o s it iv e w it h o u t a t im e - c o n s u m in g
s q u a r in g o p e r a t io n a n d t h i s i s d o n e e a s ily w it h a c o m p u t e r w h e r e th e
o p e r a t i o n " L o a d P o s i t i v e " b e lo n g s t o a n y s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s e t .
O n c e th e s e q u a n t it ie s h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d f o r a l l th e t r a n s d u c e r s , i t is
p o s s ib le to c l a s s i f y th e s ig n a ls a c c o r d in g to t h e i r s te a d in e s s . The
f o llo w in g c la s s e s o f p r o f ile s ( F ig s 3 , 4 a n d 5 ) a r e e s p e c ia lly m e a n in g fu l f o r
o u r p u rp o s e :

F a s t i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g r a m p s w i t h a s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n b e in g
p a id t o t h e e v o lu t io n o f th e tw o l a s t v a lu e s
S ig n a ls w h ic h e x h ib it a to o h ig h ( o r to o lo w ) m e a n v a lu e
S ig n a ls c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y v a r ia t io n s o f la r g e a m p lit u d e
O n e p o in t d i s t u r b a n c e s .
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 539

FIG . 4 . Evaluation o f the profiles.

GW - threshold

T h e p r o c e s s is e n la r g e d b y v e r i f y i n g i f th e p r o f i l e s o f th e d i f f e r e n t
tr a n s d u c e r s a r e r e la te d to e a c h o th e r . T h e s ta t u s in d e x i s o b v io u s ly ta k e n
in t o a c c o u n t d u r in g th e in v e s t ig a t io n o f s u c h r e la t io n s h ip s . T h e c o m b in a tio n
o f th e r e s u lt s o f th e s te a d in e s s e v a lu a t io n r e q u ir e s th e u s e o f a lg o r it h m s
w h ic h a r e b a s e d n o t o n ly o n th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h e a c q u i s i t i o n c h a in
(tr a n s d u c e r ty p e , tim e c o n s ta n t, a s s o c ia t e d f i l t e r , s a m p lin g r a t e e tc . ) b u t
a ls o o n th e r e s u lt s o f e x p e r im e n t s w h ic h h a v e b e e n r u n o n a s i m i l a r
g e o m e try .
T h e d e c is io n to s e n d a n a l a r m ( o r a s h u td o w n s ig n a l) i s m a d e a c c o r d in g
to a n u m e r ic a l w e ig h tin g m e th o d s i m i l a r t o th e s c h e m e w h ic h h a s b e e n
e x p la in e d f o r th e d e t e r m in a t io n o f th e s u b a s s e m b ly in d e x .
540 AUDOUX

FIG . 5 . Sequential tim in g .

3.2.2. F le x ib ilit y -

C o n s id e r a b le r e s e a r c h w o r k is n o w b e in g p e r f o r m e d i n m a n y l a b o r a t o r i e s
t o im p le m e n t n e w d e te c tio n s y s te m s a n d th e s ta t e o f te c h n o lo g y i s c h a n g in g
q u it e r a p i d l y . T h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g te c h n iq u e s a r e r e la t e d t o n o is e a n a ly s is
o r to u lt r a s o n ic d e te c tio n . N o is e a n a ly s is i s b a s e d o n th e c o m p a r is o n o f
s p e c tr a d e r iv e d f r o m th e c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n s a n d w a s r e s t r i c t e d f o r a lo n g
t im e t o v e r y t h e o r e t ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n s . T h is s i t u a t i o n c o u ld n o w c h a n g e
a n d th e r e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts o f n e w a l g o r i t h m s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h h a r d - w i r e d
s y s t e m s s h o u ld p e r m i t th e u s e o f a p o w e r f u l t o o l s u c h a s th e F a s t F o u r i e r
T ra n s fo rm [ 7] f o r a p e r m a n e n t e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m . T h e tim e n e e d e d
to tra n s fo r m a s p e c tru m ( a b o u t 1 0 m s f o r 1 2 8 p o in t s ) a n d t h e n e c e s s it y t o
s a m p le a t a m u c h h ig h e r r a t e th a n th e 2 H z o f th e a p p lic a t io n d e s c r ib e d
e a r l i e r j u s t i f y th e u s e o f a s p e c ia l " F o u r i e r U n i t " . A s p e c if ic c o m p u te r
w o u ld c o m p a r e th e s p e c t r a in o r d e r to e x t r a c t th e " p a t h o lo g ic a l p a t t e r n s "
w h ic h a r e r e le v a n t t o c r i t i c a l s itu a tio n s . S uch an a d v a n c e d c o n c e p t is now
t e c h n ic a lly f e a s ib le b u t m e e ts s o m e r e s is t a n c e w h e n a p p lie d t o a n in d u s t r ia l
p la n t. O n e g e n e r a l l y a g r e e s t h a t n o is e a n a l y s i s w o u l d p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e
in f o r m a t io n b u t o n e s t i l l h e s it a t e s t o d e r iv e a s a f e t y s ig n a l f r o m such
m e th o d s w h ic h a r e s o r e c e n t . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f o n e h a s t o w a it u n t il
t h e s h i f t p h y s i c i s t h a s p e r f o r m e d a f e w c h e c k in g c a l c u l a t i o n s , th e r ig h t
d e c i s i o n m a y b e d e la y e d b e y o n d t h e a c c e p t a b le l i m i t . In th e p r o c e s s w h ic h
h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d , i t w o u ld b e p o s s ib le to in c lu d e th e c o n t r ib u t io n o f s u c h
n e w m e th o d s b y a d d in g o t h e r c o e f f i c i e n t s t o th e n u m e r i c a l w e ig h t in g p r o c e s s .
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s w o u ld b e p o s it iv e o r n e g a t iv e a c c o r d in g t o th e m e a n in g
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 541

(T R A N S D U C E R S ) TEST CHANNEL

FIG . 6 . Organization o f the data acquisition.

ADC = analog d igital converter
DMA = d irect memory access
R I, R2 = com puter 1 and computer 2
FF = flip -flo p

o f th e p a t t e r n s . T h e a m p lit u d e s c a le w o u ld b e p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e c o n fid e n c e
o n e h a s o b ta in e d f r o m s u c h a n o is e a n a ly s is . T he p ro g ra m w o u ld b e
o r g a n iz e d i n s u c h a w a y th a t a b r e a k d o w n o f th e F o u r i e r s y s te m w o u ld c a u s e
th e t r a n s f e r o f a z e r o ( p e r d e fa u lt) . I n s u c h a c o n te x t th e tw o e v a lu a t io n s
c o u ld b e n e f it f r o m e a c h o t h e r a n d t h i s w o u ld b e v e r y h e lp f u l i f th e s im u la t io n
s h o w s t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s ib le , i n th e c a s e o f a v e r y lo w c r e d i b i l i t y , to d ra w
a n y c o n c lu s io n f r o m t h e g o o d b e h a v i o u r o f s u b a s s e m b l i e s l o c a t e d i n th e
im m e d ia t e v i c i n i t y .
542 AUDOUX

3 .3 . Feasibility

T h e h a r d w a r e - s o ftw a r e in te r a c tio n is a d if f i c u lt p r o b le m w h i c h h a s to
b e s o l v e d f o r a n y d e s ig n b a s e d o n t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s . T h e s tru c tu re o f
th e p r o g r a m s d e p e n d s u p o n th e s e le c t e d c o n f ig u r a t io n a n d c o n v e r s e ly i t is
n e c e s s a r y to h a v e s o m e c o n c r e te id e a s a b o u t th e c o m p u tin g s c h e m e to
c o r r e c tly s p e c if y a h a r d w a r e c o n f ig u r a t io n . A m o r e d e ta ile d d e s c r ip t io n
o f th e p r o p o s e d s y s te m i s g iv e n i n R e f. [ 8 ] a n d th e c o n f ig u r a t io n , d e s c r ib e d
w it h in th e li m i t e d s c o p e o f th is p a p e r, w i l l b e o n ly b r i e f l y o u t lin e d . The
d a ta a c q u is it io n ( M u lt ip le x in g , A D C ) i s s im u lta n e o u s ly p e r fo r m e d b y tw o
p a r a l l e l s y s te m s ( F ig . 6 ) , o n e o f w h ic h i s s e le c t e d t o fe e d th e tw o c o m p u te r s
w it h d ig it a l d a ta v i a D ir e c t M e m o r y A c c e s s ( D M A ) . I f th e v a lu e s w h ic h
c o r r e s p o n d t o th e c o n s ta n t v o lt a g e s o f th e c h e c k c h a n n e ls a r e n o t c o r r e c t l y
r e c e iv e d b y th e c o m p u te r , th e a c q u is itio n is re p e a te d , w ith o u t in t e r r u p t io n ,
a f t e r th e s e c o n d c h a in h a s b e e n s w it c h e d o v e r . T h e g a te s w h ic h p e r f o r m
s u c h a t r a n s f e r m u s t b e b u il t w it h r e d u n d a n c y in o r d e r t o e n s u r e s u f f ic ie n t
r e lia b ilit y . A tw o c o m p u te r c o n fig u r a tio n is c o n t e m p la t e d b e c a u s e th e
r e li a b i l i t y r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e n o t s o d r a s t ic a s to m a k e a tw o - o u t - o f - t h r e e
m a n d a to ry . A s e c o n d r e a s o n i s th a t w it h a s in g le a c tiv e c o m p u te r in c h a r g e
o f th e a n a ly s is , th e c o n n e c t io n w i t h th e p e r i p h e r y i s q u it e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
T h e s e c o n d c o m p u te r is in th e s ta n d b y m o d e a n d c a n b e s w itc h e d o v e r
w it h in th e c y c le i n a fe w m illis e c o n d s b e c a u s e o f th e D M A p a r a l l e l fe e d in g .

1 5 3 ¿ 5 6 7
t -7T t-6 T t-5 T t-ÍT t-3T t-2 T t-T

«' I— L-4—1—1—¡_I —i— 11

TC3
Г4 — I— L J — 1— I
I1
— L.
I
'1 I I IЭ
r_ ^ U - 4- - I - ¡- - f- —
DM I I I I ! .¿
4- I I I
1 FREE (NOT USED) I 1 1 i 5
_ _ J ____ J_____ J______ j____ J______ L ____ J _ _
THRESHOLDS (GW) + j * 6
COEFF ICIE NT S ,
1SERVICE A REA 7
TC I t TC2 i TC3 I DM ! I ¡ i
I I 1 I 1 1
STATUS STATUS STATUS|STATUS{ |_______ |

PRIORITY INDEX

UPPER
LOWER
PART OF THE TABLE

SUBASSEMBLY NUMBER SELECTION OF

THE TRANSDUCERS

F IG .7 . Data block (prin cip le o f the addressing); and the sub-assem bly data blo ck .
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-1 543

T h e s ta n d b y d u ty o f t h e s e c o n d c o m p u t e r w i l l c o n s is t m a in l y i n m o n i t o r i n g
th e a d d r e s s r e g is t e r in o r d e r to d e te c t a f a ilu r e o f th e f i r s t c o m p u te r .
T h is c o u l d b e e a s i l y a c h ie v e d i f t h e c o r e m e m o r y i s d i v i d e d i n t o d a t a
b lo c k s ( 8 X 8 a r r a y s ) w h ic h w i l l b e a t t r ib u t e d t o e v e r y s u b a s s e m b ly . ( F ig . 7 ).
T h e le a d in g b i t s o f th e a d d r e s s c o r r e s p o n d to th e n u m b e r o f th e s u b a s s e m b ly
a n d a s im p le b i t h a n d lin g a llo w s o n e to p ic k u p a n y p a r t o f th e a r r a y
a c c o r d in g t o a w e ll- d e f in e d p a tte r n . I t s e e m s d e s ir a b le t o u s e a U n ib u s
t y p e o f d a t a - w a y b e tw e e n t h e c o m p u t e r s a n d th e e x t e r n a l u n it s l i k e th e d is c ,
th e ta p e a n d th e t e le t y p e . T h e d is c i s n e c e s s a r y to c h e c k th e s h o r t h is t o r y
a n d th e ta p e w i l l b e u s e d to p r o v id e a n o f f - l i n e a n a ly s is o f th e m a in e v e n ts .
T h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e a n e x p e r i m e n t o r i e n t e d s o f t w a r e [ 9 ] w h i c h c o u ld b e v e r y
u s e fu l in a " le a r n in g p h a s e " . S u c h s im p le q u e s tio n s a s " H o w f a s t i s
a tra n s d u c e r d a m a g e d ? " , " W h a t i s th e t im e s c a le o r th e p r o f i l e o f s u c h a
d a m a g e ? " c o u ld p r o v i d e a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g f e e d b a c k f o r f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s .

4. C O N C L U S IO N

T h e r e s e a r c h c o n t r a c t c o v e r in g th e p r e s e n t w o r k w a s d e lib e r a t e ly
o r ie n t e d t o w a r d s a n a d v a n c e d c o n c e p t t o t r e a t th e 1 0 0 0 s ig n a ls o f a s o d iu m -
c o o le d f a s t r e a c t o r . I f s u c h ty p e o f w o r k r e m a in s s o m e w h a t f u t u r e o r ie n t e d ,
i t s h o w s t h a t i t s h o u ld b e p o s s ib le t o u s e a c o m p u t e r iz e d s y s t e m t o im p r o v e
th e s a fe ty o f a fa s t r e a c t o r c o r e . S a fe ty is b a s e d o n tr a n s p a r e n c y a n d o n
th e r e l i a b i l i t y to r e s p o n d w h e n e v e r c a lle d u p o n . I t s e e m s d if f ic u lt to
a s s o c ia t e s u c h a d is c ip lin e to a f ie ld li k e " i n f o r m a t i c s " 1 w h e r e th e b a s ic
p r in c ip le s a r e th e p o s s ib ilit y t o b r a n c h o n c o n d itio n s a n d th e c a p a b ilit y o f
p e r fo r m in g a m illio n e le m e n t a r y o p e r a t io n s p e r s e c o n d . T h is in c o m p a t ib ilit y
i s o n ly a p p a r e n t a n d m a n y i n s t a ll a t i o n s s u c c e s s fu lly u s e c o m p u te r c o n tr o lle d
s y s te m s . C o m p u t e r iz e d s a f e t y s y s t e m s a r e n o w b e in g d e v e lo p e d . It is ,
h o w e v e r, th e a u t h o r 's p e r s o n a l c o n v ic t io n t h a t th e c o m p u t e r c o u ld b e v e r y
w e l l s u it e d f o r t r e a t in g m a n y m a r g in a l c a s e s r e la t e d to th e s a fe o p e r a t io n o f
a n u c le a r p la n t. P la n t s a r e b e c o m in g in c r e a s in g ly c o m p le x a n d th e
i n f o r m a t io n o r th e p r o c e d u r e s w h ic h m a y b e u s e d o n ly o n c e i n th e r e a c t o r
l i f e t i m e f i l l m a n y s h e lv e s . I n s t a l l i n g a c o m p u t e r a s a m e a n s t o a c h ie v e
b e t t e r d i v e r s i t y a n d t o u s e th e t r e m e n d o u s s c a n n in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s w o u ld
a llo w o n e t o a c h ie v e b e t t e r " c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d d e c i s i o n s " , s in c e d e c is io n s
w i l l a lw a y s h a v e t o b e m a d e .

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] UKAEA, An appreciation o f fast reactor safety. Rep. AHSB (S) R 188 -UKAEA (1 9 7 0 ).
[2 ] SM ID T. D ., PEPPLER, W ., SCHLECHTENDAHL, E .G .. SCHULTHEISS, G . F . , Sodium boiling and
fast reactor safety , K FK -Bericht 612 (Sep. 1967).
[3 } SCHLECHTENDAHL, E .G ., Sieden des K lihlm ittels in Natriumgekiihlten Schnellen Reaktoren,
K FK -Bericht 10 2 0 , EUR 4302d (June 19 6 9 ).
[4 ] GAST, K , , D ie Ausbreitung ô rtlich er Storungen im Kern Schneller Natriumgek'iihlter Reaktoren und
ihre Bedeutung fiir die Reaktorsicherheit, K FK -Bericht 1380 (M ay 1 9 7 1 ).
[5 ] ROHRBACHER, H. A ., T heorie und Voruntersuchungen flic die Entwicklung eines U ltraschallgeràtes in
Natrium, IR E-Bericht 18/69 (1 9 6 9 ).

1 ’’In form atics" is a term for computing s cie n c e.

544 AUDOUX

[6 ] AUDOUX, М ., Grundlagen der digitalen Erfassung prim ar analoger Messwerte, IRE External Rep. 8/69
(N ov. 1 9 6 9 ).
[7 ]‘ COOLEY, I. W. et al. , "A pplication o f the fast Fourier transform to com putation o f Fourier integrals,
Fourier series, and convolution in tegrals” , IEEE Trans. Vol. A U -15-N o. 1 (June 1967).
[8 ] AUDOUX, М . , Prinzip und R ealisierbarkeit ein er rechnergestiitzten Core-Überwachung für den SNR,
K FK -Berich t 15 9 3 , EUR 4729 d (D e c . 1972).
[9 ] AUDOUX, М ., K A T Z . F . , SCHLECHTENDAHL, E .G ., OLBRICH, W ., SEDAP - A FORTRAN IV
system for exp erim ental data processing, K FK -Bericht 1 5 9 4 (1 9 7 2 ).

D IS C U S S IO N

J. A. G O LDER: T h e te c h n iq u e y o u d e s c r ib e a p p e a r s to b e a v e r y
in t e r e s t in g o n e . I s i t p r o p o s e d t o u s e i t w it h a c t u a l e q u ip m e n t? A n d do you
th in k th a t s u c h a s y s te m w o u l d b e a c c e p t a b l e t o th e F e d e r a l G e r m a n l i c e n s i n g
a u t h o r it ie s ?
M.S. AUDOUX: T h is i s th e f i r s t p u b lis h e d a c c o u n t o f o u r w o r k ; i t is
v e r y r e c e n t a n d w a s p e r f o r m e d o n a h ig h ly t h e o r e t ic a l p la n e . T h e p r o b le m
w a s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f f o l l o w i n g a d e t e r m i n i s t i c a p p r o a c h (a
c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p ) b a s e d o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a f a i l u r e t r e e h a v in g
g o o d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a in s t p r o b a b i l is t ic e v e n ts . W e w e r e a ls o a s k e d to
e n v is a g e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s i g n a l s i n s u c h a w a y a s t o i n c l u d e a n e a r l y
w a r n in g s y s te m a s w e ll as a t r e n d a n a ly s is . S in c e t h i s r e s e a r c h w o r k w a s
d e lib e r a t e ly f u t u r e - o r ie n t e d , i t w o u ld b e p r e m a t u r e t o a t t e m p t a n a n s w e r
to y o u r q u e s tio n s a t th e p r e s e n t s ta g e .
D. H. STEGEM ANN: W o u ld i t n o t b e n e c e s s a r y t o b a s e th e c r e d i b i l i t y
o f a s e n s o r o n o b je c t iv e r a t h e r th a n s u b je c t iv e c r i t e r i a ? I f so, w hat w ay
o f d o in g t h i s c a n y o u fo r e s e e ?
M.S. A U D O U X : . C r e d i b i l i t y h a s b e e n d e fin e d o n a n e m p i r i c a l b a s is .
T h e p la n t o p e r a t o r s k n o w t h a t s o m e t r a n s d u c e r s a r e r e lia b le , p r o v id e
s p u r io u s in f o r m a t io n o r a r e s h o r t - c ir c u it e d . I t is in fa c t a p r o b le m c lo s e ly
r e la te d to in f o r m a t io n th e o r y . T h e u p d a tin g o f th e s ta t u s in d e x r e q u ir e s
s p e c ia l a lg o r it h m s , b u t t h is d i f f i c u lt y c a n b e s o lv e d .
 IA E A -SM -168/E-6

BOILING DETECTION IN THE

2 0 - TO 50-kHz FREQUENCY RANGE

M .J . D U N N , M . J . О Н А N IA N
D e p a r tm e n t o f N u c le a r E ngineering S c ien c es,
U n iv e r s ity o f F lo rid a ,
G a in e s v ille , F lo rida,
U n it e d States o f A m e r i c a

Abstract

BOILING DETECTION IN THE 2 0 - TO 50-kH z FREQUENCY RANGE.

Coolant boiling in liquid m etal-co o led fast breeder reactors and pressurized-water reactors is an
abnorm al operating condition which can lead to fu e l-ele m en t failure with potentially serious safety and
econ om ic consequences. T h e o b je c tiv e o f this study was to determ ine i f n u cleate boiling could be
aco u stically detected by observing the boiling noise spectrum above 10 kHz. T h e effects o f pressure,
co olan t How v elo city and heat flux on th e aco u stical noise spectrum were also studied. Measurements
were m ade in a cy lin d rical steel tank 20 in . in diam . by 37 in . high. T he heated surface was a section
o f resistance heated zirconium fuel tube 0 .4 0 6 in . i .d . by 0 .4 1 5 in . o .d . by 1 in . long, assem bled into
an 1 8 -in . -long tube mounted v ertically in the tank. T he acoustic probe was a ce ra m ic crystal with flat
response from 0 .1 to 800 kHz, and a sensitivity o f 0 .4 9 V rms per lb/in2. Measurements were made for
a ll com binations o f pressure (1 5 , 30, 45 and 60 lb/in2, a b s.) and coolant flow v elo cities (0 , 5, 10 and
15 ft/s). T he heat flux was varied from 1 .5 x 10s to 1 .0 x 106 Btu/h-ft2 as required to a ttain various
degrees o f n u cleate b o ilin g. As exp ected, at constant pressure and flow v elo city , increasing the heat
flux increases th e noise le v e l. In a ll cases studied there was no m easurable contribution to the signal
above 20 kHz due to pump or cav itatio n noises.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

S i g n i f i c a n t b o i l i n g o f c o o la n t i n l i q u i d - m e t a l - c o o l e d f a s t b r e e d e r
r e a c t o r s a n d in p r e s s u r iz e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s is a n a b n o r m a l o p e r a t in g
c o n d it io n t h a t c a n le a d t o f u e l- e le m e n t f a i l u r e w it h p o t e n t ia lly s e r io u s
s a f e t y a n d e c o n o m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e e a r ly d e te c tio n o f b o ilin g is t h e r e ­
f o r e d e s ir a b le a n d im p o r t a n t in th e r e a c t o r e n g in e e r in g s a fe g u a r d s s y s te m .
S tu d ie s o f n u c le a te b o il i n g d e t e c t io n h a v e c e n t r e d o n t h r e e b a s ic m e th o d s :
n e u t r o n n o is e , e x t e r n a l u l t r a s o n i c e x c i t a t i o n o f t h e c o o la n t a n d a c o u s t i c
m e th o d s . T o d a te , a c o u s t ic d e t e c tio n o f b o il i n g a p p e a r s t o b e th e m o s t
f e a s ib le te c h n iq u e f o r u s e in n u c le a r r e a c t o r s . A fe w d e t e c t o r s p la c e d in
s t r a t e g i c lo c a t io n s a b o v e a n d b e lo w th e r e a c t o r c o r e ( o r p la c e d o u ts id e th e
r e a c t o r v e s s e l a n d c o u p l e d t ç t h e c o r e b y m e a n s o f a c o u s t i c w a v e g u id e s )
c a n p r o v id e c o n tin u o u s a n d g lo b a l d e te c tio n ; th e p r im a r y r e q u ir e m e n t is
t h a t t h e b o i l i n g n o is e m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m b a c k g r o u n d n o is e s s u c h
a s p u m p a n d c a v i t a t i o n n o is e s . P r e v io u s s tu d ie s [1 , 2 ] ha ve re p o rte d
d e t e c t a b l e n o is e i n t h e l o w k i l o h e r t z r a n g e a n d i n o n e c a s e [ 3 ] t o 15 k H z .
T h is l a t t e r s tu d y a ls o d e m o n s t r a te d th a t, f o r id e n t ic a l e x p e r im e n ta l
s y s te m s , t h e n o is e s p e c t r u m fro m b o i l i n g s o d iu m i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f r o m
b o ilin g w a te r in th e 5 0 -H z to 1 5 -k H z fre q u e n c y ra n g e . A t p re s e n t S axe [ 4]
is s tu d y in g th e p o t e n t ia l f o r a c o u s tic d e te c tio n o f b o ilin g b a s e d o n m e a s u r e ­
m e n ts m a d e i n th e t i m e d o m a in . N is h ih a r a [ 5] is in v e s t ig a t in g th e p o t e n t ia l
o f a c o u s tic m e th o d s , c o u p le d w i t h a d d it io n a l d e t e c t o r s and c r o s s - c o r r e la tio n
te c h n iq u e s , f o r p in - p o in t in g th e lo c a t io n w h e r e b o ilin g o c c u r s .

545
 546
DUNN and ОНА NIA N

FIG . 1. Schema of experimental system .

 IA EA -SM -168/E-6 547

T h e o b je c t iv e o f th e e x p e r im e n t a l s tu d y r e p o r t e d h e r e w a s t o d e t e r m in e
i f a c o u s t i c n o is e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n u c le a t e b o i l i n g , w a s p re s e n t a t fre q u e n ­
c ie s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a b o v e 10 k H z a n d to in v e s t ig a t e th e b e h a v io u r o f t h is
b o i l i n g n o is e a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e h e a t f l u x , p re s s u re a n d c o o la n t f l o w . The
1 0 - k H z c u t - o f f fr e q u e n c y w a s s e le c t e d b e c a u s e , in a n u c le a r r e a c t o r ,
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f b o i l i n g n o is e f r o m c a v i t a t i o n a n d p u m p n o is e s i s v e r y
d i f f i c u lt a t lo w e r fr e q u e n c ie s .

2. T H E E X P E R IM E N T A L S Y S T E M

2. 1. G e n e ra l

T h e s y s te m w a s d e s ig n e d t o s t u d y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h ig h - f r e q u e n c y
b o i l i n g n o is e a f t e r r e m o v i n g t h e c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y o f f u e l a s s e m b l i e s ,
an d w ith in th e lim it a t io n s o f a la b o r a t o r y e n v ir o n m e n t . F o r th is s tu d y
d i s t i l l e d w a t e r w a s u s e d a s th e c o o la n t m e d iu m .
B o i l i n g to o k p la c e in a s t e e l ta n k 2 0 in . in s id e d ia m e t e r b y 4 0 in . h ig h .
T h e ta n k w a s lin e d w it h 1 - in . - t h ic k fo a m r u b b e r t o r e d u c e a n y a c o u s tic a l
r e f l e c t i o n s t h a t m ig h t e x is t in th e ta n k . A c o o la n t c h a n n e l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d
o n t h e t a n k s o t h a t c h a n g e s i n c o o la n t v e l o c i t y c o u l d b e m a d e b y c h a n g i n g
t h e d i a m e t e r o f a l u c i t e d i s c h a r g e n o z z le .
T h e s y s te m a s u s e d f o r th e m e a s u r e m e n ts is s h o w n s c h e m a t ic a lly
i n F i g . 1. I t c o n s is t s o f t h r e e m a jo r s u b s y s te m s : (1 ) T h e h e a te r e le m e n t
a n d p o w e r s u p p ly ; (2 ) t h e a c o u s t i c p r o b e a n d p o w e r s u p p l y ; and (3 ) t h e
d a ta a c q u is it io n a n d a n a ly s is s y s te m .

2.2. T h e h e a t e r e le m e n t

A s e c tio n o f Z i r c a l o y - 4 f u e l tu b e m a c h in e d to th e d im e n s io n s :
0 . 4 0 6 in . in s id e d ia m e te r , 0 . 4 1 5 in . o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r a n d 1. 5 0 i n . lo n g ,
w a s u s e d as th e h e a te r e le m e n t. T w o s o lid c o p p e r c o n n e c to rs e a c h a p p r o x i­
m a t e ly 0. 4 0 6 in . in d ia m e te r b y 0. 50 in . lo n g w e r e p r e s s f i t in t o th e
Z ir c a lo y h e a te r a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 , a n d a 1 5 - in . - lo n g N o . 4 c o p p e r w ir e
w a s s c r e w e d i n t o th e s e c o n n e c t o r s ; th e s e w i r e s w e r e h e ld in p la c e b y
m e a n s o f c e r a m ic s p a c e rs . T h e h e a te r e le m e n t w a s r e s is t a n c e h e a te d
u s in g a 7 . 8 - k V A ( 2 2 0 - V ) v a r ia b le a u t o - t r a n s f o r m e r c o u p le d t o a s e c o n d
a u t o - t r a n s f o r m e r w h ic h s e r v e d a s a h ig h - c u r r e n t lo w - v o lt a g e s u p p ly . The
e f f ic i e n c y ( d e fin e d a s th e p o w e r d is s ip a t e d in th e h e a t e r t o th e m e a s u r e d
p o w e r ) w a s d e t e r m in e d t o b e 63% . F o r h e a t flu x e s a b o v e 5. 0 X 1 0 5 B t u / h - f t 2
t h e w i r e s w e r e f o r c e d - a i r c o o le d t o p r e v e n t o v e r - h e a t i n g .

2.3. T h e a c o u s tic p r o b e

T h e h y d r o p h o n e c o n s is t e d o f a c e r a m i c c r y s t a l a n d a l o w - n o i s e p r e ­
a m p lifie r . I t h a d a s e n s it iv it y o f 0 . 4 9 - V r m s p e r l b / i n 2 ( m e a s u r e d a t th e
e n d o f th e 1 0 - f t s i g n a l c a b le a n d i n c l u d e d t h e p r e a m p l i f i e r g a in o f 1 0 d B )
an d a fla t re s p o n s e fr o m 1 0 0 H z t o 8 0 0 k H z . ' I t s e n v ir o n m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s
w e re : (1 ) A m a x im u m te m p e ra tu re o f 1 0 0 °F , and (2 ) a m a x im u m p re s s u re
o f 65 l b / i n 2 a b s . [ 6] . T h e p o w e r s u p p ly w a s a s o lid - s t a t e 2 4 - V d . c . u n it .
T h e p r o b e a n d p r e a m p l i f i e r w e r e p la c e d in th e ta n k in a f ix e d p o s it io n f o r
a l l o f th e m e a s u r e m e n ts . F ig u r e 3 s h o w s th e r e la t iv e p la c e m e n t o f th e
p ro b e in th e ta n k .
5 48 DUNN and ОНА NIA N

F IG .2 . Schem a o f heater elem en t.

2.4. T h e d a ta a c q u is it io n a n d a n a ly s is s y s te m

T h e s ig n a l f r o m th e p r e a m p lif ie r w a s f ilt e r e d , a m p l i f i e d a n d a n a ly s e d ,
u s in g th e d a ta a c q u is it io n s y s te m s h o w n i n F i g . 1. S in c e a . c . r e s is t a n c e
h e a tin g w a s u s e d , la r g e 6 0 - a n d 1 2 0 -H z s ig n a ls w e r e p r e s e n t . H ig h - p a s s
f ilt e r in g a t a m in im u m fr e q u e n c y o f 4 0 0 H z e lim in a t e d th e s e s ig n a ls a n d
l e f t t h e n o is e c o m p o n e n t s d u e t o b o i l i n g , p u m p a n d c a v i t a t i o n n o is e s . The
a m p lif ie r s u s e d w e r e lo w - n o is e o s c illo s c o p e a m p lif ie r s c a p a b le o f
a m p lif y in g s ig n a ls w it h fr e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n ts g r e a t e r th a n th e 8 0 0 - k H z
r a n g e o f th e p r o b e w ith o u t d is t o r t io n .
P r e lim in a r y m e a s u r e m e n ts m a d e w ith a P a n o r a m ic M o d e l S P A 3 / 2 5
s p e c tru m a n a ly s e r in th e r a n g e 4 0 0 H z t o 2 5 M H z in d ic a t e d t h a t n o d e te c ta b le
n o is e s i g n a l e x i s t e d a b o v e 1 0 0 k H z . T h e re fo re , a P ro b e s c o p e
M o d e l L L -1 9 0 B a n a ly s e r w ith a fr e q u e n c y r a n g e f r o m 0. 35 t o 2 1 5 k H z
a n d g r e a t e r s t a b i li t y in th e k ilo h e r t z r a n g e w a s u s e d f o r th e r e m a in d e r o f
th e m e a s u r e m e n ts . T h e s w e e p r a t e o f th e a n a ly s e r w a s o n e s w e e p o f th e
fre q u e n c y s p e c tru m p e r second.
 IA EA -SM -168/ E -6 549

F IG .3 . Schem a o f tank defining probe p lacem en t.

S in c e b o i l i n g w a s p r o d u c e d o v e r a s m a l l s e c t i o n (0 . 0 0 9 6 f t 2) o f t h e
Z ir c a lo y tu b e , th e n u m b e r o f b u b b le s a n d c o n s e q u e n tly th e s ig n a l a m p lit u d e
w e r e r e la t iv e ly s m a ll. Thus, t o o b ta in d a ta w it h a d e q u a te s t a t i s t ic a l
s ig n if ic a n c e , s ig n a l a v e r a g in g w a s r e q u ir e d ; a F a b r i- T e k M o d e l 1062
In s tr u m e n t C o m p u te r w a s u s e d f o r th is p u rp o s e . P lo ts o f th e a v e ra g e d
s p e c t r a w e r e o b ta in e d d i r e c t l y w i t h a n X - Y re c o rd e r.

3. E X P E R IM E N T A L P R O C E D U R E S A N D M E A S U R E M E N T S

3.1. C a lib r a tio n

T h e p r o b e w a s d e s ig n e d w i t h a b u i l t - i n c a lib r a tio n c ir c u it , w h ic h w a s
u s e d t o c a lib r a t e th e s y s te m a n d t o o b ta in th e c o r r e c t fr e q u e n c y s c a le f o r
th e m e a s u r e d s p e c tr a . T h e l a t t e r w a s d o n e b y in t r o d u c in g s in u s o id a l
s ig n a ls in th e r a n g e o f 1 t o 10 0 k H z th r o u g h th e c a lib r a t io n c i r c u i t a n d
p r o c e s s in g th e s ig n a l th r o u g h th e d a ta a c q u is it io n s y s te m . T h is p r o c e d u r e
w a s fo llo w e d b e fo r e a n d a ft e r e a c h s e t o f m e a s u r e m e n ts .
550 DUNN and ОНА NIA N

F IG .4 . Peak spectral density (PSD) versus heat flux (Q) as a function o f pressure (P) and coolant flow
v elo city (V ). Note: A = 0 ft/s; # = 5ft/s; ■ = 10 ft/s; ♦ = 15 ft/s; Xt a ll values = 0.

3. 2 . M e a s u re m e n ts

E a r l y s tu d ie s in d ic a te d th a t th e r e la t iv e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f o r n u c le a t e
p o o l b o il i n g c o n ta in e d a la r g e p e a k n e a r 2 k H z , in a g re e m e n t w ith m e a s u r e ­
m e n t s b y M e i e r a n d S e a le [ 1] , a n d w a s th e n e s s e n t ia lly c o n s ta n t a t a lo w
b u t d e te c ta b le le v e l t o n e a r 5 0 k H z . S in c e t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y r a n g e w a s
o f p a r t ic u la r in t e r e s t in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e p r o b e o u tp u t w a s h ig h - p a s s
f i l t e r e d a t 2 0 k H z a n d m e a s u r e m e n ts o f th e r e la t iv e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity m a d e
in th e 1 0 - to 1 0 0 -k H z ra n g e . T h e 2 0 - k H z c u t - o f f w a s s u f f ic ie n t ly h ig h to
c o m p le te ly e lim in a te s ig n a ls f r o m p u m p a n d c a v it a t io n n o is e s , y e t lo w
e n o u g h t o h a v e n o e ff e c t a t th e h ig h e r fr e q u e n c ie s . A ll m e a s u re m e n ts
w e re m a d e a t e s s e n tia lly c o n s ta n t te m p e r a tu r e ( th e m a x i m u m v a r ia t io n
w a s 9 °F f r o m 8 0 ° F t o 8 9 ° F o w i n g t o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e h e a t e r a n d c o o la n t
p u m p ) f o r c h a n g e s in p r e s s u r e , c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y a n d h e a t f l u x . The
p r e s s u r e s s tu d ie d w e r e 15, 30, 45 a n d 60 l b / i n 2 a b s . a n d t h e c o o la n t f l o w
v e lo c itie s w e re 0, 5, 1 0 a n d 15 f t / s . T h e r e la t iv e s p e c t r a l d e n s itie s w e r e
m e a s u r e d f o r a l l c o m b in a tio n s o f p r e s s u r e s a n d flo w v e lo c it ie s a n d th e
h e a t f lu x w a s v a r ie d f r o m 1. 0 X 1 0 5 t o 1. 0 X 1 0 6 B t u / h - f t 2 a s r e q u i r e d t o
a t t a in v a r io u s d e g r e e s o f n u c le a t e b o il i n g . T h e m e a s u r e d s p e c t r a l d e n s ity
d a ta f o r e a c h o f th e h e a t f lu x , p re s s u re a n d f lo w v e lo c it y c o m b in a tio n s
m a y b e fo u n d in R e f. [ 7 ] .
 IAEA -SM-168/E-6 551

(A) PRESSURE (lb/in2 abs) (C) PRESSURE (lb/in2abs)

ÍD) PRESSURE (lb/in2 abs)

FIG. 5 . Peak spectral density (PSD) versus pressure ÍP) as a function o f coolant flow v elo city (V) and heat
flux (Q ). Note: Q x 105 in B tu / h-ft2; A = 1. 5; • = 2 .0 ; Ш = 2 .5 ; * = 5 .0 .

B y h ig h - p a s s f i l t e r i n g th e s ig n a l a t 2 0 k H z a r e s o n a n c e s h a p e d p e a k
w a s fo r c e d in t o th e r e la t iv e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity d a ta , w it h a lo w - fr e q u e n c y
c u t - o f f n e a r 15 k H z ( o w i n g t o f i l t e r i n g ) a n d a n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g h i g h -
fre q u e n c y c u t- o ff b e y o n d 5 0 k H z . T h e a n a ly s is w a s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s
o b s e r v e d in th e p e a k v a lu e o f th e r e la t i v e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity , and on cha nges
in th e n a t u r a lly o c c u r r in g h ig h - fr e q u e n c y c u t - o f f . P lo ts o f p e a l s p e c tr a l
d e n s ity v e r s u s h e a t f lu x ( F ig . 4 ), p r e s s u r e ( F ig . 5 ), a n d c o o la n t f lo w
v e lo c it y ( F ig . 6) w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o s tu d y th e e ffe c ts o f e a c h p a r a m e te r
o n th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y b o i l i n g n o is e .

3. 3. M e a s u re m e n t e r r o r s

T h r e e s o u r c e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s w e r e c o n s id e r e d : (1 ) V a r ia t io n s
in th e p r o b e s e n s it iv it y a s a fu n c tio n o f fr e q u e n c y ; (2 ) S ig n a l lo s s e s in
c a b le s a n d e l e c t r o n i c e q u i p m e n t ; (3 ) S t a t i s t i c a l u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
O v e r th e ra n g e im p o r ta n t to t h is s tu d y (1 0 -1 0 0 k H z ) th e v a r ia t io n in
p ro b e re s p o n s e w as ±0. 5 d B . T h i s w a s c o n s id e r e d t o i n t r o d u c e n e g lig ib le
e rro rs . S ig n a l lo s s e s w e r e c o n s id e r e d t o h a v e a n e q u a l e f f e c t o n a l l
m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d w e r e t h e r e f o r e n e g le c te d .
T h e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t e r r o r s w e r e d u e t o s t a t is t ic a l u n c e r t a in t ie s .
T h e s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s a n a ly s e d w e r e o b ta in e d b y a v e r a g in g 1 2 8 s a m p le
s p e c tra . S in c e t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d o n t h e p e a k v a l u e o f t h e s p e c t r a l
552 DUNN and O HA NIA N

(A ) VELOCITY ( f t / s ) (c ) VELOCITY ( f t / s l

(B ) VELOCITY! f t / s )

FIG . 6 . Peak spectral density (PSD) versus v elo city (V) as a function o f pressure (P) and heat flux (Q).
Note: Q X 1 0 " 5 in Btu/h-ft2; A = 1 .5 ; # = 2 .0 ; « = 2 .5 ; ♦ = 5 . 0 ; # = 1 .5 .

d e n s ity , o n ly e r r o r s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h th e p e a k v a lu e n e e d t o b e c o n s id e r e d .
T h is p e a k v a lu e w a s o b ta in e d b y a v e r a g in g a m p lit u d e d a ta in th e f r e q u e n c y
d o m a in . A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is g iv e s a 9 0 % c o n fid e n c e t h a t th e m e a s u r e d
v a lu e s o f th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s it y in e a c h c a s e a r e w it h in ± 1 5 % o f th e t r u e
a v e ra g e .
A s in d ic a t e d a b o v e , th e in s t r u m e n t a t io n w a s c a lib r a t e d b e fo r e e a c h
s e t o f m e a s u re m e n ts a n d th is c a lib r a tio n re c h e c k e d fo llo w in g e a c h m e a s u r e ­
m e n t. T h e r e w a s n o m e a s u r a b le d r i f t in fr e q u e n c y o f th e s p e c tr u m a n a ly s e r ;
th e re fo re , th e u n c e r t a in t ie s in th e fr e q u e n c y a t e a c h d a ta p o in t w e r e c o n ­
s id e r e d t o b e n e g lig ib le .

4. D IS C U S S IO N O F R E S U L T S

T h e r e s u lts o f th e m e a s u r e m e n ts a r e g iv e n in F ig s 4 t h r o u g h 6; in
t h e s e f i g u r e s th e d a ta p o in t s a r e c o n n e c te d b y s o l id li n e s f o r e a s e o f
r e a d a b i l i t y a n d th e s e s h o u ld n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s f i t t e d c u r v e s . In e a c h
c a s e th e b e h a v io u r o f th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity a n d th e n a t u r a lly o c c u r r in g
h ig h - f r e q u e n c y c u t - o f f a s a f u n c tio n o f h e a t f lu x , p re s s u re a n d c o o la n t
v e lo c it y w e r e in v e s t ig a t e d .
 IAEA -SM -168/ E -6 553

4 . 1. E f f e c t s o f v a r y in g th e h e a t f lu x

F ig u r e 4 is a p lo t o f th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity v e r s u s h e a t f lu x f o r
c o n s ta n t p r e s s u r e s a n d c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t i e s . W ith in th e 15% u n c e r t a in t y
in th e d a ta p o in t s , th e e ff e c t o f in c r e a s in g th e h e a t f lu x is t o in c r e a s e th e
p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . T h is is e x p e c te d s in c e , o n c e n u c le a te b o il i n g h a s
begun, i n c r e a s i n g th e h e a t f l u x in c r e a s e s th e q u a n t it y o f b u b b le s a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e th e n o is e l e v e l.

4. 2. E f f e c t s o f v a r y in g th e p r e s s u r e

F ig u r e 5 is a p lo t o f th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity v e r s u s p r e s s u r e f o r
c o n s t a n t c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t i e s a n d h e a t flu x e s . In c re a s e s in p r e s s u re
h a v e t w o e f f e c t s o n b o i l i n g n o is e s p e c t r a :

(a ) T h e f i r s t e f f e c t i s t o d e c r e a s e b u b b le s iz e s w h ic h in c r e a s e s th e
h ig h - f r e q u e n c y a m p litu d e o f th e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . S in c e t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s
w e r e m a d e in a h ig h - f r e q u e n c y r a n g e , th e b u b b le s w h ic h c o n t r ib u t e m o s t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o th e s ig n a l a r e th e s m a l l e r b u b b le s . L a rg e ir r e g u la r
s h a p e d b u b b le s h a v e l i t t l e e f f e c t o n th e s p e c t r a l d e n s it y a b o v e th e 2 0 - k H z
lo w - fr e q u e n c y c u t - o f f u s e d h e r e . I n c r e a s in g th e p r e s s u r e c a u s e s s o m e o f
th e l a r g e r b u b b le s t o d e c r e a s e i n s iz e t o th e p o in t t h a t t h e y b e g in t o
c o n t r ib u t e t o th e s ig n a l a b o v e th e lo w - f r e q u e n c y c u t - o f f .
(b ) T h e s e c o n d e f f e c t o f in c r e a s in g p r e s s u r e is t o in c r e a s e th e t h r e s ­
h o ld h e a t f l u x f o r n u c le a t e b o il i n g a n d t h u s d e c r e a s e th e h ig h - f r e q u e n c y
a m p litu d e o f th e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . T h e re fo re , f o r th o s e m e a s u re m e n ts
m a d e n e a r th e th r e s h o ld h e a t f lu x , i n c r e a s in g th e p r e s s u r e s h o u ld s i g n i f i ­
c a n t ly d e c r e a s e th e a m o u n t o f n u c le a te b o il i n g .

T h e c h a n g e s o b s e r v e d ( F ig . 5 ) r e f le c t th e r e s u lt s o f th e s e c o m p e tin g
e ffe c ts :

(1 ) F o r p o o l b o ilin g a n d c o n s ta n t h e a t flu x e s , in a ll c a s e s th e e ffe c t

o f in c r e a s in g th e p r e s s u r e w a s t o f i r s t in c r e a s e th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity
an d th e n to d e c re a s e it . T h is is b e c a u s e i n i t i a l l y th e t h r e s h o ld h e a t f lu x
is s u f f ic ie n t ly lo w th a t in c r e a s e s in p r e s s u r e f i r s t in c r e a s e th e p e a k
s p e c t r a l d e n s it y d u e t o d e c r e a s e d b u b b le s iz e .
(2 ) F o r t h e c a s e s w h e r e t h e c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y w a s n o n - z e r o , o n ly
w h e n th e h e a t f l u x w a s 5. О X 1 0 5 B t u / h - f t 2 o r h ig h e r d id in c r e a s in g th e
p re s s u re f i r s t in c r e a s e th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . F o r a l l o th e r h e a t flu x e s
th e e f f e c t o f in c r e a s i n g th e p r e s s u r e w a s a lw a y s t o d e c r e a s e th e p e a k
s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . F o r th e s e c a s e s th e h e a t f lu x e s a r e c lo s e t o th e t h r e s h o ld
s o t h a t th e d o m in a n t e f f e c t o f in c r e a s in g th e p r e s s u r e w a s t o d e c r e a s e th e
a m o u n t o f n u c le a t e b o il i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e th e s p e c t r a l d e n s it y .

4.3. E f f e c t s o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y

F ig u r e 6 is a p lo t o f p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s it y v e r s u s c o o la n t f lo w v e l o c i t y
f o r c o n s ta n t p r e s s u r e s a n d h e a t flu x e s . A s in th e c a s e o f v a r y in g th e
p re s s u re , i n c r e a s e s i n c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y h a v e t w o c o m p e t i n g e f f e c t s
o n b o i l i n g n o is e s p e c t r a :
554 DUNN and ОНА NIA N

(a ) T h e f i r s t e f f e c t i s t o f o r c e m e c h a n ic a lly th e b u b b le s t o d e ta c h
fro m th e h e a te r s u r fa c e a t s m a lle r s iz e s . A s d is c u s s e d a b o v e th e s m a lle r
b u b b le s in c r e a s e th e s p e c t r a l d e n s it y a m p lit u d e b e y o n d th e lo w fr e q u e n c y
c u t-o ff.
(b ) T h e s e c o n d e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y i s t o i n c r e a s e
th e t h r e s h o ld h e a t f l u x j u s t a s in th e c a s e w h e r e th e p r e s s u r e is in c r e a s e d ,
t h u s d e c r e a s i n g t h e a m o u n t o f n u c le a t e b o i l i n g .

A g a in , t h e c h a n g e s o b s e r v e d ( F i g . 6) r e f l e c t t h e r e s u l t s o f th e s e
c o m p e tin g e f f e c t s :

(1 ) F o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a t 15 a n d 3 0 l b / i n 2 a b s . an d a ll h e a t
flu x e s , th e f i r s t e f f e c t o f in c r e a s in g th e f lo w v e lo c it y is to in c r e a s e th e
p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity . H e re , th e d e c r e a s e i n b u b b le s iz e i s th e d o m in a n t
i n i t i a l m e c h a n is m . I n c r e a s in g th e f lo w v e lo c it y a b o v e 5 f t / s in c r e a s e s th e
t h r e s h o l d h e a t f l u x s o t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e a m o u n t o f n u c le a t e b o i l i n g
b e c o m e s d o m in a n t.
(2 ) A t p re s s u re s o f 4 5 a n d 60 l b / i n 2 a b s . , o n ly w h e n th e h e a t f l u x i s
5. 0 X 1 0 5 B t u / h - f t 2 o r g r e a t e r is th e b e h a v io u r s i m i l a r t o th e a b o v e . For
lo w e r h e a t flu x e s , th e e f f e c t o f th e in c r e a s in g t h r e s h o ld h e a t f l u x d o m in a te s
s o t h a t i n c r e a s e s i n c o o l a n t f l o w v e l o c i t y s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e n u c le a t e
b o ilin g a n d t h e r e f o r e th e p e a k s p e c t r a l d e n s ity .

4.4. E ffe c ts o n th e h ig h - fr e q u e n c y c u t - o ff

T h e e f f e c t s o f h ig h f lu x , s y s te m p r e s s u r e a n d c o o la n t f l o w v e l o c i t y
o n th e h ig h - f r e q u e n c y c u t - o f f w e r e a s e x p e c te d f r o m th e a b o v e in t e r p r e ­
t a t io n s . (T h e c u t - o f f f r e q u e n c y h a s b e e n d e fin e d a s th e fr e q u e n c y c o r r e s ­
p o n d in g t o a r e l a t i v e s p e c t r a l d e n s ity a m p litu d e w h ic h is n o l a r g e r th a n
l/ 2 0 t h o f th e p e a k v a lu e . ) I n c r e a s in g th e h e a t f lu x h a d n o m e a s u r a b le e ff e c t
o n th e h ig h - f r e q u e n c y c u t - o f f . I n i t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n p r e s s u r e a n d i n c o o la n t
f lo w v e lo c it y b o th c a u s e d s ig n if ic a n t in c r e a s e s in th e h ig h fr e q u e n c y c u t ­
o ff f o r s m a ll c h a n g e s in p r e s s u r e o r flo w v e lo c ity . F o r e x a m p le f o r a
h e a t f lu x o f 5. 0 X 1 0 5 B t u / h - f t 2 a n d z e r o flo w v e lo c it y a c h a n g e in p r e s s u r e
fro m 15 t o 3 0 l b / i n 2 a b s . in c r e a s e d th e c u t - o f f fr e q u e n c y f r o m 50 to 100 k H z .
F u r t h e r in c r e a s e s in p r e s s u r e o r flo w v e lo c it y r e s u lt e d in c o n tin u in g b u t
s m a lle r in c r e a s e s in th e h ig h - f r e q u e n c y c u t - o f f .
T h e s e e f f e c t s a r e d u e t o th e d e c r e a s e i n b u b b le s iz e a n d th u s a n
i n c r e a s e i n t h e h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y c o n t e n t o f t h e n o is e s i g n a l . F o r in itita l
in c r e a s e s in p r e s s u r e o r f lo w t h is r e s u lt s in la r g e c h a n g e s b u t a s th e
p r e s s u r e o r flo w a r e in c r e a s e d f u r t h e r a s a tu r a tio n e ffe c t o c c u r s r e d u c in g
th e s tr o n g d e p e n d e n c e o f th e h ig h - fr e q u e n c y c u t - o f f o n th e s e p a r a m e te r s .

C O N C L U S IO N S

T h e r e s u lts o f th is s tu d y h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d th e e x is t e n c e o f d e te c ta b le
a c o u s t ic n o is e d u e t o n u c le a te b o il i n g i n th e 2 0 - 5 0 k H z f r e q u e n c y r a n g e ;
in t h is r a n g e a n d w it h in th e e x p e r im e n t a l c o n f ig u r a t io n u s e d , p u m p and
c a v i t a t i o n n o is e s w e r e n o t d e te c ta b le . T h e o b s e rv e d c h a r a c te r is tic s of
th e m e a s u r e d s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s o f th e b o il i n g n o is e a s a f u n c t io n o f th e
 IA EA -SM -1S8/ E-6 5 55

im p o r t a n t v a r ia b le s o f h e a t flu x , p r e s s u r e a n d c o o la n t f lo w v e l o c i t y f o r m
a u s e f u l b a s i s f o r s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o f a i l e d f u e l d e t e c t i o n a n d t h e d e s ig n
o f i n - c o r e h ig h - f r e q u e n c y a c o u s t ic b o ilin g d e t e c t io n te c h n iq u e s .

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

T h e a u th o r s a r e in d e b te d t o D r . H id e a k i N is h ih a r a , K y o to U n iv e r s ity
( p r e s e n tly o n le a v e a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a ) , f o r h i s i n v a l u a b l e a d v ic e
d u r in g th e c o u r s e o f t h is s tu d y .

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] MEIER, L .D ., A coustical Investigation o f N ucleate Boiling, M aster's Thesis, University o f Arizona

(1 9 7 0).
[2 ] COLOMB, A .L ., BINFORD, F . T . , T he d etection o f boiling in a water cooled reactor, O RN L-TM -274
(1 9 6 2 ).
[3 ] GROSS, М ., JENTGES, H ., KAFKA, P . , STOELBÈN, H ., Experim ental results on aco u stical detection
o f sodium and water boilin g, Atom kernenergie 17 4 (1971) 2 5 5 .
[4 ] SAXE, R .F ., personal com m unication, North Carolina S tate University (1 9 7 2 ).
[5 ] NISHIHARA, H ., personal com m unication, University o f Florida (1 9 7 2 ).
[6 ] SIM S, C . , ENSIGN, T . , personal com m unication, Marine Resources, In c . (1 9 7 2 ).
[7 ] DUNN, M . J . , Boiling D etection in the 2 0 -5 0 kHz Range, M a ste r'sT h esis, University o f Florida (1 9 7 2 ).
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-2

INCIPIENT CORE ACCIDENT DETECTION

K . M O C H IZ U K I, M . M A T S U M IY A , K . N A K A M O T O
P o w e r R e a c t o r a n d N u c le a r F u e l D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p . , T o k y o

T . HOSHI
J a p a n A t o m i c E n e r g y R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e , T o k a i - m u r a , I b a r a k i P r e f.

T . M IY A Z A W A
R a n d D C e n t e r o f T o k y o S h ib a u r a E l e c t r i c C o . L t d , K a w a s a k i,
Japan

Abstract

INCIPIENT CORE ACCIDENT DETECTION.

From the safety aspect o f fast-breed erreacto rs, the early warning system plays a very im portant role
for detecting in -co re accid en ts. Sodium boiling may be one o f the earliest indications o f fu el-ch an n el
blockage which would cause core dam age. To date several acoustic methods for the possible detection of
boiling have been proposed and investigated. T he authors have developed directly im m ersed-type acoustic
detectors which are re lia b le at temperatures up to 600°C. For evalu ation, the transducer testing was carried
out by u tilizin g w ater-calib ratio n fa c ilitie s, a furnace fa c ility and a sodium boiling loop. In the acoustic
method for detectin g sodium boilin g, it would be necessary for signals o f various frequency regions to be
com bined and analysed, and a diagnosis o f the sodium boiling would have to be m ade.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e liq u id - m e t a l- c o o le d f a s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r h a s a c o m p a c t c o r e
o p e r a t in g a t a s i g n if ic a n t ly h ig h p o w e r d e n s it y . T h e re fo re , th e r e is a
p o s s ib i l it y o f c o r e a c c id e n ts t h a t d i f f e r e s s e n t ia lly f r o m th o s e o f w e ll-
d e v e lo p e d l i g h t - w a t e r o r g a s - c o o le d r e a c t o r s .
T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f l o c a l h o t s p o ts d u e to c h a n n e l b lo c k a g e s a n d / o r
lo s s o f c o o la n t c o u ld b e o n e o f th e m o s t t y p i c a l c o r e a c c id e n ts o f f a s t
b re e d e r re a c to rs a n d w o u ld cause c o re da m age . T o a v o id t h i s , e a r ly
w a r n in g s y s te m s a r e c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t ia l a n d m u c h r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n
d o n e o n th e m .
T h e s y s t e m f o r d e t e c t i n g s o d i u m b o i l i n g t h r o u g h a c o u s t i c a l s e n s in g
i s c o n s id e r e d to b e o n e o f th e m o s t p r o m is in g m e th o d s f o r e a r ly w a r n in g
s y s te m s , s in c e s o d iu m b o il i n g o c c u r s a t th e e a r l i e s t s ta g e o f f u e l c h a n n e l
b lo c k a g e s a n d / o r lo s s o f c o o la n t .
W e h a v e s t a r t e d d e s ig n o f a n e a r l y w a r n in g s y s t e m w h ic h r e q u ir e s
im m e r s e d a c o u s t ic t r a n s d u c e r s to b e in s t a lle d n e a r th e r e a c t o r c o r e ,
s in c e t h e i r u s e p r o b a b ly h a s a d v a n ta g e s in s ig n a l l e v e l a n d f r e q u e n c y
b a n d w id th o v e r th e u s e o f a c o u s t ic w a v e g u id e s . T h e r e w e r e tw o m a jo r
p r o b le m s to b e s o lv e d in d e v e lo p in g t h is s y s te m . O n e c o n c e rn e d th e n e e d
f o r a c o u s t ic t r a n s d u c e r s t h a t s h o u ld b e c a p a b le o f p r o d u c in g a r e l i a b l e o u tp u t
s ig n a l u n d e r h ig h g a m m a - r a y a n d n e u tr o n i r r a d i a t i o n a t t e m p e r a t u r e s up
to 6 0 0 °C . H o w e v e r, s u c h a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r s a r e n o t y e t in p r a c t i c a l u s e .
R e c e n t ly , A n d e r s o n a n d G a w in [ 1 ] d e v e lo p e d s e v e r a l k in d s o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e

557
558 MOCHIZUKI e t a l.

a c o u s t ic t r a n s d u c e r s a n d o b ta in e d c e r t a i n p e r f o r m a n c e d a ta s u c h a s r e s p o n s e
to a c o u s tic w a v e in w a t e r , c h a n g e s o f e l e c t r i c a l r e s is t a n c e o f tr a n s d u c e r s
a t h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d th e e ff e c ts o f i r r a d i a t i o n b y g a m m a - r a y s a n d
n e u tro n s .
T h e s e c o n d p r o b le m c o n c e r n e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a c o u s t i c n o is e s
in h e r e n t to s o d iu m b o il i n g . T h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a c o u s t i c n o is e s w i t h
n o n - im m e r s e d tr a n s d u c e r s h a s b e e n c a r r ie d o u t b y m a n y w o r k e r s [ 2 ].
U n fo r tu n a te ly , n o t a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n d a t a c o u l d b e u s e f u l f o r t h e d e s ig n
o f th e im m e r s e d - t y p e tr a n s d u c e r s a n d th e s y s t e m . T h e re fo re , v a r io u s
s t u d ie s w e r e r e q u i r e d f o r o u r d e s ig n .
W e s tu d ie d a n im m e r s e d - t y p e t r a n s d u c e r a n d th e e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m
w it h i t f o r th e f o llo w in g it e m s :

(1 ) D e s ig n a n d f a b r ic a t io n o f h ig h - t e m p e r a t u r e a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r s
w ith lit h iu m n io b a te c r y s t a ls ;
(2 ) F r e q u e n c y re s p o n s e a t h ig h - te m p e r a tu r e s ;
(3 ) S o d iu m b o il i n g d e t e c t io n e m p lo y in g f a b r ic a t e d t r a n s d u c e r s ;
(4 ) I r r a d ia t io n b y n e u tro n s , a n d p o s t - ir r a d ia t io n te s t o f fre q u e n c y
re s p o n s e ;
(5 ) E v a lu a t io n o f t r a n s d u c e r s i n c o n n e c t io n w it h s o d iu m b o ilin g ;
(6 ) C o n c e p tu a l d e s ig n o f a n e a r l y w a r n in g s y s t e m f o r f a s t b r e e d e r
re a c to rs .

2. F A B R I C A T I O N O F IM M E R S E D - T Y P E A C O U S T IC T R A N S D U C E R S

T h e p o s s ib ilit y o f im m e r s e d a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r s h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d
b y A n d e r s o n e t a l. in AN L. T h e y h a v e d e v e lo p e d n e w h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e
tr a n s d u c e r s w ith lit h iu m n io b a te p i e z o e l e c t r i c c r y s t a l s w h ic h h a v e th e
h ig h e s t C u r ie t e m p e r a t u r e (1 2 1 0 °C ) a n d h a v e r e la t iv e ly m o d e r a te
p ie z o e le c t r ic it y .
S e v e r a l ty p e s o f a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r s w it h li t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a ls
h a v e b e e n f a b r ic a t e d a n d t e s t e d in o r d e r to in v e s t ig a t e f e a s i b i l i t y u n d e r
fa s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r c o n d itio n s , s u c h a s h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h ig h g a m m a -
r a y a n d n e u tro n d o s e .
T h e c r o s s - s e c t io n a l v ie w o f a f a b r ic a t e d a c o u s tic t r a n s d u c e r is s h o w n
in F ig . 1 . T h e h o u s in g w i t h a f l e x i b l e d ia p h r a g m a t one end w as m a d e o f
3 0 4 s t a in le s s s te e l. T h e Z - c u t p la t e o f li t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a l s a n d w ic h e d
b e tw e e n g o ld f o i l s w a s f i t t e d in t o th e h o u s in g . T h e g o ld f o i l s s e rv e d fo r
t h e i r g o o d c o n d u c tiv it y f o r t r a n s m is s io n o f a c o u s tic w a v e s f r o m d ia p h r a g m
to c r y s t a l, a n d o f p ie z o e le c tr ic c h a rg e s fr o m t h e c r y s t a l t o a s i g n a l c a b le .
T h e h o u s in g w a s u s u a lly e l e c t r i c a l l y g r o u n d e d to e a r t h , a n d th e s ig n a l
e le c t r o d e w a s s p o t - w e ld e d to th e c e n t r a l c o n d u c to r o f a m i n e r a l in s u la t e d
c a b le . T h e c a b le w a s p u l l e d o u t f r o m th e o p p o s ite s id e o f th e d ia p h r a g m .
T h e d im e n s io n s o f li t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a l w e r e m a d e la r g e e n o u g h to o p e r a t e
o v e r th e r e q u ir e d fr e q u e n c y r a n g e . T h e s iz e o f th e c r y s t a l w it h a f l a t f r e q u e n ­
c y re s p o n s e up to 1 0 0 k H z w a s 5 m m X 5 m m , and 2 m m th ic k . A c h a rg e -
s e n s i t i v e p r e a m p l i f i e r c a p a b l e o f o p e r a t i n g w i t h s o u r c e im p e d a n c e s d o w n
to 10 Ш w a s u s e d f o r s ig n a l a m p lif ic a t io n .
T o e v a lu a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e f a b r i c a t e d t r a n s d u c e r s , s e v e ra l
te s ts w e r e c a r r ie d o u t.
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-2 559

Electrode

F I G .l . C ross-sectional view o f transducer.

Loud-Speaker

F IG .2 . Block diagram o f a calibration testing fa c ility .

T h e f i r s t w a s th e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t to o b s e r v e th e s e n s it iv i t y o f th e
t r a n s d u c e r s a g a in s t d if f e r e n t fr e q u e n c y b a n d w id th s . T h e c a lib r a tio n s w e re
p e r f o r m e d b y u s in g a c a li b r a t e d h y d r o p h o n e i n a w a t e r p o o l. T h e b lo c k
d ia g r a m o f t h is t e s t in g f a c i l i t y is s h o w n in F i g . 2 . T h e w a te r p o o l w as
1 m w id e , 2 m lo n g , and 1 m deep. T h e a c o u s t i c n o is e s o u r c e w a s a n
u n d e r w a t e r lo u d s p e a k e r , a n d it s w o r k in g fr e q u e n c y b a n d w a s f r o m 20 H z to
20 k H z . T h e a c o u s tic p r e s s u r e w a s c h a n g e d f r o m 1 t o 1 0 0 0 p ib a r b y a
ra n d o m w a v e g e n e r a to r th r o u g h a p o w e r a m p lif ie r . In th e s e p r e s s u r e
r e g io n s , th e t r a n s d u c e r s s h o w e d a g o o d l i n e a r r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n th e
k n o w n a c o u s tic p r e s s u r e a n d th e o u tp u t a m p litu d e o f th e s ig n a ls . W ith
r e s p e c t to th e f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f th e t r a n s d u c e r s , a ty p ic a l r e s u lt w a s
o b ta in e d a s s h o w n i n F i g . 3 , T h is w a s th e r e s u l t o f th e t r a n s d u c e r s , w hose
r e s o n a n c e f r e q u e n c y w a s d e s ig n e d t o b e 1 0 0 k H z . T h e a b s o lu te c h a r g e s
g e n e r a te d in th e li t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a l w e r e c a lc u la t e d to b e 1 0 0 p C i/ p b a r
560 MOCHIZUKI et a l.

( mV)
10 p A Д — —Д Acoustic Responses to I ¿íbar

В ® - © Inherent Noise

10е 10
Frequency (H z)

F IG .3 . Response of transducers.

fro m t h is e x p e r im e n t. T h e tr a n s d u c e r c a n d e te c t a m in im u m p re s s u re o f
7X10 /u b a r b e l o w t h e 5 - k H z f r e q u e n c y r e g i o n , a n d it s o u tp u t th r o u g h a
c h a r g e - s e n s it iv e a m p lif ie r w i l l b e a b o u t 1 . О X 1 0 "4 V .
T h e s e c o n d t e s t w a s o n t h e s e n s i t i v i t y c h a n g e d e p e n d in g o n t e m p e r a t u r e .
A s is s h o w n in F ig . 4 , th e t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t u s in g a n e le c t r o m a g n e t ic
s h a k e r in a fu r n a c e . O n in c r e a s in g th e t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m 25 to 6 5 0 ° C , th e
in s u la t io n r e s is t a n c e a n d s e n s it iv it y o f th e t r a n s d u c e r s w e r e o b s e r v e d .
T h e r e s is t a n c e d e c r e a s e d w it h in c r e a s in g t e m p e r a t u r e a s s h o w n b y A n d e r s o n ,
b u t w a s s l i g h t l y h ig h in a b s o lu te v a lu e . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , a ty p ic a l s e n s it i­
v i t y c h a n g e o f th e t r a n s d u c e r w a s o b ta in e d i n F i g . 5 . T h e s e n s it iv it y c h a n g e s
w e r e c o n s is t e n t w it h t h a t f o u n d b y F r a z e r a n d W a r n e r [ 3 ] in th e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e
fro m ro o m t e m p e r a tu r e to 1 0 3 0 °C . T h e n o is e l e v e l i n c r e a s e d w i t h in c r e a s in g
te m p e ra tu re . T h is w o u ld h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y th e c h a n g e o f r e s is t a n c e a n d
c a p a c i t a n c e o f b o t h t h e c a b le a n d t h e l i t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a l .
T h e t h i r d t e s t w a s o n th e i r r a d i a t i o n e f f e c t o n th e l i t h i u m n io b a te
e le m e n ts . T h e s e e l e m e n t s w e r e s e a le d i n t o a q u a r t z t u b e a n d i r r a d i a t e d
n e a r t h e c o r e o f a t h e r m a l r e a c t o r a t a n e u t r o n f l u e n c e u p t o 1 0 20 n / c m 2 .
B e fo r e and a fte r ir r a d ia tio n , th e s e e le m e n t s w e r e f i t t e d in t o a h o u s in g
f o r f a b r ic a t e d t r a n s d u c e r s a n d w e r e t e s t e d i n th e h ig h - t e m p e r a t u r e t e s t in g
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-2 561

Furnoce .

FIG . 4 . H igh-tem perature testing fa c ility .

о
0)
û:
o>
о»
о
о
>
В
о.
Э
О

200 300 400 500 600 700

Temp. (°С )

F IG ,5 . Dependence on tem perature.

fa c ility . O n e o f th e r e s u lt s is s h o w n in T a b le I . T h is r e s u lt s h o w e d th a t,
w h e n th e s e e le m e n ts w e r e te s t e d a t h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e , th e r e s p o n s e o f th e
tr a n s d u c e r s w a s n o t a ffe c te d b y n e u tro n ir r a d ia t io n . B u t b r it t le n e s s o f
e le m e n t s a t h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e w a s o b s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e b y n e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n
u p t o 1 0 20 n / c m z .
T h e f o u r t h t e s t w a s o n t h e r e s i s t a n c e f o r t h e r m a l s h o c k a n d n o is e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h i t . T h is t e s t w a s c a r r ie d o u t b y p la c in g
th e t r a n s d u c e r s in to m o u lte n m e t a l. T h e s ig n a ls w e r e m e a s u r e d b y a r m s
562 MOCHIZUKI e t a l.

TABLE I. IR R A D IA T IO N E F F E C T TO RESPONSE

Neutron fluence
Testing tem p. (n/cm 2)
(°C)
Zero 1 x 10zo

200 0 .4 3 V/g 0 .3 5 V/g

300 0 .4 1 V/g 0 .4 1 v/g

400 0 .5 6 V/g 0 .5 6 v/g
500 1 .0 1 V/g 1 .0 0 v/g
600 1 .4 0 V/g 1 .3 8 v/g

V/g = Volt per acceleratio n unit.

O 100 200 300 400

Temperature Difference T O

FIG . 6 . Therm al shock noise ch a ra cteristic.

v o lt - m e t e r th r o u g h a b a n d -p a s s f i l t e r . O n e o f t y p ic a l r e la t io n s h ip s b e tw e e n
th e n o is e a m p lit u d e a n d th e t h e r m a l s h o c k w a s o b ta in e d a t th e f r e q u e n c y
r e g io n o f 2 k H z ± 1 k H z a s s h o w n in F ig . 6 . T h is n o is e w o u ld b e c a u s e d b y
th e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s io n o f e a c h t r a n s d u c e r c o m p o n e n t.

3. P R E L I M I N A R Y S O D IU M B O IL IN G D E T E C T IO N E X P E R IM E N T

T o o b t a in th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a c o u s t ic b o il i n g n o is e s , s o m e s o d iu m
b o il i n g d e t e c t io n e x p e r im e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t i n a s o d iu m b o il i n g f a c i l i t y .
T h e c o n c e p tu a l v ie w o f th is f a c ilit y is s h o w n in F ig . 7 . A n a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r
w a s i m m e r s e d i n l i q u i d s o d iu m i n th e e x p a n s io n t a n k . A n o th e r tra n s d u c e r
w a s p u t o n th e p ip e a t th e i n l e t p a r t o f th e t e s t s e c t io n . A p a ir o f flo w s e n s o rs
 IA EA -SM -168/E-2 563

VAPOR TRAP
ARGON LINES -
VACUUM PUMP
> 1 ©
EXPANSION TANK
LE V EL SWITCH

E.M. FLOW METER

© -

POTENTIAL TAPS

— О
A. С . - О COOLER
POWER----- 1 О
SUPPLY

I__

PIEZO-PRESSURE
@ COLD TRAP

TRANSDUCER
E.M FLOW METER
E.M. PUMP

COOLING AIR

F IG .7 . Sm all boiling test loop.

w it h a p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t, a p a ir o f th e r m o c o u p le s a n d s e v e r a l e le c t r ic p o t e n t ia l
t a p s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s e a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r s w e r e u s e d f o r d e t e c t i n g s o d iu m
b o ilin g . T h is s y s te m w a s e v a c u a te d to a d e s ir a b le p r e s s u r e , a n d th e p ip e
w a ll o f th e t e s t s e c tio n w a s d i r e c t l y h e a te d b y a n a . c . p o w e r s u p p ly . W hen
s u f f i c i e n t h e a t f l u x w a s g iv e n to s o d iu m , s o d iu m b o il i n g s t a r t e d . E a c h s ig n a l
o f in s t r u m e n t s w a s r e c o r d e d o n a m a g n e t ic ta p e a n d th e n a n a ly s e d . A ty p ic a l
r e s p o n s e o f th e s o d iu m b o il i n g i s s h o w n i n F i g . 8 . S h o w n a t th e to p o f F i g . 8
a r e th e a c o u s tic , th e e l e c t r i c p o t e n t ia l, th e f lo w s e n s o r, a n d th e t e m p e r a t u r e
r e s p o n s e s o f th e o u t le t o f th e t e s t s e c t io n . T h e a c o u s tic s ig n a l w a s o b s e r v ­
a b le o n l y i n t h e f r e q u e n c y a b o v e 5 0 0 H z , th r o u g h a b a n d -p a s s f i l t e r . The
b ig d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e t r a n s d u c e r in th e e x p a n s io n ta n k a n d th a t
a t th e t e s t s e c t io n i n l e t w a s fo u n d in th e r e s p o n s e s in th e h ig h e r fr e q u e n c y
r e g io n . T h e r e s p o n s e o f th e f o r m e r w a s 10 t im e s o r m o r e t h a t o f th e l a t t e r
a t 1. 0 k H z . T h e a c o u s t ic s ig n a ls m a y b e g e n e r a te d i n o r n e a r th e e x p a n s io n
ta n k , a n d th e t r a n s d u c e r a t th e t e s t s e c t io n i n l e t m a y d e t e c t o n ly th e d a m p e d
a c o u s t ic w a v e i n s o d iu m o r s t a in le s s s te e l. A c o u s t ic s ig n a ls w e r e a n a ly s e d
b y a s p e c tru m a n a ly s e r w it h a n a u t o c o r r e la t o r a n d a r m s v o lt - m e t e r w ith
a b a n d -p a s s f ilt e r .
564 MOCHIZUKI et a l.

RUN NO 761

Acoustic Signal

S A T .T E M P . 8 4 5 ( ° q )

II
i f 1»
H E A T F LU X 2 8 . 2 (W/crrf)

Ouffet Temperature

F IG .8 . Sodium boiling testing results.

Density (A rb itra ry )
Spectrum
Power

— Frequency (kH z)

F IG .9 . Inherent acoustic noise spectrum at sodium boiling.

 IA EA -SM -168/ E-2 5 65

O n e o f th e a n a ly s e d r e s u lt s c o n c e r n in g th e p o w e r s p e c t r u m d e n s it y is
s h o w n i n F i g . 9 , w h e r e th e s p e c if ic f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e to th e s o d iu m b o il in g
o b ta in e d a t 1 . 2 k H z a n d 4 0 k H z is g iv e n . A t th e 1 . 2 - k H z f r e q u e n c y r e g io n ,
a c o u s t i c a m p l i t u d e c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e c a l i b r a t e d p r e s s u r e o f 1 0 4 t o 1 0 5 /л Ь а г
in w a te r . A t th e 4 0 - k H z fr e q u e n c y r e g io n , t h e p r e s s u r e w a s 1 0 2 t o 1 0 4 ju b a r .
C o n c e r n in g th e lo w e r fr e q u e n c y r e g io n n e a r 1 k H z , s t r o n g s ig n a ls w e r e
o b s e r v e d a n d th e a m p litu d e s w e r e o v e r 1 0 6 ^ b a r .

4. E V A L U A T IO N O F T R A N S D U C E R S

T h r o u g h th e s e v a r io u s t e s t s , th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f th e p r a c t i c a l a p p lic a t io n
o f th e s e tr a n s d u c e r s wa s c o n fir m e d f o r fa s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s . T h e r e s u lts
a r e s u m m a r iz e d as fo llo w s ;

(1 ) T h e t r a n s d u c e r s c o u ld b e u s e d f o r s o d iu m b o il i n g d e t e c t io n a t
te m p e r a tu r e s up to 7 0 0 °C ;
(2 ) T h e s e n s it iv it y o f tr a n s d u c e r s v a r ie s s l i g h t l y d e p e n d in g o n
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d f r e q u e n c y b a n d , b u t th e s e c h a n g e s c a n b e o b ta in e d
in o u t - o f - p ile c a lib r a tio n ;
(3 ) N e u t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n w o u ld a f f e c t th e r e s p o n s e le s s in th e flu e n c e
u p t o 1 0 20 n / c m 2;
(4 ) S in c e t h e r m a l s h o c k n o is e is th e m o s t s p u r io u s , f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t
o f t h e n o is e e l i m i n a t i o n m e t h o d i s n e e d e d ;
(5 ) I n h e r e n t a c o u s t i c n o is e s p e c t r a a t s o d i u m b o i l i n g w e r e o b t a i n e d
fro m 1 to 3 k H z a n d 40 to 50 k H z ;
(6 ) In th e e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m w it h th e s e ty p e s o f tr a n s d u c e r s ,
th e d e t e c t io n o f th e a c o u s tic w a v e s in th e s e tw o fr e q u e n c y b a n d s
i s b e t t e r c o m p a r e d w i t h o n ly o n e f r e q u e n c y b a n d ( s u c h a s 1 k H z
o r n e a r ) f o r s o d iu m b o il i n g i n th e r e a c t o r .

5. C O N C E P T U A L D E S IG N F O R B O IL IN G D E T E C T IO N S Y S T E M IN
F A S T -B R E E D E R R E A C T O R S

In fa s t- b r e e d e r r e a c to r s , th e a c o u s t ic t r a n s d u c e r s w o u ld b e e m p lo y e d
a s th e d e t e c t o r s o f a n e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m . A c o n c e p t u a l d e s ig n o f th e
s y s te m f o r b o ilin g d e te c tio n h a s b e e n c a r r ie d o u t b a s e d o n th e a b o v e -
m e n tio n e d s t u d ie s . T r a n s d u c e r s w o u ld b e lo c a t e d n e a r th e r e a c t o r c o r e
as s h o w n in F ig . 10. T h e m a n tle tu b e w i l l b e in s t a lle d th r o u g h u p p e r c o r e
s tru c tu re , f o r e a s y m a in t e n a n c e o f t r a n s d u c e r s . In a m a n tle tu b e , one
o r m o re tra n s d u c e rs , th e r m o c o u p le s , a n d r a d ia t io n s h ie ld in g m a t e r ia ls
w ill be fitte d . S o d iu m w i l l b e f i l l e d a t th e b o tto m o f th e tu b e f o r g o o d
a c o u s t ic a l c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e r e a c t o r c o r e r e g io n a n d th e a c o u s tic
tra n s d u c e rs , to a v o id t h e r m a l s h o c k d u e to th e p r i m a r y c o o la n t , a n d to
m in im iz e v a r ia t io n s d u e to t e m p e r a tu r e c h a n g e . A t y p i c a l c o n c e p t o f w h o le
a c o u s tic a l m e th o d is s h o w n in F ig . 1 1 . T h e re a r e tw o p r o b le m s to b e s o lv e d .
O n e is th e s e p a r a t io n o f th e b o ilin g s ig n a ls f r o m b a c k g r o u n d n o is e s s u c h
a s m e c h a n ic a l p u m p n o is e s , flo w a n d c a v it a t io n n o is e s , e tc . T h e o t h e r is
th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f a c o u s t ic a l w a v e p r o p a g a tio n .
 MOCHIZUKI et a l.

Cooling 60 s

Signal Wires ^ ' Signal Wire

Sub-Assembly Sub-Assmbly

FIG . 10. Arrangement of transducers in FBR.

Dato Recorder

FIG . 11. Conceptual system for early warning.

 IA EA -SM -168/E-2 567

6. CONCLUSION

I m m e r s e d - t y p e a c o u s t i c t r a n d u c e r s h a v e b e e n d e s ig n e d , fa b r ic a te d
a n d te s te d . In a d d itio n , a n e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m h a s b e e n c o n c e p tu a lly
d e s ig n e d b a s e d o n t h e t e s t r e s u l t s .
I t m a y b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t f a b r i c a t e d t r a n s d u c e r s w i t h l i t h i u m n io b a te
c r y s t a l a r e u s e f u l f o r d e t e c t in g s o d iu m b o il i n g i n f a s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s ,
e v e n t h o u g h t h e n o is e l e v e l i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r o r d i n a r y l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e
a c o u s tic t r a n s d u c e r s . Thus, a n e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m w it h im m e r s e d -
ty p e a c o u s tic tr a n s d u c e r s b e c o m e s v e r y p r o m is in g .

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

A t th e R & D C e n t e r o f T o k y o S h ib a u r a E l e c t r i c C o . , L t d . , J . Taguchi
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t r a n s d u c e r d e s ig n , f a b r ic a t io n a n d te s t in g . T e c h n ic a l a n d
s c i e n t i f i c g u id a n c e a n d t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f Y . M im o to o f P o w e r R e a c to r
a n d N u c le a r F u e l D e v e lo p m e n t C o r p o r a t io n , a n d o f H . K a m e i, of R & D
C e n t e r o f T o k y o S h ib a u r a E l e c t r i c C o . , L t d . a r e v e r y m u c h a p p r e c ia te d .

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] ANDERSON, T . T . , GAWIN, A .P ., High tem perature acoustic sensors for boiling detections, IEEE
Trans, n u cí. S c i. N S-18 1 (1 9 7 1 ) 340.
[2 ] SA X, R . F , , T he detection o f boiling in n uclear reactor, IEEE Trans, n u cí. S c i, N S-18 1 (1971) 3 37,
[3 ] FRAZER, D .B ., WARNER, A .W ., J . appl. Phys. 37 (1966) 3853.
 Papers I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / E - 6 and I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / E - 2 were discussed together

DISCUSSION
M .F . EDELM ANN: M r. D u n n , y o u s a id t h a t a c o u s tic m e th o d s o f
d e t e c t in g s o d iu m b o il i n g a p p e a r to b e th e m o s t f e a s ib le o n e s . C o u ld y o u
p le a s e e n la r g e o n th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e a c o u s t ic m e th o d in c o m p a r is o n w it h ,
f o r in s t a n c e , th e r e a c t i v i t y m e th o d ?
M . J. DUNN: M y c o m m e n t w a s m a d e f o r th e f o llo w in g r e a s o n s . U ltr a ­
s o n ic m e th o d s a r e u s e f u l o n ly f o r l o c a l i z e d d e t e c t io n f o r s p e c if ic p e r io d s
o f tim e (i.e. d u r in g in t e r r o g a t io n ) . N e u t r o n - n o is e a n d r e a c t iv it y m e th o d s
r e q u ir e a lo n g e r tim e in t e r v a l f r o m th e in i t i a t i o n o f b o ilin g to d e te c tio n a n d
p r o c e s s in g . O u r i n t e r e s t l a y i n d e t e c t i n g b o i l i n g a t t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f n u c le a t e
b o ilin g ( i . e . th e e a r l i e s t p o s s ib le t im e ) . F o r th e d e te c tio n o f g r o s s b o ilin g ,
r e a c tiv ity a n d n e u t r o n - n o is e m e a s u r e m e n ts a r e m o r e s u it a b le th a n a c o u s tic
m e th o d s .
D.H. STEGEM ANN: C o u ld M r . M iy a z a w a t e l l m e th e d im e n s io n s o f
t h e t r a n s d u c e r s h o w n i n F i g . 1? S e c o n d ly , w h a t is th e r e a s o n f o r th e la r g e
p e a k in th e p o w e r s p e c t r u m a t a b o u t 3 k H z i n F i g . 9? I s i t d u e t o th e
t r a n s d u c e r o r t o t h e lo o p ?
T. M IY A Z A W A : T h e h o u s in g d ia m e t e r i s 23 m m , th e d ia p h r a g m
d ia m e te r is 10 m m a n d th e h e ig h t i s 3 5 m m . T h e L iN b O s c r y s t a l is
5 X 5 X 2 m m . T h e 3 - k H z p e a k in th e p o w e r s p e c t r u m d e n s i t y w e t a k e to
b e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e s o d iu m b o il i n g f a c i l i t y .
D .H . S T E G E M A N N : W h a t k in d o f p r o f i l e d o e s th e fr e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e
o f y o u r tra n s d u c e r ha ve ? Is i t fla t?
T. M IY A Z A W A : T h e f la t n e s s o f th e r e s p o n s e o f a t y p ic a l t r a n s d u c e r
w o u l d n o t b e s h o w n , b u t i t w o u l d b e a s i m p l e m a t t e r t o d e s ig n a n d f a b r i c a t e
a t r a n s d u c e r s h o w in g a f l a t r e s p o n s e i f w e s o d e s ir e d .
J.A. G O LDER: W h a t is th e im p e d a n c e o f th e l i t h i u m n io b a te c r y s t a l
a t h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e (6 0 0 °C ) a n d w h a t is i t s in s u la t io n r e s is t a n c e a t th a t
te m p e r a tu r e ? E x p e r ie n c e in t h e U n it e d K in g d o m a n d e ls e w h e r e h a s s h o w n
s u b s ta n tia l f a lls i n th e r e s is t a n c e o f i n s u la t io n m a t e r i a l i n r e la t i o n to th e
c r y s t a l im p e d a n c e .
T. M IY A Z A W A : A t 6 0 0 °C th e e le c t r o s t a t ic c a p a c ita n c e o f th e c r y s t a l
is a b o u t 50 p F , a n d t h a t o f th e w h o le t r a n s d u c e r h e a d i s a b o u t 2 0 0 p F ;
th e r e s is t a n c e is a b o u t 1 0 4 i i .
M .J. DUNN: I s h o u ld j u s t l i k e to a d d , in c o n n e c tio n w it h th e la s t
q u e s t i o n , t h a t f u r t h e r w o r k i s b e in g c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f
A m e r ic a , by M r. A n d e r s o n o f A rg o n n e N a tio n a l L a b o r a t o r y , o n h ig h -
t e m p e r a t u r e a c o u s tic t r a n s d u c e r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . I k n o w t h a t th e c r y s t a l
u s e d is li t h i u m n io b a te .
K.J. SER D U LA: W o u ld y o u c a r e to c o m m e n t , M r. M iy a z a w a , o n th e
p o s s ib le e f f e c t s o f a f a s t - n e u t r o n f l u x o n t r a n s d u c e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as
c o m p a r e d w i t h th o s e o f th e t h e r m a l- n e u t r o n f l u x w h ic h y o u h a v e d e s c r ib e d
in y o u r p a p e r?
T. M IY A Z A W A : I w o u ld e x p e c t th e e f f e c t o f a f a s t - n e u t r o n f l u x o n
t r a n s d u c e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o b e t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n o f L i a n d N b b y th e
(n ,p ) a n d (n ,a ) r e a c tio n s , e tc . So fa r , h o w e v e r, w e h a v e n o t c a r r ie d o u t
te s t s in a h ig h n e u tr o n f lu x ; th e t r a n s m u t a t io n r a t io h a s b e e n d e r iv e d b y
c a lc u la t io n o n ly .

569
570 DISCUSSION

A.B. CHAPELO T: I n y o u r c o n c e p t u a l d e s ig n f o r a b o i l i n g d e t e c t i o n
s y s te m in a f a s t - b r e e d e r r e a c to r , d o y o u e n v is a g e o n e s e n s o r p e r s u b -
a s s e m b ly o r o n e s e n s o r f o r a g r o u p o f s u b - a s s e m b lie s ? S e c o n d ly , what
is th e p u r p o s e o f th e t h e r m o c o u p le s h o w n in F i g . 10?
T . M IY A Z A W A : W h a t w e h a v e b e e n d e s ig n in g i s a n e a r l y w a r n in g
s y s te m , i n w h ic h o n e s e n s o r w i l l c o v e r s ix o r te n s u b - a s s e m b lie s . The
th e r m o c o u p le y o u m e n tio n e d w i l l b e u s e d a s a t e m p e r a t u r e c o m p e n s a to r
f o r c o n t r o llin g c h a n g e s in th e s e n s it iv it y o f th e t r a n s d u c e r d u e to c h a n g e s
in te m p e r a tu r e .
J, GOURDON: I t s e e m s to m e t h a t th e 6L i ( n , a ) r e a c t i o n h a s a h i g h e r
c r o s s - s e c t io n f o r t h e r m a l n e u tro n s th a n f o r f a s t n e u tr o n s . F u rth e rm o re ,
th e m a x im u m t h e r m a l n e u t r o n f l u e n c e o f 1 0 20 n / c m 2 r e f e r r e d to by
M r. M iy a z a w a s u g g e s ts t h a t w e m ig h t e x p e c t a c r y s t a l l i f e o f s e v e r a l te n s
o f y e a r s in a fa s t r e a c to r , a s th e c r y s t a l is in s t a lle d a b o v e th e a s s e m b lie s
in a r e g io n w h e r e t h e r e a r e n o t m a n y f a s t n e u tr o n s a n d w h e r e th e t h e r m a l
f lu x is le s s th a n 10 n / c m 2 • s .
N o w I h a v e a q u e s t io n t h a t I s h o u ld l i k e to p u t to M r . M iy a z a w a . W hat
is th e 6 L i c o n t e n t o f t h e L iN b O g c r y s t a l u s e d in y o u r e x p e r im e n ts , and w h a t
w i l l th e 6 L i c o n te n t b e in th e c a s e o f a f a s t r e a c t o r ?
T . M IY A Z A W A : The 6L i c o n t e n t o f t h e c r y s t a l u s e d i n o u r e x p e r i m e n t s
w a s th e n a t u r a l a b u n d a n c e . T e s ts in f a s t r e a c to r s w i l l b e r e q u ir e d b e fo r e
th e s e c o n d p a r t o f y o u r q u e s tio n c a n b e a n s w e r e d . I t m a y w e ll b e t h a t th e
6L i c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i l l t h e n h a v e t o b e c o n t r o l l e d .
 IA EA -SM -168/ E-3

EXPERIM ENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT

OF METHODS AND SYSTEMS TO D ETECT
SODIUM BOILING IN AN LM FBR

M . E . E D E L M A N N , J. E H R H A R D T , H . M A S S I E R , K . V O G E L *
In s t it u t fiir N e u t r o n e n p h y s i k u n d R e a k t o r t e c h n i k ,
K ern fo rsc h u n g szen tru m K arlsruhe,
Karlsruhe, F ed eral R ep u blic of G e r m a n y

Abstract

EXPERIMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS AND SYSTEM S TO DETECT SODIUM BOILING IN AN LMFBR.
Sodium boiling in an LMFBR has a reactiv ity e ffe c t consisting o f a transient part followed by an oscillation
at a frequency o f 2 to 5 Hz. This reactiv ity e ffe c t has been selected for detailed investigations because a
prospective sodium boiling d etection system based on it would not need individual instrumentation for every
fu e l elem en t. The principle o f the m easurement is to analyse the neutron flux fluctuations with regard to
such ch aracteristic patterns as caused by sodium boilin g. Sin ce at present it is im possible to generate boiling
in a sodium -cooled fast reactor, a special hydro-pneum atic p ile o scillator has been developed for sim ulating
this phenomenon in the therm al heavy-w ater reactor F R 2 a t Karlsruhe. Two in -co re ion ization cham bers are
used to d e tect neutron flux fluctuations caused by the generated reactiv ity disturbances. T o ex tra ct the boiling
signal from the background, filter and correlation techniques as w ell as spectral analysis are applied. Data
processing and signal analysis are done o n -lin e by a d igital correlation and a frequency analyser in such a way
that at any tim e the actu al correlation function and the power spectrum o f a signal are av ailable for inspection.
T he effic ien cy of the method for detecting sodium boiling in an LMFBR within a few seconds, depending on
detector configuration and sensitivity and on different signal-to-background ratios, is investigated.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

O n e o f th e m a jo r p r o b le m s i n s a f e t y a n a ly s is o f s o d iu m - c o o le d f a s t -
b re e d e r re a c to rs c o n c e r n s th e l o c a l l o s s o f c o o la n t i n a f u e l e le m e n t [ 1 , 2 ] .
P a r t i a l o r t o t a l b lo c k a g e o f a c o o la n t c h a n n e l w o u ld c a u s e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e s o f f u e l a n d c o o la n t .
D e p e n d in g o n th e d e g r e e o f th e b lo c k a g e a n d s u p e r h e a t o f th e s o d iu m ,
lo c a l o r g r o s s b o ilin g w i l l b e a tt a in e d . A tw o - p h a s e flo w lik e th a t in w a te r
i s a lm o s t im p o s s ib l e i n s o d iu m [3]. D u r i n g l o c a l b o i l i n g o n l y s m a l l b u b b le s
o f s o d iu m a r e g e n e r a te d w h ic h c o n d e n s e a g a in r e l a t i v e l y f a s t s o t h a t th e f u e l
p i n s a r e s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y c o o le d f o r a c e r t a i n t i m e . In th e c a s e o f g r o s s
b o ilin g , w h ic h is a k in d o f e x p lo s iv e v a p o r iz a t io n , s o d iu m w i l l b e e je c t e d
fro m a la r g e p a r t o f th e c o o la n t c h a n n e l, r e s u l t i n g i n th e b u b b l e s n o t f u l l y
r e c o n d e n s in g , s o t h a t a r e g io n w i t h i n th e s u b a s s e m b ly h a s n o m o r e c o o lin g .
T h e n w it h in a fe w te n th s o f a s e c o n d , c la d d in g f a ilu r e , a n d w ith in 3 to 5 s ,
fu e l m e lt in g w i l l o c c u r , p o s s ib ly f o llo w e d b y a v io le n t t h e r m a l in t e r a c t io n o f
m o u lt e n f u e l a n d l i q u i d s o d iu m . T h i s l o c a l f a u l t c o u ld b e p r o p a g a t e d t h r o u g h ­
o u t th e w h o le s u b a s s e m b ly v e r y r a p i d l y , and eve n be yond it, d e p e n d in g o n t h e
p r e s s u r e p u ls e s g e n e r a te d d u r in g th e g r o s s b o ili n g a n d th e f u e l - s o d i u m
in te r a c tio n .

* Abteilung Reaktorbetrieb und Reaktortechnik, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe.

571
572 EDELMANN e t al.

T h is c h a in o f e v e n ts m a y i n p r i n c i p l e b e i n t e r r u p t e d b y s h u td o w n o f th e
r e a c t o r a f t e r th e d e t e c t io n o f o n e o r m o r e o f th e a b o v e - m e n tio n e d e f f e c t s ,
i.e. lo s s o f flo w , t e m p e r a t u r e f lu c t u a t io n s , p r e s s u r e flu c t u a t io n s o r a c o u s tic
n o is e c a u s e d b y b o i l i n g a n d t h e r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t o f s o d i u m v o i d .
T o p r e v e n t d a m a g e to t h e s u b a s s e m b ly th e f a u l t s h o u ld b e d e te c te d
b e fo re p in f a ilu r e o c c u rs . In g e n e r a l, th e in it ia t in g e v e n t c a n n o t b e d e te c te d
im m e d ia te ly w h e n i t o c c u r s . T h is w o u ld r e q u ir e I n d iv id u a l h e a v y
i n s t r u m e n t a t io n o f a l l f u e l e le m e n ts a n d s e v e r a l b la n k e t e le m e n ts , th u s
b e c o m in g p r o h i b i t i v e f o r a c o m m e r c ia l r e a c t o r f o r e c o n o m ic r e a s o n s .
T h e re fo re , i n t e g r a l m e th o d s f o r th e d e t e c t io n o f l o c a l f a u lt s a r e s tu d ie d to
p r o v id e b a c k u p in s t r u m e n t a t io n in a d d itio n to th e t h e r m o c o u p le s w h ic h th e
p r e s e n t ly p la n n e d f a m i l y o f f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s w i l l h a v e a t th e o u t le t s o f
a lm o s t a l l s u b a s s e m b lie s . T h e s e m e t h o d s c o u ld b e b a s e d o n t h e a c o u s t i c o r
r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t o f s o d iu m b o il i n g ( l o c a l a n d g r o s s ) .
P r o s p e c tiv e b o ilin g d e te c tio n s y s te m s , b a s e d o n o n e o r th e o t h e r o f th e s e
e ffe c ts , w o u ld h a v e a s e v e r e b a c k g r o u n d p r o b le m a n d s p e c if ic p r o b le m s o f
s e n s it iv it y , r a n g e o f e ff e c tiv e n e s s a n d in - c o r e in s t r u m e n t a t io n . T h e re fo re ,
in v e s t ig a t io n s a n d e x p e r im e n t s a r e u n d e r w a y a t K a r l s r u h e t o e x a m in e th e
c a p a b ilit ie s o f b o th te c h n iq u e s w it h th e a im o f d e v e lo p in g a s u f f ic ie n t ly fa s t
s y s te m f o r th e d e t e c t io n o f s o d iu m b o il i n g i n a n L M F B R . T h is p a p e r d e a ls
w it h m e th o d s b a s e d o n th e r e a c t i v i t y e ff e c t o f g r o s s s o d iu m b o i l i n g o n l y .

2. R E A C T IV IT Y E F F E C T O F S O D IU M B O IL IN G IN A N L M F B R

F ro m t h e o r e t ic a l [ 3 ] a n d e x p e r im e n t a l [ 4 ] in v e s t ig a t io n s i t is k n o w n
th a t, o w in g t o s o d iu m o v e r h e a t in g , o n ly l a r g e s in g le b u b b le s a r e p r o d u c e d
d u r in g b o ilin g . I n g r o s s b o ili n g o f th e s o d iu m i n a f u e l e le m e n t , in a d d itio n
t o a b u b b le w h ic h f i r s t g r o w s a n d a g a in c o lla p s e s , o n l y o n e s i n g l e b u b b le
e x is ts . T h e s iz e o f t h i s b u b b le o s c i l l a t e s w it h a f r e q u e n c y b e tw e e n 2 a n d
5 H z. A t i t s m a x im u m i t c a n o c c u p y th e w h o le c o o la n t c h a n n e l. In m o s t
c a s e s i t d o e s n o t c o lla p s e c o m p le te ly d u r in g th e o s c illa t io n , th e re fo re p a r tly
p r e v e n t in g c o o lin g o f th e f u e l e le m e n t .
F ig u r e 1 s h o w s t h is b e h a v io u r i n th e c a s e o f a s u d d e n a n d c o m p le te lo s s
o f flo w (p u m p fa ilu r e ) . A lth o u g h in d iv id u a l c a s e s , d e p e n d in g o n t h e i n i t i a t i n g
e v e n t a n d d u e to th e s t a t is t ic a l a s p e c ts o f th e p h e n o m e n o n , m a y s lig h ly d iffe r
f r o m t h is b e h a v io u r , i t is a s s u m e d i n th e f o llo w in g t h a t th e s o d iu m v o id
d u r in g b o ilin g is d e s c r ib e d b y a r a m p fo llo w e d b y a n o s c illa t io n a s s h o w n in
F ig . 2, w h e r e a s u d d e n b lo c k a g e o f th e c o o la n t c h a n n e l i s a s s u m e d s o th a t
th e l o w e r e d g e o f th e b u b b le i s fix e d a n d o n ly i t s u p p e r e d g e c a n m o v e . The
tw o c u r v e s s c h e m a t ic a lly d e s c r ib e b o ilin g f o r tw o d if f e r e n t s t a r t in g p o in t s o n
th e a x is o f th e s u b a s s e m b ly . A f t e r a s u d d e n a n d c o m p le te b lo c k a g e b o il i n g
s t a r t s in th e m id d le o f th e s u b a s s e m b ly . T h e s l o w e r t h e c o o la n t f l o w i s
re d u c e d , th e m o r e th e s t a r t in g p o in t o f b o ilin g w i l l s h if t d o w n s tr e a m [3].
T h is is a ls o e x p e c te d f o r p a r t i a l b lo c k a g e s . T h e g e o m e try and r e a c tiv ity
c o e f f ic ie n t o f th e N a 2 r e a c t o r s tu d y [ 5 ] a r e u s e d in th is s e c tio n .
T h e r e a c tiv ity e ffe c t fr o m s u c h a v o id d e p e n d s o n th e p o s it io n o f b o ilin g
w it h in th e c o r e . F ig u r e 3 g iv e s th e s p a c e - d e p e n d e n t v o id c o e f f ic ie n t f o r a n
LM FBR (N a 2 ). I t is p o s it iv e a t th e c e n t r a l r e g io n o f th e c o r e a n d n e g a tiv e
a t th e p e r ip h e r ie s . H ence, t h e t i m e b e h a v i o u r o f b u b b le s i z e a n d r e a c t i v i t y
w i l l d i f f e r d e p e n d in g o n r a d i a l p o s it io n i n th e r e a c t o r . T h is is d e m o n s tr a te d
in F ig . 4 , w h e r e th e c a lc u la t e d r e a c t i v i t y o f b o ilin g i n t h r e e s u b a s s e m b lie s
 IA EA -SM -168/E-3 573

edge ( c m )
core
lower
from
Distance

FIG. 1. Sodium void in a boiling subassembly.

FIG. 2 . S ch em atic tim e behaviour o f void in gross boiling sodium.

574 EDELMANN e t al.

Core b lan ke t in te rfa c e

(c m )
midplane
from
Distance

F IG .3 . Space-dependent void co e fficie n t in an LMFBR (Na 2).

FIG. 4. Norm alized reactiv ity e ffe c t o f sodium boiling at different a x ia l and radial positions in an
LMFBR (Na 2).
 IA EA -SM -168/E-3 5 75

a t d if f e r e n t p o s it io n s a c c o r d in g to F ig s 2 a n d 3 is g iv e n a s a f u n c t io n o f t im e .
I t is s e e n t h a t a m p l i t u d e a n d s h a p e a s w e l l a s p h a s e o f th e r e a c t i v i t y
o s c illa t io n d e p e n d o n th e lo c a t io n o f b o ilin g . T h e r e m a in in g c h a r a c te r is tic s
a r e a n e a r ly p e r io d ic flu c tu a tio n o f r e a c t iv it y w it h in a fix e d s m a ll fr e q u e n c y
r a n g e a n d s p a c e -d e p e n d e n t a m p litu d e .
W h e n d e t e c t in g s o d iu m b o ilin g in a fu e l e le m e n t th e s e r e a c t i v i t y
f lu c t u a t io n s c a u s e c o r r e s p o n d in g flu c t u a t io n s o f th e n e u tr o n f lu x w h ic h h a v e
t o b e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f n e u t r o n n o is e f r o m o th e r s o u rc e s . F u rth e r­
m o re , o n e h a s to ta k e in t o a c c o u n t th a t th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic p a t t e r n s in n e u tr o n
f lu x f lu c t u a t io n s d u e to b o ilin g m a y b e a ffe c te d b y th e a t - p o w e r t r a n s f e r
fu n c tio n o f r e a c t iv it y . H o w e v e r, th e r e m a in in g g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y o f th e s e
flu c tu a tio n s is s t i l l a n a lm o s t p e r io d ic o s c illa t io n w it h in a c e r t a in fr e q u e n c y
r a n g e a n d th e p r o b le m is to in d ic a t e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e s o f n e u t r o n n o is e
i n a n a p p r o p r i a t e s p e c t r a l w i n d o w t h a t i s f a s t a n d s a f e e n o u g h t o b e a b le t o
s c ra m th e r e a c t o r b e fo r e s ig n if ic a n t d a m a g e ta k e s p la c e . F a ls e a la r m s d u e
t o s t a t i s t i c a l c h a n g e s m u s t b e a v o id e d w i t h e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y .
T h is s e e m s to b e p o s s ib le f o r s u b a s s e m b lie s i n th e c e n t r a l a n d o u t e r
r e g io n s o f th e c o r e . B u t, a c c o r d in g to F ig s 3 a n d 4 , s o d iu m b o il i n g i n a n
in t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n w o u ld h a v e a v e r y s m a ll r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t w h ic h w o u ld
b e c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d b y o t h e r r e a c t i v i t y n o is e p r e s e n t u n d e r n o r m a l
p o w e r c o n d itio n s . Thus, i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t a s o d iu m b o il i n g d e t e c t io n s y s t e m
b a s e d o n r e a c t i v i t y n o is e a n a l y s i s c o u ld s u r v e y t h e w h o l e r e a c t o r . P o s s i b l y
i t w o u ld n e e d s u p p le m e n t a r y p r o v is io n s , f o r in s ta n c e in d iv id u a l in s t r u m e n ­
t a t io n o f a fe w s u b a s s e m b lie s , o n a c e r ta in r in g z o n e , w ith flo w m e te r s o r
p re s s u re tra n s d u c e rs .
M o re o v e r, i t w o u ld b e n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e m e a n s f o r lo c a liz a t io n o f th e
b o i l i n g s u b a s s e m b l y n o t b e in g d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c o n te x t.
I t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e t h a t s o d iu m b o i l i n g i s o n l y o n e o f a v a r i e t y
o f e f f e c t s w h i c h c a u s e s r e a c t i v i t y n o is e i n a p o w e r r e a c t o r . I t is , h o w e v e r,
th e m o s t im p o r t a n t o n e f r o m a s a f e t y p o in t o f v ie w w h ic h h a s b e e n i n ­
v e s tig a te d in m o r e d e t a il th a t o t h e r s , s in c e i t is p r e s e n t u n d e r n o r m a l o r
f a u lt c o n d it io n s o f r e a c t o r o p e r a t io n . I n g e n e r a l p o w e r n o is e a n a ly s is
th e s e e f f e c t s a r e a ls o s t u d ie d w it h th e a im o f d e v e lo p in g o v e r a l l s u r v e illa n c e
te c h n iq u e s to im p r o v e u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d s a f e t y a s w e l l a s e c o n o m ic s o f
la r g e p o w e r r e a c to r s .

3. T H E O R E T IC A L B A C K G R O U N D O F T H E E X P E R IM E N T

S o d iu m b o i l i n g i n a n L M F B R r e p r e s e n t s a r e a c t i v i t y in p u t to th e r e a c t o r
a c c o r d in g to s e c tio n 2 . A s s u m i n g a b o i l i n g r e a c t i v i t y p ( t) b e in g s t a t i o n a r y
w i t h p ( t) = 0 , i.e. n e g le c tin g t r a n s ie n t e ff e c ts , e x i s t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e ls
[ 6 , 7 ] b a s e d o n p o in t k in e t ic s , c a n b e u s e d to c a lc u la te th e r e s u lt in g p o w e r
s p e c t r a l d e n s ity .
F o r a l i n e a r d e la y e d c r i t i c a l r e a c t o r s y s t e m w i t h f e e d b a c k t h e a u t o ­
p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity o f a n e u tr o n d e t e c t o r s ig n a l is g iv e n b y :

A P S D (io ) = W q 2F + W 2 q 2F D | H ( u ) | 2 +

Г N N N ,

+ W 2q 2F 2 |H(u ) |2
Ln=l
Z I Pn («) |2 + Z Z p.Wpfu)
i=i k=l 1 K
...(1)

ijfck J
576 EDELMANN e t al.

w h e r e W is th e d e t e c t o r e f f ic ie n c y in c o u n t s / f is s io n
F th e t o t a l f is s io n r a t e
q t h e e le c tr i c c h a rg e p r o d u c e d p e r n e u tr o n d e te c te d

D = — ^ a; 0 . 8 D i v e n f a c t o r

H ( u ) th e r e a c t i v i t y t r a n s f e r f u n c tio n in c lu d in g fe e d b a c k
p n( u ) i s t h e F o u r i e r t r a n s f o r m o f P n(t ); Р „ ( ш ) i s "the c o m p l e x
c o n ju g a t e o f р п( ш ) .

T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e e x t e r n a l r e a c t i v i t y v e c t o r p n( t ) ( i n 6 k / k u n i t s )
a r e a s s u m e d a s N s t a t io n a r y s to c h a s tic r e a c t iv it y d r iv in g fo r c e s w ith z e r o
m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n p n( t) = 0 ; n = 1 ... N. S in c e i n a c t u a l p o w e r
r e a c t o r s th e s e d r iv i n g f o r c e s m a y b e c o r r e la t e d ( b e c a u s e o f c o u p lin g s
b e tw e e n m e c h a n ic a l v ib r a t io n o f r e a c t o r c o n s titu e n ts f o r in s ta n c e ) t h e ir
c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s a r e s u p p o s e d to b e n o n - z e r o in g e n e r a l:
Pi(u) p j * ( u ) f 0; i , k = 1 . . . N .
T h e f i r s t t e r m i n E q . (1 ) i s d u e t o t h e w h i t e n o is e i n t h e n e u t r o n
d e te c tio n p r o c e s s . T h e s e c o n d c o n t r ib u t io n to th e a u to - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity
(A P S D ) r e s u lts fro m c o r r e la t io n i n th e c h a in - r e a c t in g fis s io n p r o c e s s . The
la s t te r m of Eq.(l) g iv e s th e s p e c if ic c o n t r ib u t io n o f " p o w e r n o is e " to th e
APSD. I t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s q u a r e m o d u l u s o f r e a c t o r p o w e r ( F 2) a n d
t h e r e f o r e p r e d o m i n a t e s t h e t w o o t h e r n o is e c o n t r i b u t i o n s d e p e n d in g o n l y
lin e a r ly on re a c to r p o w e r.
N e g le c tin g s e c o n d a r y e ff e c ts s u c h a s b o ilin g - in d u c e d v ib r a t io n s o f f u e l p in s
o r c o o la n t f lu c t u a t io n s th e p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y o f a n o s c i l l a t i n g v o id i s
g iv e n b y

PSD (ш ) = W2 q 2 F 2 I p ( ш ) Н ( ш ) I 2 ( 2)

w h e r e p{ u) d e n o te s th e s p e c t r u m o f v o id r e a c t iv it y .
F o r c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity m e a s u r e m e n ts w ith tw o d e te c to r s o f
e f f ic ie n c y a n d e2 a t d i f f e r e n t p o s it io n s i n a n a c t u a l r e a c t o r w it h th e l o c a l
n e u t r o n f l u x e s Ф1 a n d Ф 2 E q . (2 ) c a n b e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m :

C P S D ( oü) = е 1 е 2 Ф 1 Ф2 | p ( ш ) Н ( ш ) | 2 (3 )

w h e n d e t e c t o r e f f ic ie n c y is d e fin e d i n a m p e r e s p e r u n it o f n e u tr o n f lu x .
In la r g e p o w e r r e a c to r s , d e v ia t io n s f r o m th is fo r m u la , o w in g to p a r t i a l
d e c o u p lin g o f r e a c t o r z o n e s , m u s t b e e x p e c te d . T o a cco u n t fo r s p a c e -
d e p e n d e n t e f f e c t s o n e w o u l d n e e d r a t h e r c o m p l e x t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s d e p e n d in g
o n th e p o s it io n o f th e r e a c t i v i t y in p u t a s w e ll a s o n d e t e c t o r p o s it io n .
P r o b a b ly t h e r e is n o a n a ly t ic s o lu t io n o f th e g e n e r a l s p a c e -d e p e n d e n t
p r o b le m s o t h a t in d iv id u a l c a s e s m u s t b e s o lv e d n u m e r ic a lly .

4. E X P E R I M E N T A L S E T - U P T O S IM U L A T E A N D D E T E C T S O D IU M
B O IL IN G IN FR 2

A t p r e s e n t a n d in th e n e a r f u t u r e , b o ilin g e x p e r im e n ts cannot be p e r ­
f o r m e d o n a f a s t s o d iu m - c o o le d b r e e d e r r e a c t o r . T h e re fo re , b o ilin g h a s
 IAEA “SM -168/ E-3 577

b e e n s im u la t e d in th e 4 4 - M W th e rm a l re s e a rc h re a c to r FR 2 b y g e n e r a tin g
v o id s i n th e D 20 m o d e r a t o r . A s o - c a lle d b o ilin g s im u la t o r h a s b e e n c o n ­
s t r u c t e d w h ic h c a n b e b r o u g h t in t o n o r m a l f u e l- e le m e n t p o s it io n s o r v e r t i c a l
i r r a d i a t i o n c h a n n e ls . I t c o n s is t s o f a 2 - i n . - d ia m . tu b e w it h in th e c o r e in
c o n n e c tio n w it h a n e x t e r n a l e l e c t r o n i c a l ly c o n t r o lle d p n e u m a tic s y s t e m . In
th e l a t t e r th e p r e s s u r e c a n b e m o d u la te d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t th e w a t e r le v e l
i n th e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e c a n b e lo w e r e d q u ic k ly in v a r ia b le s te p s a n d fo r c e d to
o s c illa t e w it h v a r ia b le a m p litu d e a n d f r e q u e n c y . T h e t im e b e h a v io u r o f
v o id i n th e D 20 m o d e r a t o r g e n e r a te d i n t h is w a y is e s s e n t ia lly th e s a m e a s t h a t
c a u s e d b y s o d i u m b o i l i n g i n t h e c o o la n t o f a f a s t r e a c t o r . A lth o u g h th e
s p a c e -d e p e n d e n t v o id c o e f f ic ie n t is n o t th e s a m e i n b o th c a s e s , th e m a in
c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e d if f e r e n t p o s s ib le r e a c t i v i t y m o d u la tio n s d u e to b o ilin g
in a n L M F B R c a n b e s im u la te d b y a n a p p r o p r ia te s e le c t io n o f p a r a m e t e r s .
T h e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e i s p r o v id e d w it h a n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r c o n tin u o u s
m e a s u r e m e n t o f th e w a t e r le v e l b a s e d o n e le c t r i c a l c o n d u c t iv it y o f th e w a te r
c o lu m n .
F ig u r e 5 s h o w s th e d ia g r a m o f th e e q u ip m e n t. T h e p n e u m a tic s y s te m
c o n s is t s o f a p r e s s u r e v e s s e l c o n n e c te d v ia a n u m b e r o f e le c t r o m a g n e t ic
v a lv e s to a p r e s s u r iz e d g a s s to r a g e a t o n e s id e a n d to th e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e a t
th e o th e r s id e . T h e p r e s s u r e in th e b u f f e r v e s s e l is k e p t c o n s ta n t a u to ­
m a t i c a l l y a t p r e s e le c t e d v a lu e s u p t o 2 . 5 a t m . T h e w o r k in g g a s is h e liu m .
T h e e le c t r o n ic tim in g s y s te m a u to m a tic a lly c o n tr o ls s e q u e n c e a n d
o p e n in g t i m e o f v a l v e s . I t a ls o p r e v e n t s th e h e liu m gas fro m s tr e a m in g
in t o th e r e a c t o r th r o u g h th e o p e n lo w e r e n d o f th e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e . V a r ia b l e
fr e q u e n c y a n d a m p litu d e o f th e o s c illa t io n is c o n tr o lle d th r o u g h p r e ­
d e t e r m in e d o p e n in g a n d d e la y t i m e s f o r th e d i f f e r e n t v a lv e s . T h e m a x im u m
fre q u e n c y is 2 H z. A b y p a s s o f th e b u f f e r a llo w s a p p lic a t io n o f h ig h e r
p r e s s u re d ir e c tly fr o m th e s to r a g e to p r o d u c e f a s t r a m p s a t th e b e g in n in g
o f " b o ilin g " . W h e n u s in g t h i s b y p a s s th e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e c a n b e v o id e d
c o m p le te ly w ith in 0 .5 s .
T h e n e u tr o n f lu x flu c tu a tio n s a r e m e a s u re d b y tw o m in ia t u r e f is s io n
c h a m b e r s a t v a r ia b le p o s it io n s in th e c o r e . E a c h o f th e m c o n ta in s
1 m g 235U . T h e i r n e u t r o n a n d y s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e 1 . 6 X 1 0 ~ 17 A / u n i t f l u x
a n d 1 . 4 X 1 0 " 14 A / R / h , r e s p e c tiv e ly .
T h e d e t e c t o r s i g n a l s a r e a m p l i f i e d a n d b a n d - p a s s f i l t e r e d b e f o r e b e in g
a n a ly s e d . S ig n a l a n a ly s is c a n b e d o n e o n - lin e a n d o f f - lin e b y a d ig it a l
fr e q u e n c y a n a ly s e r . F o r o ff - lin e a n a ly s is th e d e t e c t o r s ig n a ls a r e
t e m p o r a r i l y s t o r e d i n a n a lo g f o r m o n m a g n e t ic ta p e .
T h e p r e s e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f th e d i g i t a l f r e q u e n c y a n a ly s e r c o n s is t s o f
a d ig it a l c o r r e la t o r a tta c h e d to a s m a ll c o m p u te r w ith s ta n d a r d p e r ip h e r y ,
i.e. te le ty p e , p h o to r e a d e r, p a p e r ta p e p u n c h a n d C R T d is p la y .
T h e c o r r e l a t o r ( H e w le t t P a c k a r d M o d e l 3 7 2 1 A ) h a s tw o in p u ts w it h
in d e p e n d e n t a n a l o g - t o - d i g i t a l c o n v e r t e r s o f 7 - a n d 3 - b i t r e s o lu t i o n . Thus,
a u t o - a n d c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n fu n c tio n s ca n be m e a s u re d . U p to fr e q u e n c ie s
o f 1 5 0 H z o n e c a n m e a s u r e 1 0 0 p o in t s o f a c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n i n r e a l t im e .
T o g e t h e r w it h th e c o m p u t e r th e c o r r e l a t o r c a n m e a s u r e u p to 1 0 0 0 p o in t s o f
a c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n i n s te p s o f 1 0 0 p o in t s .
T h e a tta c h e d c o m p u te r ( H e w le tt P a c k a r d M o d e l 2 1 1 6 B ) c a lc u la te s p o w e r
s p e c t r a l d e n s itie s f r o m th e c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n s u s in g f a s t F o u r i e r t r a n s ­
fo rm . A s p e c ia l p r o g r a m s y s t e m h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d f o r f u l l y a u t o m a t ic
p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e a n a ly s is . E a c h t im e th a t a p r e s e le c t e d n u m b e r o f d a ta
s a m p le s h a s b e e n c o r r e la t e d th e c o r r é l a t i o n f u n c t io n i s t r a n s f e r r e d to th e
 578
EDELMANN et al.

FIG. 5. Block diagram of experimental set-up.

 IAEA “SM "168/E-3 579

c o m p u te r m e m o r y . T h e n w h ile th e c o r r e l a t o r a c c u m u la te s a n e w e s t im a t e
o f th e c o r r e la t io n fu n c t io n th e c o m p u te r is c a lc u la tin g p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity
c u rv e s fro m th e la s t c o r r e la t io n fu n c tio n . A m p lit u d e a n d p h a s e o f th e
s p e c tru m a r e t h e n d is p la y e d i n a n a lo g f o r m o n th e C R T . A n y p o in t o f th e
s p e c tru m c a n b e s e le c t e d f o r r e q u e s t in g o u tp u t o f th e c o r r e s p o n d in g
f r e q u e n c y a n d a m p lit u d e o r p h a s e a ls o i n n u m e r ic a l f o r m o n th e C R T . At
p r e s e n t o n ly v is u a l in s p e c t io n o f c u r r e n t s p e c t r a is d o n e .
F o r f u t u r e o n - l i n e a p p lic a t io n s i t i s p la n n e d t h a t i n s p e c t io n o f c o r r e l a t i o n
f u n c tio n s a n d s p e c t r a is a ls o d o n e a u t o m a t ic a lly b y th e c o m p u te r . In
p r in c ip le th e c o m p u te r w i l l th e n b e b o o k - k e e p in g c o r r e lo g r a m m e s a n d p o w e r
s p e c t r a a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y c o m p a r i n g t h e c u r r e n t o n e s w i t h t h o s e f r o m th e
p a s t. In c a s e a n y s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e is fo u n d th e c o m p u t e r w o u ld i d e n t i f y
th e f a u lt a n d g iv e s p e c if ic w a r n in g s o r e v e n ta k e a c tio n s to p r e v e n t p o t e n t ia l
fa ilu r e s .
F o r d e te c tio n o f n e a r ly p e r io d ic r e a c t i v i t y d is tu r b a n c e s s u c h a s th o s e
c a u s e d b y s o d iu m b o il i n g i n a n L M F B R a r o u t in e a lr e a d y e x is t s w h ic h is
n o w b e in g i m p l e m e n t e d i n t h e p r o g r a m s y s t e m .
T h e t im e n e c e s s a r y to o b t a in r e a s o n a b le e s t im a t e s o f c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n
and p o w e r s p e c tru m d e p e n d s o n th e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e to b e in s p e c t e d a n d th e
tim e n e c e s s a ry f o r p e r fo r m in g fa s t F o u r ie r tr a n s fo r m s . T r a n s fo r m in g
1 2 8 p o in t s ta k e s a b o u t 0 . 5 s w h e n p e rfo r m e d b y s o ftw a re , a n d 40 m s w h e n
p e r f o r m e d b y a d d i t i o n a l h a r d w a r e b e in g i n s t a l l e d n o w i n t h e c o m p u t e r .
T h e re fo re , lo w - f r e q u e n c y a n a ly s is c a n b e p e r f o r m e d o n s ig n a ls f r o m s e v e ra l
d e t e c t o r s o f d if f e r e n t k in d s o r a t d if f e r e n t p o s it io n s i n th e c o r e in r e a l t im e .

5. M EASUREM ENTS A T FR 2

T h e m e a s u re m e n ts a t F R 2 s t a r t e d w it h a n e x p e r im e n t a l d e t e r m in a t io n
o f th e v o id c o e f f i c i e n t a lo n g th e a x is a t d i f f e r e n t r a d i a l p o s it io n s . In F R 2 it
i s o f t h e s a m e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e ( 1 0 ' 8/ c m 3) a s i n a n L M F B R (N a 2 ). H ow ­
e v e r th e s p a c e d e p e n d e n c e is d if f e r e n t in b o th c a s e s . W it h in th e r a n g e w h e r e
th e a b s o lu te v a lu e o f th e v o id c o e f f ic ie n t i n F R 2 is s u f f ic ie n t ly h ig h f o r th e
m e a s u r e m e n ts r e p o r t e d h e r e t h e r e is n o c h a n g e o f s ig n . N e v e r th e le s s th e
m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t d u e t o b o i l i n g c o u ld b e
s i m u l a t e d b y a p r o p e r c h o ic e o f p a r a m e t e r s a s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d i n s e c t i o n 2 .
I n th e n e x t s te p p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity c u r v e s w e r e m e a s u r e d a t n o r m a l
r e a c t o r o p e r a t io n . F ig u r e 6 s h o w s a ty p ic a l c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c tru m o f FR 2
a t n o m in a l p o w e r (4 4 M W ) . I t s r e a c t iv it y d r iv in g fo r c e s a r e n o t y e t f u lly
id e n tifie d . T h e y a r e i n c o m p e t it io n w it h th e r e a c t i v i t y e ff e c t o f s im u la te d
s o d iu m b o ilin g , a n d r e p r e s e n t a tr e m e n d o u s b a c k g r o u n d in th e m e a s u r e m e n ts .
T h e m a in f e a tu r e o f th e p o w e r s p e c t r u m is a lo w - p a s s c h a r a c te r is tic s
w i t h a s lo p e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o u " 2-2 u p to a b o u t 2 H z a n d a s lo p e p r o p o r t i o n a l
to и ’ 4 a b o v e th is fr e q u e n c y , in d ic a t in g th a t th e b r e a k fr e q u e n c y o f th e r e a c t o r
t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n is a b o u t 2 H z . T h e s p e c tru m a ls o s h o w s a n u m b e r o f
d is tin c t re s o n a n c e s . A fe w o f t h e m c a n a lr e a d y b e e x p la in e d . F o r in s t a n c e ,
th e p e a k a t 0 . 0 2 5 H z c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e c i r c u l a t i n g t i m e o f c o o la n t w h e r e a s
th e p e a k s a t 2 . 5 a n d 3 . 6 H z a r e a s c r i b e d t o c o o la n t f l o w f l u c t u a t i o n s d u e t o
th e s u p e r p o s it io n o f d i f f e r e n t r o t a t i o n f r e q u e n c ie s o f th e f o u r c o o la n t p u m p s .
F o r a c o m p le te u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e s p e c t r u m a m o r e d e ta ile d in v e s t ig a t io n
o n t h e d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f r e a c t i v i t y n o is e i s n e c e s s a r y b u t is , h o w e v e r,
n o t th e m a in o b je c t iv e o f th e w o r k r e p o r t e d h e r e .
580 EDELMANN e t al.

FIG . 6. Power spectrum of FR 2.

T o d e t e r m in e th e r e a c t i v i t y in p u ts to th e r e a c t o r a t p o w e r , th e r e a c t o r
t r a n s f e r f u n c tio n h a s b e e n m e a s u r e d in th e fr e q u e n c y r a n g e f r o m 0 . 0 1 to
4 H z u s in g th e b o ilin g s im u la t o r a s a p ile o s c illa t o r . S in c e i t s m a x i m u m
fr e q u e n c y in p r o d u c in g n e a r ly h a r m o n ic o s c illa t io n s is 2 H z, a s q u a re w a ve
m o d u l a t i o n o f D 20 l e v e l i n t h e o s c i l l a t o r t u b e h a s b e e n a p p r o x i m a t e d f o r
t h is p u rp o s e , e x te n d in g th e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e u p to 4 H z d u e to h ig h e r
h a r m o n ic s .
I n th e m a in p a r t o f th e e x p e r im e n t a l p r o g r a m at FR 2 a s e r ie s o f v o id
m o d u la tio n s w e r e g e n e r a te d w it h th e o s c i l l a t o r tu b e a n d d e t e c t o r s a t
d if f e r e n t p o s it io n s i n th e c o r e a s in d ic a t e d in F ig . 7 . T h e o s c illa tio n s h a d
f r e q u e n c ie s i n th e r a n g e 0 . 5 to 2 H z a n d a m p lit u d e v a lu e s b e tw e e n 6 . 5 a n d
35 c m , e q u iv a le n t to v o id v o lu m e s o f 0 . 1 3 to 0. 7 l i t r e s . T h e r e s u ltin g
r e a c t i v i t y e f f e c t w a s o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 '6 t o 1 0 '5 ( 6 k u n i t s ) , w h e r e a s n o r m a l
r e a c t i v i t y n o is e i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f r e q u e n c y r a n g e h a d a n r m s v a l u e o f
a b o u t 4 X 1 0 " 6.
T h e r e a c t iv it y e ffe c ts p r o d u c e d h a v e n o t b e e n d e te c te d b y th e n o r m a l
c o n tr o l a n d s a fe ty s y s te m o f th e r e a c t o r . H o w e v e r, i n th e p o w e r s p e c tr a
o f th e b a n d - f il t e r e d n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r s ig n a ls th e c o r r e s p o n d in g p e a k i n a n y
c a s e h a s b e e n fo u n d a f t e r a s u f f ic ie n t ly lo n g m e a s u r e m e n t t im e . M o re o v e r,
 IA EA -SM -168/ E -3 581

Q Fuel element В (££) Boiling simulator pos.

□ Isotope channel ■ Detector position
О Control rod

FIG. 7 . Cross-section of FR 2 core.

it h a s b e e n fo u n d that th e m e a s u r e d s p e c t r a d e p e n d o n ly w e a k l y o n the
p o s it io n o f the o s c illa to r tu be o r n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r s . The atte n u a tio n o f the
b o ilin g - in d u c e d p e a k w ith i n c r e a s i n g d is t a n c e b e t w e e n d e t e c t o r a n d re a c t iv it y
in p u t p o s it io n s can be a p p r o x i m a t e l y d e s c r i b e d b y E q . (3 ) o f s e c t io n 3, u sin g
the s p a c e - d e p e n d e n t t r a n s fe r fu n c tio n

H (ш , , г^ , rj, ) = H ( w) e yx ( 4)

w here

r¡ = p o s it i o n v e c t o r o f r e a c t i v i t y input

r j> r k = p o s it i o n v e c t o r s o f the t w o n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r s

p = 1 i n e a r a t t e n u a t io n c o e f f i c i e n t

x = Jj-( I r j - r j_ I + Iг к ~ г ^ | )= m e a n d i s t a n c e o f the d e t e c t o r s f r o m
the r e a c t i v i t y input l o c a t io n (o s c i l l a t o r t u b e ;)

j=k f o r a u t o - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y

j ^ k fo r c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y
582 EDELMANN e t al.

F it t in g th e e x p o n e n tia l a tt e n u a tio n to th e e x p e r im e n t a l r e s u lt s y ie ld s f o r
th e a tt e n u a tio n c o e f f ic ie n t

H = 2 X 1 0 '3 / c m

I t i s p l a n n e d t o c h e c k r e l a t i o n (4 ) b y n u m e r i c a l r e a c t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s . The
p h a s e v e l o c i t y o f th e in d u c e d n e u t r o n f l u x d is t u r b a n c e s h a s b e e n r o u g h ly
e s tim a te d a ls o a t a fr e q u e n c y o f 1 H z . T h e v a lu e 2 5 m / s f o r t h is q u a n tity
w a s o b ta in e d .

6. COM PUTER S IM U L A T IO N

F o r a m o r e d e ta ile d a n d f le x ib le p a r a m e t e r s tu d y , th e w h o le e x p e r im e n t
w a s s im u la te d o n a d ig it a l c o m p u te r . I n s t e a d o f r e a c t o r n o is e a p s e u d o ­
ra n d o m n o is e f u n c t i o n g e n e r a t e d b y s o f t w a r e w a s u s e d a s b a c k g r o u n d f o r a
h a r m o n ic o s c illa t io n o f v a r ia b le a m p litu d e a n d fr e q u e n c y to b e d e te c te d in
c a lc u la te d tim e - d e p e n d e n t p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s .
F o r p r o m p t d e te c tio n o f s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e s th e p o w e r s p e c t r u m h a d to
b e u p d a te d a lm o s t c o n tin u o u s ly . T h is w a s d o n e b y c o n tin u o u s a c c u m u la t io n
o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n i n a s o - c a lle d r u n n in g o r e x p o n e n tia l m o d e o f
a v e r a g in g a n d p e r io d ic F o u r ie r - t r a n s f o r m in g w it h in s h o r t t im e in t e r v a ls .
I f X [(n -m ) • A t ] , Y ( n A t ) a r e s a m p l e s o f t w o s i g n a l s X ( t ) a n d Y ( t) t a k e n
a t tim e s t = ( n - m ) A t a n d t = n A t , r e s p e c tiv e ly , th e e s t im a t e o f th e ( c r o s s )
c o r r e la t io n f u n c tio n A n ( m A t ) is c a lc u la te d f r o m th e r u n n in g o n e ,
Ar(mAt), a c c o r d in g to

X ((n-m)At) •Y (nit)-Ar (mût)

A n (müt)=Ar (mût) m=0±l...±M; n=M,M+l...
N
(5)

T h is p r o c e d u r e r e p r e s e n t s th e d ig it a l e q u iv a le n t o f r e s is t a n c e c a p a c it o r
(R C ) a v e r a g in g o f s ig n a ls w it h a n a p p r o x im a t e t i m e c o n s ta n t N A t. S in c e a
f a s t r e s p o n s e to c h a n g e s in s ig n a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s is needed h e re , o n ly
r e la t iv e ly s m a ll t im e c o n s ta n ts c a n b e u s e d le a d in g to s t a t is t ic a l f lu c tu a tio n s
w it h in th e r u n n in g e s tim a te s o f p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s . T h e re fo re ,
t e m p o r a r y p e a k s w i l l a p p e a r in th e p o w e r s p e c tr a in a d d it io n to s t e a d ily
g r o w in g p e a k s , b e c a u s e o f th e o n s e t o f s im u la t e d b o ilin g .
Thus, f i r s t a s e a r c h w a s m a d e f o r a c o n v e n i e n t q u a n t i t y w h i c h c o u ld b e
u s e d to d is t in g u is h b e tw e e n t r u e a n d t e m p o r a r y s t a t is t ic a l p e a k s i n th e
s p e c tru m . T h e t im e - d e p e n d e n t r a t i o V ( t ) o f m a x im u m to m e a n c u r r e n t
p o w e r s p e c tru m h a s b e e n fo u n d s u ita b le f o r t h is p u r p o s e :

Max (PSD (<ik ,t) ) (6)

V(t)

w ith
PSD = (a u to o r c r o s s ) p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s ity

= d i s c r e t e fr e q u e n c y in r a d ia n s / s , i = 1 .... M
 IAEA-SM-168/E-3 583

FIG. 8. Tim e behaviour of resonances in PSD.

T h e m e a n p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y e s t im a te c h a n g e s s lig h t ly w ith tim e ow in g

to th e s t a t is t ic a l n a tu re o f th e s ig n a ls . T h e flu ctu a tio n o f the c u r r e n t m e a n
o f p o w e r s p e c t r a ca n be r e d u c e d b y in c r e a s in g th e n u m b e r M o f fr e q u e n c y
p o in t s , i . e . the fr e q u e n c y r e s o lu t io n w h ich in d ig it a l f r e q u e n c y a n a ly s is is
e q u iv a le n t to a h ig h e r n u m b er o f s a m p le s f r o m the o r ig i n a l s ig n a ls in the
tim e d o m a in .
T h e g r o w in g o f b o ilin g -in d u c e d p e a k s e m e r g in g fr o m th e p o w e r n o is e
s p e c t r u m is a ffe c t e d b y the s ig n a l-t o -b a c k g r o u n d r a t io S /N a s w e ll a s b y
th e fr e q u e n c y o f th e v o id o s c ill a t io n , th e tim e c o n s ta n t o f a v e r a g in g , and
th e fr e q u e n c y r e s o lu t io n o f the m e a s u r e d o r c a lc u la t e d s p e c t r u m . T h e
in flu e n c e o f th e s e p a r a m e t e r s is q u a lita tiv e ly d is c u s s e d in the fo llo w in g .
F ig u r e 8 sh o w s a t y p ic a l e x a m p le o f the t im e b e h a v io u r o f the r a t io V (t)
w ith S /N a s p a r a m e te r f o r a s in e w a v e m ix e d w ith p s e u d o r a n d o m n o is e .
T h e s ig n a l-t o - b a c k g r o u n d r a t io i s d e fin e d a s th e r a t io o f the s in e w av e
a m p litu d e to the r m s v a lu e o f the b a ck g ro u n d n o is e w ith in the fr e q u e n c y
r a n g e 0 . 7 to 16 H z . It ca n b e s e e n fr o m the fig u r e that e v e n w hen the
s ig n a l-t o - b a c k g r o u n d r a t io is l e s s than u n ity the r e s o n a n c e in th e s p e c t r u m
g r o w s up to a m u lt ip lic it y o f th e b a ck g ro u n d w ith in the tim e in t e r v a l (3 s)
in w h ich s o d iu m b o ilin g m u st b e d e t e c t e d in an L M F B R . H o w e v e r , th e r e
a l s o is a c e r t a in p r o b a b ilit y f o r the a p p e a r a n c e o f s t a t is t ic a l p e a k s o f the
s a m e s i z e , w h ich h a v e to b e d is c r im in a t e d b y a d d itio n a l c r i t e r i a .
In th e fr e q u e n c y r a n g e o f in t e r e s t (2 to 6 H z) th e r e w a s no s ig n ific a n t
d e p e n d e n c e o f V (t) o n the fr e q u e n c y o f th e o s c ill a t io n .
T h e a v e r a g in g t im e c o n s ta n t is an e s s e n t ia l p a r a m e t e r . I n c r e a s in g it
r e d u c e s s t a t is t ic a l flu ctu a tio n s in th e b a ck g ro u n d p o w e r s p e c t r u m but a ls o
c a u s e s d e la y in r e c o v e r i n g s ig n ific a n t p e a k s . T h e tim e c o n s ta n t t h e r e fo r e
h a s to b e o p t im iz e d .
Im p r o v in g the fr e q u e n c y r e s o lu t io n o f th e c u r r e n t s p e c t r a le a d s to a
fa s t e r r e s p o n s e o f the a n a ly s in g s y s t e m a s lo n g a s th e ban d w idth o f the
o s c ill a t io n i s l e s s than the fr e q u e n c y r e s o lu t io n o f the s y s t e m .
584 EDELMANN et al.

FIG. 9. Mean number of false alarms.

In a f i r s t a p p r o a c h an a ttem p t w as m a d e to id e n tify tr u e r e s o n a n c e s
b y in tr o d u c in g a th r e s h o ld in the p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y . But it w as found
that, e v e n f o r o p tim u m c o m b in a tio n s o f the p a r a m e t e r s d is c u s s e d a b o v e ,
no t h r e s h o ld v a lu e e x is t s w h ich g iv e s at the s a m e tim e s u ffic ie n t ly s h o r t
d e la y t im e s in th e d e t e c t io n o f s ig n ific a n t p e a k s and v e r y lo w p r o b a b ilit y
fo r " f a l s e a l a r m s " du e to s t a t is t ic a l p e a k s e x c e e d in g the th r e s h o ld .
T h is s itu a tio n is d e m o n s tr a te d in F i g . 9 , in w h ich the m e a n n u m b er o f
su ch f a ls e a la r m s p e r u p d a ted p o w e r s p e c t r u m due to b a ck g ro u n d
flu ctu a tio n s is p lo tte d a s a fu n c tio n o f the th r e s h o ld v a lu e in u n its o f m e a n
p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y . T h is c u r v e is q u a n tita tiv e ly tr u e o n ly fo r a s p e c ia l
c a s e w ith the g iv e n p a r a m e t e r s but it a l s o q u a lita tiv e ly sh o w s the m a in
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e g e n e r a l c a s e .
S t a t is t ic a l p e a k s h a v e o n ly s h o r t l i f e t i m e s . T h e r e f o r e , the r a te o f
fa ls e a la r m s c a n b e d r a s t ic a ll y r e d u c e d b y n e g le c tin g th o s e p e a k s not
e x c e e d in g th e t h r e s h o ld f o r a m in im u m n u m b er o f s u c c e s s i v e e s t im a te s o f
th e p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y . F ir s t r e s u lt s f r o m the c a lc u la t io n s in d ic a te
that, on the b a s is o f the c o m b in e d t h r e s h o ld -life t im e c r i t e r i o n , an e v a lu a tio n
p r o c e d u r e fo r p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it ie s o f n e u tro n flu x flu ctu a tio n s can , on e
h o p e s , b e d e v e lo p e d that a r e fa s t and s e n s it iv e en ough to d e t e c t so d iu m
b o ilin g in an L M F B R w h en it s r e a c t iv it y e f fe c t is eq u a l to o r l a r g e r than the
r m s v a lu e o f r e a c t iv it y n o is e p r e s e n t u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t in g c o n d itio n s at
fu ll p o w e r .

7. SU M M ARY .. . ■

D u r in g e x p e r im e n t a l in v e s tig a t io n s and c o m p u ta tio n a l p a r a m e t e r stu d ie s

on the r e a c t iv it y e ffe c t o f s im u la te d sodium , b o ilin g .o n p o w e r s p e c t r a l
d e n s it ie s o f n e u tro n flu x a b a s i c c o n c e p t f o r an in t e g r a l m e th o d to d e te c t
 IAEA-SM-168/E-3 585

s o d iu m b o ilin g in an L M F B R h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d . A n u m b e r o f d e c is i v e
p a r a m e t e r s h a s b e e n d e fin e d w h ich m u st be stu d ied q u a n tita tiv e ly b e f o r e an
a c tu a l b o ilin g d e t e c t io n s y s t e m f o r an in d iv id u a l L M F B R c a n b e d e s ig n e d .
T h is c o n c e r n s th e s p a c e - and t im e -d e p e n d e n t r e a c t iv it y e f f e c t o f s o d iu m
b o ilin g , th e s p a c e -d e p e n d e n t r e a c t iv it y t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n a s w e ll a s the
p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y and it s s h o r t - t i m e v a r ia t io n s . F o r the 4 4 -M W t h e r m a l
r e s e a r c h r e a c t o r FR 2 it h a s b e e n d e m o n s tr a te d that r e a c t iv it y o s c ill a t io n s
o f an a m p litu d e o f Д к /к ё 4Х1СГ 6 ca n be d e t e c te d in th e c r o s s - p o w e r s p e c t r a l
d e n s it y of tw o i n - c o r e f i s s i o n c h a m b e r s w ith in 3 s at n o m in a l p o w e r .

REFERENCES

[1] IAEA, Summary Report of the Meeting of Specialists on Core Instrumentation for Sodium-cooled Fast
Reactors, Karlsruhe, 9 -10 October 1969, IAEA, NPR/7 (IAEA unpublished document).
[2] G A ST, K . , Die Ausbreitung ortlicher Stbrungen im Kern schneller natriumgekühlter Reaktoren und ihre
Bedeutung fiir die Reaktorsicherheit, Rep. K F K 1380 (1971).
[3] S C H L E C H T E N D A H L , E . G . , Sieden des Kiihlmittels in natriumgekiihlten schnellen Reaktoren, Rep.
K FK 1020 and EUR 4302d (1969).
[4] PEPPbER, W . , Experimentelle Untersuchungen der Siedevorgange mit Natrium in engen Kanalen und
deren Anwendung auf schnelle Reaktoren, Karlsruhe Ext. Rep. 8/72-1 (1972).
[5] G A ST, K . , S C H L E C H T E N D A H L , E . G . , Schneller natriumgek'iihlter Reaktor Na 2, Report K FK 660,
EUR 3706d (1967).
16] B O R G W A L D T , H . , Neutron noise in a reactor with an external control loop, Nukleonik 11 2 (1968) 76.
[7] SEIFR1TZ, W . , At-power-reactor noise induced by fluctuations of the coolant flow, Atomkernenergie
16 5 (1970) 29.

DISCUSSION

R . S A R T O R I: Is th e r e an y lik e lih o o d that th is m e th o d w ill p r o v e

e f f e c t iv e in L M F B R s w ith o u t - o f - c o r e n e u tro n c h a m b e r s ?
M . F . E D E L M A N N : Y e s , w e s t ill h a v e r e a s o n to h op e that n eu tron
c h a m b e r s o u ts id e the c o r e w ill e n a b le u s to d e t e c t s o d iu m b o ilin g fr o m
flu ctu a tio n s in the n e u tro n flu x , but th is h as s t ill to b e d e m o n s tr a te d . So
fa r o u r in v e s tig a t io n s h a v e b e e n c o n fin e d to d e te r m in in g w h e th e r, in
p r in c ip le , th e r e a c t iv it y m e th o d c a n be u s e d as the b a s is f o r a fa s t s o d iu m
b o ilin g d e t e c t io n s y s t e m . O n ce th is h as b e e n c o n fir m e d , on e o f o u r next
s t e p s w ill be to d e t e r m in e the d e t e c t o r e f f i c i e n c y and c o n fig u r a tio n
n e c e s s a r y f o r m o n it o r in g th e w h o le r e a c t o r . H o w e v e r , th is ca n b e don e
o n ly f o r a s p e c i f i c r e a c t o r ; no g e n e r a l s o lu t io n c a n be found fo r the p r o b le m .
R . S A R T O R I: D o e s v ib r a t io n o f the c o r e in te r n a ls a ffe c t the
e f f i c i e n c y o f th is m e th o d ?
M . F . E D E L M A N N : C o h e r e n t v ib r a t io n o f the c o r e in te r n a ls m a y w e ll
h a v e an e ff e c t , but th is a g a in d e p e n d s on the in d iv id u a l m e c h a n ic a l
p r o p e r t ie s o f the r e a c t o r . H o w e v e r , th e r e a c t iv it y e f f e c t o f v ib r a t io n s
ca n in t e r f e r e w ith that fr o m s o d iu m b o ilin g o n ly w h en the v ib r a t io n s o c c u r
in th e s a m e fr e q u e n c y r a n g e a s th e o s c ill a t io n s fr o m the b o ilin g and w hen
th e y h a v e a r e a c t iv it y e f f e c t o f at le a s t the s a m e m a g n itu d e , the p r o b a b ilit y
o f w h ich w ou ld a p p e a r to be v e r y s m a ll.
J . F U R E T : H a v e you c a r r i e d out an y m e a s u r e m e n t s w ith a r e a c t iv it y
m e t e r d u rin g y o u r e x p e r im e n t s , and h a v e you a n a ly s e d the a s s o c ia t e d
n o is e ? I m a y s a y that w e h a v e a l s o c a r r i e d out e x p e r im e n t s on b o ilin g
586 EDELMANN et al.

d e t e c t io n in a lig h t -w a t e r e x p e r im e n ta l r e a c t o r . L ik e y ou , w e a n a ly s e d the
n e u tro n n o is e b y flu x m e a s u r e m e n t s ( s p e c t r a l a n a ly s is , p o w e r s p e c t r u m ),
but w e a l s o r e c o r d e d the r e a c t iv it y , and found that the in fo r m a t io n on the
n o is e a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e m e a s u r e m e n t w a s in t e r e s t in g .
M . F . E D E L M A N N ; N o, w e did no m e a s u r e m e n t s w ith a r e a c t iv it y
m e t e r d u rin g th e e x p e r im e n t s r e p o r t e d in o u r p a p e r . In fa c t, th is w ou ld
not h a v e s e r v e d an y u s e fu l p u r p o s e , in o u r c a s e , f o r tw o r e a s o n s ; f ir s t ,
w e a r e s e e k in g a m e th o d o f d e te c tin g r e a c t iv it y d is tu r b a n c e s o f lo w e r
a m p litu d e than the r e a c t iv it y n o is e p r e s e n t u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a tin g
c o n d itio n s , m a k in g u s e o f th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic tim e b e h a v io u r o f th e r e a c t iv it y
e f f e c t due to s o d iu m b o ilin g , s e c o n d , w e w is h e d to b e a b le to d e t e c t s o d iu m
b o ilin g v e r y q u ic k ly , i. e . w ith in about 3 s . T h is w ou ld not a p p e a r to be
fe a s ib le b y u s in g a r e a c t iv it y m e t e r b a s e d on in v e r s e n e u tro n k in e tic s with
i n t r in s ic a l ly la r g e tim e c o n s ta n ts .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-4

AN IN-CORE FLOW METER FOR A

FU E L FAILURE DETECTION AND
LOCATION SYSTEM FOR THE LMFBR

K. MOCHIZUKI, M. MATSUMIYA
Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development C o r p ., Tokyo

T. HOSHI
Japan A tom ic Energy Research Institute, Tokai-m ura, Ibaraki Pref.

K. OGUSHI, S. HAYAKAWA
Fuji Electric Co.Ltd. , Kawasaki,
Japan

Abstract

A N IN-CORE FLOW M ETER FOR A FUEL FAILURE D E T E C T IO N A N D L O C A T IO N S Y S T E M FOR T H E LMFBR.

One of the most important requirements for the LMFBR is to develop the in-core instrumentation
for detecting and locating fuel-channel failure. This paper describes the development of an eddy-current
probe-type (ECP) in-core flow meter which detects the fuel-channel blockage and emits signals for
protecting the core from fuel meltdown accidents. The major development work consisted of the trial
manufacture of several types of sensors and a performance test of each of the flow sensors in sodium;
a reactor simulation test in a sodium loop of seven fuel subassemblies incorporated with outlet flow meters;
and studies on the installation and maintainability of these sensors.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

In the c o r e o f the liq u id m e t a l fa s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r (L M F B R ), th e r e

is a p o s s ib ilit y o f fu e l m e ltd o w n a c c id e n t s c a u s e d b y s o m e lo c a l
d is t u r b a n c e s , su ch a s b lo c k in g o f a s u b -c h a n n e l b y in tr u s io n o f fo r e ig n
s u b s t a n c e s , c lo g g in g o f s u b -c h a n n e l b y d is t o r t io n , d e c lin e o f c o o la n t
flo w a n d / o r d e c r e a s e o f gap c o n d u c ta n c e , e tc . F r o m the sta n d p oin t o f
s a fe t y , it is n e c e s s a r y to d e t e c t a s e a r ly a s p o s s ib le the c a u s e s o r
e x is t e n c e o f, th e s e e x te r n a l d is t u r b a n c e s s o that the p r o t e c t iv e o r s a fe ty
s y s t e m s m a y b e put in to a c t io n w ith ou t d e la y .
M o n it o r in g so d iu m f lo w -r a t e th rou g h in d iv id u a l s u b a s s e m b ly and
d e t e c tin g the fu e l-c h a n n e l b lo c k a g e , a r e the su b s ta n tia l m e a n s p r o t e c t in g
c o r e fr o m su ch a c c id e n t s .
T h ou g h m u c h w o r k had b e e n d on e on the flo w m o n it o r in g o f the
L M F B R in UK [ l ] , U SA [2] and the F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f G e rm a n y [3 ],
the e x is t in g f l o w - s e n s o r s w e r e f a i r l y la r g e f o r in s t a lla tio n in e a c h s u b -
a s s e m b ly , and the e n g in e e r in g data had not b e e n a v a ila b le to u s , ev en
though th e r e w a s in fo r m a t io n that s m a ll flo w s e n s o r s w e r e b e in g
d e v e lo p e d a b r o a d . S in ce w e n e e d e d a s m a ll flo w s e n s o r w ith s u ffic ie n t
s e n s it iv it y and g o o d r e p la c e a b ili t y to b e in s t a lle d in e a ch s u b a s s e m b ly o f
o u r p r o to ty p e fa s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r , w e d e c id e d to d e v e lo p o u r ow n.
T h e fo llo w in g w e r e the th r e e m a jo r d e v e lo p m e n t ta sk s :
(a) S e v e r a l m o d e ls o f e d d y -c u r r e n t p r o b e - t y p e (E C P ) flo w s e n s o r s
w e r e t r ia l-m a n u fa c t u r e d and t h e ir p e r fo r m a n c e stu d ie d , su ch a s s e n s it iv it y
and s t a b ilit y and d u r a b ility in so d iu m .

587
588 MOCHIZUKI et al.

(b) W ith the E C P flo w s e n s o r s , the p o s s ib ilit y o f d e t e c tin g the fu el

c h a n n e l b lo c k a g e and f i s s i o n p r o d u c t (F P ) g a s r e le a s e w a s c o n fir m e d
b y a s im u la te d e x p e r im e n t in a so d iu m te s t lo o p w ith a te s t v e s s e l w h ich
in c o r p o r a t e s a s t r u c tu r e to s im u la te the top p a rt o f s e v e n f u l l - s i z e
L M F B R s u b a s s e m b lie s .
(c) F o r p r a c t ic a l a p p lic a t io n to the L M F B R , flo w s e n s o r s m u s t be
in s t a lle d and r e p la c e d th rou g h the top o f the r e a c t o r v e s s e l p lu g v ia a lo n g
g u id e tu be. U sin g a te s t r ig s im u la tin g the gu id e tu b e s o f the L M F B R ,
the m a in ta in a b ility and r e p la c e a b ilit y o f E C P flo w s e n s o r s w e r e stu d ied
to ob ta in n e c e s s a r y data f o r d e s ig n in g the h an d lin g m a ch in e .

2. F L O W SENSOR

A n E C P flo w s e n s o r c o n s is t s of th r e e o r fiv e c l o s e l y s p a c e d c o a x ia l
c o i l s . O ne o r th r e e p r im a r y c o i l s a r e e x c it in g c o i l s . T h e tw o s e c o n d a r y
c o i l s .a re c o n n e c t e d to g e th e r a s in a d iffe r e n t ia l t r a n s f o r m e r a r r a n g e m e n t.
W ith th e s e c o i l s p o s it io n e d in a x ia lly flo w in g s o d iu m s t r e a m , the a. c .
flu x d e v e lo p e d b y the p r im a r y c o i l is f o r c e d d o w n s tr e a m p r o d u c in g in
th e s e c o n d a r y c o i l s a net d iffe r e n t ia l v o lta g e that is n e a r ly p r o p o r t io n a l
to flo w v e lo c i t y .
F ig u r e 1 is a fu n c tio n a l b lo c k d ia g r a m o f an E C P flo w s e n s o r and
in stru m e n ta tio n .
In the r e a c t o r v e s s e l p lu g , m a n y k in d s o f eq u ip m en t f o r c o n t r o l and
r e fu e llin g w ill b e in s t a lle d , s o th e r e w ill b e lit tle s p a c e le ft f o r the
in s t a lla tio n o f i n - c o r e flo w m e t e r s and i n - c o r e t h e r m o m e t e r s . T h e r e f o r e ,
the g u id e tu b e s f o r th e s e s e n s o r s m u s t be run th rou g h in a lim it e d s p a c e
w ith a s m a ll b e n d in g c u r v a tu r e r a d iu s . It is in ten d ed to p la c e th e se
s e n s o r s a b o v e the ou tle t o f e a c h in d iv id u a l fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly . T h e r e f o r e ,
the g r o s s to t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the guide tu b e s w ou ld b e r e la t iv e l y la r g e .
T h is w ill c a u s e p r o b le m s su ch a s the d is tu r b a n c e o f c o o la n t flo w at the
s u b a s s e m b ly o u tle t and a la r g e am ou n t of r a d ia tio n s t r e a m th rou gh th ¿
flo w s e n s o r gu id e tu b es.
It is e v id e n t that the l a r g e r the d im e n s io n s o f the flo w s e n s o r , the
m o r e e a s ily a r e the g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the flo w s e n s o r s

FIG. 1. Functional diagram of an eddy-current probe-type (ECP) flow sensor and instrumentation.
 . IAEA-SM-168/E-4 589

T A B L E I. T R I A L - F A B R IC A T E D F L O W SEN SORS

Primary coil Secondary coil Dimensions (c. f. Fig. 1) (m m )

Model Coil bobbin

No. of No. of D, d 2
No. material L h h
turns & bobbins turns & bobbins (diam. ) (diam. )

1 57 X 1 4 0 .5 x 2 Steatite 14 17.3 83 31 21

2 2 9 .5 X 3 39.5 x 2 Steatite 14 17. 3 104 16 21

3 2 9.5 X 3 39.5 x 2 304 SS 14 17.3 97 16 21

4 2 9 .5 X 3 39 ,5 x 2 Soft m ag­ 14 17. 3 97 16 21

netic iron

5 14. 5 X 3 19. 5 X 2 do. 10. 5 17. 3 97 16 21

6 42. 25 X 3 165. 25 x 2 do. 13. 5 17.3 102 16 21

7 68 x 3 108 x 2 do. 10. 2 13. 8 73 11 17

8 66 x 3 102 x 2 do. 7. 6 10.5 90 14 21

9 51 x 3 81 x 2 . do. 7. 6 10. 5 73 11 17

10 42 X 3 66 x 2 do. 7. 6 10.5 61 9 14

11 174 x 1 120 x 2 do.' 7. 6 10.5 90 36 25

12 135 X 1 90 x 2 do. 7. 6 10.5 70 28 19

13 111 X 1 75 X 2 do. 7. 6 10,5 59 23 16

L = overall length;

o b ta in e d . H o w e v e r , c o n s id e r in g the lim it a t io n s s e t fo r t h , w e r is k e d
m a k in g the s m a ll e r flo w s e n s o r s b a s e d on o u r fa b r ic a t io n e x p e r i e n c e s [4 , 5]
o b ta in e d f r o m m o d e ls N o. 1 th rou g h 5 ( s e e T a b le I).
T h e ta r g e t s p e c if i c a t io n s o f the E C P flo w s e n s o r s in ten d ed f o r
a p p lic a t io n to the Ja pan P r o to ty p e F a s t B r e e d e r R ea ctor are:
(1) F lo w v e lo c i t y ra n g e : 1 -3 m / s
(2) A c c u r a c y : ±10%
(3) R e p r o d u c ib ilit y : ±5%
(4) O p e r a tin g t e m p e r a tu r e : 650°C m a x .
(5) D ia m e t e r o f flo w m e t e r : 10 m m
( 6 ) L en gth o f flo w s e n s o r : 100 m m
(7) N e u tro n flu x : a p p r o x . 4 X 10 14 n /c m "2 • s" 1
( 8 )T o m in im iz e the fu e l-h a n d lin g p r o b le m and f o r e a s y r e p la c e m e n t ,
it sh ou ld b e in s t a lle d fr o m the top o f the r e a c t o r v e s s e l p lu g ,
th rou g h the lo n g g u id e tu b e, to a p o s it io n ju s t a b o v e e a c h
in d iv id u a l s u b a s s e m b ly .
T h e d im e n s io n s and m a t e r ia l s o f the t r ia l-m a n u fa c t u r e d flo w s e n s o r s
a r e sh ow n in T a b le I m o d e l N o. 6 th rou g h N o. 13 and in F ig . 2. T h e s e
flo w s e n s o r s h a v e c o i l b o b b in s m a d e o f s o ft m a g n e tic ir o n and c o i l w in d in g
w ir e o f m i n e r a l in su la te d c a b le (o. d. 0 . 6 m m ).
590 MOCHIZUKI et al.

FIG. 2. Schematic drawing of eddy-current probe-type (ECP) flow sensor.

Exhaust Cover Gas Ling

ECP flowmeter

Simulated HP Gas
Injection Jest Section for
System ECP flowmeter
"Sodium" ^-Electromagnetic
Heater Flowmeter------------------
Electromagnetic. FM2
Flowmeter) L a -,
FM 1

Storage
tank

ECP flowmeter

FIG. 3. Schematic diagram of sodium test loop.

3. SODIUM T E S T L O O P

F ig u r e 3 is a s c h e m a t ic d ia g r a m o f the so d iu m te s t lo o p "S o d iu m
te s t lo o p f o r L M F B R fu e l c h a n n e l f a ilu r e d e t e c t o r " , w h ich w a s d e s ig n e d
and u s e d f o r the e x p e r im e n t s o f the i n - c o r e flo w m e t e r and the i n - c o r e
t h e r m o m e t e r . T h e m a in s p e c ifi c a t io n s o f th is lo o p a r e lis t e d in T a b le II
F o r the c o m p o n e n t te s t o f the flo w s e n s o r , th r e e t e s t s e c t io n s w e r e
a tta ch e d to the e lb o w p ip e s o f th is lo o p .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-4 591

T A B L E II. G E N E R A L S P E C IF IC A T IO N S OF TH E SODIUM T E S T L O O P

(1) Operating temperature: 600°C max.

(2) Sodium flow-rate: 1000 litres/min

(3) Sodium inventory: 1000 kg

(4) Simulation FP gas continuous injection amount: 1 .5 - 4. 0 litres/min

(5) Simulation FP gas-heating temperature: 350eC max.

(6) Dimensions and material of test vessel: 800 m m diam. x 2100 m m 316 SS

(7) Electromagnetic pump: (a) a. c, Faraday type 2 k g /c m 2 x 200 litres/min

(b) linear induction type 4 k g/cm x 1000 litres/min

(8) Size and material of main tubing: 3 В

316 SS

nt Probe-type
ieter ( F ' - l )
:nt Probe-type
'm eter(F'- 2)

lowmeter(F-3)

SECTION X - X
Sodium Inlet to Six Spdrum Inlet to Center
Subassembly
Su'taáemblies^— 8°°—J

FIG. 4. Sectional view of test vessel.

A b s o lu te flo w w a s c a lib r a t e d b y u sin g the e le c t r o - m a g n e t ic flo w

m e t e r (F ig . 3 F M - 1 ) w h ich w a s p r e v i o u s ly c a lib r a t e d (w ith in an a c c u r a c y
o f ±1 . 5%) at 3 0 0 -5 6 0 °C .
F o r the r e a c t o r s im u la t io n te s t su ch a s fu e l-c h a n n e l b lo c k a g e and
f i s s i o n p r o d u c t g a s r e l e a s e , th is s o d iu m te s t lo o p is e q u ip p e d w ith
fo llo w in g c o m p o n e n t s and s y s t e m s :

(1) T e s t v e s s e l (sh ow n in F ig . 4)

In th is te s t v e s s e l a u nit s im u la tin g the c o r e s t r u c t u r e s is in s ta lle d .

T h is u nit c o n s is t s o f s e v e n s im u la te d f u l l - s c a l e fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly h e a d s
an d a s im u la t e d in s tru m e n t p la te . O f the s e v e n s u b a s s e m b ly h e a d s ,
592 MOCHIZUKI et al.

th r e e a r e e q u ip p e d w ith i n - c o r e p e r m a n e n t m a g n e tic flo w m e t e r s . A t

the lo w e r p a rt o f the s im u la te d in stru m e n t p la te , th r e e i n - c o r e p e r m a n e n t
m a g n e tic flo w m e t e r s a r e s i m il a r ly e q u ip p e d , w h ile in the u p p e r
in s tru m e n t p la te , s e v e n gu id e tu bes a r e fitte d f o r the E C P flo w s e n s o r s
f o r m e a s u r in g the in d iv id u a l ch a n n el flo w v e lo c it y . T h e gap len gth b e tw e e n
the s im u la te d fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly h e a d s and sim u la te d in s tru m e n t p la te is
m a d e a d ju s ta b le f o r a p p r o x im a t e ly 0 -1 6 0 m m .

(2) S od iu m lo o p s im u la tin g the ch a n n e l b lo c k a g e

T h e f l o w - r a t e th rou g h the c e n t r a l s u b a s s e m b ly ch a n n el is a d ju sta b le

in d e p e n d e n tly o f the f l o w - r a t e th rou g h the s ix a d ja c e n t s u b a s s e m b ly
ch a n n e ls .

(3) A r g o n g a s in je c t io n s y s t e m s im u la tin g the f i s s i o n p r o d u c t g a s r e le a s e

T h e c e n t r a l c h a n n e l is s o d e s ig n e d a s to take in a s im u la te d f is s io n
p r o d u c t g a s that is to be in je c te d .

4. COM PONENT TEST

F o r flo w s e n s o r c o m p o n e n t t e s ts the s u b je c t s w e r e (1) the lin e a r

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r output v o lta g e v e r s u s a v e r a g e s o d iu m flo w v e lo c it y ;
( 2 ) the output v o lta g e and it s s e n s it iv it y v e r s u s the e x c it in g fr e q u e n c y ;
(3) the t e m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n c y of output v o lta g e v e r s u s e x c it in g fr e q u e n c y .
T y p ic a l te s t data a r e sh ow n in the fo llo w in g fig u r e s .
F ig u r e 5 sh o w s output v o lta g e o f m o d e l N o. 7 v e r s u s a v e r a g e sod iu m
flo w v e lo c i t y . F ig u r e 6 sh ow s a te m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce c h a r a c t e r is t ic
o f m o d e l N o. 7. F ig u r e s 7 and 8 a r e sa m e a s F ig s 5 and 6 but f o r the
flo w s e n s o r (m o d e l N o. 10).

о
о 2 3
Sod ium Velocity (m /s )

FIG. 5. Linearity o f flow sensor model No. 7.

 IAEA-SM-168/E-4 593

Model No. 7
Amp. Gain x 10
Temperature Dependence
Sodium Velocity 2.46 m/s
Exerting Current Frequency

Frequency Dependence
Sodium Velocity I m/s
Sodium Temperature
500 °C

300 350 400 450 500

Sodium Tem perature (°C)
"Too 200 300 Too 500
E xc itin g C u rre n t Frequency (H z )

FIG. 6. Temperature dependence of flow sensor model No. 7.

Model No. 10
Sodium Temperature 500 °C
> Exciting Current 0.1 A
E

CT>
in

I 2 3
Sodium V e lo c ity ( m/s )

FIG. 7. Linearity of flow sensor m o d e l No. 10.

T h e im b a la n c e v o lta g e , i. e. the r e s id u a l v o lta g e in d u ce d at z e r o flo w

v e lo c i t y a s sh ow n in F ig . 7 a s an e x a m p le , w h ich c o m e s fr o m the im b a la n c e s
b e tw e e n the tw o s e c o n d a r y flo w s e n s o r c o i l s , su ch a s that c a u s e d b y u n -
s y m m e t r ic a l g e o m e t r y a n d /o r in a c c u r a c y of w o rk m a n s h ip c o u ld b e e a s ily
c a n c e lle d b y an e l e c t r i c a l c ir c u it . B u t in the data g iv e n in F ig s 5 and 7,
the im b a la n c e v o lta g e is le f t in to sh ow the net im b a la n c e v o lta g e o f e a ch
flo w s e n s o r .
594 MOCHIZUKI et al.

Model No. 10
E xciting Current Amp. Gain x 10
Temperature Dependence
Sodium Velocity 2.¿6 m/s
Exciting Current Frequency
• 100 Hz
x 200 Hz
о 300 Hz
д 400 Hz
□ 500 Hz
Frequency Dependence
Sodium Velocity (1 m/s)
Sodium Temperoture
500 °C

"555 355 5Ш 35Ü 5oo

Sodium Temperature ( °C )
100 200 300 400 500
E xc itin g Current Frequency ( H z )

FIG. 8. Temperature dependence of flow sensor model No. 10.

T h e r e s u lt s o f c o m p o n e n t t e s ts a r e s u m m a r iz e d a s fo llo w s :
(a) W ith r e s p e c t to the lin e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r output v o lta g e v e r s u s
a v e r a g e so d iu m flo w v e lo c it y : (1) T h e 5 - c o i l m o d e l flo w s e n s o r o f o. d.
10. 2 m m (N o. 7) h a s v e r y g o o d lin e a r it y . (2) T h e 5 - c o i l m o d e l flo w
s e n s o r o f o. d. 7. 6 m m h as g o o d lin e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x c e p t f o r the
low v e lo c i t y r e g io n .
(b) W ith r e s p e c t to the im b a la n c e v o lta g e : (1) T h e m a g n itu d e o f the
im b a la n c e v o lta g e is a lm o s t eq u a l w ith r e s p e c t to both the 1 0 . 2 -m m o. d.
and the 7. 6 -m m o. d. flo w s e n s o r s . (2) T h e m a g n itu d e o f the im b a la n c e
v o lta g e o f 5 - c o i l m o d e l is s m a ll e r than that o f 3 - c o i l m o d e l.
(c ) W ith r e s p e c t to the e f f e c t s o f e x c it in g fr e q u e n c y : (1) T h e 5 - c o i l
m o d e l flo w s e n s o r o f o. d. 10. 2 m m (N o. 7) h a s a fr e q u e n c y ra n g e
(4 0 0 -5 0 0 H z) w h e r e it h a s the m a x im u m s e n s it iv it y , t o g e th e r w ith the
m in im u m t e m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce . (2) W ith r e s p e c t to 5 - c o i l m o d e l flo w
s e n s o r s o f o. d. 7. 6 m m , the fr e q u e n c y ra n g e a t w h ich the flo w s e n s o r
h a s the m a x im u m s e n s it iv it y is a b ou t 4 0 0 -5 0 0 H z and the fr e q u e n c y at
w h ich it h a s the m in im u m te m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce is a b ou t 3 0 0 -5 0 0 H z.
So th ey a r e a lm o s t id e n tic a l. (3) W ith r e s p e c t to 3 - c o i l m o d e l flo w s e n s o r s
o f o. d. 7. 6 m m , the f r e q u e n c y r a n g e w h e r e the flo w s e n s o r s h a v e the
m a x im u m s e n s it iv it y is a b ou t 2 0 0 -3 0 0 Hz and the t e m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce
o f s e n s it iv it y is w o r s e than that o f 5 - c o i l m o d e ls .

It c a n b e c o n c lu d e d f r o m the s u m m a r ie s sta ted a b o v e that th e re

w ou ld b e no p r o b le m s f o r th e s e 5 - c o i l m o d e l flo w s e n s o r s to be u s e d in
L M F B R , s in c e the v a r ia t io n o f the output t e m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce a g a in s t
the te m p e r a tu r e v a r ia t io n o f 300 to 500°C is a b ou t 5 % .

5. S IM U L A T IO N T E S T O F F U E L -C H A N N E L F L O W B L O C K A G E

In d e t e c tin g the d e c lin e and lo s s o f c o o la n t flo w in the fu e l ch a n n e ls

o f the L M F B R c o r e b y the i n - c o r e E C P flo w s e n s o r s at the in stru m e n t
p la te , it is im p o r ta n t to in v e s tig a te w h e th e r o r not the a c tu a l flo w in sid e
 IAEA-SM-168/E-4 595

e a c h fu e l c h a n n e l c a n b e a c c u r a t e ly m e a s u r e d . T h is is b e c a u s e the
flo w s e n s o r ca n n ot b e p o s it io n e d in s id e the fu e l c h a n n e l, but h a s to be
p o s it io n e d s e v e r a l c e n t im e t r e s a b o v e the ou tle t n o z z le o f e a c h fu e l
c h a n n e l b e c a u s e o f fu e l-h a n d lin g r e q u ir e m e n t s .
U s in g the s o d iu m te s t lo o p sh ow n in F ig s 3 and 4 , the te s t w a s p e r ­
f o r m e d o b s e r v in g the output v o lta g e o f the flo w s e n s o r at the c e n t r a l
c h a n n e l s im u la tin g the flo w b lo c k a g e b y c h a n g in g th e gap s p a c in g b e tw e e n
the in s tr u m e n t p la te and the fu e l h e a d s , and b y ch a n g in g the r a t io o f the
flo w in the b lo c k e d ch a n n e l to the flo w in the a d ja c e n t c h a n n e l s im u la tin g
the u n b lo c k e d on e.
T h e te s t c o n d itio n s w e r e a s f o llo w s :
(1) S od iu m t e m p e r a tu r e : 500°C ;
(2) T o t a l f l o w - r a t e o f s e v e n a s s e m b li e s : 100 l i t r e s / m i n ;
(3) F lo w r a t i o s b e tw e e n the c e n t r a l c h a n n e l flo w at fu e l o u tle t
n o z z le and the s in g le a d ja c e n t ch a n n e l flo w at fu e l o u tle t n o z z le
a r e 4 / 3 , 1 / 1 , 2 /3 , 1 / 2 , o r 1 / 3 ;
(4) A x ia l s p a c in g b e tw e e n the in s tru m e n t p la te and fu e l o u tle t n o z z le
c h a n g e s f r o m 0 to 150 m m in s te p s o f 50 m m ;
(5) M o d e l N o. o f flo w s e n s o r and o p e r a t in g co n d itio n :
M o d e l N o. 7, w h ich is 0. 5A , 350 H z.
B e f o r e the s im u la t io n t e s t o f fu e l ch a n n e l b lo c k a g e , s ig n a l c r o s s ­
t a lk 1 a m o n g the s e v e n flo w s e n s o r s w a s s tu d ie d , but n o c r o s s - t a l k
and in t e r fe r e n c e w e r e o b s e r v e d u n d e r the t e s t g e o m e t r y .
F ig u r e 9 sh o w s the r e s u lt s o f the fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly flo w b lo c k a g e
s im u la t io n te s t.
T h e te s t r e s u lt s a r e s u m m a r iz e d a s f o llo w s :
(a) A s the a x ia l s p a c in g i n c r e a s e s , the f l o w - r a t e s ig n a l f r o m c e n t r a l
flo w s e n s o r d e v ia t e s f r o m the a c tu a l f lo w - r a t e b e c a u s e o f the c r o s s flo w
fr o m a d ja c e n t s u b a s s e m b lie s .
(2) T h e output o f the flo w s e n s o r s c h a n g e s a lm o s t p r o p o r t io n a lly
to the flo w r a t io s o lo n g a s the a x ia l s p a c in g is w ith in 0 -1 5 0 m m , and
the flo w r a t io is not e x t r e m e ly s m a ll (0. 5), e v e n w h en w e c o n s id e r e d
the le a k a g e o f a b ou t 1 0 % o f to t a l flo w in th is e x p e r im e n t, w h ich d id not
s e e m to p a s s th rou g h the in s tru m e n t p la te .

6. S IM U L A T IO N T E S T O F F ISSIO N P R O D U C T (F P ) G A S IN JE C T IO N

It is , o f c o u r s e , d e s ir a b le to e n s u r e a s e n s it iv e d e t e c tio n o f not o n ly
a n y flo w d e c lin e but a l s o o f an y p o s s ib le g e n e r a t io n o f g a s o r v a p o u r,
e it h e r f r o m b o ilin g , o r b y d a m a g e o f fu e l p in s w h ich c a u s e s the r e le a s e
o f F P gases.
T h e e x p e r im e n t w a s c o n d u c te d on the flo w s e n s o r a b o v e the c e n t r a l
ch a n n e l o f the te s t lo o p sh ow n in F i g s 3 and 4. T h e in je c t io n o f a r g o n g a s
s im u la t in g the F P g a s in to the c e n t r a l ch a n n e l w a s p e r f o r m e d b y c o n t r o llin g
an a i r - o p e r a t e d v a lv e . T h e te s t w a s c a r r i e d out on co n tin u o u s g a s in je c t io n
and on s in g le p u ls e in je c t io n . F ig u r e 10 illu s t r a t e s s im u la t io n te s t o f
F P g a s in je c t io n .

1 "Cross-talk" means that the signal interference was induced by electromagnetic coupling between
the sensors.
596 MOCHIZUKI et al.

Model No. 6
Sodium Temperature : 350 °C
A xia l Spacing : 0 mm
Excitin g Current Frequency : 350 Hz
• X a j Continuous Gas Injection
о д ■ I Single Pulse Gas Injection

FIG. 9. Simulated experiment of fuel-channel blockage.

T h e v o id f r a c t io n d e n o te d a s the r a t io o f g a s v o lu m e and the to ta l

v o lu m e o f both g a s and s o d iu m , w a s e s t im a te d f r o m r e a d in g the g a s - f l o w
in d ic a t o r c o m p e n s a tin g f o r te m p e r a tu r e and p r e s s u r e . In the c a s e of
s in g le p u ls e g a s in je c t io n , g a s - f l o w c o u ld not b e in d ic a t e d on the g a s -
flo w m e t e r , b e c a u s e the a i r - o p e r a t e d v a lv e w a s in sta n tly (a p p ro x . 0 . 1 s)
o p e n e d and c lo s e d . T h e r e f o r e , the t e r m o f v o id f r a c t io n f o r the sin g le
p u ls e in je c t io n u n d e r a g iv e n te s t se ttin g (v a lv e o p e n in g and p r e s s u r e f o r
the in je c tin g g a s) w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y the fr a c t io n s w h ich a r e ob ta in e d f o r
c o n tin u o u s g a s in je c t io n u n d e r the id e n tic a l te s t settin g .
M a jo r r e s u lt s a r e s u m m a r iz e d a s fo llo w s :
(1) T h e output s ig n a l in c r e m e n t, w h ich is d e fin e d a s the r a t io o f output
v o lta g e b e f o r e and a f t e r the g a s in je c t io n , is l a r g e r in the c a s e
o f a s in g le p u ls e in je c t io n than in the c a s e o f a c o n tin u o u s o n e;
(2) T h e l a r g e r the s o d iu m f lo w - r a t e the s m a ll e r the output sig n a l
in c r e m e n t;
(3) In the c a s e o f c o n tin u o u s g a s in je c t io n , the output s ig n a l in c r e m e n t
i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t io n a lly to the v o id f r a c t io n in c r e a s e ;
(4) In the c a s e o f s in g le p u lse g a s in je c t io n , tw o p e a k s in the a. c .
output v o lta g e o f flo w s e n s o r w e r e o b s e r v e d . T h e tim e in te r v a l
b e tw e e n the tw o p e a k s is eq u iv a len t to the tim e that the b u b b le s
t r a n s it th rou g h the tw o s e c o n d a r y c o i l s o f the flo w s e n s o r . T h is
s e e m s to in d ic a te that the output s ig n a l in c r e m e n t due to the g a s
in je c t io n i s c a u s e d b y the d is r u p t io n of g e o m e t r ic a l and e l e c t r o ­
m a g n e tic s y m m e t r y a ro u n d the flo w s e n s o r s ;
(5) T h e s e n s it iv it y o f the E C P flo w s e n s o r to the g a s in c r e a s e s w ith
the in c r e a s e o f e x c it in g fr e q u e n c y .
 IAEA -SM-168/E-4 597

Model No. 6
Total Flow-Rate : lO O O vm in

FIG. 10. Simulated experiment of fission product gas injection.

7. S T U D Y ON M A IN T A IN A B IL IT Y O F TH E F L O W SENSOR

T h e stu d y on m a in ta in a b ility w a s to c o n fir m the r e p la c e a b ilit y o f

E C P flo w s e n s o r s and to ob ta in n e c e s s a r y data f o r d e s ig n in g the h a n d lin g
m a c h in e f o r flo w s e n s o r s .
T h e te s t r ig sh ow n in F ig . 11 f o r m a in ta in a b ility s tu d ie s o f e d d y -
c u r r e n t flo w s e n s o r s , w a s d e s ig n e d and m a n u fa c tu r e d ta k in g in to c o n ­
s id e r a t io n the s iz e and s t r u c tu r e o f the Ja p a n P r o to ty p e F a s t B r e e d e r
R ea ctor.
T h e p a r a m e t e r s o f the g u id e tu b e s in th is te s t r ig a r e :
(1) M a te r ia l: 304 SS
(2) R a d ii o f the c u r v a t u r e s o f the b e n d in g s e c t io n : 600, 700, 850,
1000 m m
598 MOCHIZUKI et al.

(3) In n e r d ia m e t e r
(a) 1 1 . 4 m m f o r the flo w s e n s o r w ith o. d. 1 0 . 2 m m
(b) 8 . 5 m m f o r the flo w s e n s o r w ith o. d. 7. 6 m m
(4) T h e gu id e tu be w ith the m in im u m r a d iu s o f c u r v a tu r e is eq u ip p ed
w ith an e l e c t r i c h e a t e r to s im u la te the h ig h -t e m p e r a t u r e e n v ir o n ­
m e n t in the r e a c t o r v e s s e l p lu g
T h e fo llo w in g t e s t s w e r e p e r fo r m e d :
(1) E x p e r im e n t s o f in s ta llin g and r e m o v in g the flo w s e n s o r b y m a n u a l
o p e r a t io n at r o o m te m p e r a tu r e and at 100, 200 and 300°C
(2) M e a s u r e m e n t o f the to r q u e n e c e s s a r y f o r r e m o v in g a s e n s o r

Torque Converter

FIG. 11. Schematic diagram of maintainability test rig for eddy-current probe-type (ECP) flow sensor.
 IAEA -SM - Î68/E-4 599

T h e r e s u lt s o f th e s e t e s t s a r e s u m m a r iz e d a s f o llo w s :
(1) S u p p lem en tin g the r ig id it y o f le a d w ir e s w ith that o f a s t a in le s s
s t e e l w ir e (o . d. 1 .6 m m ) up to a b ou t 1. 1 X 10 4 k g X m m 2, the
flo w s e n s o r ca n b e in s t a lle d in the gu id e tu be w it h b en d in g
c u r v a t u r e e q u iv a le n t to that c a lc u la te d f r o m the flo w s e n s o r
d im e n s io n s
(2) T h e m e a s u r e d to r q u e v a lu e s n e c e s s a r y to e x t r a c t the flo w s e n s o r
f r o m in s id e the g u id e tube w e r e 4 kg at m o s t .

8. C O N C LU SIO N

F r o m the r e s u lt s o f o u r d e v e lo p m e n t w o r k , the fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s

w e r e ob ta in ed .
(a) F a i r l y s m a ll i n - c o r e e d d y - c u r r e n t p r o b e - t y p e flo w s e n s o r s ( le s s
than 1 1 m m in d ia m . ) w e r e s u c c e s s f u l l y t r i a l - f a b r i c a t e d and te s te d in the
s o d iu m flo w o f 50 0°C , w ith g o o d lin e a r it y and s e n s it iv it y . A n d th e r e
w o u ld b e no m a jo r p r o b le m s f o r t h e ir p r a c t i c a l a p p lic a t io n to the L M F B R .
(b) T h e t r ia l-m a n u fa c t u r e d 5 - c o i l m o d e l flo w s e n s o r s h ave on e
e x c it in g fr e q u e n c y ra n g e w h e r e th e y h ave the m a x im u m s e n s it iv it y a s w e ll
a s the m in im u m t e m p e r a tu r e d e p e n d e n ce .
(c ) T h e y c a n r e s p o n d to the in je c t io n o f g a s b u b b le s .
(d) N o s ig n a l c r o s s - t a l k and in t e r fe r e n c e w e r e o b s e r v e d u n d e r the
t e s t g e o m e t r y sim u la tin g the in s t a lla tio n in L M F B R .
(e ) T h e s im u la tio n e x p e r im e n t o f fu e l c h a n n e l b lo c k a g e . A s the
a x ia l s p a c in g b e tw e e n the s u b a s s e m b lie s and the in s tru m e n t p la te in c r e a s e s ,
the f l o w - r a t e r e a d b y the flo w s e n s o r d e v ia t e s f r o m the a c tu a l f lo w - r a t e
in the s u b a s s e m b ly b e c a u s e o f the c r o s s - f l o w fr o m a d ja c e n t s u b a s s e m b ly
o u t le t s . B u t the d e c lin e o f c h a n n e l flo w c a u s e d b y b lo c k a g e c a n b e d e te c te d
s o lo n g a s the d e c lin e w o u ld b e w ith in 50% o f the flo w in a d ja c e n t fu e l ch a n n e l.
(f) E n g in e e r in g p r o b le m s w ith r e s p e c t to in s t a llin g and r e m o v in g the
flo w s e n s o r in and out o f a lo n g c u r v e d gu id e tu be w e r e stu d ie d an d d e s ig n
da ta su ch a s to r q u e w e r e o b ta in e d .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h e a u th o r s a p p r e c ia t e the t e c h n ic a l a d v ic e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f
M r . Y . M im o t o o f P N C , M r . H. N akan o o f F u ji E l e c t r i c C o . and the
c o - o p e r a t i o n o f M r. K . N o g u c h i o f F u ji E l e c t r i c C o .

REFERENCE S

[1] EVANS, P. B.F. , Control and instrumentation of the prototype fast reactor, Proc. Conf. Fast Breeder
Reactors, London (1966) 765.
[2] BREWER, J. , JAROSS, R. A . , Eddy-current probe-type sodium flowmeter for FFTF reactor fuel channel
flow monitoring, IEE. Tran. nucl. Sci. NS18 1 (1971) 372.
[3] IAEA Summary Rep. IAEA/NPR/7 (1969) 41.
[4] NA KA NO, H. et a l., Development of fuel channel failure detection and location systems for fast
reactors, part 1 in-core flow-meter, PNC Rep. No. SJ203-71-04 (1971) (in Japanese).
[5] N A KA N O , H. et al., Development of fuel channel failure detection and location systems for fast
reactors, PNC Rep. No. SJ203-72-09 (1972) (in Japanese).
 600 MOCHIZUKI et al.

DISCU SSION

A . E . SOUCH: I sh o u ld lik e to a s k M r . O g u sh i w h eth er he c o n s id e r s

that the flo w m e t e r c o u ld be u s e d f o r d e t e c tin g both a c tu a l flo w c h a n g e s
(in p a r t ic u la r d e c r e a s e s due to b lo c k a g e ) and the p r e s e n c e o f g a s , in d ic a te d
b y an a p p a re n t in c r e a s e in the f lo w -r a t e .
K . OGU SH I: T h e output s ig n a l w ill in c r e a s e w h e n e v e r a flu id d i s ­
c o n tin u ity p a s s e s a s e n s o r , w h eth er w e h a v e a c o n tin u o u s v o id flo w w ith
a c e r t a in v o id f r a c t io n o r a s in g le p u ls e o f la r g e v o id . B u t if the w h ole
s p a c e a ro u n d the s e n s o r h a s b e e n o c c u p ie d b y g a s o r v a p o u r f o r a lo n g
t im e , the output s ig n a l d e c r e a s e s . O f c o u r s e , the eq u ip m en t c o u ld
d e t e c t a r e d u c tio n in f lo w - r a t e due to a l o c a l b lo c k a g e w ith in a s u b a s s e m b ly .
H o w e v e r , I think it w o u ld be d iffic u lt to d e t e c t the p r e s e n c e o f g a s if the
- f l o w - r a t e b e c a m e la r g e and the v o id f r a c t io n s m a ll.
It is in t e r e s t in g to n ote w hat h ap p en s to the output w h en the f lo w - r a t e
d e c r e a s e s and g a s b u b b le s a r e g e n e r a te d at the sa m e tim e : the output
sig n a l w ill p r o b a b ly in c r e a s e a s lo n g a s the w h o le s p a c e a rou n d the s e n s o r
is not o c c u p ie d b y g a s. It is p o s s ib le to t e l l w h e th e r the in c r e a s e in o u t­
put is r e a l o r a p p a r e n t w ith the h elp o f a s e c o n d s e n s o r . T h e fo llo w in g
s c h e m e w ill illu s t r a t e w hat I m ea n :

S e n s o r output
In te r p r e ta tio n
F lo w m e t e r T h e rm o m e te r

In crea se D ecrease R e a l in c r e a s e in flo w

In crea se U n ch a n g ed A p p a r e n t in c r e a s e due to f i s s i o n p r o d u c t gas

W ith ou t b o ilin g o r g a s e n tra in m e n t

In crea se In crea se A p p a r e n t in c r e a s e due to b o ilin g

 IAEA-SM- 168/E-5

STUDIES TO IMPROVE THE RESPONSE

TIME OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
AT THE OUTLET OF
THE LMFBR FU EL SUBASSEMBLY

K. MOCraZUKI, K. NAKAMOTO
Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corp. , Tokyo

T. HOSHI
Japan A tom ic Qiergy Research Institute, Tokai-m ura, Ibaraki-ken

S. IIDA
Mitsubishi Electric C o rp ., Central Research L a b ., Amagasaki

T. NAGANUMA
Mitsubishi A tom ic Power Ind. I n c ., Omiya,
Japan

Abstract

STUDIES T O IMPROVE THE RESPONSE TIME OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT A T THE OUTLET OF THE
LMFBR SUBASSEMBLY.
In the liquid-metal-cooled fast-breeder reactor (LMFBR), it is important to detect an abnormal
temperature change at the outlet of each fuel subassembly as quickly as possible. However, at present the
thermocouple assembly is not satisfactory because of the poor response characteristics to temperature changes.
A study was made to produce a thermocouple assembly with quick response characteristics by modifying
conventional thermocouples and associated heat-transfer media. At first, the performances of various types
and sizes of conventional thermocouples were studied in order to clarify the effects upon the time constant.
Two methods were then tried for improving the response time. One was to modify the thermocouple assembly
by improving heat-transfer characteristics. The other was to measure temperature fluctuation with a shorter
time constant by using a new measuring method.
In the first method, the following improvements were carried out: the tip shape of thermocouple was
modified, and the space gap between a sheath and a well was reduced to a minimum; and the space gap
was filled with liquid metal. For instance, time constants of a modified thermocouple assembly, with a
stainless steel sheathed, mineral insulated 3. 2-mm-diam, thermocouple inserted in a well, were 1. 8 s (for
ungrounded-type thermocouple) and 1.5 s (for grounded-type thermocouple), while the time constant of a
conventional grounded type was about 7 -8 s.
The second method provided improvement for practical application and maintainability and its time
constant was measured at about 0.4 s with thermocouples inserted in 13.8-mm-diam. wells. Thus, it is
possible to apply two methods for the rapid detection of abnormal temperature changes in the LMFBR.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e l i q u i d - m e t a l - c o o l e d f a s t - b r e e d e r r e a c t o r h a s a h ig h lik e lih o o d o f
fu e l f a i lu r e and it s p r o p a g a t io n b e c a u s e th e fu e ls b u r n u n d er s e v e r e r
c o n d itio n s than in a lig h t - w a t e r o r g a s - c o o l e d r e a c t o r o w in g to th e h igh
s p e c i f i c h ea t r a t e , s t e e p t h e r m a l g r a d ie n t, la r g e t h e r m a l e x p a n s io n , n a r r o w
fu e l p in g a p s , and h igh b u rn u p .
T h e r e f o r e , it is n e c e s s a r y and im p o r ta n t to d e t e c t th e a b n o r m a l
fu n c tio n o f th e c o r e a s q u ic k ly as p o s s ib le and to t r a n s f e r th e s ig n a l to
r e a c t o r sh u td ow n s y s t e m s o a s to p r e v e n t the fa ilu r e and it s s p r e a d in g .

601
 et
al.602
MOCfflZUKI

Material Wire: Chromel-alumel; Sheath: 316 SS; Insulator-. MgO

Well: 304 SS; Liquid metal: Hg
 IAEA-SM-16 8/E-5 603

In L M F B R s th e te m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r — a sh ea th ed t h e r m o c o u p le — is
u s u a lly in s t a lle d in a w e ll w h ich i s a c l o s e d - e n d e d lo n g tu be in s e r t e d f r o m
the to p s h ie ld dow n to ju st a b o v e the fu e l a s s e m b ly . T h is a s s e m b lin g is
e s s e n t ia l f o r th e L M F B R in o r d e r to k e e p r e lia b ili t y and m a in ta in a b ility o f
the s e n s o r a s w e ll as the s a fe o p e r a t io n o f th e r e a c t o r . T h e r e f o r e , th is
t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly — a w e ll-t y p e t h e r m o c o u p le — r e s u lt s in h a v in g a
s lo w r e s p o n s e to t e m p e r a t u r e ch a n g e . A few s e c o n d s is r e p o r t e d in the
L M F B R [ 1 ] , w h e r e a s , f r o m the s a fe ty a s p e c t , the r e s p o n s e tim e o f the
e a r ly w a r n in g s y s t e m m u st b e l e s s than o n e s e c o n d .
T h e p u r p o s e o f th is e x p e r im e n t is to h a v e a new t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly
w ith q u ic k r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b y m e a n s o f a m in o r m o d ific a t io n o f
the c o n v e n t io n a l t h e r m o c o u p l e s . A t f i r s t , th e p e r fo r m a n c e o f v a r io u s
t y p e s and s i z e s o f c o n v e n tio n a l t h e r m o c o u p le s w a s s tu d ie d to c l a r i f y th e ir
e f f e c t s u pon the tim e c o n s ta n t. T h en th e n ew ty p e s o f th e r m o c o u p le w e r e
t r i a l - f a b r i c a t e d , in s t a lle d in a w e ll and t e s t e d u n d er v a r io u s c o n d it io n s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , th e t e m p e r a t u r e flu c tu a tio n m e a s u r e m e n t , w h ich w as
o r ig i n a lly s u g g e s t e d b y K u w a b a ra [ 2 ] , w a s m o d ifie d and it s r e s p o n s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e a ls o stu d ie d .

2. R E S P O N S E C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F C O N V E N T IO N A L T H E R M O C O U P L E S

A t p r e s e n t th e r e a r e n ot en ou gh data a v a ila b le f o r th e r e s p o n s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r m o c o u p l e s . T h e r e f o r e , th e tim e c o n s ta n ts o f v a r io u s
ty p e s o f t h e r m o c o u p le (g ro u n d e d , u n g ro u n d e d , e x p o s e d and w e ll- t y p e w ith
d iffe r e n t d ia m e t e r s ) w e r e m e a s u r e d in w a te r and t h e ir a p p lic a b ilit y to the
L M F B R w a s e s t im a te d [ 3 ] .

2.1. M e th o d s and r e s u lt s o f e x p e r im e n t

T h e d ir e c t im m e r s e d - t y p e and w e ll-t y p e t h e r m o c o u p le s w e r e stu d ie d

in o r d e r to e s t a b lis h t h e ir e f f e c t s u pon the tim e c o n s ta n t. F o r L M F B R

FIG. 1. Experimental equipment.

604 MOCHIZUKI et al.

Direct Immersed type

-o — Grounded type
- o - Ungrounded type
-Д - Exposed type
We II type T/C

Simple Well type

—X— Conventional type
-D — Hg fille d type

Ю 50
O u t s id e d ia m e t e r d (m m ]

FIG. 2. Response characteristics in water.

a p p lic a t io n , the s t a in le s s s t e e l sh ea th ed , m in e r a l in s u la te d and c h r o m e l -

a lu m e l t h e r m o c o u p le s w ith and w ith ou t th e w e ll w e r e s e l e c t e d f o r th is
e x p e r im e n t . T h e s p e c if i c a t io n o f th e t h e r m o c o u p le s te s te d i s sh ow n in
T a b le I.
F ig u r e 1 s h o w s the p r in c ip le o f the r e s p o n s e tim e m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e
t h e r m o c o u p le w a s h e ld in th e a ir (70°C ) at f ir s t and th en r a p id ly in s e r t e d
in to b o i lin g w a te r (1 0 0 °C ).
In th is p a p e r the r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s the tim e
c o n s ta n t ( t ) , w h ich w a s the e la p s e d tim e up to 6 3. 2% o f the fin a l v a lu e .
T h e r e s u lt s a r e sh ow n in F i g . 2 . T h e tim e con sta n t o f the g rou n d ed
and the u n g r o u n d e d -ty p e th e r m o c o u p le s i n c r e a s e s in p r o p o r t io n to about d2,
w h e r e d i s o u ts id e d ia m e t e r o f th e sh eath o r the w e ll. In th e c a s e o f the
d ir e c t im m e r s e d t h e r m o c o u p le , the tim e con sta n t o f the u n g ro u n d e d -ty p e
t h e r m o c o u p le s w a s a p p r o x im a t e ly 1. 5 t im e s a s m u ch a s that o f th e g ro u n d e d
 IAEA-SM-168/E-5 605

ty p e w ith 1. 6 to 4 . 8 m m o . d. T h e e x p o s e d ty p e o f t h e r m o c o u p le h a s the
b e s t r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a ll c o n v e n tio n a l o n e s , but it i s n ot in
n o r m a l u s e in L M F B R s b e c a u s e o f p o o r s e a ls at th e hot ju n c t io n s . O n the
o t h e r hand', th e tim e co n s ta n t o f th e w e ll-t y p e t h e r m o c o u p le w a s m a in ly
d ep en d en t on th e c o n ta c t state b e tw e e n the t h e r m o c o u p le and th e w e ll.
T h e t im e c o n s ta n t i s im p r o v e d b y p r e s s in g a t h e r m o c o u p le a g a in s t a
w e ll m e c h a n ic a lly , an d fu r t h e r im p r o v e d b y fillin g up the g a p in a w e ll w ith
a liq u id m e t a l.

2.2. D is c u s s io n

A n a ly t ic a l c a lc u la t io n s w e r e c a r r i e d out f o r th e v a r io u s t h e r m o c o u p le
ty p e s and s i z e s and v a r io u s k in d s o f flu id s to c l a r i f y t h e ir e f f e c t s upon the
tim e c o n s ta n t.

H e a t-tra n sfe r c o e ffic ie n t ( k c a l/ m 2 h °C )

FIG. 3. Relation between time constant and heat-transfer coefficient.

606 MOCHIZUKI et a l

T h e o n e -d im e n s io n a l d is tr ib u te d m o d e l w a s a p p lie d , and the t h e r m o ­

c o u p le w a s d iv id e d in to s e v e r a l r e g io n s . In e a c h r e g io n , th e h e a t -b a la n c e
e q u a tio n i s e x p r e s s e d a s f o llo w s :

МА § = A iU1 (Ti +1 - T ,) - A j . ^ . ^ T , - T . . J )
w here

i : i - t h r e g io n in the t h e r m o c o u p le
M : m ass
С : h ea t c a p a c ity
A : h eat t r a n s f e r a r e a
U : h eat p e n e tr a tio n c o e f fi c i e n t
1J : a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e at i- t h r e g io n

T h e b r o k e n an d d o tte d lin e s in F i g . 2 a r e c a lc u la te d f o r the u n g rou n d ed

and f o r th e g ro u n d e d t y p e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , an d a g r e e d w e ll w ith e x p e r im e n ta l
r e s u lt s .
T h e r e la t io n b e tw e e n tim e con sta n t ( t ) and h e a t -t r a n s fe r c o e f fi c i e n t (o')
i s s u r v e y e d f o r u se in th e L M F B R , w h e r e the c o o la n t is not w a te r but
s o d iu m , and the r e s u lt s a r e sh ow n in F ig . 3.
T h e r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r m o c o u p le d e p e n d s on the h e a t-
c o n d u c tio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in a th e r m o c o u p le i t s e l f and th e h e a t -t r a n s fe r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s at the s u r f a c e o f the sh ea th . A s i s ev id en t fr o m the fig u r e ,
th e r e s p o n s e o f a s m a ll - d ia m e t e r t h e r m o c o u p le g r e a t ly d e p e n d s on c o n d itio n s
s u c h a s it s flu id ty p e and it s v e l o c i t y , w h e r e a s in th e c a s e o f a l a r g e -
d ia m e t e r t h e r m o c o u p le t h e ir e ff e c t s a r e s m a ll . T h is is b e c a u s e the s m a lle r
d ia m e t e r o n e h a s a r e la t iv e l y l a r g e r s u r f a c e /v o lu m e r a t io than that o f the
l a r g e r d ia m e t e r o n e .
W ith r e g a r d to th e w e ll-t y p e th e r m o c o u p le , it w a s c o n c lu d e d that it is
e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t to im p r o v e the c o n ta c t sta te b e tw e e n th e t h e r m o c o u p le
and the w e ll in o r d e r to h a v e r a p id r e s p o n s e , and that th e liq u id - m e t a l-
f il l e d t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly w ill fu lf il th is p u r p o s e m o s t e f f e c t iv e ly .

3. IM P R O V E M E N T O F R E SP O N S E T IM E O F A C O N V E N T IO N A L
TH ERM OCOUPLE ASSEM BLY

F r o m th e p r e v io u s s e c t io n it is u n d e r s to o d that th e i n c r e a s e o f h eat
c o n d u c tio n and t r a n s fe r fr o m the hot ju n c tio n to the s u r fa c e o f the w e ll w ill
g iv e a s m a ll e r tim e c o n s ta n t. T h u s , th e m o d ific a t io n o f th e t h e r m o c o u p le
and th e w e ll and th e im p r o v e m e n t o f c o n ta c t sta te w e r e c a r r i e d out [ 4 ] .

3.1. M o d ific a t io n o f t h e r m o c o u p le and w e ll sh a p e s

T h e c o n v e n tio n a l u n g ro u n d e d -ty p e sh ea th ed th e r m o c o u p le u s u a lly h a s a

lo n g t h e r m a l path b e t w e e n the hot ju n c tio n and th e o u te r s u r fa c e o f th e
s h e a th . In th e c o n v e n tio n a l 3. 2 - m m - d ia m . o n e , f o r e x a m p le , the sh eath
th ic k n e s s o f the to p m e t a l p a rt i s 2 - 3 m m , and th e in s u la t o r la y e r is
2 - 3 m m th ic k . In m o d ific a t i o n s , th e s e v a lu e s w e r e d e c r e a s e d to
0. 3 - 0 . 6 m m an d 1. 0 - 1 .5 m m , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and the tip sh a p e o f th e
 IAEA-SM-168/E-5 607

t h e r m o c o u p le w a s m o d ifie d to b e fla t a s sh ow n in F ig . 4 . T h is m o d ific a t io n

r e d u c e s the h ea t c a p a c it y at th e ju n ctio n p a rt to 1 /3 - 1 /4 o f that o f the
c o n v e n t io n a l t h e r m o c o u p le .
T h e w e ll w a s a ls o im p r o v e d to fit th is m o d ifie d sh ea th , and a s p r in g
m e c h a n is m w a s p r o v i d e d . T h e fla t n e s s o f th e c o n t a c t s u r fa c e o f b o th sh eath
and w e ll w a s m a d e to about 1 ц т s o as to r e d u c e t h e r m a l r e s is t a n c e .

3.2. D e v e lo p m e n t o f a l i q u i d - m e t a l - f i l l e d t h e r m o c o u p le

3.2.1. S e le c t io n o f liq u id m e t a l.

L iq u id m e ta l to b e f ill e d in th e w e ll m u st s a t is fy the fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s

(1) B o ilin g p oin t h ig h e r th an 600°C

(2 ) M e ltin g p oin t lo w e r than 200°C
(3 ) H igh t h e r m a l c o n d u c tiv ity
(4 ) A n t i-o x id a t io n in h ig h -t e m p e r a t u r e e n v ir o n m e n t
(5 ) G o o d c o m p a t ib ilit y w ith s t a in le s s s t e e l
(6 ) L ow v a p ou r p r e s s u r e
(7 ) S m a ll c r o s s - s e c t i o n to fa s t n eu tron

M e ta ls and a llo y s sh ow n in T a b le II w e r e in v e s t ig a t e d a s th e ca n d id a te
m a t e r ia l . F r o m th e m , p u re in d iu m m e ta l w a s fou n d to b e the m o s t su ita b le
b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e no o t h e r u s e fu l m e t a ls a v a ila b le at that s t a g e . T h e
c o m p a t ib ilit y w ith s t a in le s s s t e e l r e m a in s a s a m in o r p r o b le m , s in c e n ic k e l
i s k n ow n t o s o l v e in to in d iu m b y about 3% at 6 0 0 °C . T h u s , the c o m p a t ib ilit y
w a s t e s t e d and a n a ly s e d b y u sin g an X - r a y m i c r o - a n a l y s e r . O ne o f the
r e s u lt s i s sh ow n in F i g . 5, w h e r e it ca n b e s e e n that n ic k e l m e ta l d iffu s e d
in to in d iu m fr o m s t a in le s s s t e e l. T h e s u r fa c e la y e r o f s t a in le s s s t e e l w as
a p p a r e n tly c h a n g e d b y th e d iffu s in g o f n ic k e l.
608 MOCHIZUKI et al.

T A B L E II. W E IG H T P E R C E N T A G E R A T IO S O F LIQ U ID M E T A L

Material Weight percentage (wt,°Jo)

Melting point
(°C)
No. Bi Sn In Ag Zn Pb

1 50 20 25 5 72

2 40 22 35 3 61

3 62 19 19 84

4 50 10 37 3 60

5 40 25 25 10 73

6 43 15 40 2 60

7 45 25 22 8 73

8 100 156.6

9 10 90 300

10 85 15 300

рш Л Ъ * Nickel ЛШ№|г Bismuth

FIG. 5. Changes in element distribution of stainless steel with X M A probe line scanner.
 IAEA-SM-168/E-5 609

3.2.2. S o m e t e s t s f o r r e m o v in g liq u id m e ta l fr o m th e w e ll

T e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out f o r r e m o v in g liq u id m e ta l f r o m the b o t t o m o f

w e ll. At f ir s t an a ttem p t w a s m a d e to r e m o v e the m e t a l in s o l id fo r m .
H o w e v e r , a ft e r the liq u id m e t a l f r o z e to a s o lid sta te at th e b o t to m o f the
w e ll, it w a s found that th e a d h e s io n f o r c e o f the m e ta l to th e w e ll w a s to o
s t r o n g to r e m o v e the m e t a l.
T h en an attem p t w a s m a d e to r e m o v e it in liq u id f o r m b y u sin g a v a c u u m
pu m p to s u c k ou t the liq u id m e t a l in to a 3 - m m - d ia m . 0. 5 - m m - t h ic k tu b e.
F o r th e liq u id m e ta l p la c e d in a 2 - 3 c m 3 w e ll, it w a s p o s s ib le to su c k it out
a lm o s t p e r f e c t l y in to the tu b e e x c e p t f o r s m a ll t r a c e s r e m a in in g in s id e the
w e ll w hen it s depth i s m o r e than 8 m .

3.3. M e a s u r e m e n ts o f tim e con sta n t

T h e tim e c o n s ta n t o f th e im p r o v e d t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly w a s m e a s u r e d
w ith fu s e d m e t a l. T h e a s s e m b ly c o n s is t s o f a sh e a th e d t h e r m o c o u p le
in s e r t e d in to a w e ll, w h e r e in d iu m m e t a l w as p la c e d at th e b o t to m o f the
w e ll, w h ich w a s e q u ip p e d w ith o r w ith ou t a s p r in g m e c h a n is m .
T h e r e s u lt s a r e sh ow n in F ig . 6 . A s se e n in th e fig u r e , th e tim e
c o n s ta n ts o f im p r o v e d u n g rou n d ed and g ro u n d e d t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b li e s
w e r e r e d u c e d to about 1 . 8 and about 1 .5 s at 500°C , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s a

4.0

— G rounded Type
— о — и ng round ¡•d Type

3.0

L
tfl •

I 2D

1
</> 0
с > ;
о

\
о

J
ф
, : \ 1
Е \
К
1.0 1I

0 10 0 200 300 400 500 600 700

T e m p e r a tu r e (°C )

FIG. 6. Relations between time constant and temperature o f liquid-metal-filled thermocouple assembly.
610 MOCHIZUKI et al.

r e f e r e n c e , the t im e c o n s ta n ts o f the im p r o v e d th e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly te s te d
w ith ou t s e a l m e t a l but w ith s p r in g m e c h a n is m o n ly w e r e about 5 - 7 s , and
t h o s e te s t e d w ith ou t b o th s p r in g m e c h a n is m and s e a l m e t a l w e r e about
1 8 - 22 s.
T h u s , it i s p o s s ib le to r e d u c e th e tim e co n s ta n t o f th e t h e r m o c o u p le
a s s e m b ly to a s m a ll e r v a lu e b y :

(a ) F illin g the g a p b e tw e e n the sh eath and the w e ll w ith liq u id m e t a l;

(b ) M o d ify in g th e sh a p e o f t h e r m o c o u p le and w e ll at the h ot ju n ctio n
p a rt;
(c ) U s in g the s p r in g m e c h a n is m .

4. T E M P E R A T U R E F L U C T U A T IO N SE N SOR

T h e t e m p e r a t u r e flu ctu a tio n s e n s o r , the b a s i c p r in c ip le 1 o f w h ich had

b e e n s u g g e s te d b y K u w a b a ra , i s c o n s id e r e d to b e u s e fu l f o r m e a s u r in g the
te m p e r a t u r e ch a n g e (AT) o f so d iu m at the o u tlet o f e a c h fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly
in L M F B R . T h is m e th o d w a s im p r o v e d f o r e a s y a p p lic a t io n and m a in ta in ­
a b ility in the L M F B R .
W e h a v e d e v e lo p e d th is m e th o d fu r t h e r f o r a p p lic a t io n to th e w e ll-t y p e
t h e r m o c o u p le a s in th e c a s e o f the L M F B R , ta k in g in to c o n s id e r a t io n the
heat c a p a c it y o f th e w e ll m a t e r ia l.
If the h eat c a p a c it y o f a w e ll is s u ffic ie n t ly l a r g e , th e t e m p e r a tu r e at
the in n e r s u r fa c e o f the w e ll w ill ch a n g e v e r y s lo w ly . T h e r e f o r e , th e in n e r
s u r f a c e o f th e s t a in le s s s t e e l w e ll m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a c o ld p o in t, then
the w e ll c o r r e s p o n d s to a s t a in le s s s t e e l w ir e in K u w a b a r a 's m e th o d . T h e
s c h e m a t ic d ia g r a m i s sh ow n in F ig . 7.
U s in g a p a ir o f g r o u n d e d -ty p e t h e r m o c o u p le s in s e r t e d in e a c h w e ll w ith
a la r g e h eat c a p a c it y in s o d iu m , the t h e r m o - e l e c t r o m o t i v e f o r c e (e m f) o f
the c o m b in a tio n o f " c h r o m e l - s t a i n l e s s s t e e l (w e ll and s h e a t h )-s o d iu m -
s t a in le s s s t e e l - c h r o m e l " i s c o n s id e r e d to b e p r o p o r t io n a l to th e t e m p e r a tu r e
d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e w e lls .
T h u s , th e im p r o v e d t e m p e r a tu r e flu ctu a tio n s e n s o r m e th o d w as te s te d
in a s o d iu m lo o p . A s s u m in g that the te m p e r a t u r e flu ctu a tio n c a u s e d b y
m ix in g the hot s o d iu m w ith c o ld so d iu m h ad a w h ite s p e c t r u m , th e tim e
co n s ta n t w a s o b ta in e d f r o m the p o w e r s p e c t r u m o f the t h e r m o - e m f . A s a
r e s u lt it w a s s m a ll , b e in g about 0 .4 s in the c a s e o f th e 1 3 . 8 - m m o . d. - w e ll.
It is c o n s id e r e d that t h is im p r o v e d s e n s o r m e th o d i s v e r y u s e fu l fo r
d e t e c tin g the t e m p e r a t u r e flu ctu a tio n , w h ich m a y b e c a u s e d b y ch a n n el
flo w b lo c k a g e , at the o u tle t o f fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly .

1 This is based on the low resistivity and the moderate thermo-emf of liquid sodium, and has a very
small time constant because of using stainless steel as a thermocouple wire. Using a pair of grounded-type,
stainless steel-wire, sheathed thermocouples, thermo-emf generated with the combination of "stainless
steel-sodium-stainless steel” is considered to be in proportion to the temperature difference between the
hot junctions.
 IAEA-SM-168/E-5 611

Chromel

FIG. 7, Schematic diagram of improved temperature fluctuation sensor.

5. CO N C LU SIO N S

T h e t h e r m o c o u p le a s s e m b ly to b e u s e d f o r m e a s u r in g th e o u tlet c o o la n t
te m p e r a t u r e o f the fu e l s u b a s s e m b ly in the L M F B R w a s stu d ie d f o r q u ic k e r
r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e r e s u lt s o b ta in e d h e r e a r e a s fo llo w s :

(1 ) T h e tim e co n s ta n t o f the sh ea th ed t h e r m o c o u p le i s a p p r o x im a t e ly
p r o p o r t io n a l to d 2. But the r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the th e r m o c o u p le
d ep en d on b o th the heat c o n d u c tio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r m o c o u p le i t s e l f
and on the h e a t -t r a n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s at it s s u r f a c e . T h e f o r m e r b e c o m e s
m o r e e f fe c t iv e as its d ia m e t e r i n c r e a s e s .
(2 ) In th e c a s e o f th e w e ll-t y p e on e th e liq u id m e t a l to b e in je c t e d in
th e w e ll i s u s e fu l f o r c o n s id e r a b ly im p r o v in g r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
i s e a s y to r e p l a c e . T h e tim e con sta n t o f the li q u i d - m e t a l - f i l l e d t h e r m o ­
c o u p le a s s e m b ly w as 1 . 8 s f o r th e u n g rou n d ed ty p e and 1 .5 s f o r the
g ro u n d e d ty p e .
(3 ) It w a s d e m o n s tr a te d that the im p r o v e d te m p e r a tu r e flu ctu a tio n
s e n s o r w a s p o w e r fu l f o r r a p id ly d e t e c tin g the t e m p e r a t u r e ch a n g e in the
L M F B R w ith a t im e c o n s ta n t o f l e s s than 1 s .

A C K N O W L E D G E ME NTS

T h e a u th o r s a p p r e c ia t e th e t e c h n ic a l a d v ic e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f
Y . M im o to , E . Is h ib a s h i o f P N C and th e c o n t r ib u t io n o f M . M a tsu m iy a
of PNC.
61 2 MOCHIZUKI et al.

R E F E RE NCE S

[ 1] IAEA, Core instrumentation foreseen for sodium cooled fast reactor, IAEA Summary Rep. ,
IAEA/NPR/7 (1969).
[ 2] KUWABARA, J. , IEEE Trans nucl. Sci. NS-19 (1972) S99.
[ 3] HOSHI, T ., NAKAMOTO, K. , Transient response o f therm ocouple, PNC Rep. N241 71-56 (1971)
(in Japanese).
[ 4] NAGANUMA, T. et al. , An improvement study o f a thermocouple for a FBR, PNC Rep. SJ 206 72-0 3
(1972) (in Japanese).

DISCUSSION

D . H . S T E G E M A N N : W h ile in v e s tig a t in g s o d iu m flo w v e lo c i t y m e a s u r e ­

m e n ts f r o m c r o s s - c o r r e l a t e d t h e r m o c o u p le s ig n a ls ( t r a n s it -t im e te c h n iq u e )
w e fou n d that it is n e c e s s a r y to a n a ly s e th e flu ctu a tin g s ig n a ls at r a th e r
h ig h f r e q u e n c ie s in o r d e r to ob ta in c o r r e c t r e s u lt s f o r flo w v e l o c i t y and
th rou g h p u t. W e a r e t h e r e fo r e v e r y in t e r e s t e d in fa s t - r e s p o n d in g t h e r m o ­
c o u p le s . H ave you fou n d that the " e x p o s e d t h e r m o c o u p l e s " sh ow n in F i g . 2
o f y o u r p a p e r a r e r e l i a b l e in o p e r a t io n and g iv e a fa s t en ough r e s p o n s e ?
K . N A K A M O T O : O u r e x p e r ie n c e o f th e a p p lic a t io n o f a t r a n s i t -t i m e
flo w m e t e r in s o d iu m w a s s i m il a r to y o u r s .
T h e e x p o s e d ty p e o f th e r m o c o u p le w ith th e m o s t r a p id r e s p o n s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a s t e s t e d o n ly in w a te r . T h e e x p o s e d in s u la to r la y e r w as
c o a te d w ith r e s in . H o w e v e r , w e h a v e not y e t fou n d a su ita b le s e a l m a t e r ia l
w h ich i s c o m p a t ib le w ith s o d iu m and at th e s a m e tim e h a s h igh r e s is t iv it y .
H e n ce , w e h a v e n o e x p e r ie n c e w ith the e x p o s e d t h e r m o c o u p le in s o d iu m .
I think the w e ll- t y p e th e r m o c o u p le is e s s e n t ia l in a L M F B R , but the
d i r e c t - i m m e r s e d ty p e m a y b e a c c e p ta b le f o r y o u r p u r p o s e s . I can
r e c o m m e n d M r . K u w a b a r a 1 s m e th o d a s it is c o n s id e r e d to p r o v id e the
s a m e r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r is t ic as the e x p o s e d -t y p e t h e r m o c o u p le , and th e
eq u ip m en t h a s g o o d c o m p a t ib ilit y w ith s o d iu m .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7

SURVEILLANCE DE L'ETANCH EITE

SODIUM-EAU DES GENERATEURS DE
VAPEUR CHAUFFES AU SODIUM
PAR DOSAGE DE L'HYDROGENE
Application industrielle au CGVS
P . LECOCQ* L . L A N N O U * J. C. M A S S O N **
Electricité de France,
France

Abstract-Résumé

MONITORING OF THE SODIUM-WATER-TIGHTNESS IN SODIUM-HEATED STEAM GENERATORS BY

MEASURING HYDROGEN. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION AT CGVS.
One of the main problems in the safety of sodium-heated steam generators is to ensure the tightness of
the heat-exchange surface. A detecting d evice for m icro-leákage of water (1СГ4 - 1 0 '3 g/s) based on the
measurement of hydrogen in sodium has been developed by Electricité de France. It consists o f a nickel
membrane with one side in contact with sodium and the other subjected to vacuum (1 0 "8 - 10’ 7 torr) by means
o f an ion pump provided with an analysis head (mass spectrometer calibrated for hydrogen). Detection o f any
water leakage is carried out by com parative measurement, with the same membrane, of the hydrogen content in
the sodium entering and leaving the steam generator.
A d etection fa cility based on this method has been developed, and was operated for 11500 h (including
6600 h on load) during industrial-scale tests of m odel steam generators at the Renardières CGVS. These tests
have made possible the industrial-scale application of the detection system and demonstrated its basic qualities:
sensitivity 5 x 10” 3 ppm H2 in the sodium, quantitative lim it 1 0 "3g /s of water; specificity (selective diffusion
o f hydrogen through the nickel) and spectrometric measurement; rapidity (response tim e o f the detection system
less than 30 s); and reliability (10 000 h without incident). The developm ent of a procedure to be followed on
detection of water leakage inside the steam generator calls for systematic tests to study the kinetics o f water
m icro-lea kage in sodium. Such tests, involving the use of a detection system of the type described above, are in
progress at the Chatou Centre for leakage rates between 10"6 and 1 g /s .

SURVEILLANCE DE L'ETANCHEITE SODIUM-EAU DES GENERATEURS DE VAPEUR CHAUFFES AU SODIUM PAR

DOSAGE DE L’ HYDROGENE - APPLICATION INDUSTRIELLE AU CGVS.
Un des problèmes essentiels de la sûreté des générateurs de vapeur chauffés au sodium est celu i de l'é t a n -
chéité de la surface d 'éch a n ge thermique. Un dispositif détecteur des microfuites d 'e a u (1 0 "4 a 10” 3 g/s) basé
sur le dosage de l ’ hydrogène dans le sodium a été mis au point par EDF (E lectricité de France). Ce dispositif
consiste en une membrane de nickel baignée sur l ’ une de ses faces par du sodium, l'a u tre fa ce étant soumise
au v id e (1 0 " 8 à 10“ 7 torr) par l ’ intermédiaire d 'u n e pompe ionique équipée d ’ une tête d ’ analyse (spectromètre
de masse ca lé sur l ’ hydrogène). La détection d 'u n e fuite d ’ eau éventuelle est assurée par la mesure com para­
tive, effectuée a l ’ aide de la m êm e membrane, des teneurs en hydrogène dans le sodium, entre l ’ entrée et la
sortie du générateur de vapeur. Une installation de détection basée sur cette méthode a été mise au point et
exploitée pendant 11500 h (dont 6600 h en puissance) au cours des essais industriels de maquettes de générateurs
de vapeur effectués au CGVS des Renardières. Ces essais ont permis l'industrialisation du système de détection
et ont mis en évidence ses qualités essentielles: sensibilité, 5 • 10’ 3 ppm H2 dans le sodium; quantitativité,
1 0 "3g /s d ’ eau; spécificité, diffusion sélective de l ’ hydrogène à travers le nickel et mesure au spectromètre;
rapidité, temps de réponse du système de détection inférieur a 30 s; fiabilité, aucun incident en 10 000 h.
La mise au point d 'u n processus d'intervention lors de la détection d 'u n e fuite d 'e a u a l ’ intérieur du générateur
de vapeur nécessite la réalisation d ’ essais systématiques pour l ’ étude de la cinétique d 'év olu tion des microfuites
d 'e a u dans le sodium. De tels essais, contrôlés par un système de détection du type décrit ci-dessus, sont en
cours au centre de Chatou, pour des valeurs de débits de fuite comprises entre 10"6 g /s et 1 g /s .

* Centre de Chatou.
** Centre des Renardières.

613
614 LECOCQ et al.

IN T R O D U C T IO N

Un d e s p r o b lè m e s e s s e n t ie ls , qui c o n d itio n n e le d é v e lo p p e m e n t in d u s ­
t r i e l d e s g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r de g ra n d e p u is s a n c e c h a u ffé s au s o d iu m , e s t
c e lu i de l'é t a n c h é it é de le u r s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e th e r m iq u e . L 'e x a m e n d es
c o n s é q u e n c e s d 'u n e fu ite d 'e a u dans un g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r ch a u ffé au
s o d iu m peu t ê t r e fa it a v e c deu x o b j e c t if s p r in c ip a u x :
L e p r e m i e r o b je c t if , h is t o r iq u e m e n t le p lu s a n c ie n , et qui e s t t o u jo u r s
l 'o b j e c t i f p r im o r d ia l e s t c e lu i de la s é c u r it é ou de la s û r e té (au s e n s n u c lé a ir e
du t e r m e ). L e d o m a in e de fu ite s c o n s id é r é d a n s c e c a s e s t c e lu i qu i p r o v o q u e
la r é a c t io n s o d iu m -e a u v io le n t e et qu i n é c e s s it e la m is e en o eu v re de d i s p o s i ­
t ifs a u to m a tiq u e s, a s s u r a n t la d é te c tio n , l e c o n fin e m e n t, l'é v a c u a t io n d es
p r o d u its de la r é a c t io n , de t e lle s o r t e que la s é c u r it é de l'in s t a lla t io n s o it
a s s u r é e en to u te s c ir c o n s t a n c e s .
L e d e u x iè m e o b je c t if , qu i e s t c e lu i de l 'é c o n o m i e et de la d is p o n ib ilité ,
e s t p lu s n ou v eau , m a is i l p r e n d de p lu s en p lu s d 'im p o r t a n c e â m e s u r e que,
d 'u n e p a rt, le s c o n s t r u c t e u r s de g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r o r ie n t e n t le u r s étu d es
v e r s d e s s o lu t io n s a p p lic a b le s â de g ra n d s r é a c t e u r s r a p id e s et qu e, d 'a u tr e
p a r t, l'e x p lo it a n t p r e n d une p a r t a c c r u e â la d é fin itio n d e s o p tio n s s u s c e p t ib le s
de c a r a c t é r i s e r c e s r é a c t e u r s r a p id e s de g ra n d e p u is s a n c e .
L e s étu d es e n t r e p r i s e s à E D F , en m a t iè r e de d é t e c tio n de fu ite s d 'e a u
(p a r d o s a g e de l'h y d r o g è n e en p a r t ic u lie r ) , de c in é tiq u e d 'é v o lu t io n de m i c r o ­
fu ite s d 'e a u , de r e p é r a g e du tube p r é s e n ta n t une fu ite , so n t o r ie n t é e s v e r s ce
s e c o n d o b j e c t i f [ 1 ] . L e d o m a in e de fu ite s c o n c e r n é e s t c e lu i d e s m i c r o f u i t e s
don t l e d é b it m o y e n [ 1 0 ”3 g / s < q Щ О < (0 , 1 â 1 g / s ) ] n 'a p a s de c o n s é q u e n c e s
s u r le s s t r u c t u r e s v o is in e s (tu bes du fa is c e a u ) p a r e ffe t « c h a lu m e a u » . C e s
fu ite s ne c o n s titu e n t p a s en g é n é r a l d e s d éfa u ts d 'im p o r t a n c e s u ffis a n te p o u r
m e t tr e en p é r il im m é d ia t la ten u e m é c a n iq u e du tu be qui m a n ife s te la fu ite ;
p a r c o n t r e , e l l e s p o s e n t e s s e n t ie lle m e n t le p r o b lè m e de la s e n s i b il it é de
d é t e c tio n , le te m p s de r é p o n s e n 'a y a n t p a s à ê tr e p a r t ic u liè r e m e n t c o u r t p a r
s u ite de la r e la t iv e le n te u r d 'é v o lu t io n d e s d éfa u ts c o r r e s p o n d a n t s .
P a r ta n t de l 'i d é e que la p lu p a rt d e s fu ite s d 'u n n iv ea u q u e lc o n q u e , s u s ­
c e p t ib le s de s e p r o d u ir e dans la d u r é e de v ie d 'u n g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r ,
d éb u ten t p a r une m i c r o f u i t e (défau t de fa b r ic a t io n , f i s s u r e de c o n tr a in te ou
de c o r r o s i o n , tr o u de p e tit d ia m è t r e , m a u v a is e s o u d u r e , e t c . ) on a ju g é
q u 'i l é ta it s o u h a ita b le de c o n c e n t r e r le s e f fo r t s s u r la r e c h e r c h e et la m is e
au p o in t in d u s t r ie lle d 'u n e m é th o d e de d é t e c tio n la p lu s s e n s ib le p o s s ib le .
C e tte p h ilo s o p h ie de d é t e c tio n o f f r e l e s a v a n ta g e s su iv a n ts:
— P o s s i b i l i t é d 'é t a b lir , â p a r t ir de l 'e x p é r i e n c e d 'e x p lo it a t io n d 'u n
n o m b r e c r o i s s a n t de g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r de ty p e s v a r i é s , une sta tis tiq u e
s u ffis a m m e n t p r é c i s e d e s fu ite s qui s 'y d é c le n c h e n t, p a r o b s e r v a t io n de le u r
cin é tiq u e d 'é v o lu t io n aux t r è s fa ib le s d é b its .
— P o s s i b i l i t é d 'a r r ê t e r la b o u c le s e c o n d a ir e c o n c e r n é e d a n s l e s c o n ­
d itio n s l e s p lu s f a v o r a b l e s , dans la m e s u r e o ù l 'o n a u ra a c q u is une m a ît r is e
su ffis a n te du c o n t r ô le de l'a u t o - é v o lu t io n d e s d éfa u ts en p h a s e p r é lim in a ir e .
— A c e n iv ea u de d é b it, le r e p é r a g e du tube fu y a r d d e v r a it p r é s e n t e r
m o in s de d if f i c u lt é s . L a m is e au p oin t d 'u n s y s t è m e de d é t e c tio n t r è s s e n s ib le
b a s é s u r l e d o s a g e de l'h y d r o g è h e dans le s o d iu m a é té e ffe c t u é e à E D F au
c o u r s d 'é tu d e s et e s s a i s r é a l i s é s au la b o r a t o i r e de C h atou [ 2 - 4 ] . Une
in s t a lla tio n de d é t e c tio n b a s é e s u r c e t t e m é th o d e a été r é a l i s é e et e x p lo it é e
pen d an t 11 500 h au c o u r s d e s e s s a i s in d u s t r ie ls d e s m a q u e tte s du g é n é r a t e u r
de v a p e u r de P h é n ix in s t a llé e s aux R e n a r d iè r e s [ 5 -7 ] .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 615

1. D E S C R IP T IO N G E N E R A L E DU C IR C U IT D 'E S S A IS A G R A N D E
P U IS SA N C E D ES G E N E R A T E U R S D E V A P E U R [ 5, 6 ]

C ette in s t a lla tio n d 'e s s a i s de g ra n d e p u is s a n c e (fig . 1) p e r m e t de s o u ­

m e t tr e d e s é lé m e n t s de g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r, d 'u n e p u is s a n c e de 50 M W,
â d e s e s s a i s sim u la n t le s c o n d itio n s de fo n c t io n n e m e n t s u s c e p t ib le s d 'ê t r e
r e n c o n t r é e s dans une c e n t r a le n u c lé a ir e et de v é r i f i e r l'e n d u r a n c e du m a ­
t é r i e l pen d an t d e s p é r io d e s de lo n g u e d u r é e .
L 'in s t a lla t io n c o m p r e n d e s s e n t ie lle m e n t l e s é lé m e n t s su iv a n ts:
— un c i r c u i t de s o d iu m d e s tin é â f o u r n ir la c h a le u r au g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r
â essayer
— un c i r c u i t e a u -v a p e u r s e r v a n t â e x t r a ir e c e tte c h a le u r du g é n é r a t e u r de
v a p e u r e t à la d i s s i p e r
— le g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r à e s s a y e r , éq u ip é de s o n s y s t è m e de d é c h a r g e .

1.1. C ir c u it de s o d iu m (fig . la )

Un e n s e m b le de deu x p o m p e s de c ir c u la t io n , m o n té e s en p a r a llè le s u r
la b r a n c h e f r o i d e de la b o u c le , e n v o ie le s o d iu m v e r s une c h a u d iè r e â gaz
n a tu r e l où i l e s t r é c h a u ffé â 600°C e n v ir o n e t à n ou v eau d ir ig é v e r s l'e n t r é e
du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r ou v e r s d e s « b y - p a s s » ch a u d et f r o i d qui p e r m e tte n t,
p a r le je u de v a n n e s de r é g u la t io n , d 'a s s u r e r c e r t a in e s c o n d itio n s p a r t ic u liè r e s
de fo n c t io n n e m e n t de l'in s t a lla t io n . L a p u r ific a t io n du s o d iu m e s t a s s u r é e â
l 'a i d e d 'u n p iè g e f r o i d à c ir c u la t io n f o r c é e , la r é g u la t io n du p o in t f r o i d étant
m a in ten u e à 120°C . Un in d ic a t e u r de b o u c h a g e à m e s u r e d if fé r e n t ie lle a u to ­
m a tiq u e et co n tin u e p e r m e t la m e s u r e d e s te n e u r s en im p u r e té s du s o d iu m â
l'e n t r é e ou â la s o r t i e du p iè g e f r o i d .
L a m a s s e to ta le de s o d iu m co n te n u e dans l'in s t a lla t io n e s t de 104 to n n e s
dont e n v ir o n 72 to n n e s so n t en c ir c u la t io n dans la b o u c le p r in c ip a le .

1.2. C ir c u i t e a u -v a p e u r (fig . lb )

L e s c a r a c t é r is t iq u e s de fo n c tio n n e m e n t c o r r e s p o n d e n t aux c o n d itio n s

n o r m a lis é e s p o u r le s g r o u p e s de 250 M W (e), s o i t une te m p é r a tu r e de 512°C
et une p r e s s i o n de 170 b a r . L e c i r c u i t e s t c o n ç u de m a n iè r e â m é n a g e r d e s
n iv e a u x in t e r m é d i a ir e s de p r e s s i o n et de t e m p é r a tu r e a n a lo g u e s â c e u x
d 'u n t u r b o -a lt e r n a t e u r c la s s iq u e .
L 'a lim e n t a t io n en eau du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r e s t a s s u r é e p a r un c i r c u i t
é q u ip é de p o m p e s d 'e x t r a c t io n , d 'u n e b â c h e d é g a z a n te , de p o m p e s a lim e n t a ir e s
e t de d eu x r é c h a u ff e u r s . L e t r a ite m e n t de l'e a u de c o n d e n s a tio n e s t a s s u r é
en to t a lité p a r un p o s te de d é m in é r a lis a t io n et de filt r a t io n . L 'e a u e s t
c o n d itio n n é e à l'a m m o n ia q u e (pH = 9 , 2 ) .

1. 3. G é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r é q u ip é de so n s y s t è m e de d é c h a r g e (fig . l e )

L e g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r d is p o s é dans un c a is s o n c a lo r ifu g é e s t c o m p o s é
de 3 m o d u le s de ty p e s lo n g itu d in a u x de 15 MW de p u is s a n c e u n ita ir e et de
c a r a c t é r is t iq u e s id e n tiq u e s à c e u x éq u ip a n t le r é a c t e u r r a p id e P h é n ix [ 8 ] .
C h aqu e m o d u le s e c o m p o s e de 3 é lé m e n t s d is t in c t s , c h a cu n d 'e u x étant
c o n s titu é d 'u n fa i s c e a u de 7 tu b e s p la c é s dans une e n v e lo p p e r e p lié e en
f o r m e de S p o u r l e s u r c h a u ffe u r e t en f o r m e de d ou b le S p o u r l 'é c o n o m i s e u r -
é v a p o r a t e u r . L e s p r in c ip a le s c a r a c t é r is t iq u e s d im e n s io n n e lle s du g é n é r a t e u r
de v a p e u r so n t d o n n é e s dans le ta b le a u I.
616 LECOCQ et al.

vopeur
de
g é n é ra te u r
FIG. la. Le circuit de sodium C G V S .

re s u rc h .
e n tré e
re s u rch .

s o r t ie
s u rc h .

e n tré e
e c o -v a p o

F IG .lb . Le circuit eau-vapeur C G V S.

 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 617

- VAPEUR
S O D IU M

EAU
C IR C U IT

C IR C U IT
FIG .le. Le générateur de vapeur et son systeme de décharge.

FIG. ld. Circuit de purification et indicateur de bouchage CG VS.

618 LECOCQ et al.

T A B L E A U I. C A R A C T E R IS T IQ U E S DU G E N E R A T E U R D E V A P E U R DE
P H E N IX [ 8 ]

Economiseur- Générateur
Appareil Surchauffeur Resurchauffeur
évaporateur de vapeur

Puissance thermique (M W ) 356 121 86 563

Débit de sodium (kg/s) 2210 1215 995 2210

Température d'entrée du
sodium (°C) 475 550 550 550

Température de sortie du
sodium (eC) 350 475 475 350

Température d ’ entrée d’ eau

ou de vapeur ("C) 246 375 308 246

Température de sortie de
vapeur ( eC) 375 512 512 512

Pression (absolue) d'entrée

d'eau ou de vapeur (bar) 193 172,7 36,2 193

Pression (absolue) de sortie

de vapeur (bar) 174,9 168 34,9 168

Débit d ’eau ou de vapeur

(kg/s) 209 209 186 209

Nombre total de modules 36 36 36 108

Surface d'échange (m2)

(sur diamètre intérieur) 961 522 666 2149

Diamètre et épaisseur
des enveloppes (mm) 193,7 x 6,3 193,7 x 5,4 193,7 x 5,4

Diamètre et épaisseur
des tubes (mm) 28 x 4 31,8 x 3,6 42,4 x 2

Matériau des tubes et Acier ferritique Acier Acier

des enveloppes 2 ,2 5 % Cr, austénitique austénitique
ГУо Mo (2 app.) TP 321 H TP 321 H
2,2 5 % cr,
1% Mo, 1% Nb,
(1 appareil)

S u r le s c o l l e c t e u r s de s o d iu m so n t d is p o s é e s d e s m e m b r a n e s d 'é c la t e m e n t
qui a s s u r e n t, en c a s de r é a c t io n s o d iu m -e a u v io le n te , l 'é c o u le m e n t d es
p r o d u its de r é a c t io n v e r s un s y s t è m e de d é c h a r g e éq u ip é d 'u n c y c lo n e p e r ­
m etta n t la s é p a r a tio n du s o d iu m et de l'h y d r o g è n e avant r e je t â l 'a t m o s p h è r e .

1.4. E x p lo ita t io n d e s c ir c u it s

L e c i r c u i t d 'e s s a i e s t e x p lo it é d 'u n e m a n iè r e p e r m a n e n te à 2 5% de la
p u is s a n c e n o m in a le ; l e s t e m p é r a t u r e s n o r m a le s dans l e g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r
éta n t a in s i a tte in te s , l e s e s s a i s so n t e ff e c t u é s â d iv e r s r é g im e s de p u is s a n c e
é c h e lo n n é s de 10 â 1 0 0 % de la c h a r g e n o r m a le (d é b it d 'e a u : 62 t / h â l 'e n t r é e
de l'é c o n o m i s e u r ) . Un d ia g r a m m e de c h a r g e (fig . 2) ill u s t r e le fo n c t io n n e -
. m e n t du c i r c u i t d e p u is 1970 ju s q u 'a u m o is d 'a o û t 1972.
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 619

Nb HEURES

1970

1971

N b HEURES

■ m n
■ I ! ■ ■ ■ "

U t il
1971 тярш./ " <•

Щ уф

ШтМ
NOV
î
40(41 4 2 4 3 |4 4 ¡4 5 !4 6 l4 7 j4 e l4 9 l5 d 5 1 1б2
D EC EM B RE

□ i!.i1i1r11
rI11Ii Ы
rI 11
н1111»11
N b HEURES
1 66

144

120
I
iIIIÎI 1
и
III!
96
гIII 1 ■■■■-гщ■
I1
1972 72

11
I1
11 '4'VU'' ' 1,
*■
48

24

0
1 2 3 4 5 I6 7
ïl
1 I Ш
9 I 10I 11I 12I 13 1 4 ll5 ll6 ll7 1 8 ll9 l2 0 l2 1 22I 23I24I 25J26 2712812^30
J A IN V FlE V M ARS A V R IL M AI J U IN JU IL L E T

FIG.2. Heures de fonctionnement en puissance.

620 LECOCQ et al.

L e s a r r ê t s in d iq u é s so n t dus â d e s in d is p o n ib ilit é s de m a t é r ie ls m a is
a u s s i â la p r é p a r a t io n de c e r t a in s e s s a i s p a r t ic u lie r s (ch a n g em en t de deux
m o d u le s g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r , c h o c s th e r m iq u e s , e t c . ) .

2. D E S C R IP T IO N D E L 'IN S T A L L A T IO N D E D E T E C T IO N D 'H Y D R O G E N E
E T D E SO N C IR C U IT D E T A R A G E

L a fig u r e 3 r e p r é s e n t e le s c h é m a de p r in c ip e de d é t e c tio n d e s fu ite s

d 'e a u dans l e g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r .

2.1. C ir c u it de p r é lè v e m e n t s d 'é c h a n tillo n s de so d iu m

Il e s t en a c i e r in o x y d a b le Z 8 C N D T 1 8 /1 2 . L e s tu y a u te r ie s , d 'u n d ia ­
m è t r e e x t é r ie u r de 18 m m (é p a is s e u r : 1, 5 m m ), so n t r a c c o r d é e s à d e s p ip e s
de p r é lè v e m e n t (fig . 4), s it u é e s dans la v e in e de s o d iu m à la s o r t i e de ch a qu e
é lé m e n t d 'é c h a n g e u r .
A u m ê m e é ta g e , l e s t r o i s é c h a n tillo n s s o n t c o l l e c t é s p a r une tu y a u te r ie
c o m m u n e qui le s d ir ig e v e r s un é c h a n g e u r â c o u r a n ts p a r a llè le s , à la s o r t i e
du qu el un je u de v a n n e s a p p r o p r ié p e r m e t d 'e n v o y e r l'é c h a n t illo n à a n a ly s e r ,
s o i t v e r s le d é t e c t e u r â m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l, s o it v e r s le c i r c u i t de r e s titu tio n .
C h aqu e d é b it d 'é c h a n t illo n e s t c o n t r ô lé à l 'a i d e d 'u n d é b itm è tr e à a im a n t
p e r m a n e n t.

FIG.3. Schéma de l'installation de détection d'hydrogène du CGVS.

 IAEA-SM- 168/E -7 621

2.2. C ir c u it de r e s titu tio n d e s é c h a n tillo n s

R é a lis é en a c i e r in o x y d a b le Z 8 C N D T 1 8 / 1 2 (d ia m è tr e e x t é r ie u r 33 m m ,
é p a is s e u r 1, 5 m m ), i l p e r m e t , en u tilis a n t une p o m p e é le c t r o m a g n é t iq u e de
c ir c u la t io n , de r e s t it u e r , à la s o r t i e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r, l e s d é b its
d e s d ix p r é lè v e m e n t s .

2.3. C ir c u i t de v id a n g e et d 'e x p a n s io n

C e s c ir c u it s p e r m e tt e n t la v id a n g e d e s tu y a u te r ie s de p r é lè v e m e n t et de
r e s titu tio n en c a s d 'in c id e n t s u r l'in s t a lla t io n de d é t e c tio n .
Du p o in t de v u e de la s û r e té , l'i s o l e m e n t du c i r c u i t de d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o ­
g è n e e s t obten u a u to m a tiq u e m e n t d è s la ru p tu r e d e s m e m b r a n e s du c i r c u i t
de d é c h a r g e du g é n é r a te u r de v a p e u r .

2.4. D is p o s it if d é t e c te u r d 'h y d r o g è n e a s s o c i é à la p o m p e io n iq u e

L e d é t e c t e u r (fig . 5) e s t c o m p o s é d 'u n fa is c e a u de 4 tu b e s en n ic k e l
(d ia m è tr e e x t é r ie u r : 7 m m , é p a is s e u r : 0, 2 m m ) d is p o s é s dans une e n v e lo p p e
en a c i e r in o x y d a b le . C e s tu b e s so n t p a r c o u r u s in té r ie u r e m e n t p a r le s o d iu m
à a n a ly s e r , le u r s f a c e s e x t é r ie u r e s étant s o u m i s e s au v id e ( 1 0 "8 â 1 0 " 7 t o r r )
p a r l 'in t e r m é d ia ir e d 'u n e p o m p e io n iq u e , é q u ip é e d 'u n e tête d 'a n a ly s e
q u a d r ip o le , c a lé e s u r l'h y d r o g è n e .
L a s u r f a c e to t a le de c e s tu b e s de n ic k e l e s t de l 'o r d r e de 4 d m 2 . Une
van n e p n e u m a tiq u e à s o u ffle t ( a s s e r v i e p a r un r e la is de s u r p r e s s io n et une
é le c t r o d e de fu ite de s o d iu m ) p e r m e t d 'i s o l e r r a p id e m e n t le d é t e c te u r du
s p e c t r o m è t r e de m a s s e en c a s de ru p tu r e d 'u n d es tu b e s de n ic k e l.
L 'é t a n c h é it é d e s s o u d u r e s et d e s tu b e s en n ic k e l a été v é r i f i é e à l'h é l iu m â
la p r e s s i o n de 10 b a r et à la t e m p é r a tu r e de 500°C (d éb it de fu ite d 'h é liu m
< 1 0 _11 atm • c m 3 / s ) .
Un d é g a z a g e du d é t e c te u r â la t e m p é r a tu r e de 500°C , d u ra n t 48 h et s o u s
v id e d y n a m iq u e , p e r m e t d 'o b t e n ir un b r u it de fo n d d 'h y d r o g è n e p r o p r e â
l 'a p p a r e i l i n f é r i e u r â 1 / 1 0 0 de p p m d 'h y d r o g è n e dans le s o d iu m .
622 LECOCQ et al.

1 . 4 lubes de nickel O e x f.7 m m .é p a is se u r 0 > 2 m m t S totale 4 d m 2

2 - Enceinte à vide constituée p a r un tube en acier inoxydable
3 - V anne pneum atique de sécurité ; ferm eture com m andée p a r un
ratais de s u rp re s sio n (5 ),e t une électrode de lu it e ( 4 )
4 - Electrode type Q u a rte x , étan che en ultravide
5 . R e la is de su rp re ssio n
6 - Tête d 'a n a ly s e qu a dripole
7 . Pom pe ion iq ue Q : 2 0 0 I /se c
8 - S ig n a l h yd ro g è n e p re ssio n totale, courant pom pe ionique
9 - S ig n a l hyd ro gè n e p re ssio n pa rtielle,tête d 'a n a ly s e quadripole

FIG. 5. Dispositif détecteur d’ hydrogène à membrane de nickel «type sodium».

2. 5. C ir c u it de ta r a g e de la d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o g è n e

Une tu y a u te r ie en a c i e r in o x y d a b le (d ia m è tr e e x t é r ie u r 13 m m , é p a is s e u r
2 , 5 m m ) r a c c o r d é e s u r la tu y a u te r ie p r in c ip a le â l ’ e n tr é e du g é n é r a t e u r de
v a p e u r p e r m e t l ’in tr o d u c t io n d ’h y d r o g è n e g a z e u x dans le c i r c u i t de s o d iu m
(fig . 3).
L a qu an tité d 'h y d r o g è n e in tr o d u ite e s t e s t im é e à p a r t ir d e s r e le v é s de
p r e s s io n e f fe c t u é s , avan t et a p r è s in je c t io n , s u r un r é s e r v o i r ta m p on
(v o lu m e 6 d m 3 ).

3. F O N C T IO N N E M E N T E T M OD ES O P E R A T O IR E S D 'E X P L O IT A T IO N DE
L A D E T E C T IO N D 'H Y D R O G E N E

3.1. F o n c t io n n e m e n t (fig . 3)

O n p r o c è d e à un p r é lè v e m e n t p e r m a n e n t d 'é c h a n t illo n s â d é b it c o n s ta n t,
â la s o r t i e d e s n eu f é c h a n g e u r s de c h a le u r . L e s t r o i s é c h a n t illo n s p r o v e n a n t
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 623

d 'u n m ê m e é ta g e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r so n t m é la n g é s et d ir ig é s p a r une
m ê m e c a n a lis a t io n v e r s un é c h a n g e u r de c h a le u r a n tim é th o d iq u e . L e r ô le
p r in c ip a l de c e t a p p a r e il e s t de r a m e n e r le s é c h a n tillo n s d e s d iffé r e n t s
é ta g e s â la m ê m e t e m p é r a tu r e de 4 0 0 °C , p a r r é c h a u ffa g e à l'a i d e d'u n
p r é lè v e m e n t de s o d iu m chaud e ffe c t u é â l 'e n t r é e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r.
A u c o u r s de l'e x p lo it a t io n , l'é c h a n t illo n p r é le v é en s o r t i e du d e r n ie r
é ta g e ( é c o n o m is e u r - é v a p o r a t e u r ) e s t d ir ig é en p e r m a n e n c e v e r s l e d is p o s it if
d é t e c te u r qui p e r m e t , g r â c e â la m e s u r e de la qu an tité d 'h y d r o g è n e d iffu s é e
â t r a v e r s la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l (m a in ten u e â la t e m p é r a t u r e de 40 0°C ),
d 'e s t i m e r la c o n c e n t r a tio n en h y d r o g è n e à la s o r t i e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r .
C e tte d é t e r m in a tio n de la c o n c e n t r a tio n en h y d r o g è n e e s t o b ten u e s i m u l­
ta n ém en t â p a r t ir d e s deu x m é th o d e s su iv a n te s :
— m e s u r e de la p r e s s io n p a r t ie lle d 'h y d r o g è n e â l 'a i d e d 'u n e tête d 'a n a ly s e
q u a d r ip o le c a lé e s u r l'h y d r o g è n e
— m e s u r e de l a p r e s s i o n t o t a le à l 'a i d e du c o u r a n t de la p o m p e io n iq u e .
P r é c i s o n s q u 'e n l'a b s e n c e de fu ite s u r le c i r c u i t de v id e e t de d é g a z a g e
d e s p a r o is , c e s d eu x m e s u r e s so n t a b s o lu m e n t é q u iv a le n t e s . D an s c e s
c o n d it io n s , l'u t ili s a t io n et l'in t e r p r é t a t io n s im u lta n é e s de c e s d eu x sig n a u x
p e r m e t d 'e x c l u r e l e s in c id e n ts de fu ite su r le c i r c u i t de v id e ou de d é r iv e
d 'u n d e s d eu x s y s t è m e s .
En e ffe t , au c o u r s de l'e x p lo it a t io n , on a p a r f o is o b s e r v é un d é c r o c h e ­
m e n t p é r io d iq u e du s ig n a l r e p r é s e n t a n t la p r e s s io n p a r t ie lle d 'h y d r o g è n e
de l 'o r d r e de 5% e n v ir o n . L a c o m p a r a is o n s im u lta n é e d e s d eu x sig n a u x a
p e r m is d 'a f f i r m e r que c e d é c r o c h e m e n t b r u ta l n 'é t a it p a s s i g n if ic a t if d 'u n e
fu ite m a is r e p r é s e n t a it une d é r iv e .

3.2. M o d e s o p é r a t o ir e s d 'e x p lo it a t io n

L 'e x p lo it a t io n du c i r c u i t de d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o g è n e e s t a s s u r é e s im u lta n é ­

m e n t â c e l l e du c i r c u i t p r in c ip a l p a r le m ê m e p e r s o n n e l. L a p o m p e io n iq u e
e t l e s p e c t r o m è t r e s o n t l a i s s é s en p e r m a n e n c e en fo n c tio n n e m e n t, de fa ç o n
à m a in te n ir le v id e au d é t e c t e u r â m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l; le c i r c u i t de d é t e c tio n
d 'h y d r o g è n e e s t r e m p li peu de te m p s a p r è s le r e m p li s s a g e du c i r c u i t p r in c ip a l
et avan t la m o n té e en p u is s a n c e ; s a v id a n g e e s t sim u lta n é e à c e l l e de c e c ir c u it .
L 'in s t a lla t io n de d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o g è n e e s t en s e r v i c e d è s que la t e m p é r a ­
tu r e de la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l a tte in t 40 0°C . L 'a l a r m e r e g r o u p e en s a lle de
c o m m a n d e tou s le s d é fa u ts pou van t a p p a r a ît r e s u r l'in s t a lla t io n (m a n q u e de
te n s io n , d éfa u t de p r é c h a u ffa g e , e t c . ). L a m o n té e p r o g r e s s i v e de la c o n c e n ­
tr a t io n d 'h y d r o g è n e e s t s u iv ie p a r l'o p é r a t e u r s u r un e n r e g is t r e u r m u n i d'u n
s e u il d 'a la r m e g lis s a n t . S u r c e t e n r e g is t r e m e n t so n t é g a le m e n t r e p r o d u it e s
la p r e s s io n de la p o m p e io n iq u e et la t e m p é r a tu r e de la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l.
A u c o u r s d e s e s s a i s in d u s t r ie ls d e s g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r s u r le CG V S,
la s u r v e illa n c e de l'é t a n c h é it é d e s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e a été e ffe c t u é e s e lo n le s
d eu x m o d e s o p é r a t o ir e s su iv a n ts :

— m é th o d e d ite p a r a c c u m u la tio n (p iè g e f r o id is o lé )
— m é th o d e g lo b a le (p iè g e f r o id en s e r v i c e ) .

L e s p e r f o r m a n c e s e s t im é e s de c e s d eu x m é th o d e s so n t r e p r é s e n t é e s
g ra p h iq u e m e n t à la fig u r e 6 . C e g ra p h iq u e m o n tr e l'é v o lu t io n en fo n c t io n du
te m p s d e s te n e u r s en h y d r o g è n e dans la b o u c le de s o d iu m ( 1 0 0 to n n e s), s i une
fu ite à d é b it c o n s ta n t s e p r o d u is a it â l 'in t é r ie u r du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r .
624 LECOCQ et al.

^T )Sign al hydrogène dû à la corrosion aqueuse

C jl6 .« 3 .1 P '2 ‘P M H 2/Wi des aciers ( piège froid isole' )
pour ta e
9.10 ~~ 2 [ ( l ) P iè g e froid en service Q;16m3/h (débit maxi.)
Q fuite H Oi1mg/s<
I { 2 ) Piège froid isolé Q=Om3/h

8.10 î.
Q fuite H№>mg/s<
I
(T) Piège froid en service Q =16 m^/fi
I ( О р й «8 froid isolé Q=Om3/h

FIG.6. Evolution de la concentration d'hydrogène en fonction du temps dans la boucle sodium (CGVS)
lorsqu'une fuite d'eau a débit constant se déclenche dans le générateur de vapeur.

L 'e x a m e n de c e g ra p h iq u e p e r m e t d eu x r e m a r q u e s im p o r t a n te s : .
— l 'é v o l u t io n de la c o n c e n t r a t io n en h y d r o g è n e dans la b o u c le de s o d iu m lo r s
du d é c le n c h e m e n t d 'u n e m ic r o fu i t e e s t p r a tiq u e m e n t in d ép en d a n te du
d é b it du p iè g e f r o i d du ra n t e n v ir o n une h e u r e
— lo r s q u e le p iè g e f r o i d e s t en s e r v i c e (en p a r t ic u lie r au r é g im e n o m in a l de
d é b it), i l fa u t s 'a s s u r e r que le s e u il d 'a la r m e « p r é s e n c e d 'h y d r o g è n e »
e s t b ie n r é g lé â un n iv e a u in fé r ie u r à c e lu i ob ten u à l 'é q u i l i b r e p a r la
m i c r o f u i t e que l 'o n c h e r c h e â d é t e c t e r .

3.2.1. A v a n ta g e s et in c o n v é n ie n ts o f f e r t s p a r le s d eu x m é th o d e s

a) M éth ode p a r a c c u m u la tio n (p iè g e f r o i d h o r s s e r v i c e )

A v a n ta g e s : —L a s e n s ib ilit é e s t m a x im a le .
—L a m éth od e ne d ép en d p a s du fo n c tio n n e m e n t du p iè g e
f r o id .
C e tte m é th o d e e s t un « c o n t r ô le p e r m a n e n t» de la sa n té du g é n é r a t e u r de
v ap eu r. E lle p e r m e t d 'e n r e g i s t r e r l e s s in g u la r it é s de fa ib le a m p litu d e dont
l'a n a l y s e p o u r r a it ê t r e f o r t u tile p o u r l'e x p lo it a n t . En p a r t ic u lie r , l'a p p a r it io n
in te r m itte n te d 'u n e m i c r o fu i t e de p a s s e r a i t p a s in a p e r ç u e .

In co n v é n ie n ts : — L 'a c c u m u la t io n de l'h y d r o g è n e dans le s o d iu m (dû

au d é b it de la d iffu s io n p a r c o r r o s i o n a q u eu se d es
a c i e r s ) n é c e s s it e p é r io d iq u e m e n t la m is e en s e r v i c e
du p iè g e fr o id , p é r io d e au c o u r s de la q u e lle la s e n ­
s i b il it é de d é t e c tio n e s t s e n s ib le m e n t a ffe c t é e .
 IAEA-SM- 168/E-7 625

b) M éth od e g lo b a le (p iè g e f r o id en s e r v i c e )

A v a n ta g e s : — C 'e s t c e l l e qui o f fr e le p lu s de c o m m o d it é d 'e x p l o i ­

ta tion .

In co n v é n ie n ts : — L a s e n s ib ilit é de la m é th o d e d ép en d de la s t a b ilit é et
de l 'e f f i c a c i t é du p o in t f r o i d du p iè g e . L a c o u r b e
d 'e f f i c a c i t é (fig . 7) m o n tr e que la t e m p é r a tu r e de
120°C du p o in t f r o i d s e situ e dans une z o n e où l 'e f f i c a ­
c ité e s t g ra n d e et l'in f lu e n c e de la t e m p é r a tu r e fa ib le .

3.2.2. I n te r p r é t a t io n s d e s sig n a u x « h y d r o g è n e »

L 'a p p a r it io n de l'a l a r m e « p r é s e n c e h y d r o g è n e » , d é c le n c h é e â p a r t ir du
s ig n a l r e p r é s e n t a n t la p r e s s io n p a r t ie lle , im p o s e d 'a b o r d à l'e x p lo it a n t de
c o n t r ô l e r l 'e n r e g is t r e m e n t d e s p r in c ip a u x p a r a m è t r e s de fo n c t io n n e m e n t de
la d é t e c tio n , avan t de p o u v o ir c o n f ir m e r la p r é s e n c e d 'u n e m ic r o fu i t e d 'e a u
626 LECOCQ et al.

F I G .8. Interprétation des signaux «h y d ro g èn e » : premier cas (piège froid isolé).

dans l e s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e th e r m iq u e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r . D an s une

p r e m iè r e p h a s e , il d o it s 'a s s u r e r que l'a u g m e n ta tio n de la c o n c e n t r a tio n en
h y d r o g è n e à la s o r t i e du g é n é r a te u r de v a p e u r e s t b ie n r é e l l e et c o r r e s p o n d
aux c o n d itio n s s u iv a n te s :
— le s te m p é r a t u r e s de la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l et du p o in t f r o i d du p iè g e son t
s t a b le s et r e s p e c t iv e m e n t é g a le s â 400°C et 120°C
— l'é v o lu t io n c o r r e s p o n d a n t e d e s e n r e g is t r e m e n t s d e s deu x sig n a u x r e p r é s e n ­
tant la p r e s s io n p a r t ie lle e t la p r e s s i o n to ta le e s t b ie n p a r a llè le .
Si c e s in fo r m a t io n s so n t c o n fir m é e s , il p r o c è d e aux o p é r a t io n s de s c r u ­
ta tion d e s d iffé r e n t s m o d u le s é c h a n g e u r s a fin de m e t tr e en é v id e n c e la fu ite
d 'e a u e t l'é c h a n g e u r d é fe c tu e u x . L a s c r u t a tio n s e d é r o u le c h r o n o lo g iq u e m e n t,
de la s o r t i e de l'é c o n o m i s e u r - é v a p o r a t e u r (E -V ) â la s o r t i e du s u r c h a u ffe u r (S),
p u is au r e s u r c h a u ff e u r (R S ). P r e n o n s p a r e x e m p le l'u t ili s a t io n de la m é th o d e
d 'a c c u m u la tio n ; l ’ o b s e r v a t io n de l 'e n r e g is t r e m e n t du rant la s c r u t a tio n peu t
p e r m e t t r e de d i f f é r e n c i e r deu x c a s :

P r e m i e r c a s : L 'e n r e g i s t r e m e n t a l 'a l l u r e in d iq u é e â la fig u r e 8 . L e

d é c r o c h e m e n t o b s e r v é dans le s sig n a u x « h y d r o g è n e » p o u r le s u r c h a u ffe u r
n° 1 p e r m e t d 'a f f i r m e r l 'e x i s t e n c e d 'une fu ite d 'e a u , dont le d é b it p eu t ê t r e
e s t im é . (L a s e n s i b il it é m a x im a le de d é t e c tio n l o r s de la r e c h e r c h e de l o c a l i ­
s a tio n e s t de 2, 25 m g / s d 'e a u p o u r un d é b it de s o d iu m p a r m o d u le de 50 k g / s . )

D e u x iè m e c a s : L 'e n r e g i s t r e m e n t a l 'a l l u r e in d iq u ée à la fig u r e 9. On

o b s e r v e que la p en te d 'a c c r o i s s e m e n t du s ig n a l d 'h y d r o g è n e e s t fo r t e , m a is il
n 'y a p a s de d é c r o c h e m e n t au c o u r s de la s c r u t a tio n d e s 9 é c h a n g e u r s ; deu x
p o s s i b i l i t é s d e m e u re n t:
— un a c c id e n t im p o r ta n t de tr a ite m e n t d 'e a u a cce n tu a n t la c o r r o s i o n a q u eu se
d e s a c i e r s d e s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e th e r m iq u e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r
— une e n t r é e de flu id e h y d r o g é n é en un a u tre p o in t que le GV: h u ile de
g r a is s a g e d e s g a r n it u r e s m é c a n iq u e s d e s p o m p e s du c i r c u i t p r im a ir e
ou s e c o n d a ir e p a r e x e m p le , flu id e o r g a n iq u e d 'u n r é f r ig é r a n t , e tc .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 627

FIG.9. Interjtétation des signaux «hydrogène»: deuxième cas (piège froid isolé).

D e t e ls in c id e n t s n 'o n t p a s été o b s e r v é s au c o u r s de l'e x p lo it a t io n du

CG VS m a is s u r d 'a u t r e s in s t a lla tio n s s o d iu m -e a u c o m p o r ta n t d e s g é n é r a t e u r s
de v a p e u r p o u r le s q u e lle s le s fu ite s d 'h u ile d e s p o m p e s ont pu ê tr e m i s e s en
é v id e n c e g r â c e à la d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o g è n e dans l e s o d iu m .

3.2.3. P r o c e s s u s d 'in te r v e n tio n

L o r s de la d é t e c tio n c o n fir m é e d 'u n e fu ite d 'e a u , le d é la i d 'in te r v e n tio n

d é p e n d r a de la v a le u r du d é b it de fu ite à l'in s t a n t de la d é t e c tio n m a is
a u s s i de la c in é tiq u e d 'é v o lu t io n de la fu ite e l l e - m ê m e .
A l'h e u r e a c t u e lle , c o m p te tenu d e s r é s u lt a t s d 'e s s a i s r e la t if s au x p h é n o ­
m è n e s d 'é r o s i o n - c o r r o s i o n s u r tube c ib le [ 9] et p o u r c e ty p e de g é n é r a t e u r
de v a p e u r [ 8 ] , on p eu t p r a tiq u e m e n t a f f i r m e r que d es fu ite s d 'e a u d 'u n n iv ea u
in fé r i e u r â 50 m g / s s e r o n t sa n s a c tio n s u r le u r e n to u ra g e . D ans c e s c o n d i­
tio n s , s i l 'o n s 'e n ten a it â c e s s e u ls r é s u lt a t s , le p r o c e s s u s d 'in te r v e n tio n
s e r a i t d é fin i â p a r t ir du s e u il de d é b it dont la p en te e s t r e p r é s e n t é e s u r le
g ra p h iq u e d 'e n r e g is t r e m e n t de la fig u r e 1 0 (m é th o d e d 'a c c u m u la tio n , p iè g e
fr o id is o lé ).
N o to n s au p a s s a g e su r c e g ra p h iq u e que le d é b it d 'h y d r o g è n e d iffu s é
(24 m g /h ) p a r s u ite de la c o r r o s i o n a q u e u s e d e s a c i e r s d e s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e
p r o v o q u e , p a r a c c u m u la tio n c ô t é s o d iu m , une m o n té e r é g u liè r e et p a r a llè le
d e s deux sig n a u x r e p r é s e n t a n t la p r e s s i o n p a r t ie lle et la p r e s s io n to ta le
d 'h y d r o g è n e .

D é b it de fu ite d 'e a u s u p é r ie u r à 50 m g / s . P o u r d e s fu ite s d 'u n d é b it

s u p é r ie u r â 50 m g / s , on n e p r o c é d e r a p a s au x o p é r a t io n s de s c r u t a tio n , m a is
â un a r r ê t r a p id e de l'in s t a lla t io n d 'e s s a i s d e s g é n é r a t e u r s de v a p e u r . A p r è s
d é c h a r g e de la v a p e u r , le s tu b es d 'e a u s e r o n t m is s o u s p r e s s i o n d 'a z o t e à
10 ba r.

D é b it de fu ite d 'e a u in fé r i e u r à 50 m g / s . D e s e s s a i s s y s t é m a tiq u e s

e ff e c t u é s â C h atou en p r é s e n c e do s o d iu m et d 'e a u (p ou r d e s v a le u r s t r è s
628 LECOCQ et al.

A rrê t rapide de l'in stallation illlj A rrê t n o rm a l de l'installe tion

voltj
0
Z
Щ1 X
/ _f2t:-------
?(L
ir
fi
|en

°
e m b ra n e de n ic k e lé 4 0 0 *C

B
ИМ m &
Но
щю / / ‘o
Signal hydrogène

1Ш11 S ui
р У и
ÍJS <пу m»
? o

¡¿ У
Pre ssio n partiell îhydrogène(tête q u a d rip o le ) ^ ______________ _

A c c ro isse m e n t reç uli< r d e s d e u x sig n a u x

1 'Ss,s\ d û à la corrosion a q u e u se d e s a c ie rs
. . x ( Q H 2diffusé 2 4 m g / h )
<
P re ssio n totale gourant pom pe ionique/

1 1 Tem ps en t eures

2 i
FIG. 10. Graphique d’enregistrement d'exploitation de la détection d'hydrogène CGVS (méthode d ’accumulation).

fa i b le s du d é b it de fu ite ) — s u r un c e r t a in n o m b r e de tu b e s en C h r o m e s c o III,
c o m p o r ta n t d e s d é fa u ts t e l s q u e f i s s u r e s de fa tig u e , m a u v a is e so u d u re , tro u
de p e tit d ia m è t r e — on t p e r m is de d r e s s e r en fo n c t io n du te m p s un p r e m ie r
s c h é m a de l'a u t o - é v o lu t io n de d iffé r e n t s ty p e s de m i c r o f u i t e s (fig . 1 1 ).
C e s c h é m a p e r m e t d 'o b s e r v e r que ch a q u e d éfa u t c o m p o r t e d u ra n t q u e l­
q u es h e u r e s une p h a s e p r é lim in a ir e , a p p e lé e « m i c r o f u i t e » , â la q u e lle s u c c è d e
s a n s t r a n s it io n une d e u x iè m e p h a se à a u t o -é v o lu t io n r a p id e , au c o u r s de
la q u e lle l'a u g m e n t a t io n p r o g r e s s i v e du d é b it tend â a g g r a v e r le d éfa u t in itia l.
D a n s c e s c o n d it io n s , et en l 'a b s e n c e de r e n s e ig n e m e n t s s u ffis a n ts p o u r é ta b lir
un p r o c e s s u s p r é c i s d 'in te r v e n tio n , l'e x p lo it a n t p r o c é d e r a â un a r r ê t n o r m a l
du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r c o n c e r n é d è s que le s o p é r a t io n s de s c r u t a tio n et de
lo c a li s a t io n de l'é c h a n g e u r d é fe c tu e u x s e r o n t t e r m in é e s . L a d é c h a r g e de la
v a p e u r s e r a s u iv ie de la m is e s o u s a z o te d e s tu bes d 'e a u â la p r e s s i o n de
10 b a r.
L 'i n t é r ê t d 'a r r ê t e r l'in s t a lla t io n t r è s tôt a l o r s qu e la fu ite e s t e n c o r e
dans une p h a se d 'é v o lu t io n t r è s len te e s t l e su iv an t:
— on é v ite une p o llu tio n im p o rta n te du c i r c u i t de s o d iu m : c e tte p o llu tio n
r is q u e en e ffe t de p r o v o q u e r de la c o r r o s i o n et le b o u c h a g e d e s tu y a u te r ie s
de p e tits d ia m è t r e s ; la p u r ific a t io n du c i r c u i t e s t, dans c e s c o n d itio n s ,
lo n g u e et d if f i c il e ;
— p o u r une v a le u r du d é b it de fu ite de c e t o r d r e de g ra n d e u r , le r is q u e de
r é t r o d iff u s io n du s o d iu m v e r s l 'in t é r ie u r du tube e s t fa ib le , et la v id a n g e
du c i r c u i t c o n c e r n é n 'e s t v r a is e m b la b le m e n t p a s n é c e s s a i r e ; on d o it
p o u v o ir a in s i m e t tr e en œ u v r e le p r o c é d é de r e p é r a g e du tube fu y a rd ,
u tilis a n t la d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o g è n e de l'in s t a lla t io n .
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 629

I Zone de détection à temps de réponse

..¿id e ( t < GO sec |
Zone de détection à long terme

□ I essentiellem ent quantitative i

!опе de chevauchement entre les m icrofuites

Ш
fuites

et les petites fuites (wastage du tube cible)

F 7 7 7 3 Domaine de la corrosion caustique et de la
b v y V j corrosion aqueuse
grosses

1.Cellule d'échange N a / H 2 0 . tem p.45 0 ° C : corrosion

aqueuse (éclatement du tube su r 37mm de longueur)
des

2. Fissure N ‘ 13 type B. temp. 4 5 0 ”G .Pression 150 b

.3. Fissure H " 8 type B . tem p.4 6 0 ' C .Pression 1511b
4 . Fissure N '1 type A . tem p. 4 0 0 ° C ,Pression 150 b
Domaine

5 . Fissure N " 1D type A . tem p. 45-0 “C . Pression 1 S 0 b

S .T ro u type m auvaise soudure № 3 . 2 l0°C < lem p < 45 0 ° C
'/ . F is s u r e Г 8 type A . tem p.4 5 0 ‘ C . Pression 1 5 0b
8 . Fissure № l type B . temp. 3 0 Г С .Pression 150 b
_ i _

3 . Fissure N " 3 type A . temp. 4 5 0 ° C .Pression 1 5 0b

1 D .Tro u type (a se r N 4 1 . tem p .4 5 0 ‘ C .P re ssion 1 5 0 b
1 1 . Fissure H’ I3 type A . temp. 3 4 6 ‘ C . P re ssio n 1 5 0b
Domaine des petites fuites

loi

FIG. 11. Schéma de l’ auto-évolution en eau et sodium de différents types de microfuites en Chromesco III en
fonction du temps.
630 LECOCQ et al.

F IG.12. Evolution du signal hydrogène dans la boucle de 100 tonnes de sodium(CGVS) après injection d ’ une
masse d’ hydrogène de 5 g (temp, boucle principale > 250°C, temp, membrane de nickel = 400eQ .

FIG. 13. Etalonnage de la détection d ’ hydrogène CGVS (temp, membrane = 4 0 0 °Q .

 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 63 1

FIG. 14. Evolution du signal hydrogène dans la boucle de 100 tonnes de sodium après injection d'une masse de
6 g d'hydrogène (temp. Na < 250°C, temp, membrane nickel - 4 0 0 °Q .

4. E T A L O N N A G E D E L 'IN S T A L L A T IO N D E D E T E C T IO N D 'H Y D R O G E N E -
M O D E O P E R A T O IR E

A p r è s une c a m p a g n e de p u r ific a t io n , â l 'i s s u e de la q u e lle l e b r u it de

fo n d de la b o u c le de s o d iu m e s t r a m e n é à une v a le u r de 5 • 1 0 "2 p p m H2 /N a
e n v ir o n 1, on i s o l e le p iè g e fr o id .
L a b o u c le de s o d iu m éta n t à une t e m p é r a t u r e s u p é r ie u r e à 250°C , on
p r o c è d e , à l 'e n t r é e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r et d u ra n t e n v ir o n 20 m in , â la
p r e m i è r e in je c t io n (s o u s f o r m e g a z e u s e ) d 'u n e m a s s e d 'h y d r o g è n e de 5 g.
L a d iffu s io n tu rb u le n te ten d â d ilu e r p r o g r e s s iv e m e n t c e t h y d r o g è n e dans la
m a s s e de s o d iu m ( 1 0 0 to n n e s) et t r è s r a p id e m e n t un r é g im e p e r m a n e n t
s 'é t a b l it (fig . 12). On r e lè v e a l o r s au s p e c t r o m è t r e de m a s s e la v a le u r de la
p r e s s i o n p a r t ie lle d 'h y d r o g è n e c o r r e s p o n d a n t à c e p a l i e r . L e g ra p h iq u e de
la fig u r e 13 r e p r é s e n t e un é ta lo n n a g e de la d é t e c t io n obten u à p a r t ir d es
d eu x in je c t io n s s e s u c c é d a n t â une h e u r e d 'in t e r v a lle e n v ir o n .
D e s é ta lo n n a g e s p é r io d iq u e s e f fe c t u é s au c o u r s du te m p s n 'o n t p a s
m o n tr é d 'é v o lu t io n s e n s ib le du s y s t è m e : m e m b r a n e - s p e c t r o m è t r e .

R e m a r q u e s : L o r s q u e l e s in je c t io n s d 'h y d r o g è n e so n t fa it e s dans la
b o u c le de s o d iu m â une te m p é r a tu r e in f é r i e u r e â 2 50°C, on o b s e r v e que le
te m p s n é c e s s a i r e â l'é t a b li s s e m e n t du r é g im e p e r m a n e n t e s t n e tte m e n t
s u p é r ie u r (fig . 14). On s u p p o s e que c e r e t a r d â l 'é q u i l i b r e e s t e s s e n t ie lle m e n t
li é â la c in é t iq u e de la r é a c t io n c h im iq u e d e l'h y d r o g è n e a v e c le s o d iu m .

1 Parties par million d'hydrogène dans le sodium.

632 LECOCQ et al.

5. T E M P S DE R E P O N S E D E L 'IN S T A L L A T IO N D E D E T E C T IO N
D 'H Y D R O G E N E

En in je c ta n t l'h y d r o g è n e à l'e n t r é e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r , on p eu t
c o n n a ît r e le te m p s de r é p o n s e m a x im a l de la d é t e c tio n d 'u n e fu ite d 'e a u . C e
te m p s de r é p o n s e m a x im a l e s t de 12 5 s . Il s e d é c o m p o s e de la m a n iè r e
su iv a n te , p o u r une t e m p é r a t u r e de la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l de 400°C :
— te m p s de p a r c o u r s m a x im a l dans le g é n é r a te u r de v a p e u r â p le in e c h a r g e :
35 s
~ te m p s de p a r c o u r s dans le s tu y a u te r ie s de p r é lè v e m e n t (s o r t ie
é c o n o m is e u r - é v a p o r a t e u r ) d 'u n e lo n g u e u r to ta le de 50 m : 60 s
— te m p s de r é p o n s e de la m e m b r a n e p o u r une v a le u r de 70% du s ig n a l: 30 s.
L 'e x a m e n de c e s d iffé r e n t s te m p s de r é p o n s e m o n tr e que le te m p s de
p a r c o u r s dans le s tu y a u te r ie s de p r é lè v e m e n t e s t, dans le c a s p r é s e n t,
e x c e s s i f e t q u 'i l p é n a lis e le te m p s de r é p o n s e du s y s t è m e de d é te c tio n .
P o u r l 'a m é l i o r e r et f a c i l i t e r le s c o n d itio n s d 'e x p lo it a t io n d e s n o u v e lle s
in s t a lla tio n s de d é t e c tio n d e s p r o c h a in s G V in s t a llé s p o u r e s s a i s , le c h o ix
du d ia m è t r e in t é r ie u r d e s tu y a u te r ie s e s t fix é â 2 0 m m et la v it e s s e du
p r é lè v e m e n t d 'é c h a n t illo n â 3 m / s .
D an s c e s c o n d itio n s , p o u r une lo n g u e u r de tu y a u te r ie s de p r é lè v e m e n t
â la s o r t i e du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r de l 'o r d r e de 15 m et en n 'a n a ly s a n t
q u 'u n e f r a c t io n du d éb it d é r iv é , on d o it o b t e n ir d es te m p s de r é p o n s e
(tu y a u te r ie + m e m b r a n e ) in f é r ie u r s â 35 s .

C O N C LU SIO N

L 'e x p é r i e n c e a c q u is e au c o u r s de l'e x p lo it a t io n de la d é t e c tio n d 'h y d r o ­

g èn e s u r une in s t a lla tio n de t a ille in d u s t r ie lle (C G V S) r e v ê t une g ra n d e
im p o r t a n c e . L e s r é s u lt a t s obten u s m o n tr e n t qu 'u n te l p r o c é d é e s t
e x p lo it a b le in d u s t r ie lle m e n t . L e s p r in c ip a u x e n s e ig n e m e n t s t i r é s de c e tte
e x p é r ie n c e so n t l e s su iv a n ts:
1 — L e c h o ix de la te m p é r a tu r e de 400°C p o u r la m e m b r a n e de n ic k e l
s e m b le ju d ic ie u x . On c o n s ta t e , au c o u r s de 11 500 h de p r é s e n c e en s o d iu m ,
un e x c e lle n t c o m p o r t e m e n t d e s c a r a c t é r is t iq u e s m é c a n iq u e s et p h y s iq u e s
du d é t e c te u r .
2 — L e s y s t è m e (p o m p e io n iq u e , tê te d 'a n a ly s e q u a d r ip o le ) s e m b le t r è s
fia b le . A u cu n in c id e n t n 'a été o b s e r v é d u ra n t une p é r io d e de 15 000 h de
fo n c t io n n e m e n t en e n d u r a n c e .
3 ~ A u c o u r s d e s 6600 h d 'e s s a i s en p u is s a n c e du g é n é r a te u r de v a p e u r
p r o to ty p e de P h é n ix , on p eu t a f f i r m e r que la p a r o i d 'é c h a n g e s o d iu m -e a u e s t
r e s t é e p a r fa ite m e n t é ta n c h e .
C e s y s t è m e de d é t e c tio n de fu ite d 'e a u dans le s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e th e r m iq u e
o f f r e en o u tr e le s a v a n ta g e s su iv a n ts:
— p o s s i b i l i t é de d é t e c t e r d e s fu ite s d 'h u ile é v e n t u e lle s p r o v e n a n t d e s g a r n i­
tu r e s m é c a n iq u e s d e s p o m p e s du c i r c u i t p r im a ir e et s e c o n d a ir e d 'u n e
c e n t r a le â n e u tro n s r a p id e s r e f r o i d i e au s o d iu m (l'h y d r o g è n e du c ir c u it
p r i m a i r e p eu t p é n é t r e r dans le c i r c u i t s e c o n d a ir e p a r d iffu s io n à t r a v e r s
le s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e d e s é c h a n g e u r s in t e r m é d ia ir e s s o d iu m -s o d iu m )
— p o s s i b i l i t é de d é t e c t e r d es a c c id e n ts de tr a ite m e n t d 'e a u p a r o b s e r v a t io n
d 'u n s ig n a l a n o r m a l de d iffu s io n d 'h y d r o g è n e dans le s p a r o is d 'é c h a n g e
du g é n é r a t e u r de v a p e u r
 IAEA-SM-168/E-7 63 3

p o s s ib ilit é de c o n t r ô le r le fo n c t io n n e m e n t et le s p e r f o r m a n c e s du p iè g e
f r o i d du c i r c u i t s o d iu m [ 1 0 ]
p o s s ib ilit é de m is e en oeu vre d 'u n p r o c é d é s im p le de r e p é r a g e du tube
fu y a r d .

REFERENCES

[1] BRACHET, A ., La détection de fuites d'eau ou de vapeur dans les générateurs de vapeur de la filière
rapide sodium.- esquisse d'une philosophie générale et des actions à poursuivre ou entreprendre, Rapport
HF 022.70.14, EDF (10 juin 1970).
[2] LANNOU, L . , Application de la spectrométrie de masse a la détection et au dosage de l'hydrogène dans
un circuit de sodium liquide, EDF, Bulletin de la DER, Série A, n° 4(1967).
[3] BIRAULT, J ., BRACHET, A ., CAMBILLARD, E., CCRON, J ., LANNOU, L . , RAULT, C . , Detection of
small leaks by hydrogen measurement in a sodium heated steam generator, ANL 7520, Part I (1968) 345-73.
[4] BRACHET, A ., LANNOU, L . , Procédé de repérage d'une fuite de vapeur dans un échangeur de chaleur
à tubes de circulation baignés par du sodium liquide, et dispositifs pour la mise en oeuvre de ce procédé,
Demande de brevet, France, n° EN 69 41 746, 3 déc. 1969.
[5] MILLIAT, J.P., BEAUFRERE, J ., LECOCQ, P., CHAUVIN, M . , «Circuits d'essais à grande puissance de
générateurs de vapeur chauffés au sodium (CGVS)», Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Engineering (C.r. Coll.
Monaco, 1970), AIEA, Vienne (1970) 55.
[6] MILLIAT, J.P ., BEAUFRERE, J ., CHANUDET, L . , LECOCQ. P., CHAUVIN, M ., Circuit d ' essais à
grande puissance de générateurs de vapeur chauffés au sodium (CGVS), Energie nucl. 12 5 (sept. -oct. 1970).
[7] BRACHET, A ., LANNOU, L ., Etat d'avancement au 30 septembre 1970 des essais de détection d'hydro­
gène à CGVS, Rapport HF 022.70.18, EDF (25 sept. 1970).
[8] ROBIN, M .G ., BEFRE, J ., CACHERA, P., FOUCHE, L . , LIONS, N ., POUDEROUX, P., «Développement
en France des générateurs de vapeur chauffés par sodium liquide», Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor Engineering
(C.r. Coll. Monaco, 1970), AIEA, Vienne (1970) 505.
[9] LEE, W . T . , Examination of 2-1/4 Cr-lMo ferritic Steel tubes exposed to small leaks of water in flowing
sodium, LMEC 70-21 (fév. 1971).
[10] BRACHET, A ., LANNOU, L . , QUINET, J. L ., La boucle sodium 1, 5 MWth de Chatou, Une installation
d'essai légère au service du développement des générateurs de vapeur de la filière a neutrons rapides,
EDF, Bulletin de la DER, Série A, n° 1(1971).

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

HAYES, D .J ., HORN, G ., Leak detection in sodium heated boilers, CEGB, a paraître.

ROY, P., RODGERS, D . N ., Characterization of a diffusion tube hydrogen detector in a dynamic sodium system,
Nucl. Technol. 12 (déc. 1971).

VISSERS, D .R ., HOLMES, J .T ., NELSON, P. A . , BARTHOLOME, L .G ., A hydrogen monitor for detection of

leaks in LMFBR steam generators, Nucl. Technol. 12 (oct. 1971).

DISCUSSION

C . SIM A N Ë : W ith in w hat t e m p e r a tu r e ra n g e ca n the n ic k e l m e m b r a n e

op erate?
L . L A N N O U : T h e p r a c t i c a l r a n g e l i e s b e tw e e n 180 and 500°C . B e lo w
180°C the m e m b r a n e d o e s n ot a llo w h y d r o g e n d iffu s io n . A b o v e 500°C th e r e
i s a r is k o f a ch a n g e in the n ic k e l s t r u c t u r e that w ou ld a lt e r the m e c h a n ic a l
and p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the m e m b r a n e . T h e t e m p e r a tu r e o f 400°C
634 LECOCQ et al.

s e l e c t e d b y u s a llo w s g o o d d iffu s io n w h ile e n s u r in g that the m e c h a n ic a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n ot im p a ir e d . T h e v a lid it y o f th is c h o ic e h as b e e n c o n ­
f ir m e d b y s y s t e m a t ic t e s t s c a r r i e d out on a s p e c ia l r ig .
C . SIM A N E : H ave you n ot had an y t r o u b le w ith c h a n g e s in the d iffu s io n
p r o p e r t ie s o f the n ic k e l m e m b r a n e s due to im p u r it ie s in the s o d iu m ?
L . L A N N O U : D u r in g the 11 500 h o u r s o f te s tin g on the CG VS n o m a r k e d
ch a n g e in the d iffu s io n p r o p e r t ie s o f the m e m b r a n e w a s o b s e r v e d . H o w e v e r ,
on m e t a llu r g ic a l a n a ly s is o f the m e m b r a n e th e r e w as fou n d to b e an ir o n -
m a n g a n e s e d e p o s it on the s id e in c o n ta c t w ith the s o d iu m .
C . SIM Â N Ë : T h an k y ou . M ay I a l s o a sk w h e th e r the d e v ic e is u s e d
s o l e l y f o r d e t e c tio n o r f o r m e a s u r e m e n t a s w e ll?
L . L A N N O U : A ft e r c a lib r a tio n b y in je c t io n o f h y d r o g e n in to the m a in
c i r c u i t the d e v ic e is u s e d f o r q u a n tita tiv e d e t e r m in a tio n o f the h y d r o g e n
c o n te n t o f th e s o d iu m , w h ich e n a b le s u s to d e d u ce the r a te o f p o s s ib le w a te r
le a k a g e .
A . P . W . v a n d e r P U T T E N : O n ce you h a v e e s t a b lis h e d that a c o m p o n e n t
is le a k in g , h ow d o y ou a s c e r t a in w h ich tu be is a ffe c t e d ?
L . L A N N O U : T h at d ep en d s on the s i z e o f the s t e a m g e n e r a t o r . If the
g e n e r a t o r is o f the m o d u la r ty p e , lik e that o f P h é n ix , w ith s o d iu m s a m p lin g
at the o u tle t o f e a c h m o d u le , th en it is o n ly n e c e s s a r y to s e e k the fa ile d
m o d u le . If it is n e c e s s a r y to fin d the le a k in g tu b e, on e w a y is to u s e the
h y d r o g e n d e t e c tio n s y s t e m . W ith ou t e v a c u a tin g the s o d iu m fr o m the s te a m
g e n e r a t o r , but a ft e r d e p r e s s u r iz in g and b la n k e tin g w ith n itr o g e n on the
w a t e r - s t e a m s id e , a h y d r o g e n a te d c o m p o u n d ca n b e in je c t e d in to on e tube
a ft e r a n o th e r u n til the le a k in g tu be is lo c a t e d .
TEMPERATURE AND FLOW MEASUREMENTS
(Session F)
 Chairman

BLOMBERG (Sweden)
 IAEA-SM-168/F-1

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOISE

THERMOMETER AND ITS TEST AS
AN IN-CORE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

H. BRIXY, R. HECKER, T . OVERHOFF

Institut fur Reaktorenentwicklung,
Kemforschungsanlage Jiilich GmbH, Jiilich,
Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOISE THERMOMETER A N D ITS TEST AS AN IN-CORE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR.

In contrast to thermometers that have been used up to now (thermocouples, resistance thermometers etc. ),
the noise thermometer is independent of all environmental influences such as reactor radiation or
atmosphere. It is independent of its previous thermal and mechanical treatment and of the material used.
Consequently, the noise thermometer retains its initial precision even after any length of application time.
This property is important for the application in nuclear reactors requiring long periods of exposure.
Noise thermometry is based on the Nyquist theorem of thermal noise. Noise temperature measurements
were carried out in fuel-element positions in the FRJ2, and it was experimentally proved that even an
intense reactor radiation does not influence the function of the noise thermometer. A series of measure­
ments was carried out in the range of 300 and 500°K, where all the noise temperatures were within the
range of a calibration accuracy of 0. 5P/o of the reference thermocouples. At the end of the experiment
(duration: three reactor periods), the noise thermometer was exposed to an integral thermal neutron flux
of 3 x 10го n/cm! , and the noise resistor had changed by 6%. The operating capacity of the noise
thermometer had, of course, not been impaired in any way by this process. The experiment also showed
that the noise thermometer is applicable when the distances between thermometer and amplifier are
great (in this case 18 m) and in an environment with intense electromagnetic interference fields. Noise
thermometry can therefore be used as a measuring method under rough conditions in nuclear reactors.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t io n o f a n u c le a r r e a c t o r d e p e n d s to a h igh d e g r e e
on e x a c t and r e lia b le t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s at n u m e r o u s p la c e s w ith in
the r e a c t o r , and the n e e d f o r i n - c o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s w ill g ro w w ith in ­
c r e a s in g p o w e r u n its.
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h ig h -t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c t o r s in itia te d a g r o w in g
d em a n d f o r e x a c t and s t ill r e lia b le t e m p e r a tu r e m e a s u r e m e n t s , ev en
a ft e r lo n g o p e r a t io n t im e s . T e m p e r a t u r e s o f 1000°C and a b o v e [1] e x ­
p e c te d to b e r e a c h e d b y th e se r e a c t o r s a r e lik e l y to be s u b je c t to g r e a t e r
e r r o r s i f m e a s u r e d b y m e t h o d s u s u a lly a p p lie d tod ay. T h e r e a s o n is that,
in a d d itio n to the h igh te m p e r a t u r e , a p a r t ic u la r ly in te n s e r a d ia tio n
m o d if ie s the p r o p e r t ie s o f v ir t u a lly a ll the u s u a l te m p e r a tu r e s e n s o r s .

2. D IS A D V A N T A G E S O F C O N V E N T IO N A L T H E R M O M E T E R S

A t h igh t e m p e r a t u r e s (> 10 00 °C ) and a ft e r lo n g o p e r a t in g t im e s the

e le c t r o m o t iv e f o r c e (e m f) o f the t h e r m o c o u p le s m o s t fr e q u e n t ly u s e d a s
te m p e r a tu r e s e n s o r s is e x p o s e d to d e v ia tio n s f r o m the n o m in a l v a lu e.

637
638 BRIXY et al.

T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f tim e in s t a b ilit y at o th e r w is e c o n s ta n t c o n d itio n s is

u s u a lly c o m b in e d w ith v a r ia t io n s in the w ir e s . T h e s e v a r ia t io n s a r e
c a u s e d b y d iffu s io n o f im p u r it ie s fr o m the fu r n a c e a tm o s p h e r e and fr o m
the c e r a m i c in s u la tio n , b y e x ch a n g e of the a llo y in g e le m e n t s , b y e a s y
v o la t iliz a t io n o f on e o f the c o m p o n e n ts and b y r e c r y s t a lliz a t io n and p h a se
t r a n s fo r m a t io n s [2]. T h e d e g r e e o f d e v ia tio n s d e p e n d s on t im e , t e m p e r a tu r e ,
a t m o s p h e r e , d ia m e t e r o f the w ir e s and o th e r g e o m e t r ic v a lu e s .
M o r e o v e r , the e m f d e p e n d s on the m e c h a n ic a l and th e r m a l p r e -
tr e a tm e n t o f the th e r m o c o u p le and ca n b e c o n s id e r a b ly ch a n g e d , f o r
in s ta n c e b y c o ld w o r k in g [3].
S im ila r to t h e r m o c o u p le s , o th e r c o m m o n te m p e r a tu r e s e n s o r s , lik e
r e s is t a n c e t h e r m o m e t e r s and e x p a n s io n t h e r m o m e t e r s , e it h e r d ep en d to
a g r e a t e x te n t on e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s and on m a t e r ia l p r o p e r t ie s ,
o r a r e a p p lic a b le o n ly u n d e r s p e c ia l c o n d itio n s a s , f o r e x a m p le , p y r o m e t e r s
and a c o u s t ic t h e r m o m e t e r s .
T h e t e m p e r a tu r e s e n s o r s u s e d to d a y a r e s u b je c t to e x t r e m e ly h igh
p r o p e r t y c h a n g e s in r a d ia tio n f ie ld s of n u c le a r r e a c t o r s . T h e fa s t and
th e r m a l n e u tro n s m o d ify the m é t a llu r g ie sta te and the c o m p o s it io n o f
t h e r m o c o u p le s a lm o s t e x c lu s i v e ly u s e d f o r i n - c o r e in s tr u m e n ta tio n s and
thus in flu e n c e t h e ir S e e b e c k c o e f fi c i e n t (e m f).
T h e la ttic e d e fe c t s c a u s e d b y fa s t n e u tro n s (in t e r s t it ia ls , v o id s ,
d ilu te d z o n e s ) h a v e an e f f e c t p r a c t ic a l ly s i m il a r to that o f c o ld w o r k in g
and p r o d u c e c h a n g e s o f the e m f.
B e c a u s e o f the a b s o r p t io n o f th e r m a l n e u tro n s fo llo w e d b y r a d io a c t iv e
d e c a y , tr a n s m u ta tio n s in the m a t e r ia l o f the th e r m o c o u p le w ir e s w ill
a r i s e and thus c r e a t e a d iffe r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e - t o - v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r is t ic .
T h u s , the e f f e c t o f a n e u tro n flu x o f 10 1 4 n - cm "2 • s ' 1 m a in ta in e d f o r h a lf
a y e a r is s t r o n g en ough to c o n v e r t 20% r h o d iu m o f a P t - P t R h - c o u p le to
p a lla d iu m w h e r e b y e v e n the p o la r it y o f the t h e r m o c o u p le c a n p o s s ib ly be
in v e r te d [4 ].
F ig u r e 1 sh o w s d e v ia t io n s o f a W - W 2 5 R e -c o u p le f o r d iffe r e n t
in te g r a te d n e u tro n flu x e s [5 ]. T h e to t a l e r r o r o f the th e r m o c o u p le e m f
r e s u lt s f r o m the d iffe r e n t t h e r m o - e l e c t r i c m o d ific a t io n s o f both w ir e s .
T h e r m o c o u p le s u s e d in fa s t r e a c t o r s a l s o sh ow e m f d e v ia t io n s o f a
s i m il a r o r d e r o f m a g n itu d e (F ig . 2) [ 6 ]. F o r l e v e l - 2 the in te g r a te d n eu tron
flu x a m ou n ted to 3 X 10 21 n - c m "2 and f o r le v e l-3 to 3. 3 X 10 21 n - c m "2
(E > 0. 18 M e V ).
A l l th e a b o v e -m e n t io n e d d is a d v a n ta g e s o f t h e r m o m e t r ic m e th o d s
c o m m o n ly a p p lie d in n u c le a r r e a c t o r s tod a y a r e b e in g e lim in a te d in
p r in c ip le b y n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y . T h e n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r is an a b so lu te
t h e r m o m e t e r . It is in d ep en d en t o f a ll e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s , o f any
m e c h a n ic a l and th e r m a l p r e tr e a tm e n t , and o f the p r o p e r t ie s o f the m a t e r ia l
u s e d . M o r e o v e r , n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y c o v e r s the w id e te m p e r a tu r e r a n g e
f r o m 0. 1 to 2500°K .

3. TH E P R IN C IP L E O F TH E NOISE T H E R M O M E T E R

N o is e t h e r m o m e t r y is b a s e d on the N y q u ist t h e o r e m f o r t h e r m a l n o is e
[7]. A c c o r d in g to th is f o r m u la , a v o lta g e w h ich flu c t u a te s s t a t is t ic a lly
a ro u n d 0 and the m e a n s q u a r e v a lu e of the v o lta g e w h ich is p r o p o r t io n a l
to the a b s o lu te t e m p e r a t u r e , is g e n e r a te d at the t e r m in a ls o f a p a s s iv e
and u n lo a d e d n e tw o rk .
 IAEA-SM-168/F-1 639

TEMPERATURE, °C

FIG. 1. Deviation from initial calibration in degrees centigrade of a W/W-25 RE thermocouple as a

function of temperature after 0. 5, 1, 3 and 6 months at 1014 n * cm"2 * s*1 (thermal).

о
THERMOCOUPLE
STANDARD
FROM
DEVIATION

TEMPERATURE, °F

FIG. 2. Tungsten thermocouple deviations.

640 BRIXY et al.

T h e m e a n s q u a re v a lu e o f th is v o lta g e is e x p r e s s e d b y

V 2 = 4kTR Aî, (A Î = f j - f 2) (1)

If V 2 is m e a s u r e d in the f r e q u e n c y in te r v a l A f and if the r e s is t a n c e R is

k n ow n , the a b s o lu te t e m p e r a tu r e T c a n be d e t e r m in e d , к is the B o ltz m a n n
co n s ta n t. E q u a tio n (1) d e s c r i b e s the n o is e o f an y u n lo a d e d r e s is t a n c e
in d e p e n d e n tly o f the s p e c ia l c o n d u c tio n m e c h a n is m . It a l s o sh o w s that
a ll e n v ir o n m e n ta l e f f e c t s , su ch a s r a d ia tio n and a t m o s p h e r e , o r an y
m e c h a n ic a l and th e r m a l p r e tr e a tm e n t , w ill o n ly m o d ify the r e s is t a n c e R.
T h is r e s is t a n c e , h o w e v e r , can be d e t e r m in e d at a n y tim e b y a s im p le
m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r thus k e e p s its in itia l a c c u r a c y
e v e n a ft e r an y len gth o f o p e r a t in g p e r io d s . T h is p r o p e r t y b e c o m e s
im p o rta n t if l o n g - t e r m ru n n in g is r e q u ir e d and the s e n s o r can n ot be r e ­
m o v e d a ft e r in s t a lla tio n ( f o r in s ta n c e i n - c o r e d e t e c t o r s in n u c le a r r e a c t o r s ) .
M o r e o v e r , the m e th o d p e r m it s a f r e e c h o ic e o f m a t e r ia l.
T h e n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y s e e m s to b e b e s t su ite d f o r te m p e r a tu r e
m e a s u r e m e n t s in th o s e c a s e s w h e r e o th e r m e t h o d s f a i l o r la c k a c c u r a c y ,
a s in r e a c t o r s w ith h igh n e u tro n flu x e s and h igh te m p e r a tu r e s .

4. M E A S U R IN G M E T H O D

T o a v o id the d iffi c u lt i e s o f an a b s o lu te m e a s u r e m e n t o f s m a ll n o is e
v o lt a g e s (Veff : 10 "7 - 1 0 " 6 V) a c o m p a r a t iv e 'm e t h o d is b e in g u s e d , w h ich
at the sa m e tim e fu n c tio n s a s z e r o m e th o d and le a d s to a s im p le r e la t io n
f o r the unkn ow n t e m p e r a tu r e [ 8 ].
T h e n o is e v o lt a g e s o f tw o r e s i s t o r s , the m e a s u r in g and the r e f e r e n c e
r e s i s t o r , a r e b e in g a lt e r n a t iv e ly c o n n e c t e d to an a m p lif i e r . T h e r e the
m e a s u r in g r e s i s t o r RM is at the unknow n te m p e r a tu r e T M and the r e f e r e n c e
r e s i s t o r R v a t the r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a tu r e Tv . T h e n , the r e s is t a n c e R v
is a d ju s te d in a w a y to f o r m the r e la t io n

(2 )

f o r the v o lt a g e s a r is in g at the output o f the a m p lif i e r . T h e n the te m p e r a tu r e

to b e m e a s u r e d r e s u lt s f r o m the fo llo w in g s im p le r e la t io n

(3)

A fix e d p o in t ca n b e c h o s e n a s r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a tu r e , e. g. the
t r ip le p o in t o f w a te r (27 3. 16°K: d e fin it io n o f the th e r m o d y n a m ic te m p e r a tu r e
s c a l e ) , o r an y o th e r know n t e m p e r a tu r e .
T h u s T M is d e t e r m in e d a b s o lu t e ly b y E q . (3 ).
 IAEA -SM -168/F -l 641

5. M E A S U R IN G A R R A N G E M E N T

5. 1. E le c t r o n ic s

C h o p p e r 1 c o n n e c t s the n o is e v o lt a g e s o f the m e a s u r in g c ir c u it
(R M, L M, C M ; L , С in d u cta n ce and c a p a c it a n c e o f the c a b le ) and the
r e f e r e n c e c i r c u i t ( R v , L v , C v ; R v in the th e r m o s t a t at a k n ow n te m p e r a tu r e
Ty ) a lt e r n a t iv e ly to tw o p a r a lle l a m p lif i e r c h a in s and then to the tw o inputs
o f a m u lt ip lie r (F ig . 3). T h ro u g h R a and c h o p p e r 2, w h ich is s y n c h r o n o u s
w ith c h o p p e r 1, the n o is e v o lt a g e s a r e a v e r a g e d on the c a p a c it o r s Ca and C b.
T h e u n c o r r e la t e d in h e re n t n o is e o f the a m p lif i e r s is c a n c e lle d out b y
m u lt ip lic a t io n and in te g r a tio n , and the v o lt a g e s on Ca and Сь a r e d ir e c t ly
p r o p o r t io n a l to the n o is e v o lt a g e s at the input c ir c u it s .
T h e v o lt a g e s on C a and C b a r e a d ju s te d b y a v a r ia t io n o f R v (and,
d ep en d in g on the m e a s u r in g c o n d it io n s , o f L v and C v). T o m ake a p r e cis e
a d ju s tm e n t o f th is k in d , the d if fe r e n c e o f th e s e v o lt a g e s is a m p lifie d and
r e c o r d e d a ft e r p a s s in g th rou g h an in t e g r a t o r . W h en to ta l a d ju s tm e n t of
the tw o input c i r c u i t s h a s b e e n a c h ie v e d , th e r e w ill be a v o lta g e flu ctu a tin g
s t a t is t ic a lly a ro u n d 0 at the output o f the in t e g r a t o r . T h e a d va n ta g e o f th is
c o m p a r a t iv e m e th o d l i e s m a in ly in the f a c t that it r e q u ir e s n e ith e r a
c a lib r a t io n o f the a m p lif i e r s n o r an a b s o lu te m e a s u r e m e n t o f the n o is e
v o lt a g e s .

Cd
Ш
СИ LL
LU _

REFERENCE M EASURING
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

FIG. 3. Block diagram o f the noise thermometer.

642 BRIXY et al.

MEASURING RESISTOR ( r m)

INSULATION

MEASURING LINES

FIG. 4. Detector (principle).

5.2. The se n so r

T h e s e n s o r f o r n o is e t e m p e r a tu r e m e a s u r e m e n t c o n s is t s , in p r in c ip le ,
o f an y e l e c t r i c a l r e s is t a n c e , the t e r m in a ls o f w h ich a r e c o n n e c t e d to the
in s u la te d m e a s u r in g lin e s (F ig . 4 ). P u r e m e t a ls and a l lo y s , f o r in s ta n c e ,
a r e su ita b le to fu n c tio n a s m e a s u r in g r e s i s t o r s . A r e s p e c t iv e c h o ic e in
m a t e r ia l c a n m e e t the p a r t ic u la r m e a s u r in g p r o b le m , s in c e n e ith e r the
t e m p e r a tu r e c o e f fi c i e n t s n o r an y o th e r v a r ia t io n s in r e s is t a n c e a r e o f
an y im p o r t a n c e . T h e r e s is t a n c e v alu e m a y b e c h o s e n f r o m a ra n g e
b e tw e e n 1 0 Г2 and s o m e кГ2, the o r d e r o f the m a g n itu d e b e in g d ep en den t
on the e x p e r im e n t a l c o n d itio n s .

6. TH E NOISE T H E R M O M E T E R IN TH E R E A C T O R

D u r in g the p r o c e s s o f te m p e r a tu r e m e a s u r e m e n t in n u c le a r r e a c t o r s
the n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r is e x p o s e d to in te n s e n e u t r o n - and 7 -r a d ia tio n .
T h e r e s u lt in g d a m a g e , w h ich m a y b e t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t, w ill ch a n g e
the p h y s ic a l p r o p e r t ie s o f the m a t e r ia l.

6. 1 . C h an ge o f e l e c t r i c a l r e s is t a n c e

T h e la t t ic e d e fe c t s c a u s e d b y fa s t n e u tro n s in flu e n c e the e l e c t r i c a l

p r o p e r t ie s o f m e t a ls (a s f o r in s ta n ce the m o b ilit y o f the c h a r g e c a r r i e r s )
and, th u s, the v a lu e o f the n o is e r e s is t a n c e . T h is v a lu e d ep en d s on the
in te g r a l n e u tro n flu x and to a g r e a t ex ten t on the t e m p e r a tu r e , a s the
c o n c e n t r a t io n o f la ttic e d e fe c t s is r e d u c e d b y a n n e a lin g at h igh te m p e r a tu r e s .
T h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s is t a n c e is a l s o a lt e r e d b y tr a n s m u ta tio n s c a u s e d
m a in ly b y s lo w n e u tro n s . A s , h o w e v e r , th is r e s is t a n c e c a n b e m e a s u r e d
at an y te m p e r a tu r e d e t e r m in a tio n , n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y is not a ffe c t e d by
n e u tro n r a d ia tio n .

6 . 2. In flu e n c e o f r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n on the p r o b a b ilit y d e n s ity fu n c tio n of

c o n d u c tio n e le c t r o n s

A n o th e r e f f e c t o f the r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n m ig h t b e a ch a n ge in the

p r o b a b ilit y d e n s ity fu n c tio n o f c o n d u c tio n e le c t r o n s ( F e r m i- d i s t r ib u t io n
w ith M a x w e ll-t a il) in the n o is e r e s i s t o r . B e c a u s e o f the in t e r a c t io n o f
the in te n s iv e 7 -r a d ia t io n w ith the s e n s o r , the p h o t o e le c t r ic e f f e c t , the
 IAEA -SM-168/F-1 643

C o m p t o n - e ff e c t and p a ir p r o d u c t io n d is tu r b the e q u ilib r iu m d is tr ib u tio n .

T h e C o m p to n e f f e c t m ig h t b e o f p r im a r y im p o r t a n c e in the r e a c t o r ow in g
to the e n e r g y s p e c t r u m o f the 7 -r a d ia t io n .
T h is in flu e n c e h a s b e e n e v a lu a te d u n d er the s im p lify in g a s s u m p tio n
that y -r a d ia t io n c o n s i s t s o f quanta w ith the e n e r g y o f 1 M e V o n ly and
o n ly p r o d u c e s C o m p t o n - e le c t r o n s o f 0. 5 M e V [9]. A c c o r d in g ly , an
in te n s ity o f 1 X 108 R / h p r o d u c e s in a c o p p e r r e s i s t o r a p p r o x im a t e ly
2 X 10 ’ 2 y - r a d ia t io n -in d u c e d C o m p to n e l e c t r o n s / c m 3 w ith an e n e r g y o f
0. 5 M e V , w h ich m u s t be c o m p a r e d w ith a p p r o x im a t e ly 3 X 10 20 t h e r m a lly
p e r c e i v a b le c o n d u c tio n e l e c t r o n s / c m 3 at an e n e r g y o f a b ou t 7 e V (at 300°K ).
C o n s e q u e n tly , th e s e C o m p to n e le c t r o n s an d a ll th o s e in te r a c tin g w ith the
r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n sh ou ld h a v e a n e g lig ib le in flu e n c e on the p r o b a b ilit y
d e n s ity fu n c tio n o f the th e r m a lly a c t iv e e le c t r o n s . O w in g to the h igh
n u m b e r o f the c o n d u c tio n e l e c t r o n s ( 1 0 23 / c m 3 in c o p p e r ), t h e ir d e n s ity
ch a n g e c a u s e d b y r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n w ill p r e s u m a b ly n ot b e m e a s u r a b le .
M o r e o v e r , th is w ou ld m e r e l y c o r r e s p o n d to a ch a n g e in r e s is t a n c e a s
d e s c r ib e d in S e c tio n 6 . 1.

6 . 3. D if fe r e n c e o f the e le c t r o n and la ttic e te m p e r a t u r e s

D u r in g the in t e r a c t io n of the r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n w ith the n o is e r e s i s t o r ,

e n e r g y is tr a n s m itt e d on to the la t t e r an d, th u s, the s e n s o r is h e a te d up.
T h e b y f a r la r g e s t e n e r g y f r a c t io n o f the 7 -r a d ia t io n is tr a n s m itt e d to the
e le c t r o n s o f the m e t a l (w h ich the n o is e r e s i s t o r is m a d e of) b y the p h o t o ­
e l e c t r i c and C o m p to n e ffe c t . B ut the fa s t n e u tro n s , t o o , t r a n s m it a
la r g e p a r t o f t h e ir e n e r g y to the m e t a l e le c t r o n s th rou g h the in te r m e d ia te
s te p o f a p r im a r y c o l l i s i o n w ith the la t t ic e a t o m s , w h ich in tu rn in te r a c t
a s c h a r g e d p a r t ic l e s w ith the e le c t r o n s .
O w in g to the p o o r c o u p lin g b e tw e e n the e le c t r o n s and the la t t i c e , the
e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t f r o m the e le c t r o n s to the la t t ic e a t o m s is im p e d e d . T h e
h ot e le c t r o n s t r a n s m it t h e ir e n e r g y to the o th e r e le c t r o n s , w h e r e b y
e q u ilib r iu m is r e a c h e d w ith in a b ou t 10 ’ 15 s. T h e r e la x a t io n tim e b e tw e e n
the e le c t r o n g a s and the la t t ic e i s , h o w e v e r , g r e a t e r b y s o m e o r d e r s o f
m a g n itu d e [ 1 0 ].
F o r th is r e a s o n , it is ju s t ifie d to sp ea k o f an e le c t r o n te m p e r a tu r e
and a la t t ic e t e m p e r a tu r e . A s the g r e a t e s t e n e r g y f r a c t io n o f the r e a c t o r
r a d ia tio n is tr a n s m itt e d to the e le c t r o n s , and a s the h eat c a p a c it y o f the
e le c t r o n g a s is m u ch lo w e r than that o f the la t t ic e , the c o n d u c tio n e le c t r o n s
a r e at a h ig h e r t e m p e r a tu r e le v e l than the s u r ro u n d in g m e t a l la ttic e .
T h e e le c t r o n t e m p e r a tu r e that h as in c r e a s e d in th is w a y is m e a s u r e d
b y n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y . C o n s e q u e n tly , an e s t im a tio n o f the d if fe r e n c e
b e tw e e n e le c t r o n and la ttic e t e m p e r a tu r e is o f in te r e s t .
In R e f. [ 11] the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a tu r e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n the e le c t r o n
g a s and a m e t a l la t t ic e h a s b e e n c a lc u la t e d w hen the h e a tin g -u p e f f e c t is
c a u s e d b y f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s o f n u c le a r fu e l. In th is c a s e , m o r e than 90%
o f the e n e r g y o f the fr a g m e n t s is tr a n s m itt e d to the e le c t r o n s b y the
s lo w in g -d o w n p r o c e s s . T h e a v e r a g e r e la t iv e t e m p e r a tu r e d iffe r e n c e f o r
a f i s s i o n d e n s ity o f 1 0 14/ c m 3 • s is e x p r e s s e d a s:

(T e e le c t r o n te m p e r a t u r e ; Tj la t t ic e t e m p e r a t u r e ; T 0 D e b y e t e m p e r a tu r e . )
644 BRIXY et al.

In the c a s e of the n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r , a c o n s id e r a b ly lo w e r am ou n t
o f e n e r g y is tr a n s m itt e d to the m e t a l e le c t r o n s b y y - and n e u t r o n -r a d ia tio n
than b y the f i s s i o n fr a g m e n t s m e n tio n e d a b o v e . T h e te m p e r a tu r e d iffe r e n c e
b e tw e e n e le c t r o n s and la t t ic e is thus s t ill m u ch lo w e r and m a y b e n e g le c te d .

6 . 4. T h e r a d ia t io n -in d u c e d n o is e c u r r e n t

O w in g to the r e a c t o r r a d ia tio n , c h a r g e d p a r t ic l e s a r e g e n e r a te d in
the c o n d u c tio n c a b le (c o a x ia l c a b le ) le a d in g to the s e n s o r ; t h e ir m o v e m e n t
b e tw e e n the c o n d u c t o r s p r o d u c e s a c u r r e n t w ith in the m e a s u r in g r e s i s t o r .
T h is c u r r e n t , c a lle d " r e p la c e m e n t c u r r e n t " , is a r e s u lt o f the y -r a d ia t io n
and the th e r m a l an d fa s t n e u tro n s.
T h e e x te r n a l y -r a d ia t io n g e n e r a t e s e le c t r o n s b y the p h o t o e le c t r ic and
C o m p to n e ffe c t a s w e ll a s e le c t r o n s and p o s it r o n s b y p a ir p r o d u c tio n
w ith in the c o n d u c t o r s and the in su la tin g m a t e r ia l. B y the a n n ih ila tio n of
p o s it r o n s and b y a c tiv a tio n o f the m a t e r ia l, y -r a d ia t io n e n ta ilin g the u su a l
r e a c t io n s is a l s o g e n e r a te d in the c a b le it s e lf . T h e in te r n a l c o n v e r s io n
e le c t r o n s and the e le c t r o n s fr o m the /3- d e c a y a r e a d d itio n a l e le c t r o n
s o u r c e s in the c a b le .
A l l th e s e c h a r g e d p a r t ic l e s m o v e to w a r d s the in n e r c o n d u c to r a s w e ll
a s to w a r d s the s h ie ld in g ; a s a r e s u lt , the net c u r r e n t is the d if fe r e n c e
o f tw o g r e a t e r c u r r e n t s w ith r e v e r s e d sig n s .
B e c a u s e o f the c o n d itio n s u n d er w h ich th e y w e r e g e n e r a t e d , the
e le c t r o n s and p o s it r o n s h ave to be c o n s id e r e d a s s t a t is t ic a lly in d ep en d en t.
T h e c u r r e n t n o is e th e y p r o d u c e is a s o r t o f s h o t -n o is e and c a n be d e s c r ib e d
b y the S ch ottk y r e la t io n . T h e r e the n o is e fr a c t io n s o f the p o s it iv e and
n e g a tiv e c u r r e n t m u s t be su m m e d up a s t h e ir n o is e s o u r c e s a r e in c o h e r e n t .
A s the r a d ia t io n -in d u c e d c u r r e n t flo w s o n ly th rou g h the m e a s u r in g r e s i s t o r ,
an e r r o r r e s u lt s in the tem p era tu i^ ; m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e S ch ottk y fo r m u la
a p p lie d to the c u r r e n t n o is e , i. e. I 2 = 2 e I A f , w h e r e I = I+ + I ., y ie ld s
the fo llo w in g r e la t io n f o r the te m p e r a tu r e e r r o r cp f o r a d ju s te d input
c i r c u i t s [ 9].

e I Rm

Ф=^ м M (5)
(e e le m e n t a r y c h a r g e ; I+ and I . p o s it iv e and n e g a tiv e c u r r e n t c o m p o n e n t).
T o lim it th is e r r o r , m e a s u r in g r e s is t a n c e s (R M) o f lo w v a lu e s sh ou ld
b e u s e d on the on e hand. ( F o r in - p ile m e a s u r e m e n t s , s m a ll m e a s u r in g
r e s i s t a n c e s a r e a l s o d e s ir a b le w ith a v ie w to the g r e a t c a b le le n g th s in ­
v o lv in g h igh c a p a c it a n c e and to the s m a ll e l e c t r i c a l r e s is t a n c e o f the in ­
s u la tin g m a t e r ia l. ) O n the o th e r hand, on e sh o u ld t r y to r e d u c e the c u r r e n t
n o is e I. F o r the c a b le p o r t io n e x p o s e d to r a d ia tio n th is c a n be don e by
s e le c t in g a m a t e r ia l w h ich o f f e r s the m o s t fa v o u r a b le a b s o r p t io n c o ­
e ff ic ie n t and an a d eq u a te d e n s ity . It i s , h o w e v e r , o f d e c is i v e im p o r t a n c e
to k e e p the g e o m e t r ic a l c a b le c r o s s - s e c t i o n s m a ll.
T h e r e e x is t s a n o th e r m e th o d to e lim in a t e the r a d ia tio n -in d u c e d n o is e
c u r r e n t (F ig . 5). H e r e a m e a s u r in g a r r a n g e m e n t w ith a d iffe r e n t ia l
a m p lif i e r in the input sta g e is u s e d . T h e n o is e c u r r e n t o r the n o is e v o lta g e ,
w h ich is g e n e r a te d in the c a b le b y the r a d ia tio n , is , in th is c a s e , a c o m m o n
m o d e v o lta g e f o r the tw o in pu ts o f th e d iffe r e n t ia l a m p lif ie r . T h e c l o s e r
 IA E A -SM -1 6 8 / F -l 6 45

FIG. 5. Measuring arrangement at high fluxes.

th a t th e in n e r c o n d u c to r s a r e t o g e t h e r th e b e tte r i t h o ld s . B y th is m eans
i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e e r r o r c a u s e d b y th e r e p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t to
v a l u e s t h a t c a n b e n e g l e c t e d e v e n i n th e v e r y h i g h r a d i a t i o n f i e l d s .

7. P R E S E N T E X P E R IM E N T A L R E S U L T S

7 .1 . L a b o r a to r y m e a s u re m e n ts

N o i s e t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n th e l a b o r a t o r y
i n o r d e r t o t e s t t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e e l e c t r o n i c d e v ic e . I n th e r a n g e
fro m 3 0 0 t o 1 2 0 0 ° K a n a c c u r a c y o f 0 . 1% h a s b e e n a t t a i n e d [ 9 ] .

7 .2 . In - p ile n o is e t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s

F o llo w in g th e m e a s u r e m e n ts c a r r ie d o u t in th e la b o r a t o r y , n o is e
t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d in f u e l e le m e n t p o s it io n s
o f th e R e s e a r c h R e a c t o r J ü l ic h - 2 (F R J 2 ) in o r d e r to p r o v e b y e x p e r im e n t
t h a t e v e n a n i n t e n s i v e r a d i a t i o n d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e f u n c t i o n s o f th e n o is e
th e r m o m e t e r ( F ig . 6 ).
T h e t h e r m a l n e u t r o n f l u x a t th e l o c a t i o n o f t h e s e n s o r w a s
6 X 1 0 13n • c m 2 ' s ' a a n d t h e y - f l u x 2 . 5 X 1 0 8 R / h . A s e r ie s o f m e a s u r e m e n ts
h a s b e e n c a r r ie d o u t b e tw e e n 30 0 a n d 5 0 0 °K ; a l l t h e n o is e t e m p e r a t u r e s
w e r e w i t h i n th e e r r o r l i m i t s o f th e r e fe r e n c e th e r m o c o u p le s ( a c c u r a c y
o f th e th e r m o c o u p le c a lib r a t io n : 0 . 5 % ).
A t th e e n d o f th e e x p e r im e n t ( d u r a t io n , th r e e r e a c t o r p e r io d s ) , th e
n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r w a s e x p o s e d t o a t o t a l t h e r m a l n e u t r o n f l u x o f
3 X 10 20 n / c m 2 , a n d th e n o is e r e s i s t a n c e h a d c h a n g e d b y 6 % . A s a m a tte r
o f c o u rs e , t h e f u n c t i o n a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e n o is e t h e r m o m e t e r r e m a i n e d
u n h a rm e d . T h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s p r o v e d t h a t t h e n o is e
t h e r m o m e t r y is s u ite d f o r t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t in n u c le a r r e a c t o r s .
646 BRIXY et al.

FIG. 6. Diagram o f the reactor experim ent.

E rro rs i n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f n o is e t e m p e r a t u r e a s a r e s u l t o f
p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n th e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t i o n e l e c t r o n s
o f t h e n o is e r e s i s t o r , o r a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n th e
e le c t r o n a n d la t t ic e te m p e r a tu r e s , a r e n e g lig ib le e v e n in h ig h r a d ia t io n
fie ld s .
T h e r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d n o is e c u r r e n t c a n b e m i n i m i z e d b y c h o o s i n g a
c a b le w i t h a s m a l l d i a m e t e r ; c o n s e q u e n tly , th e e r r o r a r i s i n g t h r o u g h
t h i s c u r r e n t w i l l a l s o r e m a i n n e g l i g i b l e w h e n a p p l y i n g n o is e r e s i s t a n c e s
o f lo w v a lu e s .
T h e in - p ile e x p e r i m e n t h a s a l s o s h o w n t h a t n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y i s
s t i l l a p p lic a b le a t g r e a t d is ta n c e s b e tw e e n m e a s u r in g p o in t a n d a m p l i f i e r
( i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t th e d i s t a n c e w a s 1 8 m ) .

8. R E L A T I O N B E T W E E N N O IS E T E M P E R A T U R E MEASUREMENT
A N D M E A S U R IN G T I M E

I n n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y t h e f u n c t i o n o f th e m e a s u r i n g t i m e i s i m p o r t a n t
f o r a s a tis fa c to r y a c c u r a c y o f r e s u lts . B e c a u s e t h e t h e r m a l n o is e i s
 IA E A -SM -168/F-1 647

s to c h a s tic b y n a tu r e , t h e a c c u r a c y o f n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s i s e s s e n t i a l l y
lim it e d b y s t a t is t ic s . H e n c e th e v a l u e s o f n o is e v o l t a g e s m e a s u r e d a n d
a v e ra g e d o v e r a f in it e tim e a r e s u b je c t to v a r ia t io n s . T h i s h o ld s n a t u r a l l y
a ls o f o r t e m p e r a t u r e s o b ta in e d f r o m n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
T h e r e la t iv e e r r o r f o r a m e a s u r e m e n t is g iv e n b y

A î i s t h e w i d t h o f t h e f r e q u e n c y b a n d u s e d a n d т th e m e a s u r i n g t i m e .
I t fo llo w s f r o m th is r e la t io n th a t, w it h a c o n s t a n t b a n d w id th , th e
m e a s u r i n g t i m e m u s t f o r i n s t a n c e b e i n c r e a s e d b y a f a c t o r o f 1 0 0 , i f th e
a c c u r a c y is to b e in c r e a s e d b y a f a c t o r o f 10. A s th e b a n d w id th c a n o n ly
b e in c r e a s e d w it h in c e r t a in lim it s , t h e a c c u r a c y i n n o is e t h e r m o m e t r y i s
e s s e n t i a l l y b e in g c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e m e a s u r i n g t i m e .
T h e e x a c t f o r m u l a f o r th e r e l a t i v e s t a t is t i c a l e r r o r o f th e u s e d
m e a s u r in g d e v ic e i s g iv e n b y E q . (7 ):

T h e p o w e r s p e c t r a В a n d С d u e t o i n h e r e n t n o is e o f a m p l i f i e r c h a in s
a ls o a p p e a r in t h is f o r m u la ; th e y in c r e a s e th e r e la t iv e e rro r. The
p o w e r s p e c tru m o f t h e n o is e r e s i s t o r i t s e l f i s d e f i n e d b y A .
A s o m e w h a t c le a r e r fo r m f o r th e r e la t i v e s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r i s o b ta in e d
w h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e t w o a m p l i f i e r c h a in s p l u s m u l t i p l i e r b y a s i n g l e
a m p l i f i e r c h a in a n d a s q u a r e - la w d e t e c t o r . T h i s g i v e s E q . ( 8 ):

ДТ _ 2 (A + B ) 2F
(8)

E q u a tio n ( 8 ) s h o w s th a t th e r e la t iv e s t a t is t ic a l e r r o r is p r o p o r tio n a l
t o t h e n o is e f i g u r e F o f th e a m p l i f i e r . H e n c e t h e i n h e r e n t n o is e o f t h e
a m p lifie r s s h o u ld b e k e p t a s lo w a s p o s s ib le . The s a m e c o n c lu s io n a p p lie s
to th e o th e r m e a s u r in g a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h e t w o a m p l i f i e r c h a in s a n d
th e m u l t i p l i e r , a s E q s ( 7 ) a n d ( 8 ) d if f e r m e r e ly b y a c o n s ta n t fa c t o r
( m a x i m a l v a l u e 2 ).
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r c o m b i n a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s th e m e a s u r i n g t i m e
r e q u i r e d f o r a n a c c u r a c y o f 1% . F o r a b a n d w id th o f 1 0 0 k H z , a n e q u iv a le n t
n o is e r e s i s t a n c e o f e a c h a m p l i f i e r c h a i n o f 2 0 0 Г2, a n d a n o is e r e s i s t a n c e
o f 100 Q a t ro o m te m p e r a tu r e , th e m e a s u r in g t im e is 2 s . T h e m e a s u re ­
m e n ts a n d r e s u lt s o f th e in - p ile e x p e r im e n t w e r e b a s e d o n th e s e v a lu e s .
F o r a m o r e r a p i d n o is e t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t t h e f r e q u e n c y
b a n d w i d t h s h o u l d b e e n l a r g e d a n d t h e c h o p p e r m e t h o d s h o u ld b e r e p l a c e d
b y a n a b s o l u t e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e n o is e v o l t a g e s o f t h e m e a s u r i n g c i r c u i t .
W i t h a b a n d w i d t h o f 2 0 0 k H z a n d e q u i v a l e n t n o is e r e s i s t a n c e s o f 5 0 Í2
( th e s e v a lu e s c a n c e r t a i n l y b e r e a liz e d ) , a 1 % a c c u r a c y is a tt a in e d f o r a
m e a s u r in g t im e o f a b o u t 1 /1 0 o f a s e c o n d . In th a t c a s e , th e m e a s u r in g
t im e i s n o l o n g e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a v e r a g i n g t i m e f o r n o is e v o l t a g e s ,
b u t t h a t o f t h e t h e r m a l i n e r t i a o f th e s e n s in g e l e m e n t . H e n c e , w h e n u s in g
6 48 BRIXY et al.

s m a l l n o is e s e n s o r s w i t h i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
(e . g . B e O ), te m p e r a tu r e v a r ia t io n s o f u p to s e v e r a l H z o u g h t to be
d e t e r m in a b le b y m e a s u r e m e n t.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] KUGELER, K. et a l . , Jü l-870-R G (1972).

[2 ] High tem perature therm om etry, W ASH-1067 (1966) 6, 9, 11, 24.
[ 3] Tem perature, its Measurement and Control in S cie n ce and Industry 3 Part 2, Reinhold Publ. C o rp .,
N .Y . (1962) 237 , 243.
[4 ] T em p. meas. Contr. S c i. Ind. 3 Pt. 2 (1962) 271.
[5 ] High T em p . Therm . W ASH -1067 (1966) 26.
[6 ] BNW L-917, U C -8 0 ( 1968).
[7 ] NYQUIST, H ., Phys. Rev. 32 (1928) 110.
[8 ] GARRISON, J, B . , LAWSON, A .W ., Rev. sci. Instr. 20 (1949) 785. '
[9 ] BRIXY, H ., Jü l-885-R G (1972).
[1 0 ] DIENES, G .J. (E d .), Studies in Radiation Effects, 1 ,Ser, A . , N. Y . (1966) 174 ff.
[1 1 ] LIFSHITS, I.M . et a l . , J. nucl. Energy 12 (1960) 69.

D IS C U SSIO N

A. PEARSON: H a v e y o u c o n s i d e r e d m e a s u r i n g t h e n o is e p o w e r i n s t e a d
o f th e n o is e v o l t a g e ? I n t h a t c a s e o n e w o u ld n o t n e e d t o k n o w th e r e s is t a n c e .
H . G . B R IX Y : M e a s u r in g th e t o t a l p o w e r w o u ld le a d to a d e p e n d e n c e
o n th e c a p a c it y o f th e in p u t c i r c u i t . A g a in , i f th e n o is e c u r r e n t w e r e
m e a s u re d , t h e r e w o u ld s t i l l b e a d e p e n d e n c e o n th e r e s is t a n c e .
A. PEARSON: D o y o u t h in k th a t th e r e s is t a n c e p r o p e r t ie s o f th e
i n s u l a t i o n w o u l d b e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s i f t h e i n s u l a t i o n
r e s is t a n c e w e re t o d e c r e a s e a n d s h u n t th e m e a s u r i n g r e s i s t a n c e ?
H. G . B R IX Y : W h e n th e in s u la t io n r e s is t a n c e d e c r e a s e s to o f a r , an
e r r o r a p p e a r s i n th e t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t . W e th e r e fo r e w o r k w ith
lo w m e a s u r in g r e s is t a n c e s o f 1 0 Í 2 o r le s s s o th a t th e in s u la t io n r e s is t a n c e
is in a n y c a s e h ig h in c o m p a r is o n .
M . S. A U D O U X : Y o u m e n t i o n e d a n a c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r e m e n t o f 0 . 1% .
W h a t is th e m e a s u r in g t im e n e c e s s a r y to o b ta in s u c h a n d a c c u r a c y ? And
i f y o u s h o r t e n th e m e a s u r in g t im e , w h a t i s th e e f f e c t o n th e a c c u r a c y ?
H. G. B R IX Y : I n t h e e x a m p l e g i v e n a t t h e e n d o f t h e p a p e r th e
m e a s u r in g t im e n e c e s s a r y f o r a n a c c u r a c y o f 0 . 1 % w o u ld b e a p p r o x im a t e ly
10 s. In o u r f i r s t la b o r a to r y m e a s u re m e n ts th e t im e r e q u ir e d w a s s e v e r a l
m in u te s . T h e a c c u r a c y i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o th e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e s q u a r e
r o o t o f th e m e a s u r in g t im e . H ence, t h e a c c u r a c y w i l l v a r y a s th e s q u a r e
o f th e m e a s u r in g t im e w h e n i t is s h o rte n e d .
 IA EA -SM -168/ F-2

CORRELATION MEASUREMENTS
AT THE WWR-SM REACTOR*
D . P A LL A G I, S. H C R Á N Y I
C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e fo r P h y s i c s ,
Budapest, H ung ary

Abstract

CORRELATION MEASUREMENTS AT THE WWR-SM REACTOR.

During recent years reactor noise measurements have been com m enced at the 5-MW research reactor
in Budapest. Efforts were centred on the o u t-o f-c o re detection of bu lk-boilin g and the in -co re coolant
flow -rate determ ination with the aid of correlation methods. D ig ital correlators have been developed
and used as basic instrum entation for these applications. A short review is given on tem perature and neutron
flux fluctuation measurements. Instrumental basis, com putation methods as w ell as the results, are discussed.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e a im o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a t th e 5 - M W re s e a rc h
r e a c t o r i n B u d a p e s t w a s to i n v e s t ig a t e th e t e c h n o lo g ic a l n o is e o f th e r e a c t o r
a n d to s tu d y th e m e a s u r in g m e th o d s t h a t f u r n is h d a ta o n in f o r m a t io n
o b ta in a b le f r o m n o is e .
In v e s tig a tio n s o f r e a c t o r n o is e w e r e c a r r i e d o u t i n o u r I n s t it u t e a s f a r
b a c k as 1965 [ 1] an d 1969 [ 2 ]. B e c a u s e o f d if f ic u lt ie s a r is in g in m e a s u r in g
te c h n iq u e s a n d d a ta p r o c e s s in g th e s e e a r l y e x p e r im e n t s h a d to b e in t e r r u p t e d .
T h e r e c e n t p r o g r e s s a c h ie v e d b y o u r s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
c o r r e la to r s a n d c o r r e l a t i o n m e a s u r in g te c h n iq u e s e n a b le d u s t o o v e r c o m e
th e e a r l i e r d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d to s t a r t a s y s t e m a t i c a l r e a c t o r n o is e r e s e a r c h
p ro g ra m .
A t p r e s e n t w e a r e e q u ip p e d f o r , a n d f a m i l i a r w ith , th e t e c h n i q u e o f t h e
m e a s u r e m e n t a n d a n a ly s is o f io n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r o u tp u t c u r r e n t n o is e s a n d
t h e r m o c o u p le o u tp u t v o lt a g e n o is e s . T h e d a ta c o lle c t e d in v a r io u s o p e r a t io n a l
c o n d itio n s o f th e r e a c t o r a r e r o u t in e ly r e c o r d e d ( n o is e p a t t e r n l i b r a r y ) a n d
s o m e t h e o r e t ic a l w o r k h a s b e e n s t a r t e d o n th e in t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e c o lle c t e d
in f o r m a t io n [ 4 ] .
T h is r e p o r t d e s c r ib e s s o m e fe a tu r e s o f th e r e a c t o r , th e m e a s u r in g
e q u ip m e n t a n d th e r e s u lt s o b ta in e d u p to th e p r e s e n t f r o m tw o s e r ie s o f
m e a s u re m e n ts s t i l l in p r o g r e s s .

2. T H E W W R -S M R E A C T O R

T h e W W R - S M is a r e c o n s t r u c t e d v e r s io n o f th e o r ig i n a l W W R - S t h e r m a l
r e a c t o r a lr e a d y d e s c r ib e d [ 5 ] . I t s m a in c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a r e 5 - M W n o m in a l
p o w e r; a b e r y lliu m r e f le c t e d c o r e ; a n d f o r c e d c o o lin g b y d i s t i l l e d w a t e r .

* T his work was carried out under IAEA Research Contract No. 855/R1/RB. T he results of several y ears’
a ctiv itie s ate described in the F in al Report o f Sèptem ber 1972 [ 3 ] .

649
650 PALLAGI and HCRANYI

FIG . 1. S ch em atic diagram of the WWR-SM Reactor.

 IA E A -SM -168/ F-2 651

A s c h e m a tic d ia g r a m o f th e r e a c t o r is s h o w n in F ig . 1. A n o ta b le
f e a t u r e i s t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r s N o s 1, 2, 3 a n d 4 in
th e la r g e s h ie ld in g ta n k . D u r in g c o o lin g th e w a t e r is s t a t io n a r y h e r e a n d
th e c h a m b e r s a r e n o t s h a k e n b y th e w a t e r f lo w in g i n th e s m a ll ta n k .
S o m e i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l s a b o u t b u b b le f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e r m o c o u p l e
m o u n tin g a r e a ls o g iv e n in F ig . 1.

3. M E A S U R IN G A R R A N G E M E N T A N D D A T A P R O C E S S IN G

A b lo c k d ia g r a m o f th e m e a s u r in g a n d d a ta p r o c e s s in g a r r a n g e m e n t is
s h o w n in F ig . 2 .
T h e g a m m a - c o m p e n s a te d io n iz a t io n c h a m b e r u s e d f o r d e te c tin g th e
t h e r m a l n e u t r o n f l u x i s a K N K - 5 3 m o d e l w i t h a s e n s i t i v i t y o f 2 x 1 0 ‘ 14 А / ( n / c m 2 ).
T h e f lu x - p r o p o r t io n a l s ig n a l is a m p lif ie d b y d . c . a m p lifie r s . A c o m p e n s a tin g
c u rre n t fro m th e K e it h le y M o d . 2 6 1 P ic o a m p e r S o u r c e is a d d e d to th e in p u t
o f th e f i r s t a m p l i f i e r to c a n c e l th e d . c . c o m p o n e n t o f th e s ig n a l, s o t h a t o n ly
th e f l u c t u a t i o n o f th e c h a m b e r c u r r e n t ( i. e . th e n o is e i n f o r m a t io n ) i s a m p l i ­
f ie d to th e r e q u ir e d le v e l.
T h e t h e r m o c o u p le s u s e d f o r d e te c tin g th e t e m p e r a t u r e f lu c t u a t io n s a r e
th e T h e r m o c o a x 2 A B A c ty p e o f S o d e rn c a n n e d in s t a in le s s s te e l w it h
in s u la t e d ju n c t io n s . U n d e r th e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e i r c u t - o f f
fre q u e n c y is o f a p p r o x im a t e ly 10 H z ( c a ta lo g u e d a ta ) . S in c e i n o u r m e a s u r e ­
m e n ts th e a c t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e o f w a te r n e e d n o t be k n o w n , th e c o ld ju n c t io n s
w e r e o n ly m o u n te d in t o a t h e r m a lly in s u la te d m e t a l b o x . T h is is o th e r m a l
b o x e n a b le s i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m a m b ie n t t e m p e r a t u r e f lu c t u a t io n s to b e
a v o id e d . T h e t h e r m o c o u p le o u tp u ts a r e c o n n e c te d to b a t t e r y - o p e r a t e d
lo w - n o is e p r e a m p lifie r s ( F a i r c h i l d ц А 7 2 5 ).

IO N CHAMBER A M P LIFIC A TIO N A N D FILTEQ ING

K N H -S 3
pA
SOUQCB
P O L A R IT Y CORRELATOR
tCB/THLEY MOD. 2 6 1
A M P L IT U Û E
|-И— I — II— SMALL
A N ALYSER
?OMPuren
NTA 5 1 2 /b
< ~ r irv — № w it h

SO D EBN 2A B A c '
kOQALL-B
p l u g -i n
THEBMOCOUPLEs\ OSCILLOS­
COPE

С I
I \
\______ I О С P R E A M P L IF IE R S .
base: une SHIFT'
7 ÎH
ISOTHEGHAL FOUC C HANNEL
BOX AMPLIFICATIONAND F M AECOQDEQ
F/LTE&ING.
M A S -5 4 -
TELEEU NKEN

F IG .2 . Block diagram of th e measuring and data processing arrangem ent.

6 52 PALLAGI and HORANYI

F o r f u r t h e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n th e f o u r - c h a n n e l s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n e r m a d e i n
C R IP is u s e d [ 3 ] . T o m in im iz e th e n o is e f a c t o r o n l y t h e f r e q u e n c y b a n d
o f 0 - 1 0 H z is tr a n s m itte d . O w in g t o t h e s l o w v a r i a t i o n o f t h e a v e r a g e
w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e d u r in g th e m e a s u r e m e n t th e a m p l i f i e r s h a v e to b e
p r o t e c t e d a g a in s t o v e r lo a d in g . T h i s i s a c h ie v e d b y l o w - p a s s f i l t e r s w ith
c u t - o f f f r e q u e n c y o f 0 . 1 H z a p p lie d a s s h o w n in F ig . 2 .
T h e b a s i c u n i t o f th e m e a s u r i n g a r r a n g e m e n t i s th e d i g i t a l p o l a r i t y
c o r r e la to r , w h i c h c a l c u l a t e s th e p o l a r i t y c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n , fo r o u r
p u r p o s e e q u i v a l e n t t o th e t r u e c o r r e la t io n fu n c tio n . The N TA 5 1 2 /B ty p e
m u lt ic h a n n e l a n a ly s e r w it h a s p e c ia l p lu g - in u n it ( N E - 2 9 9 K O R A L L - B ) c a n
be u s e d a s a d ig ita l c o r r e la to r [ 3 ].
T h e u n it K O R A L L - B is c a p a b le o f r e c o r d i n g b o t h a u t o - a n d c r o s s ­
c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n s o v e r a w id e c o r r e l a t i o n t im e ra n g e . Its o p e r a t io n a l
p r in c ip le is th a t, b e tw e e n tw o s u b s e q u e n t s a m p lin g s i t m u lt ip lie s th e l a s t
s a m p le d v a lu e a r r i v i n g f r o m th e f i r s t m e a s u r i n g c h a n n e l w i t h a l l t h e l a s t
к s a m p le d v a lu e s f r o m th e o t h e r c h a n n e l a n d s t o r e s t h e r e s u l t i n g p r o d u c t s
i n t h e s t o r a g e c h a n n e l s o f th e a n a l y s e r . D u r in g th e s e s u b s e q u e n t c y c le s
th e r e s u l t i n g p r o d u c t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n e a c h c h a n n e l s o t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
f u n c t io n is f o r m e d s im u lt a n e o u s ly w it h th e m e a s u r e m e n t.
T h e r e s u l t m a y b e d is p la y e d d u r in g m e a s u r e m e n t o n th e b u i l t - i n
o s c illo s c o p e , p u n c h e d o n ta p e b y th e ta p e p e r f o r a t o r ty p e P E R F O M O M - 3 0
o r c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d to o u r s m a ll c o m p u te r ty p e T P A - 1 0 0 1 i f a F O U R IE R
tr a n s fo r m a tio n is n e e d e d . In F ig . 3 th e m e a s u r in g a r r a n g e m e n t is s h o w n .

FIG.3. The measuring arrangement.

 IA EA -SM -168/ F-2 653

4. T H E D E T E C T I O N O F B U L K - B O I L I N G [ 6]

I n th e f i r s t s e r i e s o f o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s w e s t u d i e d t h e d e t e c t i o n
r e l i a b i l i t y o f i n - c o r e b u lk b o il i n g b y a n a ly s in g th e n o is e o f o u t - o f - c o r e
io n iz a tio n c h a m b e r s .
B u lk b o ilin g h a s b e e n s im u la t e d b y f o r c in g a i r in t o th e c o r e th r o u g h a
t h in p ip e s it u a t e d in a n i r r a d i a t i o n c h a n n e l (s e e F ig . 1 ). A t th e e n d o f th e
p ip e p a s s in g i n t o th e c o r e a s p e c ia l h e a d w a s m o u n te d a r o u n d w h ic h t i n y
b u b b le s c o u ld b e f o r m e d u n d e r th e e f f e c t o f a s m a ll o v e r p r e s s u r e . A
p r e c is io n p r e s s u r e r e d u c t o r s e r v e d f o r a d ju s t in g a n d m a in t a in in g th e o v e r ­
p re s s u re a t a c o n s ta n t le v e l.
A r e a c t o r p o w e r o f 20 k W w as c h o s e n f o r th e m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e io n -
c h a m b e r c u r r e n t w a s ~ 2 0 ц А a t p o s it io n N o . 1. T h e u s e d s a m p lin g
fre q u e n c y w a s 20 H z , th e m a x im u m d e la y T m ax = 8 s, w it h 15 t o 2 0 - m in r u n s
f o r e a c h m e a s u re m e n t.

F IG .4 . Power spectral density function under unperturbed core conditions.

FIG . 5 . Power spectral density function under conditions of forced cooling without bubbling.
654 PALLAGI and HORANYI

I 2 3 < 5 6 f (Hz)

F IG .6 . Power spectral density function under conditions of bubbling without forced cooling.

; 2 3 < 5 6 f IH z)

F IG .7 . Power spectral density functions under conditions of bubbling with forced cooling.

T h e f o l l o w in g c o r e c o n d it io n s w e r e s tu d ie d :

U n p e r t u r b e d c o r e ( n o f o r c e d c o o lin g o r b u b b lin g )
F o r c e d c o o lin g w it h o u t b u b b lin g
B u b b lin g w it h o u t f o r c e d c o o lin g
B u b b lin g w i t h f o r c e d c o o lin g

T h e r e s p e c tiv e r e s u lt s a r e s u m m a r iz e d in F ig s 4, 5, 6 a n d 7, each o f
w h ic h s h o w s th e d e r iv e d p o w e r s p e c t r a l d e n s it y S (f) a t th e p a r t i c u l a r c o r e
c o n d itio n . T h e p o w e r d e n s i t y a t th e u n p e r t u r b e d c o r e i s s m o o t h ; a t fo rc e d
c o o lin g ( w it h o u t b u b b lin g ) i t i s c h a r a c te r iz e d b y tw o d is t in c t p e a k s a t 1. 3 a n d
2 .4 H z, d u e to th e p u m p o p e r a t io n ; a n d d u r in g b u b b lin g ( w it h o u t f o r c e d
c o o lin g ) a r a t h e r s h a r p p e a k w a s fo u n d a t 0 . 6 H z . I n c o m b in e d p e r t u r b a t i o n
( f o r c e d c o o lin g w i t h b u b b lin g ) th e tw o p e a k s d u e to th e p u m p o p e r a t io n
 IA EA -SM -16B/F-2 6 55

r e m a in p r a c t ic a lly u n a lte r e d , a s w o u ld b e e x p e c te d , w h ile th e " b u b b l e p e a k "

e x h ib it s a s p lit t in g . O n t h is b a s is w e c a n s ta te :

( i) T h is r a t h e r s im p le d a ta - p r o c e s s in g s e t- u p b a s e d o n a n o u t - o f - c o r e
d e t e c t o r a n d a s i m p l e d a ta e v a lu a t in g p r o c e d u r e is s u f f ic ie n t f o r
r e l i a b l e n o is e a n a ly s is c o v e r in g th e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e o f 0 - 1 0 H z ; a n d
( ii) A p a r t i c u l a r c o r e c o n d itio n m a y b e id e n t if ie d b y lo w - f r e q u e n c y
n o is e a n a ly s is .

A t p r e s e n t w e a r e s t u d y i n g h o w m u c h th e i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n a b l e f r o m
t h e n o is e o f t h e i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r N o . 2 ( s e e i n F i g . 1) c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e
in f o r m a t io n o b ta in e d f r o m c h a m b e r N o . 1.

5. T R A N S IT -T IM E M E A S U R E M E N T B Y C R O S S -C O R R E A L A T IO N
T E C H N I Q U E [ 7]

F lu id flo w m e a s u r e m e n ts in th e c o r e o f th e r e a c t o r a r e v e r y im p o r t a n t
b u t d i f f i c u l t to p e r f o r m . W e in v e s t ig a t e d th e m e th o d b a s e d o n m e a s u r in g th e
t r a n s it tim e o f ra n d o m te m p e r a tu r e p a tte rn s , w h ic h a r e a lw a y s p r e s e n t
in a r e a c t o r c o o lin g t u r b u le n t f lo w .
T h e p r in c ip le o f t r a n s i t - t i m e m e a s u r e m e n t is a t t r a c t iv e ly s im p le .
T w o t h e r m o c o u p le s a r e m o u n te d a t a d is ta n c e s f r o m e a c h o th e r in th e
f lo w - p a t h o f th e c o o lin g w a t e r . T h e w a t e r v e l o c i t y i s e v a lu a t e d f r o m th e
t r a n s i t t im e to o v e r th e d is ta n c e s g iv e n b y tw o d a ta [ 8 ] .
T h e m e a n f l u i d v e l o c i t y is d e t e r m in e d by

w h e r e к i s a s c a le f a c t o r r e la t i n g th e f lo w v e lo c it y o b ta in e d f r o m tr a n s it- tim e
m e a s u r e m e n t t o th e m e a n f lo w v e lo c it y .
U p to d a te s e v e r a l in v e s t ig a t io n s h a v e b e e n m a d e f o r t r a n s i t - t i m e
m e a s u r e m e n ts b y th e c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n te c h n iq u e [ 9 - 1 2 ] . T h e tr a n s it- tim e
o r t i m e l a g to c a n b e r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m th e c r o s s - c o r r e la t io n f u n c tio n
o f th e tw o tim e - d e p e n d e n t s ig n a ls :
T

c l 2 (T ) = , t im ^ Jо
u i (t) u 2 (t + t ) d t

s in c e it s m a x im u m i s a t т = t 0.

r = t im e la g
t = tim e v a r ia b le
С = c r o s s - c o r r e la t io n fu n c tio n
u = v o lta g e s ig n a ls o f t h e r m o c o u p le s

T h e f i r s t m e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e c a r r i e d o u t in o r d e r to t e s t th e p e r f o r m a n c e
o f th e m e t h o d i n p r a c t i c e . A s d e te c to rs , tw o th e r m o c o u p le s w e r e m o u n te d
in to a n a lu m in iu m t u b e o f t h e s a m e g e o m e t r y a s th e i n n e r m o s t t u b e o f a fu e l
e le m e n t (s e e F ig . 1 ). I t w a s f o u n d t h a t th e v o l t a g e n o is e o f t h e t h e r m o c o u p l e s
656 PALLAGI and HCRANYI

i s a r o u n d 1 /u V p e a k t o p e a k w h e n t h e r e a c t o r i s o p e r a t i n g a t i t s n o m i n a l
p o w e r. A g a in f a c t o r o f 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 i s n e e d e d t o g i v e s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h s i g n a l s
t o th e c o r r e l a t o r i n p u t .
A s e x a m p le s th e c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t io n s — g e n e r a te d a t f l o w - r a t e s
o f Q = 4 0 0 m 3/ h a n d Q = 8 0 0 m 3/ h — a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 8 . T h e tim e d e la y
to i s r e a d i l y e s t i m a t e d e v e n v i s u a l l y ; n e v e r t h e l e s s th e a c c u r a c y c o u l d b e
m u c h im p r o v e d b y c o m p u te r f i t t i n g . I t is o f in t e r e s t t o n o te th a t, o w in g
t o th e t h e r m o c o u p le s e n s i t i v i t y o f 41 n V / ° C , th e in f o r m a t io n n e e d e d f o r
th e m e a s u r e m e n t is p r o v id e d b y th e t e m p e r a t u r e f lu c t u a t io n s o f a fe w
c e n t ig r a d e s o n ly .
I n F ig . 9 th e v a lu e s m e a s u r e d b y th e c o r r e la t io n m e th o d a r e s h o w n .
T h e a c c u r a c y o f th e m e a s u r e m e n ts w i l l b e in v e s t ig a t e d t h is y e a r .
 IA EA -SM -168/ F-2 657

А С К NO W L E D GE M E N T S

W e a r e in d e b te d to P r o f e s s o r A . I . M o g iln e r ( In s titu te f o r P h y s ic s a n d
E n e r g e tic s , O b n in s k , USSR) and M e s s rs F . S zabô, Z. G y im e s i f o r m a n y
u s e fu l d is c u s s io n s . F o r th e s p e c ia l in s t r u m e n t a t io n r e q u i r e d o u r th a n k s
a re due to M e s s rs F . S z lá v ik , P # P e llio n is z and G . K ozm ann.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] PELLIONISZ, P ., SZATHMARY, Z . , TURI, L . , Noise measurement on the WWR-S reactor, Proc. 4th
Conf. Reactor Physics and T e c h n ., Budapest, 1965.
[2 ] SZATHMARY, Z . , VALKO, J . , An o n -lin e spectral analysis of reactor noise, Nukleonik 12 (1969) 2 0 8 -2 1 1 .
[3 ] SZLÁVIK, F . e t a l . , Fin al R e p ., IAEA, Research Contract N o .855(R1)RB (1 9 7 2 ).
[4 ] KOSALY, G ., MESKÓ, L ., Investigation of the cross-correlation function of coolant tem perature
fluctuations via the a x ia l dependent two-point model of heat transfer, Submitted for publication to
Atom kernenergie.
[5 ] GONCHAROV, V. V ., "Som e new and rebuilt therm al research re a cto rs", 2nd UN in t. Conf. peaceful
Uses ato m . Energy (Proc. Conf. Geneva 1958) 10, UN, New York (1 9 5 8 ) 3 2 1 .
[6 ] PALLAGI, D . , HCRÀNYI, S ., Power reactor noise studies using a polarity correlator, Rep. K F K I-7 1 -3 1
( 1 9 7 1 ).
[7 ] HCRÀNYI, S ., PALLAGI, D ., Fluid flow measurement by correlation m ethod. Mérés és Autom atika 2 0 .
No 8. (1 9 7 2 ) 3 0 1 -3 0 3 .(In Hungarian).
[8 ] UHRIG, R . E . , Random Noise Techniques in Nuclear Reactor Systems, the Ronald Press Company,
New York (1 9 7 0 ).
[9 ] BENTLEY, P .G ., DAWSON, D .A ., Fluid flow measurement by transit tim e analysis of tem perature
fluctuations, Trans. S o c. Instrum. T ech n o l. (Sep . 1966) 183.
[ 10] TERMAAT, K . P . , Fluid flow measurements inside the reactor vessel of the 50 M W (e) Dodewaard
N uclear Power Plant by cross-correlation instruments,Rep. N -P Í8 0 5 4 .
[1 1 ] CALVERT, G ., Cross-correlation flow m easurement, IMEKO Symp. D elft 8 -1 2 Sep. 1971.
[1 2 ] MIKA, C ., RAES, К . H ., STEGEMAN, D . , " Coolant flow measurements by correlated therm ocouple-
signals", Paper presented at IAEA Specialists Meeting on Analysis of Measurements to Diagnose Potential,
unpublished Report, IAEA, Vienna (1 972).

D IS C U S S IO N

P. JO V E R : Y o u h a v e s h o w n th a t th e m e th o d o f d e te c tin g w a t e r b o ilin g
b y n e u t r o n n o i s e m e a s u r e m e n t i n th e l o w - f r e q u e n c y r e g i o n i s s i m p l e a n d
r e lia b le . W e h a v e d o n e s i m i l a r w o r k a n d o b ta in e d c o m p a r a b le r e s u lt s .
I t w o u ld n o t a p p e a r , h o w e v e r, t h a t th e m e th o d h a s a s y e t m e t w it h m u c h
e n th u s ia s m . I t h a s n o t fo u n d a p p lic a tio n a n y w h e re a s f a r a s I k n o w . H ave
y o u a n y id e a w h y t h is m ig h t b e ?
S . H O R A N Y I: W e a r e a ls o a c q u a in te d w it h th e w o r k o f D r . Z w in g e ls te in
in th is f ie ld , a n d h a v e fo u n d o u r r e s u lt s to b e v e r y s i m i l a r to h is . I do n o t
k n o w o f a n y p r a c t ic a l a p p lic a t io n o f th e m e th o d e it h e r .
D. H. STEGEM ANN: I s h o u ld l i k e f i r s t t o ta k e u p th e p o in t r a is e d b y
M r. J o v e r. W e t h i n k n o is e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e p r o m i s i n g a s a m e a n s o f
d e te c tin g b o ilin g . T h e la c k o f e n th u s ia s m is d u e to th e f a c t th a t n o b o d y h a s
y e t e x a m in e d th e f r e q u e n c y d e p e n d e n c e o f th e s e f lu c t u a t io n s . I f th is w e re
done, i t m ig h t b e p o s s ib le t o d e te c t l o c a l v o id f r a c t io n s in b o ilin g w a t e r
re a c to rs .
658 PALLAGI and HCRÁNYI

N ow , I h a v e tw o q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g M r . H o r á n y i's in t e r e s t in g r e s u lt s .
D i d y o u m e a s u r e y o u r n e u t r o n n o is e a t d i f f e r e n t r e a c t o r p o w e r s i n o r d e r t o
a s c e r t a i n t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e r a t i o o f c o r r e l a t e d t o n o n - c o r r e l a t e d n o is e
o n th e s q u a r e o f t h e r e a c t o r p o w e r ? S e c o n d ly , d i d y o u m e a s u r e y o u r n o is e
s ig n a ls w it h in s m a ll f r e q u e n c y b a n d s a s a f u n c t io n o f th e c o n t r o l f r e q u e n c y
a n d d id y o u o b s e r v e a n o m a lie s in th e " t r a n s i t t im e " d e r iv e d ?
S . H O R A N Y I: S o f a r I h a v e h a d n o o c c a s io n t o p e r f o r m th e m e a s u r e m e n ts
a t d if f e r e n t p o w e r le v e ls . W it h r e g a r d to y o u r s e c o n d q u e s tio n , th e c u t - o f f
f r e q u e n c y o f t h e t h e r m o c o u p l e s u s e d w a s 1 0 c p s a n d t h e f i l t e r w a s d e s ig n e d
t o h a v e th e s a m e c u t - o f f fr e q u e n c y . W h e n a lo w e r c u t- o ff fre q u e n c y w a s
a d o p te d f o r th e f i l t e r , d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s w e r e o b ta in e d .
D. H. STEGEM ANN: T h a t is v e r y in te r e s tin g , b e c a u s e w e h a v e a ls o
f o u n d d e v ia t io n s to l o w e r t r a n s i t - t i m e s w ith lo w e r fr e q u e n c ie s . T h e re a s o n
w o u ld a p p e a r t o b e th e i n t e r a c t io n o f th e e d d ie s a n d th e h e a te d s u r f a c e s ,
w h ic h p r o lo n g s th e e f f e c t iv e t r a n s p o r t t i m e o f l a r g e r e d d ie s .
M . F. EDELM ANN: M a y I a s k w h a t m e a s u re m e n t tim e y o u n e e d e d f o r a
r e li a b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t p r o d u c e d b y th e b u b b le s o n th e c o r r e l a t i o n
f u n c t io n o f t h e n e u t r o n c h a m b e r s ig n a l?
S . H O R A N Y I: T h e m e a s u r e m e n t tim e r e q u ir e d f o r a r e lia b le id e n t if ic a ­
t i o n o f th e e f f e c t w a s 1 5 - 2 0 m i n .
 IA E A -SM -16 8 / F -3

SURVEILLANCE DES TEM PERATURES DANS

LES CENTRALES NUCLEAIRES (TIHANGE)

R* M O N T M A Y E U R
E tab lissem e n ts M e r lin G e r in ,
G ren o b le, France

Présenté parJ. Raym ond

Abstract -R és um é

TEMPERATURE MONITORING IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS (TIHANGE).

In a nuclear power plant the only way to ch eck the measurements required for the proper operation
o f a fa c ility would b e to use m u lti-d irectio n al graph recorders. But owing to the large number o f
param eters that have to be m onitored, this procedure soon proves to be costly and im p racticab le. At the
TIHANGE Power Plant, three MGS 240 scanners are used for m onitoring 720 tem peratures. As soon as one
o f the tem peratures exceeds the threshhold or goes beyond its sensitivity zone the equipm ent, warns the
operator by an acoustic alarm , and identifies the faulty channel by lighting an individual blinker o f an
instrumentation panel. The operator can then follow the abnormal tem perature by connecting the
corresponding channel to a graph recorder designed for such a purpose.

SURVEILLANCE DES TEMPERATURES DANS LES CENTRALES NUCLEAIRES (TIHANGE).

Dans une cen trale n u cléaire, la surveillance de l'en sem b le des données analogiques peut être réalisée
en utilisant uniquement des enregistreurs graphiques m ultidirectionnels. Mais vu le nombre important de
grandeurs à surveiller, c e tte solution se rév èle v ite coûteuse et peu exp lo itable. A Tih an ge, trois scrutateurs
MGS 240 peuvent assurer la surveillance de 720 tem pératures. Dès que l'un e d’entre elle s dépasse le seuil
ou sort de la fourchette qui lui est assignée, l'équipem ent alerte l'exp lo ita n t par un klaxon et id en tifie la
v oie en défaut par allum age d'un voyant individuel sur un panneau de signalisation. L'exploitant peut alors
suivre la tem pérature anorm ale en con nectan t, à l ’aide d'un ja c k , la voie correspondante sur l'un des
enregistreurs graphiques banalisés prévus à c e t effe t.

1. BUT DE L'EQUIPEMENT

D ans une c e n tra le n u c lé a ire , l'a b o n d a n c e des donn ées a n a lo g iq u e s c o n d u it à fa ire un c h o ix

en tre :
- C e lle s q u 'il e s t n é c e s s a ire de s u iv re en perm anence pour as s u re r le bon fo n c tio n n e m e n t de
l'in s ta lla tio n .

- C e lle s q u 'il e s t in té re s s a n t de s u iv re s e u le m e n t dans de s c a s bien p ré c is : a n o m a lie s de

fo n c tio n n e m e n t, m ise en route d 'o rg a n e s , e tc ...

L e s c ru ta te u r MGS 240 a é té conçu e t r é a lis é pour as s u re r la s u rv e illa n c e d e s grandeurs a n a ­

lo g iq u e s fa is a n t p a rtie du second, gro u p e. A T IH A N G E ce sont e x c lu s iv e m e n t des m esures de
te m p é ra tu re s v a ria n t dans la gam m e 0 , + 4 0 0 ° C :
- m ac h in e s to u rn a n te s (m o teu rs a u x ilia ir e s e t a lte rn a te u rs ) : 360 te m p é ra tu re s de p a lie rs me­
s u ré e s par des th e rm o c o u p le s c u iv re co n s ta n ta n e t 200 te m p é ra tu re s de bobinage m esurées
par des sondes à r é s is ta n c e 1 0 0 n à 0 °C
- tu y a u te r ie s de bore ré c h a u ffé : 48 te m p é ra tu res m esurées par des th e rm o c o u p le s c h ro m e l/
a lu m e l.

659
660 MONTMAYEUR

ARMOIRE DE RACCORDEMENT ARMOIRE ELECTRONIQUE ARMOIRE SIGNALISATION

E ta n t donné le nombre im portant de te m p é ra tu res à s u r v e ille r tro is s c ru ta te u rs MGS 240

fo n c tio n n a n t en p a r a llè le sont n é c e s s a ire s , ce qui perm et d 'a tte in d re une c a p a c ité maximum de
720 v o ie s .
C haque s c ru ta te u r se com pose (fig u re 1) :
- d 'u n e arm oire de rac c o rd e m e n t qui fa it au ssi fo n c tio n d 'a rm o ire de soudure fro id e
- d 'u n e arm o ire é le c tro n iq u e
- d 'u n e arm oire s ig n a lis a tio n ,
P our l'e n s e m b le de l'é q u ip e m e n t des panneaux de s ig n a lis a tio n (v o y a n ts + ja c k s ) e t des e n ­
re g is tre u rs m u ltic o u rb e s à p o in te r sont ré p a rtis par fo n c tio n sur le ta b le a u de la s a lle de con­
d u ite .

D ès qu'une te m p é ra tu re d é p a s s e la v a le u r du s e u il ou sort de la fo u rc h e tte qui lu i a é té

a ffe c té e :
- un k la xo n a le rte l'e x p lo ita n t
- un v o y a n t co rre s p o n d an t à la v o ie en d é fa u t c lig n o te .
A p rès a v o ir a c q u itté : a rrê t du k la x o n e t passage du v o y a n t en feu fix e , l'e x p lo ita n t peut a lo rs
c o n n e c te r un e n re g is tre u r g ra p h iq u e e t s u iv re r é v o lu tio n de la v o ie en d é fa u t.
L o rs q u e la tem p é ra tu re re d e v ie n t n orm ale, le v o y a n t d 'a la rm e s 'é te in t.
 IA EA -SM -168/ F-3 661

2. DESCRIPTION S SCRUTATEUR MGS 240 (figure 2)

M G : sont le s in itia le s M E R L IN G E R IN e t S l 'i n it i a le de S u rv e illa n c e .

240 : s ig n ifie que l'o n peut s u r v e ille r ju s q u 'à 240 donn ées a n a lo g iq u e s .

A p rès a d a p ta tio n , les te n s io n s a n a lo g iq u e s sont a ig u illé e s de faço n c y c liq u e v e rs les

c irc u its de tra ite m e n t g râce à un s c ru ta te u r à r e la is p ilo té par un com pteur.

U ne fo is a m p lifié e t f ilt r é , le s ig n a l e s t com paré à la v a le u r du ou de s s e u ils qui lu i sont

a s s ig n é s .

A fin d 'é v ite r les b a tte m e n ts d 'a la rm e au v o is in a g e de c e tte v a le u r, c e lle - c i e s t a ffe c té e

d'u n e h y s té r é s is .

A chaque v o ie d 'e n tré e e s t a s s o c ié un r e la is b is ta b le qui b a s c u le dè s que la m esure c o r­

res p o n d a n te fra n c h it le s e u il e t dem eure dans c e tte p o s itio n ju s q u 'a u retour à la norm a le .

2.1. COMPTEUR DE SCRUTATION

L e num éro d 'o rd re de la v o ie en cours de tra ite m e n t e s t c o n te n u dans un com pteur dont la
p ro g re ss io n e s t com m andée par l'e n s e m b le lo g iq u e .

2.2. SCRUTATEUR ANALOGIQUE (figure 3)

D e co n c e p tio n m o d u la ire , le s c ru ta te u r a n a lo g iq u e e s t c o n s titu é de c a rte s d 'e n tré e p e rm e t­

ta n t d 'a ig u ille r , à rais o n de 5 v o ie s par se c o n d e , chaque m esure v e rs l'a m p lific a te u r .

Une c a rte d 'e n tré e peut re c e v o ir 8 v o ie s is s u e s du même ty p e de c a p te u r. A T IH A N G E ,

deux ty p e s de c a rte s sont n é c e s s a ire s : des c a rte s d 'e n tré e pour th e rm o c o u p le s e t des c a rte s
d 'e n tré e pour sondes à r é s is ta n c e .
C h a q u e c a rte e s t é q u ip é e de 8 r e la is d e u x c o n ta c ts n é c e s s a ire s à la s é le c tio n de la v o ie et
d'u n r e la is tro is c o n ta c ts p e rm e tta n t la s é le c tio n de la c a rte .

L e s c a p te u rs d é liv ra n t de s te n s io n s d'u n n iv e a u trè s fa ib le , il e s t n é c e s s a ire d 'u tilis e r des

r e la is bas n iv e a u ty p e « reed я dont le s c o n ta c ts (o r d iffu s é p la q u é rhodium ) sont logés dans des
a m p o u le s re m p lie s d 'u n gaz in e rte .

U ne a d re s s e de 8 b its p ro v e n a n t du com pteur de s c ru ta tio n perm et de s é le c tio n n e r le s 248

e n tré e s du s c ru ta te u r (2 4 0 e n tré e s + 8 v o ie s te s t). P our la program m ation de chaque c a rte , le
code u tilis é e s t « l'o c ta l codé b in a ir e » .

C a rte n° 0 : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ré s e rv é e aux v o ie s te s t

C a rte n° 1 : 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
i
\
X
I

C a rte n® 31 : 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377

 6 62

FIG.2.
MONTMAYEUR

Schéma synoptique.
VERS PANNEAU DE VOYANTS VERS PANNEAU DE JACKS
ALIMENTATION PONTS VERS JACKS
IA EA -SM -168/ F-3
663
664 MONTMAYEUR

2.3. ADAPTATIONS (figure 3)

C o m p en satio n de soudure fro id e : sur chaque c a rte d 'e n tré e pour th e rm o c o u p le s un deuxièm e
r e la is tro is c o n ta c ts perm et de com m uter la sonde à ré s is ta n c e m esurant la te m p é ra tu re de l'a r ­
m oire de ra c c o rd e m e n t qui e s t a u s s i l'a rm o ire de soudure fro id e . C e tte sonde a s s o c ié e au pont de
m esure se tro u v a n t sur c h aque c a rte perm et d 'o b te n ir une te n s io n p ro p o rtio n n e lle à la tem p é ra ­
tu re rég n a n t dans l ’ arm oire de soudure fro id e . C e tte te n s io n e s t m ise en o p p o sitio n a v e c la force
é le c tro m o tric e cré é e par l'e n s e m b le soudure chaude + soudure fro id e . C e procédé a p p e lé com pen­
s a tio n a u to m a tiq u e de soudure fro id e n é c e s s ite s e u le m e n t une arm oire de soudure fro id e is o ­
th e rm e .

P o n t de W heatsto ne pour s o ndes à ré s is ta n c e : le s ponts ne so n t pas m ontés sur le s c a rte s

de s c ru ta tio n m ais sur des p la q u e tte s c irc u it im prim é in s ta llé e s dans l'a rm o ire de raccordem ent.

2.4. ORGANE DE SORTIE A RELAIS

Son rô le e s t de m ém oriser e t de m a té ria lis e r le dé p a s s e m en t d'u n s e u il. Il re ç o it une a d re s r

se du com pteur de s c ru ta tio n a in s i qu'un é ta t e t un ordre de p o s itio n n e m e n t en p ro venance de
l'e n s e m b le lo g iq u e .

A chaque c y c le de s c ru ta tio n to u s le s r e la is b is ta b le s sont s é le c tio n n é s a fin de le s m ettre

dans un n ouvel é ta t ou de c o n firm e r l'a n c ie n . Comme pour le s c ru ta te u r a n a lo g iq u e le code
« o c ta l codé b in a ire » e s t u tilis é pour la program m ation de chaque c a rte .

2.5. SEQUENCES DE SIGNALISATION

L e s c o n ta c ts des r e la is sont u tilis é s pour com m ander des s é q u e n c e s de s ig n a lis a tio n s ta ­

tiq u e s (m o d u le s S IL IM O G ).

2.6. A M P LIFIC A TE U R

Il e s t du ty p e d iffé r e n tie l a v e c com m utatio n s ta tiq u e de p o la rité

- g a in ; 250
- s ig n a l de s o rtie : 0, + 10 V
- p ré c is io n g lo b a le : m e ille u re que ±2 10“ ^ de l'é te n d u e de l'é c h e lle
- tem ps de réc u p éra tio n < 2 ,5 ms pour une te n s io n d 'e n tré e de 1 v o lt
- ré je c tio n de mode commun : le mode commun e s t une te n s io n p a ra s ite c o n tin u e ou a lte rn a tiv e
(5 0 H z e t h a rm o n iq u e s ) qui peut a p p a ra ître entre le s e n tré e s is o lé e s de l'a m p lific a te u r et la
m asse.
L e ta u x de ré je c tio n en c o n tin u e t en a lte rn a tif e s t s u p é rieu r à 100 d B .

2.7. F IL T R E

L e rô le de c e t organe p la c é a p rès l'a m p lific a te u r e s t d 'é lim in e r les p a ra s ite s de mode d if­
fé re n tie l e t d 'a m é lio re r le ta u x de r é je c tio n de mode commun en a lte rn a tif.
 IA EA -SM -168/ F-3 665

FIG. 4 . Réponse harmonique du filtre.

Fréquence de coupure FQà 3 dB = 14 Hz; pente 22 dB/octave; affaiblissem ent à 50 Hz = - 4 0 dB; temps
de réponse pour Ц, ± 0 ,1 °¡¡> < 150 ms.

Il e s t r é a lis é à l'a id e de deux f iltr e s a c tifs RC p la c é s en s é rie a p rè s l'a m p lific a te u r , mon­

tage qui perm et de s ’ a ffra n c h ir de s d é riv e s en fo n c tio n du tem ps e t de la te m p é ra tu re.

- R ép o n se harm onique (fig u re 4)

L 'e n s e m b le des deux c e llu le s p a s s e -b a s a un ta u x d 'a ffa ib lis s e m e n t de 4 0 dB à 50 H z et
une fré q u e n c e de coupure à 3 dB de l'o rd re de 15 H z .

- R ép o n se tra n s ito ire : le tem ps de rép onse à ± 0 ,1 %e s t de 1 5 0 m s .

2.8. PROGRAMMATION M ATRICE DE SEUILS (figure 5)

Les 8 bits provenant du compteur de scrutation sont décodés par groupes de 16 à l'aide de
deux ^décodeurs de 16>, l'association des bits <§unité> et des bits <^seizeine> dans des circuits
logiques ET à diodes permet de sélectionner les 256 positions d'une matrice à diodes soudées
sur laquelle sont programmées les informations suivantes:
 666

COMPTEUR DE SCRUTA-
MONTMAYEUR

FIG, 5. Sélection et programmation des seuils.

 IA E A -SM -16 8/ F -3 667

- l'a d re s s e du | s e u il haut | 6 b its

- le s ig n e du I s e u il haut | 1 b it
- l'a d re s s e du | s e u il bas | 6 b its
- le s ig n e du | s e u il bas | 1 b it
- v o ie en c o u rt-c irc u it 1 b it
- s e u il (s ) s an s h y s té ré s is 1 b it

L o rs du tra ite m e n t de chaque v o ie une c a rte « a ig u illa g e * v e rro u ille a lte rn a tiv e m e n t les
in fo rm a tio n s s e u il haut e t s e u il bas.

L e s s ix b its « a d re s s e s e u il» o ffre n t la p o s s ib ilité de c h o is ir un s e u il parm i 6 4 , s u iv a n t un

p ro c e ss u s de s é le c tio n id e n tiq u e à c e lu i d é c rit c i-d e s s u s . L a v a le u r des s e u ils e s t a ffic h é e
en mV sur une m a tric e à d io d e s e n fic h a b le s . Un ta b le a u d is p o s é à l'in té r ie u r de l'é q u ip e m e n t
perm et de fa ir e la c o rresp o n d an ce e n tre mV a ffic h é s e t d e g ré s C e ls iu s .

R em arque : le nom bre de s e u ils e ffe c tiv e m e n t d is p o n ib le s se trouve ré d u it à 56, du fa it que

l'a d re s s e 0 correspond à l'in fo rm a tio n « a b s e n c e s e u i l » e t que s e p t v a le u rs de s e u il s ont ré s e r­
v é e s au c o n trô le du bon fo n c tio n n e m e n t de l'a p p a r e il.

2.9. CONVERTISSEUR NUMERIQUE-ANALOGIQUE, COMPARATEUR (figure 6)

Un com m utateur s ta tiq u e com m andé par la program m ation à d io d e s fo u rn it des c o urants
p ro p o rtio n n e ls aux d iffé re n te s v a le u rs de poids u tilis é e s dans la r é a lis a tio n d 'u n s e u il. C es
c o u ra n ts 1r o btenu s à p a rtir d 'u n e a lim e n ta tio n - 10 v o lts de haute perform ance sont in je c té s
dans un som m ateur de co u ran t qui r e ç o it é g a le m e n t un c o u ra n t Im de sens c o n tra ire p ro p o rtio n ­
nel à la te n s io n m e su rée. Un c o m parateur in d iq u e le sens de la d iffé re n c e .

2.10. HYSTERESIS

L ’ h y s té ré s is c o n s ta n te H em pêche le s b a tte m e n ts d 'a la rm e lorsque la m esure e s t au v o i­

s in a g e de la v a le u r du s e u il. Si l'o n prend le c a s de s te m p é ra tu re s des m oteurs qui sont se u ­
lem ent com parées à un s e u il h a u t la m ise en œ u v re de l'h y s té r é s is perm et de d é fin ir tro is
zo n e s (fig u re 7 )
- v a le u r de la m esure ;> S I = S a ffic h é + H / 2 : a la rm e
- v a le u r de la m esure < S2 = S a ffic h é - H / 2 : non a la rm e
- S2 < v a le u r de la m esure < S I : aucun ordre de p o s itio n n em en t n 'e s t donné, l'é t a t a n té rieu r
e s t c o n s e rv é .

P our chaque s e u il deux c o m p a ra is o n s sont n é c e s s a ire s :

Im e s t com paré à 2 Ip + I H /2
Im e s t com paré à 2 Ip - I H /2 .

Si le ré s u lta t des deux c o m p a ra is o n s e s t p o s itif, le r e la is b is ta b le e s t p o s itio n n é dans l'é ta t

a la rm e .
Si le ré s u lta t de s deux c o m p a ra is o n s e s t n é g a tif, le r e la is b is ta b le e s t p o s itio n n é dans l'é ta t
non a la rm e .
D a n s le s deux a u tre s c a s l'o rg a n e de s o rtie à r e la is ne re ç o it aucun ordre de p o s itio n n e m e n t.
668 MONTMAYEUR

-q_P~— Í2Mn. К — 1

-q_p ■ |1Мл t— ■
-o__o--------ISOOka

F IG .6 . Convertisseur num érique-analogique, com parateur: schém a synoptique.

VALEUR DE LA MESURE
 IA E A -SM -168/ F-3 669

г . 31Vd3N30 ZV d

J L

des phases nécessaires au traitement d'une v oie.

L __ s. ¿'S 3 0M3Z V 3SIW3d

NO iivinyD s за anB idw oo bonvav

13 (inVH 1tn3S) N0I1D313S

SIS3y31SAH SIV13M no NOIiVinWWOO

13 a s o ano r v 3siw3a
(s v a iin 3 s ) o a
(s v 9 im 3 s ) 0d s s ie v is ia z v a
(ZSS) Od

SIS3831SAH SKH3d no NOIIVIOWWOO

— sis 3M3is a h s iv is a n a -------------------

N0llVinW4Q013(SVgiin3S) NOI13313S

Diagramme
. ( i n V H 1 i n 3 S ) '0 d

UnVHU nSSroa S31SViSIB ZV d

FIG. 8.

siS3d3iSÂH s iv i3 d na N o u v in w w o o
(IHS) 31dWOD N3 3SI8d

sovanu 31N3UV

ЗПУУЗЫЗО ZVÜ

—
• О о о о
Ш о О о о
1/> Ю Г- 00
670 MONTMAYEUR

R em arque :
- P our R = 2 м п on o b tie n t une h y s té ré s is de 20 mV
- L o rs q u e l'h y s té r é s is e s t sup p rim é e , la mesure e s t com parée deux fo is au même s e u il :
SI = S 2.

2.11. ENSEMBLE LOGIQUE

P ilo té par l'h o rlo g e ou par un b o u to n -p o u ss o ir en fo n c tio n n e m e n t m a n u e l,le s c a rte s

« tra ite m e n t» pe rm e tte n t d 'e n c h a în e r le s d iffé re n te s phases n é c e s s a ire s au tra ite m e n t d'u ne
v o ie (fig u re 8 ). A s s o c ié e s aux c a rte s « tra ite m e n t» des c a rte s « lo g iq u e » é la b o re n t le s inform a­
tio n s : é ta t e t ordre qui s e rv iro n t à p o s itio n n e r l'o rg a n e de s o rtie à r e la is .

3. CONTROLE DE L'EQUIPEMENT

3.1. CONTROLE MANUEL

Un com m utateur in s ta llé à p ro x im ité du panneau de v o y a n ts e t ja c k s perm et de te s te r le

bon fo n c tio n n e m e n t lo g iq u e du s c ru ta te u r.
Ce te s t r é a lis e l'a llu m a g e s y s té m a tiq u e de to u s le s v o y a n ts puis leur e x tin c tio n e t e n fin le
retour au fo n c tio n n e m e n t norm al.

Sur un panneau de m a in te n a n c e s itu é dans l'a rm o ire é le c tro n iq u e , des in te rru p te u rs e t des
b o u to n s -p o u s s o irs p e rm e tte n t d 'e ffe c tu e r les o p é ra tio n s n é c e s s a ire s au c o n trô le e t au d é p a n ­
nage (s c ru ta tio n m a n u e lle ).

3.2. CONTROLE AUTOMATIQUE

Q u atre v o ie s te s t sont s c ru té e s à c h aque c y c le . L e s deux p rem ières sont c o n n e c té e s à des

tensions étalons; la troisième est raccordée à un court-circuit, la quatrième contrôle la
température interne de l'armoire électronique : température qui doit se situer dans la fourchette O,
+ 4 0 °C.

L e m a u v a is fo n c tio n n e m e n t d 'u n e v o ie te s t, la d is p a ritio n d 'u n e te n s io n d 'a lim e n ta tio n ou

le m auvais p o s itio n n e m e n t d'u n in te rru p te u r du panneau de m a in te n a n c e e n t r a ie n t l'a p p a ritio n
de l'a la rm e « d é fa u t s c ru ta te u r» .

3.3. D EFA U T SECTEUR

L a te n s io n s e c te u r e s t s u r v e illé e par un systèm e s e n s ib le qui stoppe l'a p p a r e il e t e n tra în e

l'a la rm e « d é fa u t s c ru ta te u r» quand la te n s io n s o rt de la fo u rc h e tte adm is e pour le bon fo n c tio n ­
nem ent de s c irc u its lo g iq u e s (2 2 0 V ± 5 % ).

En c a s d 'a b s e n c e s e c te u r les r e la is de l'o rg a n e de s o rtie c o n s e rv e n t, grâce à leur m émoire

m a g n é tiq u e , le u rs p o s itio n n e m e n ts p ré c é d e n ts .
 1A EA -SM -168/F-3 6 71

3.4. RUPTURE THERMOCOUPLE

L a rupture d 'u n the rm o c o u p le e n tra m e la s a tu ra tio n de l'a m p lific a te u r de m esure e t par là

même le p a ssag e en alarm e de la v o ie c o n c e rn ée .

4 - PROTECTION CONTRE LES PARASITES

De nom breuses sou rc es de p a ra s ite s sont p o s s ib le s : s e c te u r, lia is o n s sur le c a p te u r r e la ­

tiv e m e n t longues ; m ise à la m asse d e s th e rm o c o u p le s ,e n re g is tre u rs g ra p h iq u e s m u ltid ire c tio n s
bra n c h é s en p a r a llè le , e tc . . . C e c i à c o n d u it à prendre c e rta in e s p ré c a u tio n s :

4.1. LIAISONS ANALOGIQUES (figure 3)

T o u te s les in fo rm a tio n s a n a lo g iq u e s tra n s ite n t par c â b le s b lin d é s . L e b lin d a g e e s t m is à

la m asse en un s e u l point au n iv e a u de l'a rm o ire de racco rd em en t :
• sondes à ré s is ta n c e : lia is o n s par c â b le s b lin d é s m u ltic o n d u c te u rs .
- th e rm o c o u p le s e t ja c k s : lia is o n s par c â b le s b lin d é s m u ltic o n d u c te u rs to rs a d é s par p a ir .
L e s c h e m in s de c â b le s mesure sont s é p a ré s des chem ins de c â b le s p u is s a n c e et c o n trô le .

4.2. PRO TECTIONS INTERNES A L'EQ U IPEM EN T

L e s p a ra s ite s de mode d iffé r e n tie l sont é lim in é s par un filtr e p a s s e -b a s : pour une te n s io n
p a ra s ite de fré q u e n c e 50 H z e t d 'a m p litu d e 100 mV c rê te à c rê te in je c té e au n iv e a u du bornier
d 'e n tré e (a rm o ire de rac c o rd e m e n t) on m esure un ta u x d 'a ffa ib lis s e m e n t de 42 d B .

D e u x d io d e s m ontées tê te bêche p ro tè g e n t l'e n s e m b le contre les te n s io n s d iffé r e n tie lle s

trop im p o rta n te s .
- L e s p a ra s ite s de mode commun sont é lim in é s par l'a m p lific a te u r de m esure : pour une te n s io n
p a ra s ite de fré q u e n c e 50 H z e t d 'a m p litu d e 10 V c rê te à c rê te a p p liq u é e e n tre une borne d 'e n ­
tré e the rm o c o u p le et la m asse de l'a m p lific a te u r on m esure un ta u x de ré je c tio n de mode com ­
mun de 98 d B . D eux d io d e s Z é n e r é c rê te n t to u te s les te n s io n s de mode commun de v a le u r s u ­
p é rie u re à 12 V .
- D es filtr e s s e c te u r e t des tra n s fo rm a te u rs d 'is o le m e n t a ffra n c h is s e n t la m esure des p a ra s ite s
v é h ic u lé s par le s e c te u r.

R em arque :
L e s y s tè m e lo g iq u e à do u b le c o m p araiso n a s s u re la p ro te c tio n c ontre to u s le s p a ra s ite s fu g i­
t if s dont la durée n 'e x c è d e pas 4 ms (te m p s qui sépare la p ris e en com pte de S I de la p ris e en
com pte de S 2 ).

5 - CONCLUSION

L 'im p o rta n c e c ro is s a n te p ris e par le tra ite m e n t c e n tra lis é dans une c e n tra le n u c lé a ire
c o n d u it n a tu re lle m e n t à une s o lu tio n avec c a lc u la te u r. M a is pour des ra is o n s d 'é c o n o m ie s et
6 72 MONTMAYEUR

d 'e x p lo ita tio n , il e s t so u ven t n é c e s s a ire de h ié ra rc h is e r le tra ite m e n t de l'in fo rm a tio n :

é q u ip e m e n ts en lo g iq u e c â b lé e + c a lc u la te u r.

A T IH A N G E , c 'e s t c e tte s o lu tio n qui a é té c h o is ie . D ans c e ty p e de r é a lis a tio n , é ta n t

donné le nombre im portant de te m p é ra tu re s (7 0 0 ), il e s t in té re s s a n t d 'e n c o n fie r la s u rv e illa n c e
à un éq u ip e m e n t fo n c tio n n a n t en p a r a llè le avec le s y s tè m e à c a lc u la te u r. A in s i, ce d e rn ie r
re s te d is p o n ib le pour des tra ite m e n ts p lu s c o m p le x e s .
 PANEL SESSION
C O -O R D IN A T IO N N E C E S S A R Y F R O M T H E C O N C E P T U A L D E S IG N
STAGE O F A C O N T R O L A N D IN S T R U M E N T A T IO N S Y S T E M T O
F I N A L P L A N T O P E R A T IO N

C h a ir m a n : D. von H A E B L E R ( F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f G e r m a n y )

T h e P a n e l a g re e d th a t, b e c a u s e o f in a d e q u a te e x p e r ie n c e a n d s h o r ta g e s
o f p e rs o n n e l a n d tim e , m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s o fte n a r o s e a m o n g g r o u p s w h o s e
c o - o p e r a t io n w it h o n e a n o th e r w a s a b s o lu t e ly e s s e n t ia l to th e s u c c e s s o f
a p r o je c t. In a g iv e n c o u n t r y th e t h r e e g ro u p s th a t h a d to c o - o p e r a te w e re
n o r m a l l y th e p r o s p e c t iv e u s e r s w h o h a d o r d e r e d th e p la n t , th e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ,
a n d th e lic e n s in g a u t h o r it ie s w h o w o u ld b e c a lle d u p o n to a u t h o r iz e i t s u s e .
I t w a s th e d e m a n d s o f th e lic e n s in g a u t h o r it y — g e n e r a lly a G o v e rn m e n t
d e p a rtm e n t — w h ic h m a d e th e p r o b le m s o f n u c le a r p o w e r p la n ts r a t h e r
d iffe r e n t fr o m th o s e o f c o n v e n tio n a l p la n ts .
In th e U n ite d K in g d o m , C anada, Ita ly an d F ra n c e i t w a s c o m m o n
p r a c t ic e f o r th e S ta te , as u s e r, to e n g a g e a p r iv a t e m a n u fa c tu r e r . In
J a p a n c o - o p e r a t io n w a s o r g a n iz e d th r o u g h l i a i s o n c o m m it t e e s l i n k i n g th e
A t o m ic E n e r g y R e s e a r c h I n s t it u t e , th e u n iv e r s it ie s a n d th e p o w e r g e n e r a tin g
c o m p a n ie s (w h o h a d a ls o e s t a b lis h e d a c o m m it t e e f o r l i a is o n b e tw e e n t h e m ­
s e lv e s a n d th e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ) .
In th e U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e r ic a th e m a in r e a c t o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s o w n e d
th e c o m p a n ie s s u p p ly in g r e a c t o r c o n t r o l in s t r u m e n t a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f th e
la r g e n u m b e r o f l i g h t - w a t e r r e a c t o r s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t io n th e lic e n s in g
p r o c e d u r e to o k a lo n g t im e , a n d p la n ts w e r e n o t e x p e c te d to p r o d u c e p o w e r
f o r s i x o r s e v e n y e a r s a f t e r g o in g o n t h e o r d e r b o o k s .
In E a s te r n E u ro p e a ll th r e e g ro u p s — u s e rs , m a n u fa c tu re rs an d
lic e n s in g a u t h o r it ie s — w e re re p re s e n te d b y G o v e rn m e n t d e p a rtm e n ts .
M r. D ix o n ( U n ite d K in g d o m ) p r e s e n t e d t h r e e d ia g r a m s , p r o v id e d b y
th e C e n t r a l E l e c t r i c i t y G e n e r a tin g B o a r d (C E G B ), i l l u s t r a t i n g th e c o ­
o r d in a tio n o f a p r o je c t f r o m c o n c e p tio n to o p e r a t io n : a b a s ic o u t lin e
( F ig . 1 ), a c h a r t c o v e r in g p r o c e d u r e s f r o m th e e n q u ir y s ta g e th r o u g h th e
p la c e m e n t o f th e o r d e r ( F ig . 2) a n d a d ia g r a m s u m m a r iz in g th e p r o c e d u r e s
o f m a n u fa c tu r in g , in s t a lla t io n , t e s t in g a n d c o m m is s io n in g ( F ig . 3 ).
M r. Y a r e m y ( C a n a d a ) s a i d t h a t s i m i l a r d i a g r a m s c o u ld b e d r a w n f o r
A t o m i c E n e r g y o f C a n a d a L t d . , t h o u g h i n C a n a d a t h e d e s ig n a n d p r o j e c t
r o le s h a d b e e n c o m b in e d f o r c e r t a in s y s t e m s , a n d th o s e r e s p o n s ib le f o r
th e r e a c t o r c o n t r o l s y s te m f o llo w e d th e p r o g r e s s o f th e o t h e r f u n c t io n a l
g r o u p s in v o lv e d .
U n ite d S ta te s m a n u f a c t u r e r s , i n o r d e r t o e n a b le t h e u t i l i t i e s to b e g in
lic e n s in g p r o c e d u r e s q u ic k ly , u s u a lly s e n t a f u l l s e t o f s p e c if ic a t io n s a n d
d r a w in g s to th e p u r c h a s e r w it h in 30 d a y s o f r e c e ip t o f h is o r d e r . The
d o c u m e n ta tio n i n q u e s tio n n o r m a l l y c o n ta in e d i n f o r m a t io n to a llo w a p r e ­
l i m i n a r y s a fe ty a n a ly s is . O n e d r a w b a c k o f th e s y s te m w a s th a t i t le ft
little s c o p e f o r m o d ific a tio n s f r o m o n e p la n t to a n o th e r .
In th e F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f G e r m a n y i t w a s f e l t th a t e v e n w it h h ig h ly
s t a n d a r d iz e d p la n t s c e r t a in c h a n g e s in th e d r a w in g s a n d b a s ic in f o r m a t io n
w e re in e v ita b le . T h o s e m o d if ic a t io n s r e p r e s e n t e d a h e a v y w o r k lo a d , and

673
674 PANEL SESSION

c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s a c c o r d i n g l y b e in g g i v e n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o m p u t e r
p ro g ra m f o r c o n v e r tin g s im p le l i s t s o f a lt e r a t io n s in to n e w fo r m u la s a n d
t a b l e s f o r t h e w h o le m e a s u r i n g c h a n n e l a n d s u b s e q u e n t d o c u m e n t s .
I n th e S o v ie t U n io n th e q u e s tio n o f c o - o r d i n a t i o n b e tw e e n d e s ig n e r s ,
m a n u fa c tu re rs an d o p e ra to rs s c a r c e ly a r o s e in th e s a m e f o r m because
d e c is io n s w e r e ta k e n b y m i n i s t r i e s a n d o t h e r a u t h o r it ie s a t G o v e r n m e n t
le v e l, w h ic h m e a n t t h a t o v e r a l l p la n n in g w a s in e f f e c t c a r r i e d o u t in a d v a n c e .
T h e s t a n d a r d iz a t io n in t r o d u c e d in th e S o v ie t U n io n e x te n d e d to th e p la n t s
th a t m a n u fa c tu r e d in s tr u m e n ts f o r m o n it o r in g a n d c o n t r o l s y s te m s , a n d th e
o p e r a t o r s o f p o w e r s t a t io n s h a d n o th in g to d o w it h th e o r d e r in g o f s u c h
in s tr u m e n ts ; t h a t w a s th e m a n u f a c t u r e r 's r e s p o n s ib ilit y . E v e n s o , th e
s y s te m w a s n o t w ith o u t i t s d if f ic u lt ie s .
M r. C h a p e lo t ( F r a n c e ) r e c a l l e d t h a t w h e n th e f i r s t p r o t o t y p e p o w e r
s t a t io n s h a d b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d in F r a n c e , th e C o m m is s a r ia t à l'é n e r g ie
a t o m iq u e (C E A ) an d E le c tr ic ité de F r a n c e ( E D F ) h a d d e a lt w it h th e t u r b in e s .
E a c h o r g a n iz a t io n h a d c o n t r ib u t e d a n in d u s t r i a l a r c h it e c t o r a n e n g in e e r to
c o - o r d in a t e th e w o r k o f th e v a r io u s c o n s t r u c t o r s . T o im p r o v e th e c o ­
o r d in a t io n f u r t h e r a n d to c o n s t r u c t th e p r o t o t y p e f a s t b r e e d e r r e a c t o r
P h é n ix u n d e r th e b e s t p o s s ib le e c o n o m ic , t e c h n ic a l a n d p la n n in g c o n d itio n s ,
CEA, E D F a n d a p r i v a t e a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l g r o u p h a d d e c id e d i n
1 9 67 to e s ta b lis h a jo in t te a m h a v in g s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f th e e n t ir e p la n t. T h e h e a d o f th e p r o j e c t h a d b e e n a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f
EDF. T h e g r o u p h a d in c lu d e d , a t m a n a g e m e n t le v e l, a m a n in c h a rg e o f
s tu d ie s , a m a n in c h a r g e o f c o n s t r u c t io n in th e p la n t a n d -o n th e s it e , and
a m a n r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e g e n e r a l t e s t in g o f th e p o w e r p la n t. T e c h n ic a l
m e th o d s h a d b e e n p o o le d , a n d a s a r e s u l t t h e r e h a d b e e n a c o m p le te c o n t in u it y
o f e ffo rt fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e p r o je c t . I t w a s h o p e d th a t th e p o w e r
s t a t io n w o u ld r e a c h f u l l p o w e r in 1973. D u r i n g t h e d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n

>

Specify

PROJECT T IM E

F I G .l . Co-ordination o f p roject from concept to operation (CEGB basic outline diagram ).

 PANEL SESSION 675'

PARTICIPANTS ROUTE SPECIAL ASPECTS

Design Oept.
Project Group ENQUIRY
Eng., Services Oept. SPECIFICATION
U.K.A.E.A.

Suggestions
Design Dept.
PRE-TENDER Relaxations
Project Group DISCUSSIONS P racticability
Consortia
Alternatives

TENDERS

Technical Assessment
D e sig n D e p t.
Performance 8. Reliability
Project Group TENDERS
Operations Dept. Operation 8. Maintenance
EXAMINED
Health & Safety Dept Safety
Cost

Design Dept. FINAL

CONSIDERATION
Project Group
OF TENDERS

Project Group TENDER

S E LE C T E D

BOARD APPROVAL

I
Project Group ORDER PLACED

FIG . 2 . Co-ordination o f p roject from concept to operation — enquiry sp ecification to order placed
(CEGB outline diagram , phase 1).
676 PANEL SESSION

LICENSE
SITE
Provisioning Programme
Specialise Building Station^
Region >
CONSORTIA RESEARCH 8,
DESIGN H.Q. /
DEVELOPMENT
OPERATIONS

Г" ' — —
...................................................................... Time based a c t i v i t i e s

............................................................................................................... CEGB D epartm ents ond

Nucl ear I n s t a l l a t i o n s I n s pe ct or a te

KEY

I I .......... ........................................................................................................ M e e t i n g s / C o m m i t t e e s and Teams

— — ...................................................................................................... Operati onal Li nk

............................................................................... ..................................................... General or M o ni t o r i ng L i a i s o n Link

FIG . 3 . Co-ordination of p roject from concept to operation — m anufacture, in sta l, test and commission
(CEGB outline diagram , phase 2 ),
 PANEL SESSION 677

p h a s e a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e f u t u r e o p e r a t o r h a d b e e n a m e m b e r o f th e te a m ,
a s h a d a c e r ta in n u m b e r o f te c h n ic a l s ta ff. T h a t fo rm o f o r g a n iz a tio n w a s
c o n s id e r e d t o h a v e b e e n v e r y e f f e c t iv e a s r e g a r d s b o th d e c is io n m a k in g a n d
th e o p e r a t io n a l a c t iv it ie s in v o lv e d in c o n s t r u c t io n .
M r. B a l l ( U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e r ic a ) s a id t h a t th e p a c e o f in n o v a t io n in
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l h a d s lo w e d c o n s id e r a b ly i n th e U n it e d S ta te s ,
p a r t l y b e c a u s e n e w in f o r m a t io n h a d y e t to b e o b ta in e d f r o m th e la r g e p la n ts
t h a t h a d r e c e n t ly g o n e in t o o p e r a t io n , a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e th e lic e n s in g
fu n c tio n s o f th e G o v e r n m e n t n e e d e d to b e r e o r g a n iz e d a n d s t r e a m lin e d .
M r. F u r e t ( F r a n c e ) s a id t h a t s in c e th e m a in p u r p o s e o f c o - o r d in a t io n
w a s to e n s u re o p tim u m a v a i l a b i l i t y o f th e p o w e r s t a t io n d u r in g i t s l i f e t i m e
o f r o u g h ly 30 y e a r s , th e p r o b le m w a s in p a r t o n e o f e c o n o m ic s a n d
e ff ic ie n c y . T h e d if f ic u lt ie s o f s e c u r in g e ff e c tiv e c o - o r d i n a t i o n c o u ld b e
p u t in tw o c a t e g o r ie s , te c h n ic a l a n d n o n - te c h n ic a l, th e f o r m e r r e la t i n g
f o r e x a m p le , t o t h e t y p e o f r e a c t o r e n v is a g e d , th e r a p i d e v o lu t io n o f
e l e c t r o n i c s te c h n o lo g y a n d in f o r m a t io n te c h n iq u e s ( in c lu d in g th e c o n s e q u e n t
p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f la n g u a g e s ) , a n d th e l a t t e r l a r g e l y to th e e v o lu t io n o f
in d u s t r i a l p o lic ie s a t th e n a t io n a l — a n d in s o m e c a s e s in t e r n a t io n a l —
le v e l. A p o in t w o r t h b e a r in g in m in d w a s t h a t , d u r in g th e l i f e t i m e of a
p o w e r s t a t io n , c o m p a n ie s t h a t h a d m a d e c o m p o n e n ts f o r i t m ig h t c e a s e to
e x is t.
T h e o p e r a t o r o b v io u s ly c a r r i e d m o r e w e ig h t in d e c is io n - m a k in g th a n
th e d e s ig n e r o r b u il d e r s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e w a s r e s p o n s ib le f o r p la c in g th e
o rd e r. I f he w e re r e a s o n a b ly f le x ib le in a c c e p tin g in n o v a t io n s , c o - o r d in a t io n
b e tw e e n h im a n d th e b u il d e r w o u ld p r o b a b ly b e e a s ie r . I n F r a n c e th e
o p e r a t o r 's p a r t ic ip a t io n in p r o to ty p e t e s t in g h a d p r o v e d v e r y f r u i t f u l ;
o n - s ite c o - o r d in a t io n w it h th e b u ild e r w a s o b v io u s ly o f fu n d a m e n ta l
im p o r t a n c e . G iv e n p r o p e r p la n n in g , th e o p e r a t o r w o u ld h a v e e n o u g h
t im e to c a r r y o u t a th o r o u g h e x a m in a tio n o f h is in s t a lla t io n b e fo r e s ta rt-u p ,
a n d t o s a t i s f y h i m s e l f t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t c h e d t h e d e s ig n . C o - o p e r a tio n
b e tw e e n d e s ig n e r s a n d b u il d e r s r a is e d f e w e r p r o b l e m s , p e rh a p s b e ca u se
t h e y r e a liz e d th a t in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is t h e y m u s t r e c k o n w it h th e w is h e s a n d
ju d g e m e n ts o f th e o p e r a t o r .
M r. L a n g la d e ( F r a n c e ) a d d e d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y a c h ie v e d b y t h e p r o d u c t i o n
u n it w a s c o n s id e r e d , in F r a n c e , to b e th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n f o r th e
s e le c t io n o f a c o m p o n e n t. T h e f i r s t s te p w a s to d e t e r m in e th e c r i t i c a l p o in t
i n th e i n s t a ll a t i o n . T h a t c o u ld b e d o n e b y s t u d y in g r e p o r t s d r a w n u p j o i n t l y
b y th e d e s ig n e r , th e b u il d e r a n d th e o p e r a t o r . S u b s e q u e n tly t e s t s i n a p la n t
o r s p e c ia liz e d l a b o r a t o r y m ig h t b e n e c e s s a r y . O n c e th o s e h a d b e e n c a r r ie d
o u t, a n d g u a r a n te e s o b ta in e d f r o m th e b u ild e r , th e s o - c a lle d " s e le c t io n s ta g e "
c o u ld b e m a d e m u c h s h o r t e r t h a n w o u l d e v e r b e p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e c o m p l e t e
t e s t s t h a t h a d b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C E G B , w h i c h c o u ld
e a s il y n e c e s s it a t e a la p s e o f tw o o r t h r e e y e a r s b e tw e e n th e s t a r t o f f a b r i ­
c a t io n a n d th e e n d o f w h a t w a s c a lle d th e " a g r e e m e n t s t a g e " . O ne d if f ic u lt y
w a s th a t, a s te c h n o lo g y b e c a m e o u td a te d in f iv e o r te n y e a r s , th e re w as
i n s u f f i c i e n t e x p e r i e n c e a v a i l a b l e a s a b a s i s f o r c h o ic e . A s o lu t io n w a s to
a d o p t in n o v a tio n s e a r l i e r .
I t w a s s u g g e s te d th a t c o - o r d in a t io n f r o m t h e c o n c e p t u a l d e s ig n t o t h e
o p e r a t io n a l p h a s e s h o u ld r e l y m o r e h e a v i l y o n th e r e s u l t s o f e x p e r ie n c e .
T h e r o le s o f d e s ig n e r s , m a n u fa c tu r e r s a n d o p e r a to r s in p r o v id in g in s t r u ­
m e n t a t io n a n d c o n t r o l f o r th e p r o t e c t io n o f th e p u b lic a n d p la n t p e r s o n n e l
w e re , in t h e o r y a t le a s t , w e ll d e fin e d , a n d a n a p p r o p r ia te "fe e d b a c k " fr o m
678 PANEL SESSION

o p e r a t o r s to d e s ig n e r s s h o u ld e n h a n c e th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th o s e m e a s u r e s .
U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e " c o m m u n ic a t io n s g a p " w a s a g g r a v a te d b y th e f a c t t h a t
f e w n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n d e s ig n e n g i n e e r s h a d e n o u g h o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e
t o d e s ig n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m s w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c i n g o p e r a t i n g
o r m a in t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s , a n d fe w o p e r a t o r s h a d e n o u g h u n d e r s t a n d in g o f
d e s ig n t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e n e e d f o r e q u i p m e n t t h a t m i g h t s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r
to b e e x c e s s iv e ly c o m p le x o r re d u n d a n t.
W h e re p r o v e n r e a c t o r ty p e s w e re c o n c e rn e d , a p r o f it a b le c o u rs e o f
a c tio n m ig h t b e to d r a w u p u s e r s ' s p e c if ic a t io n s , i n c o r p o r a t in g th e r e s u lt s
o f e x p e r ie n c e , w h ic h c o u ld b e p a s s e d o n to d e s ig n e r s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s .
D e s ig n e r s , m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d o p e r a t o r s s h o u ld b e in f r e q u e n t c o n ta c t a t
a l l s ta g e s b e tw e e n th e i n v it a t io n to b u ild a n d th e s t a r t - u p o f th e p la n t.
B e c a u s e i t g e n e r a l l y t o o k a l o n g t i m e f o r t h e a d v i c e w h i c h o p e r a t o r s c o u ld
o f f e r o n th e b a s is o f t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e to r e a c h th e d e s ig n e r s , e ffo rts s h o u ld
b e m a d e . t o g le a n a s m u c h i n f o r m a t io n a s p o s s ib le f r o m r e la t e d in s t a lla t io n s —
f o r e x a m p l e c o n v e n t i o n a l p o w e r p l a n t s a n d n u c l e a r p l a n t 's o f p r o v e n t y p e s —
w h ic h m ig h t b e o f v a lu e to n e w a n d a d v a n c e d n u c le a r p la n t s . . C o - o r d in a t io n
s h o u ld n o t b e l i m i t e d to in d iv id u a l p r o je c t s b u t s h o u ld e n c o m p a s s e v e r y t h in g
th a t w a s r e le v a n t .
M r. S te v e n s ( F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f G e r m a n y ) s u g g e s te d t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a ­
t i o n a n d c o n t r o l s t a f f w e r e i n a u n iq u e p o s i t i o n . N o r m a lly th e o n ly p e r s o n
f u l l y c o g n iz a n t o f a l l t h a t w e n t o n in th e p o w e r p la n t w a s th e p r o j e c t m a n a g e r .
T h e in s t r u m e n t a t io n a n d c o n t r o l s t a f f w e r e s e c ô n d o n ly to h im in th e fu lln e s s
o f t h e i r k n o w le d g e . T h e ir jo b b r o u g h t th e m in to c o n ta c t w ith m o r e
d e p a r t m e n t s t h a n m o s t o f th e . r e s t o f t h e s t a f f e v e r c a m e .to k n o w . M o s t'
e n g in e e r s liv e d in a c o m p a r t m e n t a liz e d w o r ld a n d te n d e d to t h in k o f t h e ir
e f f o r t in d e p e n d e n t ly r a t h e r th a n in th e c o n te x t o f th e w h o le - p la n t . The
in s tr u m e n ta tio n a n d c o n t r o l m a n , h o w e v e r, h a d to t h in k o f th e p la n t a s a n
in t e g r a t e d o p e r a t in g u n it a n d w a s a c c o r d in g ly in a n e x c e lle n t p o s it io n to
g u id e t h e e f f o r t s o f o t h e r s .
M r. L u n d e ( N o r w a y ) s a id th a t th e n u c le a r u t i l i t i e s w e re in c r e a s in g ly
a b le t o l a y d o w n f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e i r c o n t r o l a n d i n s t r u m e n t a ­
tio n s y s te m s . T h a t a b il i t y m a n ife s te d i t s e l f in m o r e s tr in g e n t a n d r a t io n a l
c o n tro l ro o m s p e c if ic a t io n s a n d fu n c tio n s . T h e u t i l i t i e s w e r e w e l l a d v is e d
to t r y to k e e p p a c e w it h d e v e lo p m e n ts in v ie w o f th e c o n s id e r a b le t im e la g
b e tw e e n th e i n i t i a l s p e c if ic a t io n s f o r a p la n t a n d th e f in a l f r e e z in g o f i t s
d e s ig n : t h e y s h o u ld u s e t h e i r o p p o r t u n it ie s to th e f u l l . S ig n if ic a n t d e v e lo p ­
m e n ts in th e n e x t fe w y e a r s w o u ld in c lu d e s u c h it e m s a s i n - c o r e in s tr u m e n ta ­
tio n s y s te m s , n e w d a ta t r a n s m is s io n te c h n iq u e s f r o m s e n s o rs to c o m p u te r s ,
c o m p u te r a r c h ite c tu r e a n d c o n tr o l- r o o m d e s ig n . T h e fu tu r e m ig h t see e ith e r
a n a p p r o p r ia t e fu n c t io n a l d iv is io n o r th e in t e g r a t io n o f s a fe ty fu n c tio n s a n d
c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g f u n c t io n s ( in c lu d in g p r o b le m s a s s o c ia t e d w it h
r e lia b ilit y an d re d u n d a n c y ). R e lia b le s p a t ia l c o r e c o n t r o l s y s te m s w e r e
l i k e l y to b e d e v e lo p e d w h ic h w o u ld m a k e i t p o s s ib le , a m o n g o th e r th in g s ,
to m in im iz e o p e r a t io n a l f u e l f a ilu r e s . T h e r e w o u ld a ls o b e in t e r c o n n e c t io n s
a n d in t e r a c t io n s b e tw e e n o n - lin e lo c a l c o m p u te r s y s te m s a n d la r g e o f f - s i t e
c o m p u te rs .
M r. G o ld e r ( U n ite d K in g d o m ) s a id th a t d a t a - h a n d lin g e q u ip m e n t,
w h e th e r c o m p u te r - b a s e d o r n o t, s h o u ld b e p u r c h a s e d , in s t a lle d a n d
c o m m is s io n e d w e ll b e fo r e i t w a s n e e d e d . T h e p r e p a r a t io n o f th e s o f t ­
w a r e s h o u ld b e s t a r t e d e v e n b e f o r e th e p u r c h a s e o f th e d a t a - h a n d lin g
e q u ip m e n t. H is o r g a n iz a t io n u s u a lly t r i e d to h a v e c o m p u tin g s y s te m s d e - .
 PANEL SESSION 679

l i v e r e d a t th e s it e o n e y e a r b e f o r e t h e y w e r e r e q u ir e d , and m a de good use

o f th e t im e . I t h a d b e e n fo u n d n e c e s s a r y to b u d g e t f o r s o m e th in g o f th e
o r d e r o f 20 to 35 m a n - y e a r s o f s o f t - w a r e e f f o r t .
M r. D e c o o l ( F r a n c e ) r e f e r r e d to th e p r o b le m o f h o w lo n g th e c o n t r o l
in s t r u m e n t a t io n e q u ip m e n t h a d to la s t . A p o w e r p la n t h a d a lif e t im e o f
30 y e a r s , b u t i t w a s d if f ic u lt — a lth o u g h n o t im p o s s ib le — t o e n v is a g e
e le c t r o n ic c o m p o n e n ts w o u ld la s t s o lo n g . T h e p o s s ib ilit y o f it s r e p la c e ­
m e n t m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s id e r e d . I t m ig h t be n e c e s s a r y , f o r e x a m p le ,
to c o n s id e r i n s t a l l i n g in t e r f a c e d e v ic e s so a s to m a in t a in a c e r t a i n d e g r e e
o f a v a i l a b i l i t y w h ile r e p la c in g p a r t o f th e e q u ip m e n t t h a t h a d c e a s e d to
f u n c t io n o r h a d b e c o m e o b s o le te . T h e c o n s t r u c t o r s s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e
u n d e r t a k e t o s u p p ly s p a r e p a r t s d u r i n g th e w h o le l i f e t i m e o f th e p o w e r p la n t .
A s r e g a r d s th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n d e s ig n e r a n d o p e r a t o r , i t w o u ld
b e u s e fu l, a t le a s t in th e p r o to ty p e p o w e r p la n ts , to c a r r y o u t te s t s o n
th e a s s e m b lie s a n d s u b - a s s e m b lie s , f o r e x a m p l e w i t h a n a lo g u e s i m u l a t o r s
o r lo g ic s im u la to r s . E x p e r ie n c e h a d s h o w n t h a t th e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r th e
f i n a l c o m m is s io n in g o f a f a c i l i t y c o u ld t h e r e b y b e r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r o f
tw o , th re e o r e v e n fo u r. M o re o v e r, a c lo s e a s s o c ia t io n b e tw e e n th e
o p e r a t o r a n d t h o s e i n c h a r g e o f c o n t r o l a n d m a in t e n a n c e w o u l d m a k e i t
p o s s ib le to e s t a b lis h a n d t r a i n g o o d m a in t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r t e a m s . The
b e n e f it w o u ld n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d to th e o p e r a t o r a lo n e , b e c a u s e in s u c h
c ir c u m s t a n c e s h e w o u ld b e m o r e w i l l i n g to a c c e p t s p e c ia l f e a t u r e s o f f e r e d
b y th e d e s ig n e r .
NEUTRON F L U X MEASUREMENTS
(Session G)
 C h airm en

PapersG- OOtoG- 4: J. F U R E T (F r a n c e )

P a p e r s G - 5 to G - 8 : L .V . K O N S T A N T IN O V (U S S R )
 IA E A - S M -168/G-OO

С И С ТЕМ А КО Н ТРО Л Я ЗА Р А С П Р Е Д Е Л Е Н И Е М
Э Н ЕР ГО В Ы Д ЕЛ ЕН И Я В Р Е А К Т О Р Е Р Б М К (С К Р Э )

И. Я . Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В , Л. В . К О Н С Т А Н Т И Н О В ,
В . В . П О СТ Н И К О В , В . К. Д Е Н И С О В ,
В. Я. ГУРОВИ Ч
Г о су д а р с тв е н н ы й к о м и тет по использованию
атом ной энергии С С С Р ,
М осква,
Союз С о ветск и х Социалистических Республик

Abstract-Аннотация

S Y S T E M O F M O N IT O R IN G T H E D IS T R IB U T IO N O F E N E R G Y R E L E A S E IN AN R B M K
R E A C T O R (S K R E ).
T h e p a p e r d e s c r i b e s th e m a in f e a t u r e s o f th e s y s t e m o f m o n ito r in g e n e r g y r e a l e a s e
in th e lO O O -M W (e) c h a n n e l-ty p e g r a p h it e - m o d e r a t e d b o il i n g - w a t e r u r a n iu m r e a c t o r
b e lo n g in g to th e L e n in g r a d N u c le a r P o w e r S ta tio n . B e t a - e m i s s i o n s e n s o r s in th e f o r m
o f c o a x i a l c a b l e s h a v in g m i n e r a l in s u la tio n and a c e n t r a l s i l v e r c o r e a r e u s e d a s th e
in t e r n a l p ick u p e l e m e n t f o r e n e r g y r e l e a s e in th e s y s t e m . T h e s e n s o r s i g n a l s a r e c o m ­
p a r e d in a s y s t e m w ith g iv e n s e t t i n g s . D a ta o n d e v ia t io n s a r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e to th e
o p e r a t o r th ro u g h a s p e c i a l m i m ic d i a g r a m . T h e m o n ito r in g s y s t e m i s c o n n e c te d w ith
a d ig ita l c o m p u te r w h ich c a l c u l a t e s th e p o w e r o f e a c h fu e l a s s e m b ly in th e r e a c t o r .

С И С Т Е М А К О Н Т Р О Л Я ЗА Р А С П Р Е Д Е Л Е Н И Е М Э Н Е Р Г О В Ы Д Е Л Е Н И Я В Р Е А К Т О Р Е
Р Б М К (С К Р Э ).
В д о к л а д е п р и вед ен ы о с н о в н ы е х а р а к т е р и ст и к и с и с т е м ы ко н т р о л я э н е р г о в ы д е л е ­
ния д л я у р а н -г р а ф и т о в о г о р е а к т о р а к а н а л ь н о г о т и п а , о х л а ж д а е м о г о кипящ ей в о д о й ,
м о щ н о стью 1 0 0 0 М в т (э л ) Л е н и н гр а д ск о й а т о м н о й э л е к т р о с т а н ц и и . В к а ч е с т в е в н у т р и -
р е а к т о р н ы х д а т ч и к о в э н е р го в ы д е л е н и я в с и с т е м е и сп о л ь зу ю т ся б е т а -э м и с с и о н н ы е д а т ­
чи ки , и з г о т о в л е н н ы е в ви д е к о а к с и а л ь н о г о к а б е л я с м и н ер альн о й и зо л я ц и ей с ц е н т р а л ь ­
ной жилой и з с е р е б р а . С и гн а л ы д а т ч и к о в ср а в н и в а ю т ся в с и с т е м е с зад ан н ы м и
у с т а в к а м и . И нф ормация об откл он ен и и в ы д а е т с я о п е р а то р у с помощ ью с п ец и а л ь н о го
м н е м о т а б л о . С и с т е м а ко н тр ол я с в я з а н а с и н ф о р м ац и о н н о -в ы ч и сл и т ел ьн о й цифровой
маш и н ой , к о т о р а я о с у щ е с т в л я е т р а с ч е т м о щ н о сти к аж д ой топ ли вн ой сборки в р е а к т о р е .

1. ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Значение распределени я эн ерговы дел ен и я в ядерном р еакто р е

является необходимы м услови ем эконом ически эф ф ективной и б е з ­
опасной эксп л уатац и и энергонапряж енн ой ядерной устан о вк и .
В настоящ ее врем я эта задача реш ается в больш инстве случаев
с помощ ью д а тч и к о в , д и ск р е тн о р а зм е щ ен н ы х в акти вной зоне [1].
О б р а б о т к а си гн ал о в о т д атч и к о в с помощ ью сп ец и ал ьн ы х и н ф орм ац и ­
онно-вы чи слительны х устр о й ств позволяет д остаточ н о оперативно
кон троли ровать зап ас до критической тепловой н агрузки для каж дого
топ л и вн ого э л е м е н т а и б л а го д а р я э т о м у о с у щ е с т в л я т ь оптим изацию
пол ей э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я с целью п овы ш ен и я м о щ н о сти и т е п л о т е х н и ч е с ­
кой н адеж н ости р е а к т о р а , а та к ж е средн ей и н тегр ал ьн о й э н е р г о в ы р а ­
ботки загрузки.

683
684 Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В и др.

2. НАЗНАЧЕНИЕ

С и ст е м а контроля за распределением энерговы деления в р еакто ре

РБМ К (С К Р Э ) предназначена для о сущ ествлен и я изм ерений потоков
радиоактивны х излучений, характеризую щ их энерговы деление в р е а к т о ­
ре.
О с у щ е ст в л я я первичную о б р аботк у поступаю щ их от датч и ков
контроля за расп р ед елен и ем энерговы делния си гн ал ов, сравнивая их
затем с н ап еред заданн ы м и п редельны м и (опти м альн ы м и ) величинам и ,
СКРЭ в ы д а е т о п ер а то р у реком ен даци и для ф орм ирования поля э н е р г о ­
вы деления. Р а с ч е т опти м альн ы х у с т а в о к для вн утри реакторн ы х
д а т ч и к о в о с у щ е с т в л я е т с я на внеш ней Э В М .
Д л я о сущ ествл ен и я дополнительной корректи ровки поля э н е р г о в ы ­
дел ен и я с у ч е т о м п р о и зво д и м ы х на р е а к т о р е р а б о т , п р е д у см о т р ен а
связь С К Р Э с и нф орм ацион но-вы числительной маш иной, обеспечиваю ­
щ ей п е р и о д и ч е с к и й р а с ч е т вел и ч и н ы э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я д ля к а ж д о г о
топливного канала.

3. ОПИСАНИЕ СИСТЕМ Ы СКРЭ

СКРЭ я в л яется единым ком плексом приборов и у стр о й ств , п о зво ­

ляющ их в е с т и оп ер ати вн ы й кон трол ь за р а сп р е д е л е н и е м э н е р г о в ы д е л е ­
ния.
СКРЭ вклю ч ает в с е б я следую щ ие о сн о в н ы е ч а сти :
а) д а т ч и к к о н т р о л я э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я п о р а д и у с у р е а к т о р а ;
б) д а т ч и к к о н т р о л я э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я п о в ы с о т е ;
в) д а т ч и к к о н т р о л я э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я ( г р а д у и р о в о ч н ы й ) ;
г) в сп о м о га т ел ь н у ю с и с т е м у для и зм ер ен и я н аведен н ой а к ти вн о сти
в стал ьн ы х тр о с а х и акти вн ости и зв л ек аем ы х из р еа к то р а теп л о вы д е­
ляющ их сб о р о к ;
д) в т о р и ч н у ю ч а с т ь с и с т е м ы ;
е) с и с т е м у си гн ал и за ц и и .
Д ля оценки основны х м етр о л о ги ч еск и х х ар ак тер и сти к С К Р Э , п о­
лучения н ек о то р ы х з а в и си м о сте й величины си гн ал а д атч и к а от в ы г о ­
рания горю чего в тепловы деляю щ их сб о р к а х, полож ения стерж ней
с и с т е м ы уп р а вл ен и я и защ и ты (СУ З) и т. д. , в р е а к т о р е п р е д у с м о т р е н а
в о з м о ж н о с т ь и з м е р е н и я м о щ н о с т и 60 р е п е р н ы х т е х н о л о г и ч е с к и х
каналов, снабж енны х датчикам и паросодерж ания, расходом ерам и и
тем пературны м и датчиками.
В к о н с т р у к ц и и р е а к т о р а с п е ц и а л ь н о , с целью к о н т р о л я з а р а с п р е д е ­
лен и ем эн ер говы дел ен и я , п р ед усм о тр ен а уста н о в к а 153 тепловы деляю ­
щих сбор ок (Т В С ) с п о д в еск ам и под град уи р овочн ы й д атч и к к он трол я,
к у д а м о г у т б ы ть у с т а н о в л е н ы миниатю рная к а м е р а делен и я во в р ем я
ф и зп уск а и градуировочн ы й датчик (га м м а -к а м е р а ) в период о с т а н о ­
вок р еак то р а.
Д ан н ы е р асп р ед ел ен и я п лотн ости н ей трон ов в п ер вом и поля о с ­
та то ч н о го тепловы деления во втором сл уч ае и спользую тся для о п р ед е­
ления основны х м етр ол оги ч еск и х характери сти к си стем ы и оп р ед ел е­
ния к о э ф ф и ц и е н т о в м и к р о с т р у к т у р ы , и с п о л ь з у е м ы х при р а с ч е т е
мощ ности каналов.
 IAEA- SM- 168/G- OO 685

3 . 1. Д ат ч и к кон троля эн ер го вы дел ен и я по р а д и у с у р е а к т о р а

В осн ову прим ененного в С К Р Э м етод а контроля за распределени ем

эн ер го вы дел ен и я в р еа к то р е принят м е то д , так н а зы в а е м о го "ф и з и ч е с ­
к о го " контроля, осн ован н ого на изм ерении потоков радиоактивны х
излучений, связан н ы х с эн ерговы дел ен и ем и звестн ы м и соотнош ениям и.
В СКРЭ в к ач естве основного парам етра и зм еряется плотность
нейтронов. Д ля контроля за распределением плотности нейтронов
по р ад и усу р еакто р а использую тся сто сем н адц ать бета -эм и сси о н н ы х
нейтронны х датч и ков, равном ерн о р а зм ещ аем ы х в активной зоне р е а к ­
тора.
Д атч и к контроля эн ерговы дел ен и я (Д К Э ) у ст а н а в л и в а е т ся в ц ен т­
ральное о тв ер сти е тепловы деляю щ ей сборки.
ДКЭ состои т из тр ех основны х частей: чувствительного элем ен­
т а и з к а б е л я - д а т ч и к а , п р е д о х р а н и т е л ь н о й г и л ь з ы с г о л о в к о й и линии
свя зи из в ы со к о т е м п е р а т у р н о го к абел я с м агн ези ал ьн ой изоляцией.
К абел ь-датч и к п р ед ставл яет собой вы сокотем пературн ы й кабель
д и а м е т р о м 3 м м с м а г н е з и а л ь н о й и зо л я ц и ей , ц ен т р ал ьн о й жилой и з
се р е б р а и наруж ной оболочкой из нерж авею щ ей стали .
Д лина ч у в ств и тел ьн о й ч асти р авн а в ы со т е акти вной зоны р еа к то р а .
Н аруж ны й д и ам етр предохран ительн ой ги л ьзы из нерж авею щ ей стали -
- 6 мм .
Принцип д е й ст в и я Д К Э заклю чается в следую щ ем. При обл уч ен и и
сер ебр а (эм и ттера) нейтронам и образую тся радиоактивны е изотопы
с е р е б р а , при р а с п а д е к о т о р ы х п р о и с х о д и т в ы л е т и з э м и т т е р а б е т а -
частиц вы соких энергий. В р езул ьтате ухода бета-ч асти ц из эм и ттера,
он з а р я ж а е т с я п о л о ж и т е л ь н о . Т ок к оротк ого зам ы кания с эм и ттер а
на к о л л ек то р (обол очка к абел я) пропорционален п л отн о сти ней тронов.
В ели чи н а и з м е р я е м о г о то к а д атч и к о в к о л е б л е т с я ,в зави си м о сти
о т и х р а с п о л о ж е н и я в а к т и в н о й з о н е , о т 3 д о 10 м к а .
З ам ен а д атч и к а о с у щ е с т в л я е т с я с помощ ью п о д ъ ем н о го крана
центрального зала. П р о к л а д к а к а б е л ь н о й т р а с с ы п р о и з в о д и т с я при
монтаж е реактора. С ам кабель тр ассы аналогичен кабелю -датчи ку,
но ц ен тр ал ьн ая жила е го вы полнена и з нерж авею щ ей стал и .
При п р о кл ад к е т р а с с приняты сп ец и а л ьн ы е м ер ы по обеспечению
пом ехоустойчивости.

3. 2. Д ат ч и к кон троля эн ер го вы д ел ен и я по в ы с о т е р е а к то р а

Д л я кон троля за р а сп р ед ел ен и ем п л отн ости н ей трон ов по в ы со т е

р еактора использую тся двенадцать сем исекционны х бета-эм и сси он н ы х
нейтронны х датчиков. Д а т ч и к и расположены р а в н о м е р н о в ц е н т р а л ь ­
н о й (по р а д и у с у ) ч а с т и р е а к т о р а в б л и з и с п е ц и а л ь н ы х с т е р ж н е й С У З ,
п р ед н азн ач ен н ы х для кор р екти р овки поля эн ер го в ы д ел ен и я по в ы с о т е .
Д а т ч и к э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я по в ы с о т е п р е д с т а в л я е т с о б о й полую
г и л ь з у и з а л ю м и н и е в о г о с п л а в а д и а м е т р о м 70 м м и то л щ и н о й 2 м м ,
внутри которой р азм ещ ен о сем ь равноудаленны х д р уг от д р уга э л ем ен ­
т а р н ы х б е т а -э м и с с и о н н ы х н ей тр о н н ы х д а т ч и к о в (секций ). Ц ентры
ниж ней и в е р х н ей сек ц и й см ещ ен ы о т н о с и т е л ь н о гр ан и ц акти вн о й зоны
к ц е н т р у н а 500 м м .
686 Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В и др.

Ч у в ств и те л ь н ы й эл е м ен т каж дой секции вы полнен в виде спирали

д и а м е т р о м 62 м м и в ы с о т о й 115 мм; общ ая длина к абел я с серебряной
жилой в к аж д о м ч у в с т в и т е л ь н о м э л е м е н т е - 7000 м м .
Си гн ал от ч ув ств и тел ьн о го эл ем ен та вы води тся к располож енной
в в е р х н ей ч а с ти г о л о в к е с помощ ью в ы с о к о т е м п е р а т у р н о г о м а г н е з и ­
а л ь н о г о к а б е л я с о ста л ь н о й ц ен трал ьн ой жилой.
В с я конструкци я п од д ерж и вается специальной центральной трубой ,
служ ащ ей одноврем енно для устан овки в р еа к то р е тр о са для активации.
П ри п р о к л а д к е к а б е л ь н ы х линий п ри н яты с п е ц и а л ь н ы е м е р ы по
обеспечению п ом ехоустой чи вости .
В ели чи н а си гн ал а от о тд ел ьн ы х секций д а тч и к а , в зави си м о сти от
и х р а с п о л о ж е н и я в а к т и в н о й з о н е , м о ж е т и з м е н я т ь с я о т 3 д о 10 м к а .

3 .3 Вторичная часть систем ы

Вторичная ч асть си стем ы вы полняется в виде отдельны х ф ункцио­

нальны х блоков.
П о с в о е м у назначению и выполнению втори ч н ая ч а с т ь м о ж е т б ы ть
р а зд е л е н а на д ве ч асти - вторичную ч а ст ь си ст е м ы контроля за р а с п р е д е ­
лен и ем эн ер го вы д ел ен и я по р а д и у су р е а к т о р а и вторичную ч а с т ь с и ст е м ы
кон тр ол я за р а сп р ед ел ен и ем эн ер го вы дел ен и я по в ы с о т е р е а к то р а.

3 . 3 . 1. В торичная ч а сть си стем ы контроля за распределени ем

энерговы дел ен и я по р а д и усу р еакто р а

П риборная ч асть си стем ы о бесп еч и вает обр або тку си гн ал ов, п о ­

ступаю щ их от 117 д атч и ков. В с и с т е м е и с п о л ь з у е т с я принцип п о с л е ­
д о вател ьн о го опроса датчиков, что обесп еч и вает м ногократное и с ­
п ол ьзован и е общ их узл о в и однородность обр аботки данн ы х для каж дой
точки контроля и, сл ед ов ател ьн о , повы ш ает точ н ость и упрощ ает
эксплуатацию си стем ы .
С и гн алы от д атч и ков ч ер ез обегаю щ ее у с т р о й с т в о поступаю т в нор­
м ирую щ ее у с т р о й с т в о , г д е о с у щ е с т в л я е т с я д ел ен и е (норм ирование)
си гн ал а к аж дого опраш и ваем ого датчика на сум м арны й ток в с е х д а т ­
чиков, пропорциональный средней м ощ ности р еакто р а. Операция
н ор м и рован и я о б е с п е ч и в а е т постоянную ч у в с т в и т е л ь н о с т ь с и с т е м ы на
в с е х уровн ях м ощ н ости, исклю чает н еобходим ость изм енения опорных
сигналов ("уста во к ") заданного распределения в зависим ости от уровня
м ощ н ости р е а к т о р а , значител ьн о сн и ж ает влияние на р а б о ту си сте м ы
з а п а з д ы в а н и я , и м е ю щ е г о м е с т о в б е т а - э м и с с и о н н ы х д а т ч и к а х при
переходных процессах.
С в ы хо д а норм ирую щ его п р е о б р азо в а те л я си гн ал п о с т у п а е т в у с т ­
р о й ств о обнаруж ения отклонения, гд е со п о ст а в л я е тся с опорным с и г ­
н а л о м , вел ич ина к о т о р о г о у с т а н а в л и в а е т с я с помощ ью д атч и к а опорны х
си гн ал ов и индивидуальны х датчиков уста во к .
Д атчи к опорных сигналов п р ед усм атр и вает возм ож н ость произво­
д и ть п л авн ое и зм ен ен и е величины в с е х опорны х си гн ал о в о д н овр ем ен н о
н а вел и ч и н у ± 12% , ч т о п о з в о л я е т о п е р а т о р у с у д и т ь о сте п е н и при бл и ­
жения р а сп р ед ел ен и я эн е р го вы д ел ен и я к зад ан н о м у (опти м ал ьн ом у)
распределению .
 IAEA- SM- 168/G- OO 687

В сл уч ае возникновения отклонения от задан н ого распределени я

на специальном табл о вклю чается св ето в а я сигнализация, с о о т в е т с т в у ­
ю щ а я о т к л о н е н и ю н а 4-5% , + 10% и - 1 0 % . В с л у ч а е о т к л о н е н и я н а + 10%
вклю чается так ж е зв ук о в а я сигнализация.
В си сте м е п р едусм отр ен а возм ож н ость вы явления района с наи­
больш им отклонением в стор он у увеличения мощ ности и а в т о м а т и ч е с ­
кая запись э т о г о отклонения.
К р ом е т о го , п р ед усм атр и вается реги страци я в с е х нормированных
с и гн ал о в и с у м м а р н о г о си гн ал а по требованию о п е р ато р а.
Д ля осущ ествлен и я непреры вн ого контроля и м ее тс я возм ож н ость
изм ерени я пяти норм ированны х си гналов от любых датчиков н еп оср ед ­
ствен н о и зм ери тельн ы м и приборами.
В с и с т е м е и м е е т с я та к ж е в о з м о ж н о сть подклю чения лю бого д а т ­
чика н еп оср едствен н о к и зм ери тел ьн ом у прибору.
Д л я о сущ е ств л ен и я п ери оди ч ески х р а с ч е т о в в имею щ ейся на с т а н ­
ции и н ф о р м а ц и о н н о - в ы ч и с л и т е л ь н о й м а ш и н е , в с и с т е м е С К Р Э преду­
с м о т р е н а н е п о с р е д с т в е н н а я с в я з ь с ней.
С и ст е м а о сущ ествл я ет автом ати ч ески й контроль неи сп равн остей ,
ведущ и х к си гн ал и заци и , со о тв етствую щ ей превыш ению уровн я м ощ н о­
с т и (появлен и е с и гн а л о в превы ш ения).

3.3.2. В торичная ч асть си стем ы контроля за распределен и ем

энерговы дел ен и я по в ы со те р еак то р а

В систем е используется принцип п о с л е д о в а т е л ь н о г о о б е га н и я с е к ­

ций д а т ч и к а с н о р м и р о в а н н о й н а с у м м а р н ы й с и г н а л в с е х с е к ц и й к о н ­
троли руем ого датчика.
О тклонение от нормированного таким образом сигнала от заданного
(о п ти м ал ьн о го ) значен ия ф и кси рую тся на с в е т о в о м та б л о . При о т к л о ­
нении б о л е е ч ем на +5% з а г о р а е т с я к р а с н а я л а м п о ч к а , при о т к л о н е н и и
бол ее чем на -5% заго р ается зеленая лампочка. При отклонении
б о л е е ч е м н а + 10% к р асн ая л ам п оч ка р а б о т а е т в м игаю щ ем р еж и м е.
Д ля н епреры вн ого контроля в си стем е п р ед усм отр ен а в о з м о ж ­
н о с т ь подключения се м и секций лю бого д атч и к а на и зм е р и те л ь н ы е п о к а ­
зываю щ ие приборы.
По требованию обслуж иваю щ его п ерсон ал а с и с т е м а производит
зап и сь показаний в с е х секций д атчиков.
Д ля и сп ользован и я п ол уч аем ы х данны х в дальнейш их опти м и зи ру­
ющих р а с ч е т а х п р е д у с м о т р е н а с в я з ь с и с т е м с и н ф о р м ац и о н н о -вы ч и сл и ­
тел ьн ой маш иной.
С и с т е м а о б е с п е ч и в а е т кон трол ь и сигнализацию н еи сп р а в н о стей .

4. ВСП ОМ ОГАТЕЛЬН АЯ СИ СТЕМ А КОНТРОЛЯ ЭНЕРГОВЫ ДЕЛЕНИЯ

В сп о м о гате л ьн а я си сте м а предназначена для периодических и з м е ­

рений поля эн ер го вы д ел ен и я по р а д и у су и в ы с о т е р е а к то р а . П олучен­
ны е в р е з у л ь т а т е эти х и зм ерений данны е и спользую тся для определения
о сн о в н ы х м е т р о л о ги ч е с к и х х а р а к т е р и с т и к , определяю щ их с и с т е м у в
целом.
688 Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В и др.

В ся всп ом огательн ая си стем а состои т из двух устройств:

а) у с т р о й с т в о к о н т р о л я з а р а с п р е д е л е н и е м п о р а д и у с у р е а к т о р а ,
осн ован н ое на и зм ерен и ях га м м а -а к т и в н о ст и внутри тепловы деляю щ их
сбор ок (Т В С ) о ста н о в л е н н о го р е а к т о р а с помощ ью г а м м а - к а м е р ;
б) у с т р о й с т в о для тари ровки д атч и к ов контроля эн ер го вы дел ен и я
и измерения активности Т В С .

4. 1. У ст р о й ств о контроля за распределен и ем энерговы деления

по р ад и усу р еакто ра

В связи с тем , что гам м а-ак ти вн ость Т В С остановленного р еа к то ­

р а пропорциональна мощ ности Т В С п еред о ста н о в к о й , то данны е по
изм ерению акти вн о сти в Т В С , р асп ол ож ен н ы х р авн о м ер н о по а к т и в ­
ной зон е р е а к т о р а , даю т, с у ч е т о м вр ем ен и прош едш его от м ом ен та
остан овки до врем ени изм ерения и некоторы х д р уги х специф ических
п о п р ав о к, дан н ы е по распределени ю эн ер го вы д ел ен и я по р а д и у су р е а к ­
тора.
И зм е р е н и я п р о в о д я тся с помощ ью г а м м а - к а м е р , у с т а н а в л и в а е м ы х
в специально п р ед усм отр ен н ы е центральн ы е о тв ер сти я 153 Т В С .
Г а м м а -к а м е р а п р е д с та в л я е т собой ионизационную к а м е р у с д в у ­
м я цилиндрическим и эл ек тр од ам и . Длина чувствительной части равна
в ы с о т е активной зоны р е а к то р а . Наруж ный д и ам етр га м м а -к а м е р ы
равен 6 мм.
У с т а н о в к а и и зв л еч ен и е г а м м а - к а м е р п р о и з в о д и т ся с помощ ью
крана центрального зала.
Д ля упрощ ения ал гор и тм а р а с ч е т а измерения реком ендуем ся
производить ч ер ез 6 -10 ч асо в п осле остан овки р еакто р а.

4 . 2. У с т р о й с т в о для тарировки датчиков контроля энерговы деления

и изм ерения активности Т В С

У с т р о й с т в о п р ед н азн ач ен о для и зм ер ен и я н еп р ер ы вн ого р а с п р е д е ­

л е н и я п л о т н о с т и н е й т р о н о в по в ы с о т е Т В С при р а б о т а ю щ е м р е а к т о р е и
распределения активности осколков деления в извлеченны х из р е а к ­
тора Т В С .
В первом сл учае и зм ер яется наведенная га м м а-ак ти вн о сть сп е ­
ци ального ста л ь н о го т р о са , о п у ск ае м о го в центральное о тв ер сти е
датч и к а контроля эн ерговы деления по в ы со те р еак то р а.
И зм ер ен и я п р о в о д я тся с помощ ью специ альной к оак си ал ьн ой г а м м а -
кам еры с коллектором , чер ез центральное о тв ер сти е которой п р о тяги ­
вается трос.
Э т а же к ам ер а и сп о л ь з у ет ся для изм ерения наведенной активности
Т В С , пропускаем ой чер ез центральное отвер сти е камеры .
П олученны е данны е и спользую тся для взаим ной градуировки
секций датч и ка и получения дополнительны х данн ы х, и сп о л ь зуем ы х
при опр едел ен ии о сн о в н ы х м е т р о л о ги ч е с к и х х а р а к т е р и с т и к си с т е м ы .
 IAEA- SM - 168/G- 00 689

5. АЛГОРИ ТМ РАСЧ ЕТА УСТАНОВОК И АЛГОРИ ТМ РАСЧЕТА

П О Л Я Э Н Е Р Г О В Ы Д Е Л Е Н И Я ПО П О К А З А Н И Я М Д А Т Ч И К О В

В описанной вы ш е с и с т е м е контроля за р а сп р ед ел ен и ем э н е р г о в ы ­
деления п р ед усм а тр и в ается сравнение показаний датчиков с зад ан ­
ными установкам и . П р е д п о л а га е т с я , что р а в е н с т в о величины уста­
вок и зм ер я ем о м у си гн ал у с о о т в е т с т в у е т оптим йльном у распределению
поля эн ерговы деления.
При р а с ч е т е уставок, предполагаю щ их наличие о п ти м ал ьн ого
поля эн ер говы дел ен и я в к а ч е с т в е кри териев вы брано два:
а) о т с у т с т в и е в лю бой Т В С м о щ н о с т и ,п р е в ы ш а ю щ е й д о п у с т и м у ю ;
б) м а к с и м а л ь н о - в о з м о ж н а я и н т е г р а л ь н а я м о щ н о с т ь р е а к т о р а .
Расчет уставок производится с и спользованием м етодов линей­
н ого програм м ирования.
Р а с ч е т распределени я эн ерговы дел ен и я по в се м Т В С производится
с и сп ользован и ем р а сч етн о -эк сп ер и м ен тал ьн о й м етодики , базирую щ ей­
ся на одноврем енном использовании р е з у л ь т а т о в ф и зи ческого р а сч ета
и данны х ди ск ретн ы х точек контроля.
Расчетн о-экспери м ен тальная м етодика [2] основана на оп р ед е­
лении для к а ж д о го д атч и к а величины v(r) ; представляю щ ей собой
отнош ение си гнал а д атч и к а и значения аналогичной в е л и ч и н ы ,п о л у ч е н ­
ной н а о с н о в е ф и з и ч е с к о г о р а с ч е т а н е й т р о н н ы х п о л е й или п о л е й э н е р г о ­
вы деления.
О тн о си тел ьн о е распределени е мощ ности Т В С w (r) определяется
в этом сл уч ае как произведение распределения энерговы деления,
полученное из ф изического р асч ета и распределения v ( г ) проинте-
рполи рованного для всей активной зоны.
При оп р едел ен ии р а сп р ед ел ен и я v ( г ) и сп о л ь з ует ся м етод так
н а зы ва ем о й ста ти сти ч е ск о й интерполяции, основанной на теории
с л у ч а й н ы х ф ун к ц и й , даю щ ей по сравн ен и ю с д р у г и м и м е т о д а м и н а и л у ч ­
шие р е з ул ь та ты [ 31.
Р а сч етн о -эк сп ер и м ен та л ь н ая м етоди ка опробирована примени­
тел ьн о к р еак то р у Б елояр ской атом ной электростанции им. И. В . К у р ­
чатова.

Л И Т Е Р А Т У Р А

fl] Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В , И . Я . , А т о м н а я э н е р г и я , 3 0 (1 9 7 1 ) 2 7 5 .
[21 L E G G E T , W . , T r a n s a c t i o n s A N S, 9 (1 9 6 6 ) 4 8 4 .
[3 ] Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В , И. Я . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р г и я , 3 0 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 423.

D I S C U S S I O N

D.H. STEGEM ANN: Y o u m e n tio n e d that yo u w e r e m a k in g u s e p r i m a r i l y

o f s e lf- p o w e r e d n eu tro n d e te c to r s h a v in g s ilv e r e m it t e r s . W h a t a r e the
a d v a n ta g e s o f s i l v e r e m it t e r s a s c o m p a r e d w ith v a n a d iu m o r rh o d iu m
e m itte rs?
6 90 Е М Е Л Ь Я Н О В и др.

L.V. K O N S T A N T IN O V : T h e p o w e r d is t r ib u t io n c o n tr o l s y s te m de­
s c r i b e d i n t h e p a p e r w a s d e v e l o p e d f o r th e c h a n n e l - t y p e , u r a n iu m - g r a p h ite
BW R o f th e L e n in g r a d P o w e r S ta tio n . T h e n e u tr o n - flu x p ro b e s a r e b e ta -
e m is s io n d e t e c t o r s in th e f o r m o f a c a b le w i t h m a g n e s i a n i n s u l a t i o n a n d a
s ilv e r c o re ; a n a d v a n ta g e l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e y a r e p r o d u c e d i n th e s a m e
w o rk s a s t h e a s s o c i a t e d c a b le s , so th a t c o s ts c a n be k e p t d o w n . In th e
S o v ie t U n io n , h o w e v e r, e x te n s iv e u s e is a ls o m a d e o f b e t a - e m is s io n p r o b e s
c o n ta in in g o t h e r e m it t e r s . F o r e x a m p le , th e r e a c t o r s o f th e K u r c h a t o v
P o w e r S t a t i o n a t B e l o y a r s k a r e e q u ip p e d w i t h r a d i u m b e ta - e m is s io n d e te c to r s .
 I
I A E A - S M -168/G -О

О Б ЕС П ЕЧ ЕН И Е П РАВИ ЛЬН О СТИ И ЗМ ЕРЕН И Й

П А РА М ЕТРО В Н ЕЙ Т Р О Н Н Ы Х П О Л ЕЙ
В Р ЕА К Т О Р А Х А ЭС

Э .Ф .ГА РА П О В , А. Г. ИНИХОВ,
С. С. ЛОМ АКИ Н, Г. Г. ПАНФИЛОВ,
В . И. П Е Т Р О В , П. С . С А М О Й Л О В
Союзный н ауч н о -и ссл ед о вател ьск и й
и н сти тут приборостроения,
М осква,
Союз С о ветск и х Социалистических Республик

A b s t r a c t - Аннотация

C O R R E C T M E A S U R E M E N T O F N E U T R O N F I E L D P A R A M E T E R S IN N U C L E A R R E A C T O R S .

M e a s u r e m e n t o f th e s p a t ia l flu x d e n s it y d is t r ib u t io n and o f th e s p e c t r a l p a r a m e t e r s o f
th e n e u tr o n f i e l d in th e c o r e c a n p r o v id e u s e fu l d a ta f o r a s s e s s i n g th e e f f i c i e n c y and r e l i a b i ­
l i t y o f p o w e r r e a c t o r s - f o r e x a m p le , d a ta on th e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d is tr ib u tio n , fu e l bu rn u p
d u r in g a r e a c t o r r u n , th e r a d ia tio n r e s i s t a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t io n e l e m e n t s , e t c . V e r y f u ll and
a c c u r a t e d a ta m a y b e o b ta in e d b y u s in g a c o m p r e h e n s iv e r a n g e o f a c t iv a t io n d e t e c t o r s , i n ­
clu d in g t h e r m a l n e u tr o n d e t e c t o r s (g o ld , c o b a l t , lu te tiu m , e u r o p iu m , c o p p e r , d y s p r o s iu m ) ,
r e s o n a n c e d e t e c t o r s (in d iu m , g o ld , s a m a r iu m , tu n g s te n , la n th a n u m , c o b a lt , m a n g a n e s e ,
c o p p e r , so d iu m ) and th r e s h o ld d e t e c t o r s (rh o d iu m , in d iu m , n i c k e l , z in c , i r o n - 5 6 , i r o n - 5 4 ,
a lu m in iu m , c o p p e r ). F o r m e a s u r e m e n t s a t a m b ie n t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f up to 5 0 0 ° C , th e
a u t h o r s u s e th in - f r o m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f n e u tro n a b s o r p tio n - t h e r m a l and r e s o n a n c e
n e u tr o n d e t e c t o r s in th e fo r m o f a ll o y s c o n ta in in g a lu m in iu m ( a p a r t f r o m N a F d e t e c t o r s ) ,
w h ile f o r t e m p e r a t u r e s up to 1 0 0 0 °C th e y e m p lo y m in u te d e t e c t o r s d is t r ib u t e d th ro u g h a m a t ­
r i x o f s i l i c o n o r a lu m in iu m o x id e (in d iu m and z in c th r e s h o ld d e t e c t o r s ) . T h e flu x d e n s ity
m e a s u r e m e n t r a n g e i s fr o m 107 to 5 • 1 0 1 4 n / c m 2- s e c . M e a s u r e m e n t s o f in d u c ed a c t i v i t y
a r e p e r f o r m e d w ith a s c i n t i l l a t i o n o r s e m ic o n d u c to r g a m m a s p e c t r o m e t e r , w h ich i s c a l i ­
b r a te d a g a in s t c a l ib r a t e d g a m m a s o u r c e s ( f o r e x a m p le , th o s e su p p lie d b y th e IA E A ). B y
w ay o f e x a m p le , th e a u t h o r s p r e s e n t th e r e s u l t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s o f th e n e u tr o n f ie ld p a r a ­
m e t e r d is t r ib u t io n in th e p o w e r r e a c t o r s a t N o v o v o ro n e z h and O b n in s k and in th e V K r e a c t o r .
T h e p r in c ip a l s o u r c e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r a r e a n a ly s e d . H o w e v e r , a d r a w b a c k o f th e
a c t i v a t i o n m e th o d i s th e l a c k o f c o n tin u ity in th e su p p ly o f in f o r m a tio n . C o n tin u o u s m o n i ­
t o r i n g o f n e u tr o n f ie ld p a r a m e t e r s i s a c h ie v e d w ith d i r e c t c h a r g e d e t e c t o r s , io n iz a tio n c h a m ­
b e r s and w i r e - m a c h i n e m o n it o r s . T h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e w ith th e s e d e ­
t e c t o r s d e p e n d s o n th e a c c u r a c y o f c a l i b r a t i o n w ith due a llo w a n c e f o r th e e f f e c t o f d i f f e r e n t
n e u tr o n e n e r g y g ro u p s and p e r tu r b a tio n o f th e n e u tr o n f i e l d b y th e d e t e c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s .
C a l i b r a t i o n a c c u r a c y i s i n c r e a s e d b y c a l i b r a t i n g u n d e r c o n d itio n s s i m i l a r to th o s e e n c o u n te ­
r e d d u rin g r e a c t o r o p e r a tio n - f o r e x a m p le , d i r e c t l y in th e c h a n n e ls o f p o w e r r e a c t o r s , a
s e t o f a c t iv a t io n d e t e c t o r s b e in g u s e d f o r c a l i b r a t i n g th e n e u tro n f ie ld in th e c h a n n e ls . In
a d d itio n , n e u tr o n d e t e c t o r s u s e d in r e a c t o r m in it o r in g s y s t e m s a r e c a l i b r a t e d in th e F - l
g r a p h ite r e a c t o r u s in g a n e u tr o n s o u r c e ( th e r m a l n e u tr o n flu x 105 - 1 0 10 n / cm 2 * s e c ) w h ich
h a s b e e n c a l ib r a t e d b y a m e t r o lo g y o r g a n i z a t io n . T h u s , th e c o r r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f n e u tro n
f i e l d p a r a m e t e r s in p o w e r r e a c t o r s i s b a s e d on th e u s e o f th e a c t iv a t io n m e th o d f o r th e p e ­
r i o d i c m o n ito r in g o f p a r a m e t e r s an d th e c a l i b r a t i o n o f th e d e t e c t o r s e m p lo y e d in th e c o n ­
tin u o u s m o n ito r in g s y s t e m s .

О Б Е С П Е Ч Е Н И Е П РА ВИ ЛЬН О СТИ И ЗМ ЕРЕН И Й П А Р А М Е Т Р О В Н ЕЙ ТРО Н Н Ы Х

П О Л ЕЙ В Р Е А К Т О Р А Х А Э С .
При реш ении в о п р о с о в , с в я з а н н ы х с о ц ен кой э ф ф ек т и в н о с ти и н а д еж н о ст и р а б о т ы
р е а к т о р о в на А Э С , п олезн у ю информацию м о ж н о п олу ч и ть п у т е м и зм е р е н и я п р о с т р а н ­
с т в е н н о г о р а сп р е д е л е н и я п л о т н о ст и п о т о к а и с п е к т р а л ь н ы х п а р а м е т р о в н ей тр о н н о го
п оля в ак ти вн о й з о н е . Н ап р и м е р , в о п р о сы р а сп р е д е л е н и я э н е р г о в ы д е л е н и я , ст е п е н и в ы г о ­
ран и я г о р ю ч е го в х о д е к ам п ан и и , радиационной с т о й к о с т и э л е м е н т о в к о н стр у кц и и и т . п .
Н а и б о л ее п олн ы е и т о ч н ы е д ан н ы е м о ж н о п о л у ч и т ь , п р и м ен яя широкий н абор а к т и в а ц и о н ­
н ы х д е т е к т о р о в . Он вк л ю ч ае т д е т е к т о р ы т е п л о в ы х н ей тр о н о в ( з о л о т о , к о б а л ь т , лю теций,

6 91
692 Г А РА П О В и др.

е в р о п и й , м е д ь , д и сп р о зи й ), р е зо н а н с н ы е д е т е к т о р ы (индий, з о л о т о , с а м а р и й , в о л ь ф р а м ,
л а н т а н , к о б а л ь т , м а р г а н е ц , м е д ь , натрий) и п о р о г о в ы е д е т е к т о р ы (роди й , индий, н и к е л ь ,
ци нк, ж е л е з о - 5 6 и - 5 4 , алюминий, м е д ь ). Д л я и зм е р ен и й при т е м п е р а т у р е окружаю щ ей
ср е д ы до 5 0 0 ° С п р и м ен яю тся т о н к и е , с точки зр ен и я п огло щ ен и я н ей тр о н о в , д е т е к т о р ы
т е п л о в ы х и р е зо н а н с н ы х н ей тр о н о в в ви д е с п л а в о в с алю м инием (к р о м е д е т е к т о р о в и з
N a F ) , а при т е м п е р а т у р е д о 1 0 0 0 ° С - м е л к о д и с п е р с н ы е д е т е к т о р ы в м а т р и ц е и з окиси
алюминия или кр ем н и я (п о р о г о в ы е д е т е к т о р ы и з индия и ц и н ка). Д и а п а зо н и зм ер ен и й
п л о т н о ст и п о т о к а о т 1 0 7 д о 5 • 1014 н ей тр / см 2 • с е к . И зм е р е н и я н а вед ен н о й а к т и в н о ст и
п р о в о д я т с я с помощ ью сц и н ти лл яц и он н ого или п о л у п р о в о д н и к о во го г а м м а - с п е к т р о м е т р а ,
д л я гр ад у и р о в к и к о т о р о г о п р и м ен яю тся кал и б р о ван н ы е г а м м а -и с т о ч н и к и , н а п р и м ер ,
и з н аб о р а М А Г А Т Э . В к а ч е с т в е п рим ера п р о в о д я т с я р е з у л ь т а т ы и зм е р ен и й р а с п р е д е ­
л ен и я п а р а м е т р о в н ей тр о н н о го п оля н а р е а к т о р а х Н о в о -В о р о н е ж с к о й , О б н и н ской А Э С ,
р е а к т о р е В К . П р о в о д и т ся а н а л и з о сн о в н ы х и сто ч н и к о в п о гр еш н о сти и зм е р ен и й . О д н а ­
к о и з в е с т н ы м н е д о с т а т к о м а к т и в ац и о н н о го м е т о д а я в л я е т с я о т с у т с т в и е н еп р ер ы вн о сти
в п осту п л ен и и и нф орм ации. Д л я н еп р ер ы вн о го ко н т р о л я п а р а м е т р о в н ей тронн ого поля
п р и м ен яю тся д е т е к т о р ы п рям ой за р я д к и , и он и зац и он н ы е к а м е р ы , у с т р о й с т в о с п р отяж к ой
п р о в о л о к и . П р а в и л ь н о ст ь и зм ер ен и й с помощ ью э т и х д е т е к т о р о в о п р е д е л я е т с я т о ч н о ­
ст ь ю г р а д у и р о в к и с у ч е т о м вли ян ия р а зл и ч н ы х э н е р г е т и ч е с к и х гр уп п н ей тр о н о в и в о з м у ­
щения н ей тр о н н о го п оля са м и м и д е т е к т о р а м и . С целью п овы ш ен ия т о ч н о с т и гр а д у и р о вк и
он а п р о в о д и т ся в у с л о в и я х , б л и зк и х к у с л о в и я м э к с п л у а т а ц и и , н ап р и м ер , н е п о с р е д с т в е н н о
в к а н а л а х э н е р г е т и ч е с к и х р е а к т о р о в . При э т о м дл я ка л и б р овк и н ей тр о н н о го п оля в к а ­
н а л а х п р и м е н я е т с я н абор а к т и в ац и о н н ы х д е т е к т о р о в . К р о м е т о г о , д л я гр ад у и р о вки
н ей тр о н н ы х д е т е к т о р о в , и с п о л ь з у е м ы х с с и с т е м а х ко н т р о л я р а б о т ы р е а к т о р а , п р и м е н я е т ся
п р окал и б р ован н ы й м е т р о л о г и ч е с к о й о р ган и зац и ей и сто ч н и к н ей тр о н о в ( с п л о т н о ст ью п о т о к а
т е п л о в ы х н ей тр о н о в о т 105 д о 1 0 10 н е й т р / с м 2 • с е к ) н а б а з е г р а ф и т о в о г о р е а к т о р а Ф -1 .
Т а к и м о б р а з о м , п р а в и л ь н о ст ь и зм е р ен и й п а р а м е т р о в н ей тр о н н ы х п олей на р е а к т о р а х А Э С
о с н о в а н а на и сп о л ь зо в а н и и ак т и в ац и о н н о го м е т о д а д л я п е р и о д и ч е ск о го к о н тр ол я п а р а м е т р о в
и гр ад у и р о в к и д е т е к т о р о в , п р и м ен я ем ы х в с и с т е м а х н еп р ер ы в н о го к о н т р о л я .

Повы ш ение эконом ичности и надеж ности эксплуатаци и А Э С связано

с улучш ени ем точ н ости определения п р о стр а н ств ен н о -эн ер гети ч еск о го
р а сп р ед ел ен и я и абсолю тны х значений п л отн ости п о то к а н ей трон ов в
активной зоне реакто р о в. Р а с ч е т н ы е м ето д ы и з - з а слож ной к о н ф и гу ­
рации акти вной зоны со в р е м ен н ы х э н е р г е т и ч е с к и х р е а к т о р о в и и з - з а
н еп рер ы вн ого изм енени я п а р ам етр ов ней тронного поля в сл е д ств и е
вы горан и я гор ю ч его не позволяю т в полной м е р е реш и ть э т у зад ач у.
П о э т о м у при к о н с т р у и р о в а н и и и э к с п л у а т а ц и и э н е р г е т и ч е с к и х р е а к т о ­
ров п ер во степ ен н о е значение п ри дается эксп ери м ен тальн ой проверке
р а с ч е т н ы х п а р а м е т р о в и контролю за их и зм ен ен и я м и в х о д е кам пании.
М ето д ы и зм ерен и й, и сп о л ьзуем ы е для определения п арам етр ов
нейтронного поля, довольно разнообразны [1-3]. Н аи б о л е е полную
и точную инф ормацию м ож н о пол учи ть с помощ ью акти ва ц и о н н о го м е т о ­
да. О д н а к о он д о в о л ь н о т р у д о е м о к , п о э т о м у , к а к п р а в и л о , п р и м е н я е т ­
ся для пери оди ч еского контроля п р о стр а н ств ен н о -эн ер гети ч еск о го
р а с п р е д е л е н и я п а р а м е т р о в н е й т р о н н о го поля к ак при ф и з и ч е с к о м
п уск е р еа к то р а, так и в ходе е го эксплуатаци и в диапазоне энергий
н е й т р о н о в о т т е п л о в о й д о п р и м е р н о 10 М э в . Для тепловы х реакторов
важ но зн ать п а р ам ет р ы те п л о в о го ком п он ен та поля - п л о тн о сть п о то к а ,
эф ф ективную тем п ер а тур у распределения и вклад эпитепловы х н ей т­
ронов. П а р а м е т р ы поля э п и т е п л о в ы х н е й т р о н о в о п р е д е л я ю т ся с целью
оценки их влияния на э ф ф е к т ы , обусл овл ен н ы е вы гор ан и ем гор ю чего,
для р а с ч е т а эф ф ек ти в н о сти би оло ги ч еской защ иты и радиационной
стойкости конструктивны х элем ен тов, эф ф ективности воспроизводства
горю чего.
 IAEA- SM - 168/G- 0 693

П рави льность периодических изм ерений в указанн ом э н е р ге ти ч е с­

ком диапазоне обесп еч и в ается у нас прим енением стан дарти зован н ого
набора активационны х д етек то р о в , прокалиброванны х м етрологи ческой
организацией. Он вклю чает:
а) д е т е к т о р ы т е п л о в ы х н е й т р о н о в : к о б а л ь т , з о л о т о , лютеций,
европий, м ед ь , диспрозий;
б) р е з о н а н с н ы е д е т е к т о р ы : индий, зо л о то , с а м а р и й ,в о л ь ф р а м ,
л ан та н , к о б а л ь т, м а р ган ец , м е д ь, натрий;
в) п о р о г о в ы е д е т е к т о р ы : родий, индий, н и кел ь, ж е л е з о -5 6 и -5 4 ,
алю миний, м е д ь и др.
К омпозиция м атери ал о в, из которы х и зготовл ен ы д етек то р ы ,
вы биралась в со о тветстви и с условиям и их эксплуатации (тем п ер а ту­
р о й о к р у ж а ю щ е й с р е д ы , т р е б о в а н и я м и к м е х а н и ч е с к о й п р о ч н о с т и и т . п . ).
Д л я и з м е р е н и й при т е м п е р а т у р е окруж аю щ ей ср е д ы д о 5 0 0 °С п р и ­
меняю тся детекто р ы в виде тонки х ф ольг из ч и сты х м ета л л о в (наприм ер,
и з з о л о т а толщ иной 0 ,1 - 5 м к м , к о б а л ь т а 10 -4 0 м к м , м ед и 2-20 м км )
или в ви д е ф о л ь г толщ иной 0 ,1 м м и з с п л а в о в н е й т р о н н о ч у в с т в и т е л ь н ы х
э л е м е н т о в (нап рим ер, индия, з о л о та , л а н та н а , в о л ь ф р а м а , сам ар и я
и др. ) с алю минием. Д л я и зм е р е н и й при т е м п е р а т у р е д о 10 0 0 °С п р и ­
м еняю тся м елкодисп ерсны е детекторы в м а т р и ц е и з окиси алюминия.
И х получали п р ессован и ем окисны х соединений н ей тр он н о ч увстви тел ь­
н ы х э л е м е н т о в с о с л а б о п ро кален ной окисью алюминия в диски толщ иной
0 ,2 -1 м м и д и а м етр о м 2 ,5 -1 5 м м , к отор ы е з а т е м с п е к а л и с ь в в а к у у м е при
тем пературе 160 0 -18 0 0 °С . П о р о го вы е д е те к то р ы прим еняю тся в виде
ф ольг из вы со к о ч и сты х м ета л л о в, либо м елк одисп ерсны х д етек то р о в
в м атри ц е из окиси крем ния. Толщина д етекторов м ож ет изм еняться
в широких п р ед ел ах и о б есп еч и в ает в озм ож н ость и зм ерений п а р ам етр ов
н ей трон н о го поля в д и ап азон е п л отн ости п о то к а от 10 д о 5 ■ 10
н е й т р / с м 2- с е к .
И зм е р е н и я н авед ен н ой а к т и в н о сти п р о в о д я тс я с помощ ью сц и н ти л -
л я ц и о н н о г о или п о л у п р о в о д н и к о в о г о г а м м а - с п е к т р о м е т р а , д л я г р а д у и ­
ровки к о то р о го прим еняю тся калиброванны е га м м а -и ст о ч н и к и , наприм ер,
из набора, распростран яем ого М А Г А Т Э .
Д ля интерпретации эк сп ери м ен тал ьн ы х р е з у л ь т а т о в в тепловой
о б л а с т и и с п о л ь з у е т с я м е т о д В е с т к о т т а [4] . Э ф ф е к т и в н а я т е м п е р а т у ­
ра распределения тепловы х нейтронов и эпитепловой парам етр р а ссч и ­
ты ваю тся со вм естн ы м реш ением д вух уравнений: первое представля­
е т со б о й о тн о ш ен и е н а сы щ ен н ы х а к т и в н о с т е й д в у х д е т е к т о р о в , один и з
к о т о р ы х (лю теций или ев р о п и й ) и м е е т р е з о н а н с в с е ч е н и и а к т и в а ц и и
тепловы м и нейтронами, а другой является l / v -п о гл о ти тел ем (м едь,
д и сп рози й ), а в т о р о е - к ад м и ев о е отнош ение для о д н о го из д е т е к т о р о в
(м е д ь , зол ото ). Д ля изм ерени я условной плотности потока нейтронов
прим еняю тся д е т е к т о р ы и з з о л о т а и к о б а л ь т а [5] . П ар ам етр ы поля
п р о м еж уто ч н ы х нейтронов р а ссч и ты ваю тся м ето д о м вы читания вклада
l / v -п о гл о щ е н и я , м е т о д о м д в у х ф о л ь г (пара к о б а л ь т -з о л о т о ) [6],
м е т о д о м р е з о н а н с н ы х ф и л ь т р о в [7] . П ар ам етр ы поля б ы стр ы х нейтронов
восстан авли ваю тся из активационны х и н тегралов м етодом эф ф ективны х
п о р о г о в ы х с е ч е н и й [8 ] и м е т о д о м р е г у л я р и з а ц и и [ 9 ] .
Результи рую щ ая погр еш н ость изм ерений п ар ам етр ов нейтронного
поля р а с с ч и т ы в а е т с я с уч е то м вклада си сте м а ти ч е ск и х (погреш ность
ядерны х к он стан т, коэф ф ициентов сам оэкранировки и возмущ ения
нейтронного поля, калибровки д етекторов) и случайны х погреш ностей
 694

°
с

с
X
н
н

с
д

«
«
м

X
И

л
о
X

о
о
о
л

с
ы

с
н

н
и
и

«
К

W
Рн

<

<
<

2 <

*
§

я
о
К о

Г W

ы й
с £
И И

Ê-1
№ Температура Обогащение Спектральный Эффективная Эпитепловой П л о тн ост ь потока
блока теплоносителя, индекс температура параметр тепловых нейтронов,
ураМ> нейтр/см2 • сек
°С %, 3 и A
AC u
Lu нейтронов,
°К
О

®
м
Ю
О

II блок 40 1.5 1,000 375 0,143

О

(*)
О

40 2,0 1,008 396 0,130

со
О

fj

с-
О

108 1.5 1,153 462 0,156

О

N
О

218 1.5 1,368 607 0,164

СО
Г А РА П О В и др.

®
О

0D

250 1.5 1,370 642 0,197

о

п
(С
О

250 2,0 1,422 713 0,202

с- oí сч

III блок 240 1,42 586 0,145 М и нимальный

•Н
контролируемый

ш
240 1,38 613 0,189

«-Г
уровень
240 622 0,211

{N
1,35

1
 IAE A- SM - 168/G- 0 695

(статистическая погрешность измерений скорости счета, поправки на

фон и нестабильность эффективности счетной установки и т.п.) по
соотношению

где t £ - коэффициент, соответствующий в ы б р а н н о м у

уровню доверительной вероятности к о м п о з и ­
ции случайных и неисключенных остатков
систематических погрешностей;
, 5£ СИСТ " результирующие случайные и систематичес­
кие погрешности, соответственно, причем

6 Е сл = F 5- i

Здесь К - коэффициент, зависящий от в ы б р а н ­

ной доверительной вероятности.
П р и м а с с о в ы х измерениях применение стандартизованного набора
детекторов и методов измерений обеспечивают следующие погрешности
измерений (с доверительной вероятностью 0,95): условной плотности
потока нейтронов 2-5% э ф ф е к т и в н о й т е м п е р а т у р ы распределения т еп­
л о в ы х нейтронов 2,6-4% , эпитеплового параметра и плотности потока
резонансных нейтронов 3-1 0 % , б ы с т р ы х - 4-15% .
Периодические измерения основных параметров поля нейтронов
на реакторах Н о в о - В о р о н е ж с к о й А Э С включают определение абсолютных
значений плотности потока тепловых и б ы с т р ы х нейтронов, э ф ф е к т и в ­
ной т емпературы нейтронов, эпитеплового параметра. Э к с п е р и м е н т ы
проводятся в вертикальных из м е р и т е л ь н ы х каналах, проходящих через
различные участки активной зоны реактора. Н а б о р ы детекторов
располагаются в ампулах длиной 2,6 м, состоящих из двух тонкостен­
н ы х трубок - внешней стальной д и а м е т р о м 5 м м и внутренней никеле­
вой д и а м е т р о м 2,5 мм. В о внутренней трубке имеются гнезда для д е ­
текторов. П о р о г о в ы е детекторы при облучении р а з м е щ а ю т с я в ампуле
в экранах из сплава кадмия с серебром (25 весовых процентов серебра).
Длительность облучения 5-10 мин. В табл.1 в качестве примера п ри­
ведены результаты измерений параметров поля тепловых нейтронов в
реакторах второго и третьего блоков А Э С при различной температуре
воды в каналах, проходящих в кассетах с обогащ е н и е м по U 1 ; 1,5 и
2%. Распределение параметров по высоте канала с 1,5% о богащением
по 235U в реакторе второго блока д а н ы на рис. 1. Характер изменения
параметров типичен для активной зоны всех блоков А Э С . Значения
плотности потока б ы с т р ы х нейтронов в каналах активной зоны реакто­
ров первого и второго блоков приведены в табл. II [10-12]. А н а л о ­
гичны е измерения проводились в реакторе Обнинской А Э С , на реакто­
ре кипящего типа В К - 5 0 [13,14] .
О д н а к о и з в е с т н ы м недостатком активационного метода является
отсутствие непрерывности в поступлении информации. Д л я н е п р е р ы в ­
ного контроля параметров нейтронного поля применяются детекторы
696 Г А РА П О В и др.

Р и с . 1. Р а с п р е д е л е н и е п а р а м е т р о в поля н ей тр о н о в в в е р т и к а л ь н о м к а н а л е р е а к т о р а
вто р о го б л о к а Н о в о -В о р о н е ж с к о й А Э С .
Т - эф ф ек т и в н а я т е м п е р а т у р а н ей тр о н о в ,
Фт - п л о т н о с т ь п о т о к а топ ли вн ы х н ей тр о н о в ,
А - с п е к т р а л ь н ы е и н д е к сы ,
R ^ ” к а д м и е в ы е о тн ош ен и я,
Н - р а с с т о я н и е от нижней грани цы акти вн ой зо н ы .

п ря м о й зарядки с э м и т т е р о м из родия [15] и ионизационные к а м е р ы

[16,17] . Правильность измерений с п о м о щ ь ю этих детекторов в значи­
тельной мере определяется точностью градуировки детекторов. С целью
ее п о в ы ш е н и я градуировка проводится м е т о д о м з амещ е н и я в услови­
ях, близких к условиям эксплуатации, например, в и з м ерительных
каналах энергетических реакторов. П р и эт о м в качестве образцового
детектора применяется набор активационных детекторов тепловых ней­
тронов, включающий детекторы из золота, кобальта, лютеция и меди.
П р и градуировке вначале проводятся измерения распределения плотно­
сти потока и спектральных параметров поля тепловых нейтронов в к а ­
нале с п о м о щ ь ю образцового детектора, а затем с п о м о щ ь ю градуируе­
м о г о детектора. Чувствительность градуируемого детектора рассчи­
т ывается как отношение среднегозначения его показаний в соответству­
ю щ и х точках распределения к средней за время облучения активацион­
н ы х детекторов плотности потока тепловых нейтронов в м а к с и м у м е
распределения. П р и это м учитывается вклад в показания градуируемо­
го прибора эпитепловых нейтронов и учитывается э ффективная т е м п е ­
ратура тепловых нейтронов. Погрешность градуировки составляет
примерно 5 % .
К р о м е того для градуировки нейтронных детекторов, п р и м е н я е м ы х
в системах контроля реактора, используется прокалиброванный м е т р о л о ­
гической организацией источник тепловых нейтронов на базе реактора
Ф-1. Реак т о р Ф -1 представляет собой уран-графитовую систему с
т вэлами д и а м е т р о м 35 м м из естественного урана, р а с п о л о ж е н н ы м и
р авномерно по все м у объему активной зоны,по в е р ш и н а м и в центре
куба с ребром 20 см. Активная зона име е т приблизительно ф о р м у
ша р а д и а м е т р о м 600 см, окруженного г р а ф и т о в ы м отраж а т е л е м т о л щ и ­
ной 80 см. Н о м и н а л ь н а я мощность, на которой работает реактор, р а в ­
на 24 квт [5] .
 I A E A - S M - 1 68/G -О 697

Т А Б Л И Ц А II. ИНТЕГРАЛЬНЫЕ СПЕКТРЫ БЫС Т Р Ы Х НЕЙТРОНОВ В

РЕАКТОРАХ НОВО-ВОРОНЕЖСКОЙ АЭС

Э н ерги я I б лок II б л о к

эф ф екти вн ого
Ц ентр Ц ентр За теп ловы м З а к о р п у со м
п о р о га, М эв ак ти в н о й зон ы акти вн ой зо н ы экраном реактор а

н ей тр / см 2 • сек

1 ,0 1 _ _ 1 ,4 6 ■ 1011 4 ,2 ■ 10
10

10
1 ,3 6 3 ,8 ю 13 2 ,0 1 0 13 9 ,3 • ю 11 1 ,3 5 10
10 9
2 ,9 8 1 ,3 5 • ю 13 7 ,0 1012 3 ,7 ■ 10 2 ,6 ■ 10
9
3 ,1 1 1 ,3 8 ■ ю 13 - 3 , 6 • ю 10 3 ,5 ■ 10

6 ,3 8 - 6 ,1 ю 11 4 ,8 • ю 9 5 ,4 • 10*
И 8
7 ,1 1 _ 2 ,7 10 3 ,2 • ю 9 2 ,8 • 10
9 8
7 ,4 0 6 ,9 ю 11 2 ,5 7 ■ ю 10 2 ,6 4 : ■ 10 2 ,4 4 10

Т А Б Л И Ц А III. ПАРАМЕТРЫ ИСТОЧНИКА ТЕПЛОВЫХ НЕЙТРОНОВ

Н А Б А З Е Р Е А К Т О Р А Ф-1

П ар ам етр ы Ц ентр С тандар тн ая точка Ц ен тр к а н а л а

гор и зо н тал ьн о го кан ала градуи ровочн ого т е п л о во й колонны
ко лод ц а

У сл о вн ая п лотн ость ( 8 ,5 7 ± 0 ,2 2 ) • 1 0 9 ( 7 ,5 7 ± 0 ,1 7 ) ' 1 0 9 ( 1 ,9 1 ± 0 ,0 4 ) ' 107

п отока,
н ей тр / см 2 * се к

Э ф ф е к ти в н ая 8 ,3 • 109 7 ,3 5 ' 1 0 8 1 ,9 1 ■ 107

п лотн ость п отока
т е п л о в ы х н ей трон ов,
н е й т р / см 2 ‘ с е к

Э п и т еп л о во й 0 ,0 5 8 ± 0 ,0 2 0 ,0 5 7 ± 0 ,0 2 0 ,0 0 1
пар ам етр

Э ф ф е к ти в н а я 3 4 9 ± 11 315 ± И # 293
тем п ер атура
н е й т р о н о в , °К

П ло тн ость п отока 5 ,8 ■ 108 5 ,1 • 101

б ы с т р ы х н ей тр о н о в
свы ш е 1 М э в ,
свы ш е 3 М э в , 2 ,6 ■ Ю 8 2 • 107 -
н ей тр / см 2 • се к

М о щ н о ст ь 2 ,2 ± 0 ,4 0 ,2 7 ± 0 ,0 4 0 ,4 ± 0 ,1 ) • ю ' 3
эк сп о зи ц и о н н о й
д о зы г а м м а -
и зл у ч е н и я , Р / с е к
69 8 Г А РА П О В и др.

Градуировка проводится в трех в о з д у ш н ы х полостях: в центре

горизонтального канала сечением 10X10 с м и длиной 40 см, проходя­
щег о через центральную плоскость реактора, в канале графитовой
тепловой колонны р а з м е р а м и 120X120X240 с м и в градуировочном ко ­
лодце сечением 60X60 и глубиной 130 см.
О с н о в н ы е п а р а м е т р ы нейтронного поля в полостях определены с
п о м о щ ь ю набора активационных детекторов. Р е з у л ь т а т ы измерений,
в ы п о л н е н н ы х при п о м о щ и реактора 24 квт, приведены в табл. III.
Д л я контроля воспроизведения единицы плотности потока нейтронов
в градуировочных полостях использован нейтронный монитор. В ка ­
честве детектора использована импульсная малогабаритная ка.мера д е ­
ления, с о д е р ж а щ а я 0,12 м г урана-235. Чувствительность ее к т е п л о в ы м
нейтронам составляет 10"4 отсч/нейтр/см2 • сек. К а м е р а располага­
ется в градуировочном колодце. Экспериментально установлено, что
при изменении уровня м о щ н о с т и реактора от 1 до 24 квт скорость счета
нейтронов м о н и т о р о м изменяется пропорционально величине условной
плотности потока нейтронов, рассчитываемой по активности, наведенной
в детекторах из золота и диспрозия. П о г р е ш н о с т ь воспроизведения
параметра <рт в участках реактора Ф-1, предназначенных для градуиров­
ки нейтронных детекторов, составляет ±2,5% (в доверительном интерва­
ле 0,95) в диапазоне плотности потока от 105 до 1010 нейт р / с м 2 • сек.
Погре ш н о с т ь градуировки нейтронных детекторов с п о м о щ ь ю описанного
источника - 4 - 6 % .
Т а к и м образом, правильность измерений параметров нейтронных
полей на реакторах А Э С основана на использовании стандартизованно­
го набора активационных детекторов для периодического контроля па ­
раме т р о в и использовании стандартных методик градуировки детекто­
ров, п р и м е н я е м ы х в системах непрерывного контроля.

Л И Т Е Р А Т У Р А

(1 J F O R S T E R , J . , N u c le o n ic s U_ 2 (1 9 6 2 ) 8 0 3 .
[2 ] H IL B O R N , J . , N u c le o n ic s 22 2 (1 9 6 4 ) 6 9 .
[3 ] P O P P E R , G . , P o w e r R e a c t o r T e c h n o lo g y 9 1 ( 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 ) 2 5 .
[4 ] W E S T C O T T , C . , A E C L - 1101 ( 1 9 6 0 ).
[5 ] А Р А Б Е Й , Б . Г . и д р . , В с б . " Я д е р н о е п р и б о р о ст р о е н и е " (тр у д ы С Н И И П ),
А т о м и з д а т , М о с к в а , в ы п . X V I I (1 9 7 2 ) 3 .
[6] N e u tr o n F l u e n c e M e a s u r e m e n t s , V ie n n a , IA E A , 1 9 7 0 .
[7 ] Г О Л У Б Е В , В . И . и др . . А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 11 6 ( 1 9 6 Н 5 2 2 -
[8 ] Z ijp , W . L . , R C N -3 7 ( 1 9 6 5 ) .
[9 ] Д Е М И Д О В , Л . и д р , И з в е с т и я АН Б С С Р , с е р и я ф и з и к о -э н е р г е т и ч е с к а я
4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 13.
[101 Л О М А К И Н , С . С . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 3 0 3 (1 9 7 1 ) 3 0 1 .
[1 1 ] Л О М А К И Н , С . С . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 3 ^ 1 (1 9 7 1 ) 5 4 .
[121 А Г Л И Ц К И Й , А .М .и д р . . А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 3 2 6 ( 1 9 7 2 ) 4 9 4 .
[1 3 ] Л О М А К И Н , С .С . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 29 1 (1 9 7 0 ) 3 6 .
[1 4 ] Л О М А К И Н , С . С . ид р . , В с б . " Я д е р н о е п р и б о р о с т р о е н и е ", А т о м и з д а т , М о с к в а ,
в ы п . X V I I ( 1 9 7 2 ) 17.
[15] М И Т Е Л Ь М А Н , Н . Г . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я J J Î 2 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 1 3 9 .
[1 6 ] Л О М А К И Н , С . С . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 31 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 5 6 .
[1 7 ] Д М И Т Р И Е В , А . Б . и д р . , А т о м н а я э н е р ги я 2 2 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ) 3 1 4 .
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -1

NEW INSTRUMENTATION FOR STARTUP

MEASUREMENTS IN PWR REACTORS
A . J A N I K O W S K I, A . K O S Y C A R Z , A . K R Z Y C K I , A . R. O S T R O W S K I
In s t y t u t B a d a ñ J a d r o w y c h ,
S w ie r k , Po lan d

Abstract

NEW INSTRUMENTATION FOR STARTUP MEASUREMENTS IN PWR REACTORS.

T he problem of neutron measurements in a PWR reactor is briefly presented. High gam m a radiation
background, a wide range o f neutron flux change, radiation damage of m aterials used, and a high lev e l of
e le c tr ic a l in terferen ce, are the m ain d ifficu lties in obtaining true m easurem ent results. One possible
solution to the problem is the use o f a fission cham ber as the detector. For this purpose a special high
sensitivity fission cham ber was designed. It works as a pulse detector at low neutron flux lev e l and as a
current detector at high neutron flux values. A channel specially developed for these measurements is
described. A ty p ical pulse channel with transformer link betw een detector and am plifier was taken and
m odified. Some solutions o f the channel construction are briefly described. The channel has been tested in
norm al conditions o f PWR power plant operation. The most im portant m easurem ent results are given and
discussed. Chosen perform ance data of neutron detectors used in the measurements are given and some
construction details providing higher re lia b ility and greater resistance against e le c tr ic a l in terferen ce are
discussed.

T h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n d e s c r i b e d h a s b e e n d e s ig n e d f o r t h e N u c l e a r P o w e r
P la n t H h e in s b e r g (G D R ) to o p e r a te i n th e s o u r c e a n d in t e r m e d ia t e n e u tr o n
flu x ra n g e s . D e s ig n in g t h is ty p e o f in s t r u m e n t a t io n c e r t a in p r o b le m s h a v e
to b e c o n s id e r e d :

A d e t e c t o r t h a t h a s n e u t r o n s e n s i t i v i t y a s h ig h a s p o s s ib le s h o u ld b e
c h o s e n s o t h a t a m a x im u m c o u n t - r a t e a t th e s o u r c e r a n g e b e o b ta in e d

P r o p e r fu n c t io n in g o f th e d e t e c t o r i n a h ig h g a m m a - r a d ia t io n b a c k ­
g ro u n d ; a n d th e m a t e r ia ls u s e d m u s t w it h s t a n d h ig h r a d ia t io n d o s e s
a n d t e m p e r a tu r e s th a t e x is t in th e d e te c to r p o s it io n . T h e d e te c to r
s h o u ld n o t b e r e p la c e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n e v e r y t h r e e y e a r s

T h e s c r e e n i n g s a n d e a r t h c i r c u i t s m u s t b e p r o p e r l y d e s ig n e d t o
m in im iz e th e in t e r f e r e n c e e ff e c ts c o m in g f r o m th e o p e r a t in g e l e c t r i c a l
c ir c u its

T h e d e s ig n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n m u s t c o n f o r m
to e x is t in g c o n d itio n s s u c h a s s p a c e f o r th e d e t e c t o r in s t a lla t io n , c a b le
d u c ts , e x i s t i n g c a b le t y p e s t o b e u s e d , a n d p o s it io n in g p o s s ib ilit ie s o f
th e s e p a r a te in s t r u m e n t a t io n c o m p o n e n ts

T h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n m u s t c o v e r t h e n e u t r o n £Lux c h a n g e s o v e r t h e r a n g e
o f a t l e a s t n in e d e c a d e s a n d m u s t b e r e l i a b l e .

A f t e r c a r e f u l c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e a b o v e - m e n tio n e d p o in t s a n d o t h e r ,
le s s im p o r t a n t p r o b le m s , a f is s io n c h a m b e r w a s c h o s e n a s th e d e te c to r .
T o c o v e r th e w id e r a n g e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s a c o m b in e d p u ls e a n d c u r r e n t

699
700 JANIKOWSKI e t al.

c h a n n e l w a s c h o s e n a s o n e o f th e p o s s ib le s o lu t io n s o f th e p r o b l e m . The
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c h a n n e l w a s b a s e d o n t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e s ig n e d i n s t r u m e n ­
t a t io n . T h e c h a n n e l w o r k s w it h o n ly o n e d e t e c t o r , i n th e p u ls e m o d e o f
o p e r a t io n a t lo w n e u tr o n f lu x v a lu e s a n d i n a c u r r e n t m o d e a t h ig h n e u tr o n
flu x e s . A n o v e r la p p in g o f th e tw o m o d e s o f o p e r a t io n e n s u r e s c o r r e c t
m e a s u r e m e n t s i n th e w h o le r a n g e o f o p e r a t io n .
T h e id e a o f th e in s t r u m e n t c i r c u i t s is p r e s e n te d in F i g . l . A tra n s ­
f o r m e r l i n k i s u s e d b e tw e e n th e d e t e c t o r a n d th e a m p lif ie r s . B o th th e
c u r r e n t a n d th e p u ls e s ig n a ls a r e t r a n s m i t t e d b y m e a n s o f t h i s t r a n s f o r m e r
lin k . T h e p u ls e c h a n n e l c o n s is t s o f th e p u ls e a m p l i f i e r ( w it h p r e a m p l i f i e r ) ,
d is c r im in a t o r , lo g a r it h m ic c o u n t-ra te m e te r , p e r io d m e te r a n d t r ip s . The
o u tp u t o f th e lo g a r it h m ic c u r r e n t a m p l i f i e r m a y b e c o n n e c te d to th e p e r io d
m e te r i f r e q u ir e d .
I n P o la n d , a w h o le r a n g e o f n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r ty p e s i s m a n u f a c t u r e d .
M a n y h a v e b e e n u s e d i n th e e x p e r im e n t a l r e a c t o r s in P o la n d , th e G D R ,
H u n g a ry , a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . S e le c t e d d a t a f o r s o m e d e t e c t o r t y p e s a r e
lis t e d i n T a b le I a n d f o r d e t e c t o r a s s e m b lie s in T a b le I I . T h e f is s io n
c h a m b e r R J - 1 0 0 0 w a s s p e c i a l l y d e s ig n e d f o r u s e i n t h e R h e i n s b e r g P o w e r
P la n t, to f u l f i l s p e c ia l o p e r a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s . T h e c h a m b e r c o n s is t s
o f f iv e c o n c e n t r ic e le c t r o d e s , a s s e m b l e d t o g e t h e r a n d e n c lo s e d i n t h e
h o u s in g ( F ig . 2 ). T o c o n d u c t th e s ig n a ls a c e r a m ic t o m e t a l s e a l w it h h ig h
a lu m in a c o n te n t is u s e d . T h e e le c t r o d e s u p p o r t in g i n s u la t o r s a r e h ig h
a lu m in a tu b e s w it h 3 - m m o u te r d ia m e te r . T h e th r e e h ig h - v o lta g e
e le c t r o d e s a r e u r a n iu m c o a t e d (1 m g / c m 2 , 9 0 % e n r i c h e d ) . The cham ber
h o u s in g (5 0 m m o u te r d ia m e te r ) h a s tw o in s u la tio n c e r a m ic r in g s s p r a y e d
o n b y th e p la s m a te c h n iq u e . A l l m e t a l p a r t s a r e m a d e o f s t a in le s s s t e e l.
T h is ty p e o f c o n s t r u c t io n h a s b e e n u s e d f o r 10 y e a r s a n d h a s p r o v e d v e r y
g o o d a n d r e li a b l e i n o p e r a t io n .
T h e e le c t r o n ic c i r c u i t is m o u n te d in s id e a s c r e e n in g tu b e c o n n e c te d w ith
th e c h a m b e r h o u s in g . B o th th e c h a m b e r c a s in g a n d th e s c r e e n in g tu b e a r e
in s u la t e d a g a in s t th e o u t e r h o u s in g - th e c a s in g o f th e w h o le d e t e c t o r
a s s e m b ly . T h e o u t e r c a s in g is i n t u r n in s u la t e d f r o m th e w a lls o f th e d e t e c t o r
tu b e in th e r e a c t o r b io lo g ic a l s h ie ld . T h e c i r c u i t c o n n e c te d to th e
c o lle c t in g e le c t r o d e m u s t b e w e ll in s u la t e d to p e r m i t a c c u r a t e c u r r e n t
m e a s u re m e n t. G o o d in s u la t io n f o r th e c o m p o n e n ts lo c a t e d in th e d e te c to r
h o u s in g is e n s u r e d b y p r o p e r c h o ic e o f c o m p o n e n t t y p e s , a s th e s e p a r ts
o p e r a t e u n d e r n e u t r o n a n d g a m m a i r r a d i a t i o n a n d i n a n e n v ir o n m e n t
te m p e ra tu re o f a b o u t 8 0 °C . F ro m th e e le c t r o d e s c o n f ig u r a t io n (th e h ig h -
v o lta g e e le c t r o d e s a r e u r a n iu m c o a te d ) i t f o llo w s t h a t p r o p e r p u ls e f o r m s
m a y b e o b ta in e d i f th e h ig h - v o lt a g e e le c t r o d e i s s u p p lie d w i t h n e g a tiv e
te n s io n . T h e s e p a r a t io n o f th e tw o s ig n a ls , p u ls e s a n d d . c . c u r r e n t is
d o n e b y m e a n s o f th e r e s is t a n c e c a p a c ity (R C ) f i l t e r s . T h e lo g a r ith m ic
a m p l i f i e r a c c e p ts n e g a tiv e c u r r e n t . T h e p r e a m p l i f i e r is s u p p lie d v ia s ig n a l
c o a x i a l c a b le s a n d t h e c h a n n e l i s s u p p lie d f r o m a 2 4 -V b a tte ry . T h e d is ­
c r i m i n a t i o n c u r v e o f th e p u ls e c h a n n e l i n lo w a n d h ig h g a m m a - r a d ia t io n
b a c k g ro u n d is s h o w n in F ig .3 . S o m e d a ta f o r th e c h a n n e l a r e g iv e n i n T a b le I I I .
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e c h a n n e l w a s t e s t e d d u r i n g a n a n n u a l m a in t e n a n c e
a n d r e f u e llin g s h u td o w n o f th e r e a c t o r in th e R h e in s b e r g N u c le a r P o w e r
P la n t, T h e t r a n s ie n t s d u r in g th e s h u td o w n a n d s ta r tu p w e r e m e a s u r e d .
T h e s e m e a s u re m e n ts , p r e s e n te d in F ig . 4, s h o w th e t r a n s it io n f r o m th e
c u r r e n t t o th e p u ls e m o d e o f o p e r a t io n o f th e c h a n n e l. T h e c u r r e n t is
m e a s u r e d o n a l i n e a r s c a le a n d th e c o u n tin g r a t e o n l o g a r i t h m i c s c a le .
 IA EA -SM -168/G -1 i/ 7 01

HT

J a

J B

2 «

5 . Logarithmic current Amplifier 1. Outer housing

g. Puise amplifier and discrlminator 2. High voltage electrode
7. Log count-rate meter 3. Collecting electrode
8. Periodmeter 4. Chamber housing
9. Trip circuits
10. Supply

FIG. 1. Pulse-current channel ILR-5.

702 JANIKOWSKI et al.

ю те d л

О О О
CO NTRO L

О О О

O 03 o
REACTOR
FOR

s F
CHAM BERS

о o .h m
FISS IO N

g e
О Ë
> 'S3
SP «
I"
nj 03 B 2 ■
Ё SG2 2 g
S ES S i
E
S S
1
•o
U
o
£ чД û, h 43 43
H oh o < H H Ë Ë
I.

3 3
Ë Ë
5 E * *
TABLE

O h Q> ci (3
aSucj ^иэипэ aSirei дэ^ипоэ O H 2 2
TABLE II . DETECTOR H O U S IN G S AND RIGID E X T E N S IO N S

¿
in
P K -65

CL
LO
Housing type number: P K -65 PK -58

«3

'
2
о

5
о
Chamber type number: 9R -100 EU-200 R J-500

Operating ch aracteristics:

Temperature (eC) 75 75 75 80
Outside water pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1
Operating voltage (maximum ) (V) 1000 1400 1200 1000

M ech an ical:

Maximum diameter (mm) 65 58 65

in 00

3200
Ю

Overall length (mm) 1720

Ш t- 1

Length of the ceramic extensions (mm) 1025 2500

Distance: from housing lower edge to centre of the active volum e
c-
fH

chamber (mm) 182 175 280

20
О Ю

Assembly net weight (kg) 19 13

IA EA -SM -1

Oi
00
M aterial:
О
Outer shell Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium Stainless steel «-*
Housing head Stainless steel Stainless steel Stainless steel
Insulation C eram ic C eram ic C eram ic C eram ic
Housing fill gas Argon Argon Argon Air
Gable type ^ [7 5 - 4 - 4 .4 0 ] c ф [2 x W L 7 5 -0 .6 3 / 3 .7 7 0 6 0 .l ] c [3 x 7 5 -4 -4 0 ]c

E le ctrica l:

Resistance (collecting electrode to shell) (£i) 1012 1 0 12 1 0 12

"о о
in

Resistance (detector shell to watertight housing) (MQ) 0 .5 0 .5 0 .5

Detector assembly contains .the input pulse transformer and filter and is a special design for ILRT-3 and ILRT-5 measuring channels.
7 5 -4 -4 -4 0 c triaxial cable (75 Q.) 7 0 6 0 .1 ; one coaxial cable + 6 wires all together in copper screen WL 7 5 - 0 6 3 / 3 .7 c coaxial cable (75 Q). Other ca b le
types can be used on demand.
These numbers are the cable marks.
704 JAN1KOWSK1 e t al.

FIG . 2 . Construction o f the detector assembly.

 IA EA -SM -168/G -1 705

F IG .3 . R J-1000 fission cham ber discrim ination curves.

TA B LE III. SOME D A T A OF THE IL R T -5 -T Y P E PU LSE AND CURRENT

M E A S U R E M E N T C H A N N E L W IT H R J - 1 0 0 0 /P K - 5 5 - T Y P E DETECTOR
ASSEM BLY

Therm al neutron flux measurement range 1 . 5 - 1. 5 x 109 n ■c m -2 s "1

Pulse range
о
о

Current range 1 0 -8 - 1 0 "3 A

Reactor period m easurement range from - 100 ■» to + 20 s

Alpha background current 1 .5 5 X 1 0 '8 A

Cables detector assembly - pream plifier 3 x tria x ia l

m ax. 50 m long

Cables pream plifier “ m ain instrument 4 X triaxial

m ax. 200 m long
7 06 JANIKOWSKI e t al.

F IG .4 . Transition from pulse-to-current operation mode at reactor shutdown.

103 -- 1-------- 1---------1--------- 1------16

__________ J
1
1
t
1
1
1

N
/
/
/

20 30 AÔ 50 60
1 1m in)

FIG. 5. Current and pulse rate several hours after shutdown. T he cham ber was placed in m axim um flux
position at t = 30 m in.
 IAEA -SM -168/ G -1 707

FIG. 6 . Working range o f pulse-current channel with R J-1000 cham ber.

A t high current signal values the pulse channel is overloaded and

indicates over 105 cps, w hich is the upper limit of the m e a s u r e m e n t range.
T h e pulse channel indicated 10 5 cps w h e n the current signal fell to
6 . 6 X 1 0 "8 A . A few hours after the reactor shutdown the m e a s u r e d count-
rate w a s about 1 cps and the current signal caused by g a m m a radiation
and by fission c h a m b e r alpha background current w a s 1 .9 X 1 0 "8 A . A t
this m o m e n t the c h a m b e r w a s m o v e d into the position w h e re the m a x i m u m
m e a s u r e m e n t efficiency could be rea ch e d. At this position the neutron
pulse rate increased threefold and the current value w a s about 4 X 1 0 "8 A
(see F ig . 5). After 50 h the current signal fell to 1. 5 X 10 ' 8 A , which is
the value of the alpha background current of the c h a m b e r . Thirty days
later about 800 p u l s e s /h w e r e m e a s u r e d using a n automatic scaler.
M e a s u r e m e n t s extending over a long period w e r e m a d e as proof of
reliability and interference-free operation of the m e a s u r in g channel.
7 08 JANIKOWSKI et al.

A s a result of the m e a su re m e n t s carried out in the R h e in s b er g Nuclear

Plant a curve can be plotted (F ig . 6) showing the m e a s u r e m e n t possibilities
of the channel. It can be observed that the m e a su rin g channel described
offers the m e a s u r e m e n t range covering the reactor p o w er changes from the
level o bserved at full shutdown, without the neutron source positioned in-
core, to the nearly full nom inal p o w er level. T h e rem ain in g m e a su re m e n t
range can be covered b y withdrawal of the detector. T h e counting and
current ranges m eet, with an overlap. O f course, the range of overlap
depends on the gamma-radiation background at the detector position.
T h e s a m e pulse channel with a slightly changed outer housing co n ­
struction is u s e d for neutron flux control during reactor refuelling p ro c ed u re s.
F o r this m e a s u r e m e n t a rigid extension is u s e d . T h e fission ch a m b er
R J - 10 00 m ounted in the housing is located near the core inside the reactor
p r e s s u r e tank, w h e re a high g a m m a radiation is o bserve d. T h e d is ­
crimination curve taken un der these conditions is shown in F ig . 3. T h e
refuelling p ro c edu re w a s m onitored using a n automatic scaler for recording
the m e a s u r e m e n t data. T h e count-rate changed from 2 400 cps at the begin­
ning to 1 1 0 cps w h e n the m a x i m u m n u m b e r of fuel elements w a s r e m o v e d .
Interference effects did not significantly affect the m e a s u r e m e n t s .
T h e described channel s e e m s to be a suitable solution for an older
p o w e r station in which the completed design offers few chances of
installing n ew cable ducts and signal cables and dim inishing the disturbance
level by other suitable m e a n s at the sources of the disturbance.
B ec a u se of the high level of electric disturbance in the p o w er plant,
it is believed that this channel is superior to a typical C a m p b e ll channel.
H o w e v e r , a co m p a riso n of the two channels in a p o w er plant has not been
p e r fo rm e d .
T h e pulse channel described here is unaffected by a fast change of
g a m m a radiation after shutdown and ensures full and p recise m e a s u r e m e n t
of neutron flux with increasing xenon poisoning. T h is m e a s u r e m e n t could
not be done by g a m m a com pensated ionization ch a m b er s w hich are used for
m e a s u r e m e n t s in the interm ediate p o w er range.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

T h e w o r k and the m e a s u r e m e n t s p resented in this p a p e r could be

com pleted by the kind p e r m is s io n of the M in iste riu m of C o a l and E n e r g y
of the G e r m a n D e m o c r a tic R epublic. A significant part of the w o r k w as
done with the help and assistance of our colleagues fr o m the Central Institute
of N u cle ar R e s e a r c h in R o s s e n d o r f and from the R h e in s b e r g N uclear P o w e r
Plant.

D IS C U S S IO N

P . J O V E R : D o e s the detector have to be protected with a lead shield

to m in im iz e the contribution of the 7 -current w h e n your device is operating
u n der current at be tw e en 1 0 ' 3 and 1 0 ‘ 8 A ?
A . J A N I K O W S K I : In the particular case of the R h e in s b er g P o w e r Plant
there w a s no r o o m to install a lead shield for the fission c h a m b er , but the
radiation background in any case has v e r y little influence on the pulse-
current overlapping ran ge . In other applications w e do use lead shields.
 IA EA -SM -168/G -1 709

J . F U R E T : In operating your wide- range m e a s u r e m e n t a s s e m b ly you

apply pulse counting followed by direct-current m e a s u r e m e n t . In general
the overlap (in particular as r ega rds y -discrimination) is better w h e n pulse
counting is followed by fluctuation m e a s u r e m e n t . Y o u have rejected this
solution because of parasitic noise. A t the s a m e tim e the fission ch a m b er
has been provided with a t ra n sfo rm e r, w hich should enhance the useful
signal considerably. Cou ld you therefore tell us a bit m o r e about the
reaso ns for your choice?
A . J A N K O W S K I : I see that M r . O s tro w s k i is rea d y to discuss this
question.
A . R . O S T R O W S K I : T h e combination of a pulse-counting channel with
tra n sfo r m e r input allows good elimination of interference because of
signal m a x im iz in g and be ca use of the s y m m e tr ic a l cable link to the head
am plifier. T h e u s e of m e a n current instead of fluctuation m e a s u r e m e n t
also leads to better disturbance elimination. T h e overlap betw een low er
and higher m e a s u r in g ranges is certainly sm aller, but at the relatively
low 7 -level (1 0 4 R / n ) it w a s quite satisfactory. In s o m e existing installations
noise-free operation is of p r im a r y im portance. T h e m a in source of inter­
ference in our case consisted of actuator cables running alongside the
signal cables.
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -2

ENSEM BLE DE MESURES NEUTRONIQUES

A GRANDE DYNAMIQUE
Y. PLAIGE
CEA, Centre d ’ études
nucléaires de Saclay

VUONG QUAN MAI

Etablissements Merlin Gerin,
Grenoble,
France

Présenté par P. Jover

Abstract-Résumé

A WIDE-RANGE NEUTRON MEASUREMENT ASSEMBLY.

T h e neutron flux measurements with pulsed and fluctuation methods use the sam e detector types:
fission cham ber. But their ranges of measurements are com plem entary: pulsed method for low -flu x,
fluctuation method for h ig h-flu x. By associating these two types of measurements both of which have an
e x c e lle n t discrim ination betw een neutron gam m a, one can re a liz e a wide range of neutron m easurement
assembly (10 decades with an overlap range of two decades) using only one detector in a fixed position.
T his instrumentation provides a flux m easurement in logarithm ic scale and a period m easurem ent for the
whole range of measurements and, also, a current measurem ent for h ig h -le v el safety. This instrumentation
has been frequently experienced in the reactor and it is at the industrialization stage.

ENSEMBLE DE MESURES NEUTRONIQUES A GRANDE DYNAMIQUE.

Les mesures de flux neutronique en impulsion e t en fluctuation utilisent le m êm e type de d étecteu r:
la cham bre à fission. Mais leurs domaines de mesure sont com plém entaires, flux fa ib le pour les impulsions
et flux éle v é pour les fluctuations. En associant ces deux types de mesure, qui en outre ont toutes deux un
e x c e lle n t pouvoir de discrim ination neutron-gam m a, on réalise un ensem ble de mesures a grande dynamique
(dix décades av ec deux décades de recouvrement) utilisant un détecteur unique en position fix e . C ette
instrumentation délivre une mesure de flux en é c h e lle logarithm ique e t une mesure de période pour toute
l ’ étendue de mesure, et ég alem en t une mesure de courant pour les sécurités haut niveau. C ette instrum enta­
tion a fa it l 'o b je t de nombreux essais sur réacteu r. E lle est au stade industriel.

1. GENERALITES

A l'h e u re a c tu e lle , les cham bres à fis s io n e t le s s o u s -e n s e m b le s é le c tro n iq u e s d é v e lo p p é s

in d u s trie lle m e n t p e rm e tte n t, par des com p ta g e s en im p u ls io n , de m esurer le flu x neu tro n iq u e
sur une d ynam ique d 'e n v iro n s ix d é c a d e s (1 à 10® с / s ).

En u tilis a n t les m êm es cham bres à fis s io n e t la m éthode des flu c tu a tio n s , on o b tie n t une
m esure du flu x n e u tro n iq u e a v e c une d ynam ique de s ix d é c a d e s é g a le m e n t, co rre s p o n d an t à un
nom bre d ’é v é n e m e n ts par s e conde com pris e n tre 10^ e t ÎO 1^.

C e s deux m éthodes sont donc c o m p lé m e n ta ire s e t p e rm e tte n t la m esure du flu x n eu tro n iq u e ,

a v e c une d ynam ique de d ix d é c a d e s (d e u x d é c a d e s de rec o u vre m e n t) e t c e la en u tilis a n t un
d é te c te u r unique en p o s itio n fix e .

C e tte grande é te n d u e de m esure é ta it obtenu e ju s q u ’ à p ré se n t à l ’ a id e de p lu s ie u rs d é te c ­

te u rs d é c a lé s en s e n s ib ilité ou en p o s itio n , ou à l'a id e d 'u n d é te c te u r un iq u e m o b ile .

711
712 PLAIGE e t MAI

L o r s q u 'il s 'a g it de ré a c te u rs de p u is s a n c e , le s em p la c e m en ts de d é te c te u rs sont coûteux

du fa it de s p ro te c tio n s b io lo g iq u e s e t des c irc u its de re fro id is s e m e n t qui les é q u ip e n t. L 'u t i ­
lis a tio n de d é te c te u rs m o b ile s c o n d u it p a rfo is â de s s o lu tio n s c o m p liq u é e s e t d iffic ile m e n t
c o m p a tib le s a v e c la notion de s é c u rité . A u s s i la s o lu tio n proposée e s t-e lle in té re s s a n te , ta n t
sous l'a s p e c t é c o nom ique que sous l'a s p e c t e x p lo ita tio n .
D 'a u tre p a rt, c e s deux m éthodes de m esure ont en commun l'a v a n ta g e d 'u n e bonne d is c rim in a ­
tio n neutron-g am m a, fa c te u r im p o rtan t pour un c o n trô le c o rre c t du ré a c te u r.

L 'in c o n v é n ie n t m ajeur de la m éthode des flu c tu a tio n s e s t un tem ps de réponse r e la tiv e ­

m ent p lu s long que c e lu i obtenu par une m esure en c o u ra n t. M a is on peut a u s s i a v o ir a v e c le
même s o u s -e n s e m b le une m esure du courant d é b ité par le d é te c te u r, à fa ib le tem ps de réponse
sur le s deux ou tr o is d e rn iè re s d é c a d e s , c’ e s t-à -d ir e , pe rm e tta n t d 'a s s u re r une s é c u rité rap ide
e t e ffic a c e à haut n iv e a u .

2. PRINCIPE DE LA MESURE

L a m esure du flu x neu tro n iq u e e s t obtenue d'a b o rd par la m éthode de s im p u ls io n s , a u s s i

a v o n s -n o u s g ard é l'o rg a n is a tio n propre à ce ty p e de s o u s -e n s e m b le : pas de p ré a m p lific a te u r,
a m p lific a te u r a d a p té à l'im p é d a n c e c a ra c té ris tiq u e du c â b le , c 'e s t-à -d ir e , tr a v a illa n t en c o lle c ­
tio n de c o u ra n t.

C e tte d is p o s itio n perm et le regroupem ent de to u te l'é le c tro n iq u e , f a c ilit e la m a in te n a n c e ,

e t c o n d u it à une grande é te n d u e de m esure ( » 10® с / s ). P a r a ille u r s , le s progrès ré c e n ts r é a li­
s é s dans la fa b ric a tio n d e s c â b le s pe rm e tte n t de grandes d is ta n c e s e n tre d é te c te u rs e t é le c ­
tro n iq u e s (> ZOO m), s an s être gênés par des p e rtu rb a tio n s p a ra s ite s .

A u s s i, le c â b le e s t c o n n e c té en perm anence sur l'a m p lific a te u r d 'im p u ls io n s sans aucune

com m u ta tio n . C 'e s t un a m p lific a te u r m ix te im p u ls io n -flu c tu a tio n (v o ir fig u re 1 ).

L 'é ta g e d 'e n tré e commun aux deux m esures a s s u re l'a d a p ta tio n du c â b le de lia is o n e t une
s o rtie à b a s s e im pédance v e rs le s é ta g e s d 'a m p lific a tio n de la p a rtie im p u ls io n e t de la p a rtie
flu c tu a tio n . C e t é ta g e d 'e n tré e e s t à com posants d is c re ts , d.e fa ç o n à o b te n ir un n iv e a u de
b ru it a u s s i fa ib le que p o s s ib le . L e s a u tre s é ta g e s , a u s s i bien en im p u ls io n qu'en flu c tu a tio n ,
sont c o n s titu é s d ’ a m p lific a te u rs in té g ré s .

P our de s ta u x de c om ptage re la tiv e m e n t fa ib le s ( < 10^ с / s ) le s ig n a l de flu c tu a tio n e s t

noyé dans le bruit de l'a m p lific a te u r ; il en ém erge p ro g re ss iv e m e n t lo rs q u e le flu x c ro ft.
Q uand le ta u x de com ptage d é p a s s e 10& с / s, on obs e rve une pe rte de com ptage due au fa it que
la bande p a s s a n te e s t lim ité e , p u is une s a tu ra tio n p ro g re s s iv e de ce ta u x de com p ta g e .

A in s i, on d is p o s e de deux s o rtie s a y a n t ch a c u n e leur dom aine de m esure e t s ans q u 'il s o it

n é c e s s a ire de fa ir e aucune c o m m u ta tio n . D es p ré c a u tio n s so n t p ris e s n a tu re lle m e n t pour q u 'il
n 'y a it aucune s a tu ra tio n d a n s la c h a m e d 'a m p lific a tio n du s ig n a l de flu c tu a tio n .

L e fa it de tr a v a ille r a v e c un c â b le a d a p té c o n d u it à de s im pédances d 'e n tré e re la tiv e m e n t

b a s s e s , ce qui n 'e s t pas fa v o ra b le , du point de vue b ru it é le c tro n iq u e : pour un ta u x de com-
ta g e de 10^ с / s, on o b tie n t, en s o rtie de l'a m p lific a te u r , un s ig n a l de m esure qui e s t du même
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -2 713

ordre que le b ru it de fond . C e c i n 'e s t pas trè s gênant puis q u e à 10® с / s, l'e rre u r ap p o rtée par
le b ru it, n 'e s t p lu s que de 1 %. C e p e n d a n t, on a c h erch é à d im in u e r encore c e tte erreur s y s té ­
m atiq u e en s o u s tra y a n t, a p rès d é te c tio n , une com posante c o n tin u e re p ré s e n ta tiv e du b ru it
(c e lu i-c i é ta n t c o n s ta n t dans le te m p s ) ; c e tte o p é ra tio n e s t p a rfa ite m e n t lé g itim e e t ne p ré­
s e n te aucune d iffic u lt é . L a p ré c is io n de la m esure peut a lo rs ê tre a m é lio ré e d'u n fa c te u r 3 0 .
L e s deux d é c a d e s de recou pem ent sont a lo rs deux v ra ie s d é c a d e s .

Une o b je c tio n c o u ra n te fa ite à la m éthode de mesure en flu c tu a tio n e s t r e la tiv e aux tem ps
de rép onse n o ta b le m e n t p lu s long que ceux que l'o n o b tie n t dans une m esure en c o u ra n t con­
tin u , e t p a rtic u liè re m e n t pour le p é rio d e m è tre .
C 'e s t un d é fa u t propre à c e tte m éthod e. I l e s t p o s s ib le de d im in u e r ce tem ps de rép onse en
aug m e n ta n t la bande p a s s a n te du s ig n a l de m esure, m ais là a u s s i, on e s t lim ité - si la bande
p a s s a n te e s t trop la rg e, on n 'a plus un s ig n a l de flu c tu a tio n - e t on ne peut pas e s p é re r gagner
p lu s d'u n fa c te u r 3 . Comme c 'e s t le p ro d u it шт З qui in te rv ie n t dans l'e x p re s s io n du b ru it, le
g a in sur le tem ps de rép onse ne d é p a s s e ra it pas 1 ,4 .

3. CHOIX DU DETECTEUR

Com me nous l'a v o n s d é jà d it, c 'e s t a v a n t to u t un d é te c te u r à im p u ls io n , à l'e x c lu s io n des

com pteurs p ro p o rtio n n e ls qui ne c o n v ie n n e n t pas pour des m esures en flu c tu a tio n s . On u tilis e ­
ra donc une cham bre à fis s io n e t on la c h o is ira pour a v o ir la plus grande é te n d u e de m esure en
flu c tu a tio n . C e lle - c i e s t lim ité e par des phénom ènes de ch a rg es d 'e s p a c e qui prennent n a is ­
sance dans l'e s p a c e in te r-é le c tro d e ; on re c u le l'e f f e t en a c c ro is s a n t la s u rfa c e de s é le c tro d e s ,
714 PLAIGE e t MAI

e t en a u g m en tan t le cham p é le c triq u e . On e s t donc c o n d u it n a tu re lle m e n t à des d é te c te u rs à

g rande s e n s ib ilité comme le s cham bres de ty p e C F U C 04 ou C F U D 14 (R T C ) de s e n s ib ilité
re s p e c tiv e 1 c / s e t 0 ,1 c / s par flu x u n ita ire .

C e s m êm es cham bres peu v e n t a u s s i ê tre u tilis é e s pour de s m esures en c o u ra n t. Si on u ti­

lis e de s cham bres m in ia tu re s , il fa u t c o n s e n tir une réd u c tio n de l'é te n d u e de m esure de une à
deux d é c a d e s s u iv a n t le ty p e de cham bre.

On rem arque que to u te s c e s cham bres à fis s io n d é liv re n t une charg e q u a d ra tiq u e m oyenne
par é v é n e m en t de l'o rd re de 1 0 - ^ C . E ta n t donné la s e n s ib ilité de l'a m p lific a te u r im pulsion
flu c tu a tio n , on e s t c e rta in d 'a v o ir un s ig n a l m esurab le pour un nombre d 'é v é n e m e n t de l'o rd re
de 10^ e t par co n s é q u e n t, un rec o u vre m e n t d’ e n v iro n deux d é c a d e s e n tre l'é te n d u e de mesure
im p u ls io n e t l'é te n d u e de m esure flu c tu a tio n , e t c e la quel que s o it le ty p e de cham bre à f i s ­
s io n c h o is i.

On s a it que la s e n s ib ilité de la m esure en im pulsion dépend du ré g la g e du s e u il de d is c ri­

m in a tio n . C e qui v ie n t d 'ê tr e d it suppose un s e u il ré g lé lé g è re m e n t a u -d e s s u s du b ru it de fond .
Si on re lè v e le s e u il, la s e n s ib ilité en im pulsion d im in u e , a in s i que l'é te n d u e de m esure g lo ­
b a le de l'in s tru m e n t. L a zo n e de reco u vrem en t s 'a c c ro ît par s u ite du g lis s e m e n t de l'é te n d u e
de m esure en im p u ls io n v e rs les flu x p lu s é le v é s .

4. SOUS-ENSEMBLE ELECTRONIQUE - DESCRIPTION ET CARACTERISTIQUES

PRINCIPALES

4 .1 . D E S C R IP T IO N

C e s o u s -e n s e m b le com prend d e u x b â tis de v o ie : sur un prem ier b â ti de v o ie e s t monté un

p é rio d e m è tre à im p u ls io n d 'u n ty p e c la s s iq u e , la s e u le d iffé re n c e é ta n t que l'a m p lific a te u r
d 'e n tré e d é liv re non s e u le m e n t de s im p u ls io n s , m ais a u s s i un s ig n a l de flu c tu a tio n . D e plus
l'a lim e n ta tio n h au te te n s io n e s t c e lle u tilis é e h a b itu e lle m e n t pour le s m esures en courant
(1 5 0 0 V , 2 m A ).
Sur le deu x iè m e b â ti de v o ie e s t m onté le p ério d em ètre à flu c tu a tio n . On y tro u v e l'a m p lific a ­
te u r lo g a rith m iq u e de flu c tu a tio n , le d é riv a te u r, le s c irc u its d 'a lim e n ta tio n , le s d é c le n c h e u rs
à s e u il, e t de s fo n c tio n s c o m p lé m e n ta ire s . C es d e rn iè re s se com posent d'u n a m p lific a te u r
pour la m esure du c o u ra n t d é te c te u r e t d'u n a m p lific a te u r som m ateur qui r e ç o it à son e n tré e
le s d e u x s ig n a u x lo g a rith m iq u e s de m esure en im p u ls io n e t en flu c tu a tio n . L 'a m p lific a te u r
som m ateur d é liv re en s o rtie un s ig n a l lo g a rith m iq u e co rre s p o n d an t aux d ix d é c a d e s de l'é te n ­
due de m esure.

B ie n que l'o n a it deux procédés de mesure d is tin c ts , il e s t p lu s ra tio n n e l de n 'a v o ir qu'une

in d ic a tio n de p u is s a n c e en é c h e lle lo g a rith m iq u e e t qu 'u n e in fo rm a tio n de pé rio d e : le nombre
d 'in d ic a te u r s e t d 'e n re g is tre u rs e s t d iv is é par deux, à la s a tis fa c tio n de l'e x p lo ita n t. C e c i e st
obtenu en r e lia n t le s in d ic a te u rs e t e n re g is tre u rs à la s o rtie de l'a m p lific a te u r som m ateur et
en com m utant l'in d ic a te u r de pé rio d e d 'u n e v o ie sur l'a u tr e . P our des ra is o n s de s é c u rité ,
nous n 'a v o n s pas retenu la s o lu tio n qui c o n s is ta it à m ettre un d é riv a te u r unique d e rriè re l'a m ­
p lific a te u r som m ateur lo g a rith m iq u e .
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -2 715

4 .2 . P R IN C IP A L E S C A R A C T E R IS T IQ U E S

- E te n d u e de m esure g lo b a le .................................................................. 1 c /s — 1 0 *0 с / s
- E te n d u e de m esure en im p u ls io n ...................................................... 1 c /s - 10® c /s
- E te n d u e de m esure en flu c t u a t io n .................................................. 10^ c / s — 1 0 10 c / s
- T e m p s de rép onse de la m esure L o g à 10 c / s ................... < 50s
à 10® c / s ...................... < 5ms
en flu c tu a t io n ............. < 100m s
- E te n d u e de la m esure p é rio d e ............................................................. - 3 s , » , + 3s
- T e m p s de rép onse de la m esure p é rio d e :
en im p u ls io n ............... v a ria b le d e 16s à 3s
en flu c tu a tio n ............. 8s
- E te n d u e de la m esure co u ran t en 4 gam m es :
10 (¿A, 100 (iA , 1mA e t 5 m A ............... 1 д А — 5m A
- T e m p s de rép onse de la m esure c o u ra n t (gam m e 1 m A ) .... ^ 5ms
- N iv e a u de s s ig n a u x de s o rtie à la p le in e é c h e lle ................ 10 V / 5mA

R em arqu es :
1 ) L e s c h iffr e s donn és c i-d e s s u s c o n c e rn e n t non pas la p é rio d e au s e n s s tr ic t , m ais le tem ps
de d o u b le m e n t
2) En m esure flu c tu a tio n , on ne p eu t pa s p a rle r en to u te rig u e u r de coup par s e c o n d e , p u is ­
q u 'ils ne so n t pa s d is c e rn a b le s . C e so n t de s é v é n e m en ts par s e c o n d e q u 'il fa u t c o n s id é re r,
m a is par s o u c i de s im p lific a tio n , nous gard o n s pour c e tte m esure le s y m b o le с / s.

5. ORGANISATION DE LA SECURITE

Du p o in t de vu e de la s é c u rité , on c o n s id è re c e m a té rie l com m e un se u l s o u s -e n s e m b le

co u v ran t une é te n d u e .d e m esure de d ix d é c a d e s . Un c ir c u it de bon fo n c tio n n e m e n t g a ra n tit que
la m esure flu c tu a tio n prend b ie n le r e la is de la m esure im p u ls io n a v a n t que c e lle - c i ne s o it en
s a tu ra tio n . U n a u tre c ir c u it d é c le n c h e pour to u te b a is s e a c c id e n te lle d e la h a u te te n s io n , un
tro is iè m e c irc u it d é c le n c h e u r b a s c u le si le ta u x d e com ptage m in im a l n 'e s t pas a tte in t.

E n fin , le d is p o s itif de s é c u rité e s t c o m p lé té par de s d é c le n c h e u rs à s e u il o p é ra n t par

d é p a s s e m en t de n iv e a u x fix é s à la m esure du c o u ra n t cham bre, ou à la p é rio d e .

L 'o rg a n is a tio n de la s é c u rité e s t donc to u t à f a it s e m b la b le à c e lle que l'o n tro u v e sur le s

v o ie s de m esure lin é a ire s e t lo g a rith m iq u e s à c o u ra n t c o n tin u .

L a m éthode de m esure en flu c tu a tio n e s t une m éthode s û re . L e s c ir c u its m is en je u ne sont

pas c o m p le x e s e t s e ra ie n t même p lu s s im p le s e t m oins d é lic a ts que c e u x de s m esures en im pul­
s io n . On peut d ire que c e tte n o u v e lle m éthode o ffre la même f ia b ilit é e t le s mêmes g a ra n tie s
de s é c u rité que le s p ré c é d e n te s . L e f a i t d 'a v o ir a s s o c ié le s d e u x m esures en im p u ls io n e t en
flu c tu a tio n ne re tire rien à la s é c u rité .
Q uant aux d é te c te u rs , p o in ts communs du s y s tè m e , ils jo u is s e n t d 'u n e bonne ré p u ta tio n de s ta ­
b ilité e t de ro b u s te s s e .
716 PLAIGE e t MAI

6. RESULTATS DES ESSAIS

L a q u a lité de s m esures en flu c tu a tio n , a fa it l'o b je t de nom breux te s ts e t n 'e s t plus m ise
en doute par p e rso nne a u jo u rd 'h u i. L e s e s s a is a v a ie n t donc pour b u t de m ettre en é v id e n c e la
s ta b ilité r e la tiv e de c e s deux m esures, d 'e x a m in e r le s e ffe ts de l'ir ra d ia tio n du d é te c te u r sur
le ta u x de com ptage m inim al e t e n fin de v é rifie r la lo n g é v ité de s m a té rie ls .

Un éq u ip e m e n t p ro to ty p e a é té in s ta llé d e p u is plus d'u n an sur un réa c te u r e x p é rim e n ta l

du C o m m is s a ria t à l'E n e rg ie A to m iq u e . D es m esures sont e ffe c tu é e s p é rio d iq u e m e n t : de lé g è ­
res d é riv e s ont é té o b s e rv é e s s an s q u 'il s o it p o s s ib le de le s a ttrib u e r à la mesure flu c tu a tio n
ou à la m esure im p u ls io n . E lle s se tra d u is e n t par une p e tite d is c o n tin u ité dans la te n s io n de
s o rtie de l'a m p lific a te u r som m ateur lo g a rith m iq u e .
D e s a m é lio ra tio n s d é jà ap p o rté e s au x c irc u its , ou en cours d 'é tu d e d e v ra ie n t perm ettre d 'é l i­
m iner c e tte im p e rfe c tio n .

U ne p e tite m o d ific a tio n du ta u x de com ptage m in im al apparue peu de tem ps a p rès les pre­
m iè re s e x p é rim e n ta tio n s e s t re s té e s ta b le par la s u ite . L à a u s s i, il e s t d if f ic ile de d ire s i ce
d é c o la g e e s t dû au d é te c te u r ou à une v a ria tio n lo c a le du flu x . D ’ a u tre s e s s a is pe rm e ttro n t de
p ré c is e r ce p o in t.

E n fin le m a té rie l a f a i t preuve d 'u n e e x c e lle n te f ia b ilit é ne donn an t aucun s o u c i à ceux qui
en a v a ie n t la re s p o n s a b ilité .

7. CONCLUSION

L 'a s s o c ia tio n de m esures en im p u ls io n e t en flu c tu a tio n perm et à p a rtir d 'u n même d é te c ­

te u r d 'o b te n ir une grande é te n d u e de m esure (d ix d é c a d e s ). C e s deux m éthodes de m esure ont
en outre l'a v a n ta g e commun d 'o ffr ir une bonne d is c rim in a tio n neutron-g am m a. L 'in s tru m e n ta tio n
à grande dyn a m iq u e e s t donc in té re s s a n te par la s im p lific a tio n e t l'é c o n o m ie q u 'e lle e n tr a x e
dans le c o n trô le de ré a c te u r. L e s d é te c te u rs e t le s s o u s -e n s e m b le s é le c tro n iq u e s ont é té te s té s
e t so n t p rê ts dès m a in te n a n t pour un s e rv ic e in d u s trie l.

D IS C U S S I O N

W . B A S T L : A s I understand it, the basic idea underlying this type of

c o m bine d m e a s u r e m e n t is to simplify the sy stem and save space. T h is
is certainly n e c e s s a r y in s o m e types of reactor. O n the other hand, one
can argue that the simplification is introduced at the w eakest link in the
m e a s u r in g chain, because it is m o r e difficult to exchange faulty sensors
than parts of the electronic circuit. A n inequality in reliability and
availability m a y therefore arise between the sensors and the highly redundant
electronic circuits. F urther, there m a y well be a p ro b lem of loss of
diversity. I would like to ask the speaker, and also representatives of the
utilities, w hether they envisage p roblem s in this context.
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -2 7 17

P . J O V E R : I think that you have a valid point, and I agree that it is

easier in the event of failure to replace parts of the electronic equipment,
w hich is located in the control ro o m , than to replace the detector, w hich
is installed n ea r the core of the reactor. In vie w of this it would be logical
to install a larger n u m b e r of detectors than strictly n ec e ss a ry .
T h e present trend, ho w ever, is towards a reduction in the n u m b e r of
neutron m e a s u r e m e n t chains b y com bining those used during startup with
those us ed for p o w er m e a s u r e m e n t . Cost savings can thus be m a d e by
reducing the n u m b e r of sites to be provided n e a r the core.
F. D E C O O L : T h e availability of a production reactor is associated
with the p ro p er functioning of the p o w er m e a s u r e m e n t chains and not in
the final analysis with that of the startup chains, w hich are only us ed in
exceptional ca s es . A s safety is usually en sured on a two-out-of-three
basis with three m e a s u r e m e n t chains, I can see nothing but advantages
(space saving, redu ced cost, simplicity) in restricting the probes to three
universal detectors — always provided, of course, that they are of a well-
tried and reliable type.
I. W I L S O N : M y first question to M r . J o v e r concerns the pulse-
counting m o d e of operation. W h a t are the statistical counting losses at
1 0 6 co u nts/s or, alternatively, what is the resolving time?
P . J O V E R : I do not have the exact figures, but I think that for
1 0 6 co u nts/s the counting loss is less than 1 0 % . T h e resolving time m ust
be s o m e tens of nanoseconds, perhaps a hundred.
I. W I L S O N : W ith r eg a r d to the C am pb ell m o de of operation, what
is the frequency response of the amplifier, and does the circuit m e a s u r e
the m e a n square, m e a n , or r m s value of the signal?
P . J O V E R : T h e p ass band of the amplifier us ed for fluctuation m e a s u r e ­
m ent is 30 k H z . T h e m e a su rin g circuit com prises a quadratic element, so
that the signal is proportional to the m e a n square deviation.
 IA E A -S M -168/ G -3

LO N G-LIFE ION CHAMBERS AND B F3

COUNTERS FOR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION
AND THE IN-SITU TESTING OF NON-
RE TRACTABLE PULSE FISSION COUNTERS
A. GOODINGS, K .W . McMINN, I. WILSON
A tom ic Energy Establishment, Winfrith,
Dorchester, Dorset, United Kingdom

Abstract

LONG-LIFE ION CHAMBERS AND BF3 COUNTERS FOR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND THE IN -SITU
TESTING OF NON-RETRACTABLE PULSE FISSION COUNTERS.
This paper deals with recen t developments in the design and in-situ testing o f lo n g -life neutron
detectors suitable for use in low power range pulse counting channels. It is shown th at in many applications
it is no longer necessary to provide equipment for retracting such detectors when the reactor is at fu ll power,
with consequent econom ies and operational advantages. The lim itations o f conventional copper-bodied
BF3 - fille d neutron counters are discussed and the advantages o f the altern ativ e alum inium devices are put
forward. Work is described which has led to the developm ent o f instruments with an unpolarized irradiation
lif e in excess o f 1018 n • c m ”2 . These counters have low activ ation levels and can be used for reactor startup
purposes tens o f minutes after shutdown from up to 1011 n • cm -2 • s_1. Tem perature tests h ave shown them
cap ab le o f working e ffe ctiv ely for extended periods a t 80 - 100°C and one version has been designed to be
equivalent in size and sensitivity to the copper-bodied counters used in Magnox reactor and other
instrumentation systems. Pulse fission counters may also be used for startup channels and in many situations
it is convenient to lo c a te them in fixed positions. Som e results which dem ónstrate the lives o f counters in
this type o f situation are given. I t is noted that one should, when at fu ll power, have som e sim ple means
o f ch ecking that the measuring channel, including the neutron d etector, is cap ab le of operating correctly
im m ed iately after a rapid shutdown. Faults which can develop in the detector and the associated signal
processing electron ics are analysed and the conclusion drawn that most lik ely failures can be d etected by
exp loiting the properties o f fission pulse pile-u p noise. Checking routines which can be employed in a
p ra ctica l situation are described and the essential electron ic equipm ent param eters necessary to im plem ent
them are outlined.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

T h e m e a s u r e m e n t of neutron flux for control and instrumentation

purposes at low a nd interm ediate p ow er levels on nuclear reactors is often
carried out with pulse-counting channels and in m a n y cases the detectors
u s ed are provided with m e a n s w he re by they can be retracted w h e n the
reactor is at high p o w e r . T h is is done to avoid excessive irradiation
d a m a g e to the detectors and their associated cables and to reduce detector
activation effects to a n acceptably low level. In addition, the neutron flux
level at the retracted position can be a rra n g ed to be within the n o rm a l
operating range of the channel so that com preh ensive testing of the detector
cable and electronics can be carried out at any tim e. T h is is a great
advantage but the provision of retraction m e c h a n is m s , though not partic­
ularly difficult in the case of low-tem perature out-of-pile detectors, does
represent an undesirable com plication. In u s e, correct positioning has to
be e n s u r ed b y appropriate interlocks w hich m a y prolong the reactor startup
s eq uence. In the case of reactors, such as s o m e advanced gas-cooled

719
720 GOODINGS e t al.

types, in w hich neutron detectors a r e m ounted in-pile in a hostile, high-

tem p e ratu re , high- pressure environm ent, detector retraction equipment
can be expensive to provide, operationally inconvenient and difficult to
m aintain.
If retraction is to be avoided, and this is often highly desirable, it is
essential that detectors and cables have adequate life in neutron flux levels
exceeding lO 10 n- c m "2 • s ' 1 and associated high g a m m a levels. In addition,
neutron activation effects m ust b e sufficiently low to perm it satisfactory
flux m e a s u r e m e n t s to be m a d e within a reasonable time, say 30 m in , of
shutdown following a prolonged period of full p o w er operation. In addition,
since a significant loss of revenue can be sustained if a large p o w er reactor
is prevented fro m starting up soon after a (possibly unscheduled) shutdown
the ability to test fixed detectors and to identify faults in the m e a s u r e m e n t
channel at regular intervals, and in advance of a planned shutdown, can be
extrem ely valuable.
P u ls e fission c h a m b e r s having sensitivities of up to 0 .1 cou nts/s per
unit flux and suitable for use in gas-cooled t h erm a l and sodium-cooled
fast reactor system s have be en described elsew here [1 , 2] . T h e y have
b e e n subjected to extensive endurance testing at high tem peratures and flux
levels and their suitability for non-retractable situations has been
established. H o w e v e r , the fact that at full p o w er they are exposed to flux
levels w hich can b e as m u c h as 104 tim es greater than their n o rm al m a x i m u m
operating level rules out conventional test m ethods in this circum stance.
A m ethod of carrying out such tests h a s, h o w e v er , been devised w hich is
capable of revealing m a n y of the detector and electronic faults which are
likely to occur.
R ecent developm ents in long-life proportional counters have also
extended their lives and have redu ced self-activation effects sufficiently to
perm it t h em to be u s ed without retraction in m a n y n o rm a l tem perature
applications. T h e p erfo rm a nce required and the design of counter which
achieves this p er fo rm a n ce are discussed in the next section of the paper.
Since B F 3 counters a re norm ally used out of pile the replacem ent of a faulty
one will generally be m uch, easier than in the case of an in-pile pulse fission
c h a m b e r so the ability to test the channel during full p o w er operation is less
im portant. Suitable testing techniques have not yet b e e n established, though
it is believed that the principles exploited to test pulse fission c h a m b e r s
are capable of being applied to proportional counters.

2. L O N G - L IV E D B F3 C O U N T E R S

2 . 1 . R e v ie w of earlier w ork

B o r o n trifluoride-filled proportional counters having copper bodies have

b e e n w idely us ed in reactor low-power neutron flux channels but activation
of the copper precludes their sustained exposure to high neutron flux levels.
In typical applications the perm issible limit lies b etw een 10 7 and
1 0 9 n • c m "2 • s"1. A lu m iniu m - bo died counters a re capable of im proving
appreciably on this p er fo rm a n c e and should b e capable of m e a s u r in g low
neutron flux levels within 30 m in of exposure to lO 11 n • c m ' 2 -s '1 . It will be
realised, of course, that at such high levels the life of a counter with the
n o r m a l polarizing voltage applied would be extrem ely short (a few s ec o n d s )[ 3]
 IA E A -SM -168/ G -3 721

and r e m o v a l of this voltage is essential w h e n the neutron flux level at

the counter exceed s the upper usable limit for that m e a s u r in g channel.
T h is p resents no difficulties and is a relatively sm all complication co m p a red
with retraction.
T h e unpolarized life of copper bodied counters with glass to m etal seals
w a s investigated by A b s o n et al. [4] w ho reported no deterioration up to
2 . 5 X 10 15 n • c m '2 , while T r e n h o lm e [ 5] show ed satisfactory results on
alum inium - bodied B F 3 counters irradiated to 3 X 10 6 n ’ c m "2. T h is is in
a gree m e n t with A b s o n and with other U K w o r k on sim ilar counters having
g la s s /m e t a l seals. T h e life of boron-lined proportional counters with
c e r a m ic /m e t a l seals can be better still and satisfactory operation after
irradiation to 10 17 n- c m "2 is possible with a r g o n / C 0 2 fillings. H o w e v e r ,
even this figure is inadequate if retraction is to be avoided and represents
a life of only four m onths at 1 0 10 n- c m "2 , s '1. It c o m p a r e s unfavourably
with results on pulse fission counters like the P 7 w hich have withstood
greater than 10 20 n • c m ' 2 (section 3 . 1 ) . T h e present developm ent has been
a im e d at achieving a counter life (with no polarizating potential) of at least
1 018 n • c m '2 .

2 .2 . F a ilu re m o d e s

T h e system atic deterioration of B F 3 -filled counters w h e n exp osed for

long periods at high flux is usually due to one of two c a u s es . F ailu re of
counters with g la s s /m e t a l seals has frequently be en attributed to
em brittlement of the glass followed by cracking and consequent loss of the
gas fillings. Typically this happens at integrated neutron doses below
1 0 17 n • c m ' 2 and m e t a l/c e r a m ic seals are considered essential for long life.
In instrumentation situations, failure of counters with these seals norm ally
co m p r is e s loss of adequate integral bias plateaux although a m o r e sensitive
test for deterioration is the resolution of the therm al neutron peak o bserved
in the differential bias characteristic (norm ally m e a s u r e d as the width of
the neutron peak at half m a x i m u m height, e x p r es se d as a fraction of its
en ergy). A n alternative m o de of failure results fro m loss of insulation of
the c e r a m ic com ponents and is often a c c o m p a n ied by the occu rren ce of
pulse b r e a k d o w n at the counter operating potential. L o s s of counter
sensitivity due to boron burnup is not significant in reactor control
applications since even at an integrated dose of 10 19 n • c m ' 2 the loss would
b e only about 4 % .

2 .3 . R ecent test results on existing designs

In the course of irradiation tests on five sam p les of existing a lu m in iu m ­

bodied counter having m e t a l /c e r a m ic seals, all failed be ca use the insulation
resistance acro ss the seals h a d fallen to an unacceptable extent, the best
one a m o n g five tested withstanding only 3. 7 X 1 0 17 n • c m "2. E v e n this
counter w a s not usable until partial recov ery had o ccu rr ed s o m e m onths
afterw ards.
Subsequent exam ination of a failed counter show ed that both m etal
c e r a m ic seals had b e c o m e b la c k /b r o w n in colour. A n a lysis using a laser
m icro p ro b e and optical spectrograph indicated that relatively large quantities
722 GOODINGS et al.

of bo ro n existed on all parts of the c e r a m ic and that approxim ately equal

am ounts of bo ron and silver w e r e present in certain black a re a s . It proved
difficult to correlate the fall in insulation resistance quantitatively with
these surface deposits but it w a s clear that steps should be taken to reduce
such deposition.

2 .4 . D e s ig n im p ro v em en ts

T h e particular design referred to in the previous section used two

m e t a l /c e r a m ic seals. T h e insulation path on both seals w a s short and, in
the present context, w a s considered inadequate. T h e use of two seals
perm its a ccess to both ends of the anode w ire and allows outgassing of this
w ire b y electrical heating. It has the disadvantage, h o w e v er , that v a c u u m
pum pin g and filling m u st b e conducted through one of the seals, resulting in
low pum ping speeds and causing all the outgassing products to flow past the
c e r a m ic . T w o counters w ere constructed to a proposed n ew design having
the s a m e sensitivity and physical size as the type previously tested; a
diam eter of 25 m m , an active length of 6 40 m m and a sensitivity of
2 0 counts/s per unit flux at a filling p re ss u r e of 550 m m H g . At one end an
im p r o v ed m e t a l/c e r a m ic seal having a long internal tracking path, w a s used.
In addition, its mounting provided a shroud to m in im iz e the probability of
contaminants fo rm e d within the gas being able to diffuse to the c e ra m ic [ 6 ] .
A silica disc sim ilar to that used in copper-bodied counters supported the
anode w ire at the other end and a large (6 m m d i a m .) p um ping stem w a s
provided to enable higher pum ping speeds to be achieved [ 7] . T h e counter
body w a s constructed fro m a high purity a l u m i n i u m /1 : 2 5 % m a g n e s iu m
alloy w hich com bines low activation with good m ech a n ica l strength.
Irradiation tests w e r e applied to these two counters and also with six
short, B F 3 -filled canisters fitted with the im p roved m e t a l /c e r a m ic seal.
T h e seals in the canisters show ed no sign of deterioration up to 1 0 18 n- cm "2
and two on w hich tests w e r e extended to 5 X 1018 n • c m "2 also survived.
Insulator deterioration w a s how ever observed on the two complete counters
at a dose of 3 X 1 0 17 n- c m "2, the cause being traced to deposits on the
silica disc. A s a result of this w ork further im p ro vem en ts in design w e r e
introduced. T h e deposition p rob lem on the silica disc w a s o v e rc o m e by
introducing circum ferential grooves to increase tracking distances [ 6 ].
A ls o the use of a fraction-welded a lum in ium /stain less steel joint for
connection to the seal in c r ea s ed the permitted outgassing tem perature to
5 0 0 °C . P r ev io u s designs had used a plating p rocess and low-temperature
solders for seal attachment w hich restricted processing tem peratures to
about 1 5 0 °C , inadequate for intended operation at 80 - 1 0 0 °C . T e n m odels
of this im p r o v ed design (illustrated in F i g . l and designated type 6 4 E B 5 5 / A 1 ) ,
w e r e m a d e and a series of tests conducted. T h e results a re described in
section 2 . 5 .
A w ider range of counter sizes has since be en designed and shorter,
2 5 - m m - d ia m . ve rsio ns, together with 50-mm- and 12- m m - dia m . types
have b e e n m an ufactured and tested. T h e use of various filling p re ss u r es
has dem onstrated that a range of counters with sensitivities between 0 .3
and 70 counts/s p er unit flux can be produced using the s a m e basic design,
while only m in o r modifications to increa se the strength of the grooved
silica disc have be en n ec e ss a ry .
 IA E A -SM -168/ G -3 7 23

о
z
О z
z о

W ELD
ARC

* 5

»
o
»

O _
724 GOODINGS e t al.

2 .5 . T est results on im p r o v ed design

2 .5 .1 . Irradiation tests

F o u r of the ten 6 4 E B 5 5 / A 1 counters w e r e irradiated in neutron flux

densities of b etw een 0 . 4 and 6 X 1 0 11 n • c m " 2 • s '1 . A ll w e r e still operating
satisfactorily after 1 018 n • c m '2 . Deterioration of the integral bias plateaux
did not b e c o m e severe until betw een 3. 7 and 5. 5 X 1018 n • c m "2 • s " 1.
Subsequent tests at sim ilar flux densities on other sizes b a s e d on this design
h ave also confirm ed satisfactory operation to greater than 1 0 18n- c m '2 . In
m o st c a s e s , ultimate failure has be en due to loss of plateau rather than to
insulator b r e a k d o w n .

2 .5 .2 . T e m p e r a t u r e tests

Long- term tem perature tests on all sizes in the range have been
conducted at 80 to 1 0 0 °C . S o m e deterioration of resolution w a s observed
soon after the counter w a s heated a nd w a s alw ays followed b y a further very
slow deterioration with tim e. Tests have be en continued for over 6000 h
and, although resolutions deteriorated m a r k e d ly , adequately long integral
bias plateaux w e r e a lw ays obtained. Investigation into the changes in
resolution w h ich occur during heating is bein g undertaken at present but the
w o r k confirm s that operation at 8 0 °C for long periods will not significantly
affect counter p erfo rm a nce in reactor instrumentation applications.

2 .5 .3 . M ech a n ica l tests

Sinusoidal vibration tests have also be en carried over the frequency

range 10 - 1 0 3 H z . Counter p erfo rm a nce w a s tested during and after periods
of p eak acceleration of 1 m ■s '2 at resonant frequencies and no detectable
changes in their characteristics observed. N o m echan ical failures occu rred
either. Shock tests in w hich counters w e r e subjected to peak accelerations
of about 300 m • s"2 a n d drop tests producing even greater accelerations
h ave s h o w n that the w eakest component is the 0 .0 0 1 - in . anode w ir e . M o r e
stringent pro cessing and testing of this item have b e e n introduced.

3. IN - C O R E T E S T I N G O F P U L S E F ISS IO N C H A M B E R S

3 .1 . B a ck gro u nd

T o satisfy the req uirem ents of certain concrete p r e s s u r e vessel A G R s

and sodium -cooled fast reactors in the United K in g d o m a range of in-core
pulse and d. c. ionization c h a m b e r s has b e e n developed. T h e y are described
in detail else w here [ 1 , 2 ] , and w e r e designed to m e a s u r e a range of flux
densities of b etw een 102 and 1 0 1:Ln- c m '2 • s"1 using three detectors, the P 7
pulse fission c h a m b e r , the D C 12 wide- range g a m m a - c o m p en sa te d boro n
ionization c h a m b e r a nd the D C 14 fission ion c h a m b e r . A ll have a design
life of at least three y ea rs in a m a x i m u m flux of 1 0 11 n • c m '2 • s '1 at t e m p e r ­
atures up to 5 5 0 °C and all have be en subjected to considerable testing,
prototypes having b e e n irradiated for up to 4 f y ea rs under typical operating
conditions in the W in d s c a le A G R .
 IA E A -SM -168/ G -3 725

D IS C R IM IN A T O R B IA S LEVEL

( dB W ITH RESPECT TO A R B IT R A R Y ZERO )

FIG. 2. The bias curve o f a P7A cham ber before and after irradiation.

T h e P 7 W in d sc a le tests em ployed four s p e cim e n s sited in a m odified

neutron shield plug above the reactor co re. Unfortunately one unit w a s
d a m a g e d in installation and, in consequence, two w e r e irradiated in a flux
density of about 1012 n • c m "2 • s"1 and one in 1. 3 X 1 0 6 n • c m "2 . s ' 1 . All
three operated at 5 2 5 °C fro m Octo be r 196 7 until they w e r e discharged in
D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 0 , so one m a y therefore conclude that the high flux pair
withstood an integrated dose exceeding 1 0 20 n • c m "2 over three y ears at
5 2 5 ° C . T h is is illustrated by F i g . 2 which shows integral bias characteristics
obtained fro m one of these c h a m b e r s . A s can be seen, there is no evidence
of deterioration with tim e and in fact the differences w hich do exist can be
explained in t e r m s of am plifier and im p ed a n ce m atching variation.
O n e concludes that, on the ba sis of the s am p les tested at least, there
is no rea so n to expect serious systematic difficulties in achieving a ch a m b er
lifetime of around three y ea rs w hen exposed to the irradiation and t e m p e r ­
ature conditions already stated.
726 GOODINGS e t al.

3 .2 . Po ssible m o d e s of failure

A n in-core pulse-fission cha m ber operating in a high-flux, high-temper-

ature environm ent, will be subject to a n u m b e r of stresses which could
induce failure. T h e s e include active coating burnup, the buildup of fission-
product activity in the c h a m b e r coating, so causing unacceptably short
plateaux after shutdown, self heating due to irradiation, local tem perature
limitations and irradiation d a m a g e . A ll these factors have to be taken into
account w h e n specifying a c h a m b e r for a particular environm ent. S o m e ,
such as burnup , a r e predictable and can b e neglected in the present context,
but one m ust also allow for ran do m failures. Such faults will fall into one
of the following categories:

3 .2 .1 . Insulator faults

(a) Connections short circuit due to m ech a n ica l d a m ag e;

(b) Insulation low resistance (but not short circuit). T h is could arise
fro m excessive tem perature, irradiation, flaking of the coating and
deposition on insulators, metallic diffusion across insulators or
incorrect processing during m anufacture;
(c) Insulator pulse b r ea k d o w n w hich would include both genuine b r e a k ­
dow n and excessive noise generation. T h e causes could be the
s a m e as those leading to (b) above but b r ea k d o w n can occur without
significant changes in insulation resistance.

3 .2 .2 . Connection open circuit due to m ech a n ica l failure

3 .2 .3 . Filling gas faults

(a) C h a n ges in filling p re ss u r e due to envelope leakage;

(b) E x c e s s iv e electron attachment due to the ingress of electro-negative
g a s e s , e .g . oxygen. Outgassing fro m the walls can produce the
s a m e results;
(c) L o s s of gas quality leading to low electron drift velocities and hence
in c r ea s ed electron collection tim e.

3 .2 .4 . M ec h a n ic a l faults

(a) Coating failure, such as flaking, to produce low insulation resistance

a n d /o r pulse b r ea k d o w n or, rarely, self-shielding and a consequent
fall in c h a m b e r sensitivity.
(b) O th er m ech a n ica l faults such as expansion spring failure, dislodged
insulators o r , in the ex trem e, c h a m b e r collapse under external
p r e s s u r e . T h e s e are norm ally v e ry rare in well-designed devices
and invariably lead to som e other fault.

3 .2 .5 . E x c e s s iv e electrical interference due to reduction of screening

efficiency of cables or connectors caused by m ech a n ica l d a m a g e or
corrosion effects

A l l will produce s y m p to m s w hich are described b y one of the types

listed in T a b le I.
 IA E A -SM -168/ G -3 727

T A B L E I. P U L S E - F IS S IO N C H A M B E R F A U L T T Y P E S B Y S Y M P T O M

Category in which
Fault No. Fault type
described

1 Pulse breakdown 3. 2. 1 (c)

2 Chamber low resistance 3. 2. 1 (b)

("Electron attachm ent 3. 2 . 3 (b)

3
I Low drift v elo city 3. 2. 3 (c)

4 Filling pressure wrong 3. 2. 3 (a)

5 Leads open circu it 3. 2 .2

6 Leads short circu it 3. 2 . 1 (a)

7 General m ech an ical failure 3. 2. 4 (b)

8 E le ctric a l interference 3. 2 .5

U n d e r n o rm a l operating conditions these faults would either be self-

evident or detectable by exam ination of the E H T or integral bias plateaux.
U n d er the conditions of use in-pile, h o w e v e r , plateau plotting is not possible
and s o m e other technique is req uired. Several proposals for such testing
have be en put fo rw ard but only two of them , d . c . m e a s u r e m e n t s and neutron
pulse buildup m e a s u r e m e n t s , d eserv e serious attention, the fo r m e r be ca use
of its obvious simplicity and the latter b e c a u s e of its com preh ensive nature.

3 .3 . T es t m ethods

3 .3 .1 . d .c . m easurem ents

S im p le m e a s u r e m e n t of the current being p a ss ed by the ch a m b er w hen

i m m e r s e d in the high flux can be shown to be of limited value. A typical
pulse fission c h a m b e r would pass perhaps 1 0 '3 A total current (electrons
and positive ions) at 5 X 1010 n ■c m "2 • s"1. T h is current is s up erim p osed
on the cable leakage current w hich will also be present. Clearly, h o w e v er ,
the leakage current can only be m e a s u r e d if it is greater than, say, a few
per cent of the ion current. T h e usefulness of this technique is limited to
the detection of gross in c r e a s e s in cable leakage which could indicate the
onset of cable o r detector insulator failure w hich could lead to insufficient
polarizing voltage at the detector or even to d a m a g e of the E . H . T . supply.
It w o uld n e v e r be possible to detect those fault conditions, such as electron
attachment or low drift velocity, which have no influence on the m e a n current.
F u r t h e r m o r e , in an e x tr em e case w h e r e the neutron current is sm all
co m p a r e d with the leakage current, d . c . m ethods alone could not even
detect an open circuit near the c h a m b e r end of the cable.

3 .3 .2 . Neutron pulse pile-up m e a s u r e m e n t s

T h is technique is m u c h m o r e p rom isin g than the above and m a y be

im p lem en ted b y attenuating the c h a m b e r pulses at a suitable point in the
pulse counting chain preceding the discrim inator. U nd er such circum stances,
728 GOODINGS e t al.

the situation is analogous to the case of g a m m a pulse pile-up under n o rm a l

operating conditions and the technique can be illustrated with a simplified
analysis b a s ed upon the assum ption that all neutron pulses are of uniform
s iz e . T h e output fro m the pulse amplifier will appear as noise within the
discrim inator dy nam ic range and on the above basis will lead to a counting
rate described over at least part of the range by :

x 2
R n = K e ‘ ?(v) (1)

w h ere

R n is the o bserve d counting rate

К is a constant related to pulse size, am plifier gain and bandwidth

x is the discrim inator setting

v is the r m s output of the amplifier ex p r es se d in the s a m e units

If it is a s s u m e d that following n o rm a l U K practice the c h a m b e r will be operating

in a current pulse m o d e and that the frequency response of the amplifier
is determ ined b y equal integrate and differentiate time constants it c a m
b e show n that:

v2 = R A 2 I2 f(a, T ) (2)

w h e re

R is the neutron pulse rate (s-1)

A is a constant related to amplifier gain

I is the c h a m b e r output pulse size (am ps)

a is the ch a m b er electron collection tim e (s)

T is a function involving the amplifier frequency response

N o w , if x is large c o m p a r e d with v, E q . (1) describes a curve in which

R n v a ries by about one decade for each 1 d B change in x /v , and a m e a s u r e ­
m ent of the counting rate under such conditions is obviously a sensitive test
for v . B ut a test of v , b y E q . (2), provides information on R (the original
neutron pulse rate), I (the original pulse height) and, provided a and T are
w ell chosen, it also gives information on a (the original c h a m b e r pulse
length).
In practice, of co u rs e, the c h a m b e r neutron pulses have a distribution
in amplitude so that the above equations a re not a complete description of
the situation but, nevertheless, the conclusion is valid and it is possible to
consider the implications in t e r m s of the faults listed in T a b le I.

(a) Fault 1 - pulse b r e a k d o w n : Pulse b r ea k d o w n in the present context is

taken to m e a n that the c h a m b e r under test, plus its cable, is generating
spurious pulses of a size com parable with true neutron p ulses. T h u s , if
this fault is present p a ra m e t e r R will be greater than its correct value.
T h e detectable increase will depend on the n o rm a l stability of v w hich, in
the absence of other c h a m b e r faults, will be dictated b y the stability of the
am plifier gain, discrim inator setting (A ) and frequency response ( T ) . If
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -3 7 29

for the p urpo ses of the present discussion, the com bined variation due to
A and T is a s s u m e d not to exceed ± j d B , one could detect a change in R of
about 1 d B or 1 0 % . If the value of R in the high flux situation is, say
5 X 1 0 ? co u n ts/s then pulse brea k do w n could be detected only if its rate
exceed ed 5 X 108 c o u n t s/s . A s pulse b r e a k d o w n could b e trou blesom e if it
ex c e ed ed a rate of say 3 counts/s this technique cannot detect this particular
fault. It has b e e n suggested that an E . H . T . increase beyond the n o rm a l
value might increase the b r e a k d o w n pulse rate to a detectable level and
would increase the pulse amplitude with a sim ilar effect on the r m s buildup
am plitude. H o w e v e r , this hypothesis has not yet be en tested experim entally.

(b) Fault 2 - c h a m b e r low resistance: T h e effect of low insulation r e s is ­

tance is to reduce the effective polarizing voltage by producing excessive
voltage drop in the E . H . T . supply im p e d a n c e . T h e present technique
im p lies, h o w e v e r , that the c h a m b e r and E . H . T . supply are designed to
w o rk correctly at th e higher flux levels and that the voltage drop m ust, by
design, b e sm a ll at neutron currents of 1 or 2 m A . Since leakage currents
of this m agnitude alone are unlikely to affect the value of v the existence
of gro ss insulation leakage is best detected b y sim ple d . c . m e a s u r e m e n t s .

(c) Faults 3 to 7: A ll these faults produce a change in the c h a m b e r neutron

pulse amplitude or pulse length. A s the amplifier frequency resp o n se is
optim ized for a particular c h a m b e r pulse length (i. e. the value of T is
chosen to give a good integral bias plateaux of at least 6 d B at low counting
rates for the expected value of (a) any change in pulse size or length which
results in an effective change in pulse height at the discrim inator of ± 1 dB
can be o b s er v e d . Such a change is well within the acceptable shift in
operating conditions for a channel of this type so it is concluded that
significant changes in detector p er fo rm a n c e due to these types of fault can
be detected.

(d) E lectrical interference: Electrical interference could be troublesom e

at the level equivalent to a few tens of spurious p u ls e s /s e c o n d . In this
respect it is analogous to pulse b r e a k d o w n but, as it is not a function of
E . H . T . , there is no obvious w a y of artificially increasing its rate without
m echanically interfering with the cable, or perhaps inserting deliberately
high earth r esistances. Such faults cannot, therefore, be detected with
certainty.
O n e concludes that the technique should be able to detect all possible
faults except those of reduced leakage resistance, of in crea sed electrical
interference and perhaps of pulse b r e a k d o w n . It is certainly m o r e c o m p r e ­
hensive than the m ethod of relying on d. c. leakage alone and m a y be
im p lem en ted sim p ly provided certain precautions are taken in the design of
the pulse am plifier, amplitude discrim inator and E . H . T . supply.

3 . 4 . Practical im plem entation of pulse pile-up noise tests

F o r practical p urposes, changes in the r m s noise value can be deduced

by counting noise p ea k s. T h is involves introducing sufficient additional
attenuation into the pulse amplifying chain to reduce channel output to a
convenient level, say 104 co u nts/s, and to r eco rd the am ount of attenuation
introduced. P ro vided the m e a s u r e m e n t is repeated at a particular reactor
730 GOODINGS et al.

p o w er level then subsequent values of attenuation needed to reduce the

noise peak counting rate to the s a m e figure should not differ b y m o r e than
about ± 1 d B . A n y larger variation would indicate a fault in either the
detector and its associated cables o r in the electronic equipm ent. T h e
latter can be checked in situ, or can be replaced b y a channel know n to be
free of faults. A faulty detector can therefore be identified in this w a y .
It is of course n e c e s s a r y to ensure that pulse am plifiers w hich precede
the discrim inator are not overloaded by the pile-up noise signal, otherwise
the resulting distortion would ren der the m e a s u r e m e n t invalid. In addition,
for operational reasons any additional attenuation should be capable of being
introduced at a convenient point, usually at the m a i n a m p lifier /d is cr im in a to r/
ratem eter unit. A ls o , to ensure that the detector continues to operate in a
saturated condition, the E . H . T . supply should be capable of m aintaining
a voltage of a few h un dred volts at the detector for the detector conditions
w hich apply during in-situ tests. Detector m e a n current, plus any cable
leakage current w hich m a y exist in the case of a high tem perature detector
location, can re a c h a value in the region of 1 or 2 m A . H o w e v e r , none of
those req uirem ents are difficult to achieve.

3 .5 . Sim ple overall channel test

If steps have be en taken in the design of the electronic equipment to

perm it accurate pulse pile-up noise m e a s u r e m e n t s , it is relatively straight­
fo r w ar d to provide a m onitoring arrang em en t for a continuous check on the
p er fo rm a n ce of m a n y parts of the electronic equipm ent, thus supplementing
the pile-up noise tests. In addition, s o m e operational advantages are
obtained.
A s the neutron flux at a pulse fission detector rises, a point is reached
at w hich the output of the logarithm ic ratem eter r e m a in s substantially
constant. T h e counting rate is then equal to the reciprocal of the effective
resolving time of the amplifier-discrim inator circuits (about 2 X 1 0 6 counts/s
for a channel used with a detector having a pulse length of 200 n s). F ig u r e 3
show s the kind of characteristic obtained. If the ratem eter section of the

FIG. 3. Pulse channel characteristics over wide flux range.

 IA E A -SM -168/ G -3 731

channel can indicate higher counting rates without limiting, then the indicated
counting rate at full p o w e r , though not of direct significance, provides a
useful overall check. It should r e m a in at a fixed value but a great m a n y
faults in the electronic units and so m e detector and cable faults will lead to
variations w hich are easily o bserve d. A nother advantage of this arrangem en t
is that it avoids the generation of undesirable and m islea din g period signals
as the p o w er falls to levels at which the channel operates norm ally. T h e
turnover point " A " m ust be beyond full p o w er flux and can be at least a factor
of 1 0 4 above the upper usable counting rate. Its m ost likely cause is that the
detector has b e c o m e unsaturated, ow ing to excessive voltage drop in the
polarizing supply and filter circuits. O n one type of pulse counting channel
log ratem eter used in the U K the m e t e r is provided with a m anually
adjustable secondary pointer w hich can be set to a position which coincides
with the n o r m a l indicated counting rate at full reactor p o w er so that signifi­
cant changes can readily be s een.

4. C O N C L U SIO N S

Currently available designs of high-temperature pulse fission c h a m b e r

have b e e n s h o w n to withstand an integrated dose of over lO20 n • c m "2 and a
n e w ran ge of alum inium - bodied B F 3-filled proportional counters have an
established unpolarized life of well over 1 0 18 n * c m '2. T h e y have sufficiently
low self-activation to enable low neutron fluxes to be m e a s u r e d reliably
after prolonged exposure to flux levels of up to 1 0 12 and 1 0 11 n • c m ’ 2 • s"1
respectively. Consequently, in m a n y reactor control applications it is now
feasible to locate low-power neutron-flux channel detectors in fixed
positions, thereby avoiding the complication and expense of retraction
equipm ent.
T o co m plem ent the developm ent of long-life pulse-fission detectors, in-
situ testing techniques have b e e n developed w hich can be ca rried out using
the installed pulse counting electronics with only m in o r com plications. O n e
of these techniques is b a s e d on m e a s u r e m e n t of neutron pulse pile-up noise
w h e n the reactor is at full p ow er and is capable of revealing significant
deterioration of a detector due to several causes w hich cannot be detected
b y direct current m e a s u r e m e n t s . U s e d in com bination, these m ethods
enable m ost channel faults to b e detected and those in the detector and
electronics to be separately identified.
In the case of proportional counters the polarizing potential m ust be
r e m o v e d at high flux levels, and so in-situ testing using these m ethods
cannot be applied directly. H o w e v e r , testing tends to be less important
since the less severe tem perature and p re ss u r e environm ent in w hich p ro ­
portional counters will b e located im plies that replacem ent at short notice
is not as difficult as in the case of pulse fission c h a m b e r s located in-pile.
N ev e rth e less, it is possible that the m ethods developed for fission counters
can be adapted to deal with proportional counters.

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] GOODINGS, A. , Wide range neutron flux measurement at high tem perature, Radiation Measurements
in Nuclear Power (1966) 408.
[ 2] GOODINGS, A. , HAGGER, D. , PHILLIPS, R. D. "Reactor control neutron detectors for operation at high
tem peratures", IEE Conf. Publ. No. 47 (1968) 37.
7 32 GOODINGS et al.

[ 3] BRINCKMANN, H. F. , GERBER, D. , Kernenergie 3 (1960) 309.

[4 ] ABSON, W. , SALMON, P. G. , PYRAH, S. , Proc. IEE 105B (1958) 357.
[ 5] TRENHOLME, W. M. , IEE Trans. on N. S. NS-6 (1959) 1.
[6 ] GOODINGS, A. , LEAKE, J.W . , Br. Pat. 1240379 (June 1970).
[7 ] GOODINGS, A. , JAQUES, T . A .J. , ALLEN, F. H. , MAUGER, R. A. , McMINN, K .W . , V acuum _2111
(1971) 515.

D IS C U S S IO N

M . F . E D E L M A N N : M a y I ask w hether there is a high burnup of the

sensitive m aterial in y our in-core detectors? If so, how m u c h does the
sensitivity of the detectors decrease during their long lifetimes, and how
do you account for the time-dependent nature of the detector sensitivity?
I. W I L S O N : T h e a n s w e r is that burnup of the fissile coating is only
about 3 % for an integrated dose of 1 0 19 n / c m 2. If one subjects these fission
c h a m b e r s to the highest irradiation dose m entioned in the paper (1 0 20 n / c m 2),
the sensitivity loss will be about 3 0 % . E v e n this loss is not serious as far
as pulse-counting channels are concerned, and can in any case be predicted.
A . R . O S T R O W S K I : H a v e you encountered p rob lem s w he n using
relatively high-voltage proportional counters under the tem perature and
radiation conditions obtaining? C a n the cables and the counters them selves
give rise to spurious pulse counts?
I. W I L S O N : T h e proportional counters discussed in the paper are
intended for operation at relatively low tem perature (8 0 °C ) and the cables
do not present p r o b le m s . Available cables with polyim ide or other radiation-
resistant insulating m aterial are satisfactory.
R . M . B A L L : H a v e you carried out any studies involving the use of
boron-lined counters?
I. W I L S O N : Y e s , but not in connection with the kind of in-pile applica­
tion d is c u s se d in the p aper.
R . M . B A L L : I have another short question. A r e the fission counters
all filled with argon?
I. W I L S O N : Y e s , they are.
J . F U R E T : T h e m ethods you used for testing the detectors are
extrem ely interesting. I think that they would be particularly useful to
M r . P la ige and M r . M a i for analysing the anom alies w hich they have
encountered in experim ents with their wide- range m e a s u r e m e n t a ss e m b ly .
T h e r e is just one question that I should like to ask you, ho w e v er.
W h a t w e r e the considerations that led you to adopt B F 3 counters as fixed
detectors in the startup a ss e m b lie s? In F r a n c e boron-lined counters are
generally held to b e m u c h m o r e reliable, and it is p rim arily detectors of
that type that a re being studied and developed for the purpose.
I. W I L S O N : T h e p r o g r a m for the developm ent of long-life proporti­
onal counters b e g a n s o m e tim e ago and w a s a relatively logical extension
of B F 3 counter technology. I agree that boron-lined counters would be
equally acceptable, but they m ight not provide the high sensitivity of which
the B F 4 designs a re capable.
L . V . K O N S T A N T I N O V : H a v e you carried out experim ents on
proportional counters at high tem peratures, say over 5 0 0 °C ?
I. W I L S O N : N o , or at least not in connection with this kind of long-life
application.
 IA E A -S M -168/G -4

M INICALCULATEUR POUR
L E S MESURES NEUTRONIQUES
DANS UN R EA C T EU R NUCLEAIRE

P. JOVER
CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires
de Saclay, France

Abstract-Résumé
MINICOMPUTERS FOR NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS IN NUCLEAR REACTORS.
For some tim e now d ig ital computers have been used widely in the operation o f nuclear reactors. In
m ost cases, such computers are used for processing m easurem ent data and indications o f em ergency situations,
the display o f messages and the analysis of reactor incidents. In some cases, the com puter participates
m ore or less directly in the control o f the plant, the aim being to achieve better perform ance. However,
the different parameters ch aracterizing the operation o f the core (for exam ple, n uclear power, period and
reactiv ity ) are s till measured by m eans of analogue equipm ent. With the recen t advent o f cheap and highly
re lia b le -minicomputers it was fe lt that the tim e had com e to build exp erim ental equipm ent — using standard
components in association with such a m inicom puter — capable o f controlling the n uclear power o f a reacto r.
The author describes d ifferent parts of the exp erim ental equipment which has been bu ilt at the Centre d' Etudes
N ucléaires de Saclay and tested on a low-power reacto r. An account is also given o f the exp erience gained
over several months o f operation.

MINICALCULATEUR POUR LES MESURES NEUTRONIQUES DANS UN REACTEUR NUCLEAIRE.

Les calcu lateu rs numériques sont, depuis un certain temps d é jà , largem ent utilisés pour la conduite
des réacteurs n u cléaires. Dans la plupart des ca s, le calcu lateu r est utilisé pour le traitem ent des inform a­
tions des mesures e t des signalisations d 'a la r m e , Г ém ission de messages e t l ' analyse des incidents. Dans
quelques cas, le calcu lateu r participe de façon plus ou moins directe à la com m ande e t au contrôle de façon
à am éliorer les perform ances de la ce n trale . Cependant, jusqu1 à présent les différents paramètres qui c a ­
ractérisent le fonctionnem ent du cœ ur, tels que la puissance neutronique, la période e t la ré a ctiv ité , ont
toujours été mesurés à l'a id e d'équipem ents analogiques. Compte tenu de l'ap p arition récente de m in ica lcu la ­
teurs à fa ib le prix e t à grande fia b ilité , il a été jugé opportun de construire un équipem ent exp érim en tal,
utilisant des m atériels standards reliés à un m in icalcu lateu r capable d'assurer le contrôle neutronique d 'u n
réacteur n u cléaire. On donne une description des différentes parties de l'éq u ip em e n t expérim ental qui a
été construit au Centre d 'étud es n ucléaires de Saclay e t installé auprès d 'u n réacteur à basse puissance,
ainsi que les résultats de l ’ expérience acquise après quelques m ois d‘ exp loitation.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

L e s calculateurs n u m é r iq u e s sont, depuis un certain t em p s déjà,

largem ent utilisés pour la conduite des réacteurs n uclé aires. D a n s la plu­
part des cas, le calculateur est utilisé pour le traitement des informations,
et facilite la conduite du réacteur par la centralisation des m e s u r e s et des
signalisations et l'é m is s io n de m e s s a g e s . D a n s quelques cas, le calcula­
teur participe de façon plus ou m o in s directe au contrôle et à la c o m m a n d e
et p erm e t d 'a m é lio r e r les p e r fo rm a n c e s de la centrale nucléaire. C e p e n ­
dant, jusqu'à présent, certains p a ra m è t re s qui caractérisent le fonction­
n em ent du coeur, tels que la p uissance neutronique, la période, et la r é a c ­
tivité ont toujours été m e s u r é s ou calculés à l'aide d'é qu ipem ents analo­
giq ues. Com pte tenu de l'apparition récente de m inicalculateurs à faible

733
7 34 JOVER

prix et à grande fiabilité, il a été jugé opportun de réaliser un équipement

expérim ental utilisant des m atériels standards reliés à un minicalculateur,
capable d 'a s s u r e r le contrôle neutronique d 'u n réacteur nucléaire W ,
[2 ] . O n décrit, dans ce m é m o ir e , l'équipem ent qui a été réalisé par
les Services d'Electronique du Centre d 'E t u d e s N ucléaires de S A C L A Y , et
qui est actuellement installé auprès du réacteur U L Y S S E de l'Institut
National des Sciences et Techn iqu es N uclé a ires de S A C L A Y .

2. D E S C R IP T IO N G E N E R A L E

L 'é q u ip e m e n t a pour but de m e s u r e r la puissance, la période et la

réactivité globale, sur toute la plage de fonctionnement du réacteur
(1 à 1 0 _ 9), à partir de quatre détecteurs posés p rè s du coeur (figure 1).

Cet équipement hybride com pren d, en plus des détecteurs :

- des transm etteurs, reliés aux détecteurs de flux neutronique, qui tra n s ­
form ent les signaux reç us en fréquence proportionnelle au flux neutro­
nique,

- un m inicalculateur qui acquiert les données et calcule les p ara m ètre s

n éc e ss a ir e s à la conduite, et qui peut éventuellement émettre des ordres
à destination du systèm e de c o m m a n d e des b a r r e s ,

- un en sem b le de tiroirs fonctionnels, dans lesquels on fait un p re m ie r

traitem ent de s signaux é m is par les transm etteurs ; cet en sem ble est
relié à un contrôleur qui p erm et les échanges avec le calculateur.

Cet équipement se com porte c o m m e une voie de m e s u r e autonome

à grande dynam ique : il peut être relié à un calculateur central.

S¿ t P u iss o n c e
1 -
nom inale

10 -1-
Si-r S2 '
S3
S1-L C h a m b r e
10-2-
l d 'ionisation à courant

S4-T S2
10 - 3-
S3
10
S 1^ C h a m b r e à fission

10 - s - S4-r S2

10 -6 - S3

S 1 «L C h a m b r e à fission
10 N iveau
critique
10 -e

10 - 9 N iv e a u de
so u rc e
1 0 .1 0 J S ^ l C o m p t e u r à d é p ô t d e bore

FIG . 1. Recouvrement des détecteurs.

 IA EA -SM -168/ G -4 7 35

C h a ss is САМАС

F IG .2 . Schém a général d 'in terco n n exion .

L a configuration choisie est m ontrée sur la figure 2.

O n y voit principalem ent :

- les transm etteurs,

- les tiroirs fonctionnels qui relient les transm etteurs et les

autres préam plificateurs au calculateur par l'interm édiaire du contrôleur,

- le m inicalculateur,

- le panneau de conduite,

- le panneau de test.
736 JOVER

3. D IF F E R E N T E S P A R T IE S D E L 'E N S E M B L E

3 .1 . Minicalculateur

C 'est un calculateur num érique rapide à logique m ic r o p r o g r a m m é e

M U L T I - 8 / M 301 (Intertechnique), dont les caractéristiques principales
sont rappelées ci-dessous :

- M é m o i r e : T o r e s de ferrite, 4 K m ots de 8 bits. Cycle de

base : 1,1 ji.s. A c c è s direct.

- M é m o i r e p erm anente : 786 m ots de 16 bits utilisés pour définir

le répertoire d'instructions ; une partie des 256 m ots disponibles a été
utilisée pour la p ro g ra m m a tio n des échanges avec les p ériphériques.

- M ultiplication/Division m i c r o p r o g r a m m é e . Manipulation des

données en précision multiple (1 à 4 octets).

- Répertoire de 89 instructions.

- E n trées;Sorties : transfert p r o g r a m m é ou automatique.

3 .2 . T ra n sm e t t e u rs

Chaque transm etteur co m pren d plusieurs blocs fonctionnels stan­

d a r d s (haute-tension, amplificateur, discrim inateur) et un bloc addition­
nel de télé co m m a n d e qui p erm et de t é lé co m m a n d er certains tests, ou
l'arrêt et la m is e en m a r c h e .

L e transm etteur associé à la ch a m bre d'ionisation à courant

com porte un bloc convertisseur courant-fréquence (1 0 $ H z pour 10-5 д)_

L e s transm etteurs, qu'ils soient associés au com pteur à dépôt de

b o r e, aux c h a m b r e s à fission, ou à la c h a m b re d'ionisation, fournissent
donc de s im pulsions calibrées dont la fréquence m oyenn e est proportion­
nelle au flux neutronique.

3 .3 . T iro ir s fonctionnels

L e s tiroirs fonctionnels sont construits dans le standard C A M A C ,

Ils com prennent :

- un contrôleur de chassis spécialisé ( J C M 8 ) et un tiroir addition­

nel de traitement des appels (J T A ) ,

- les ictom ètres automatiques (J I A C ),

- des tiroirs fonctionnels pour les entrées et sorties n u m é r iq u e s.

L e contrôleur de ch a ssis J C M 8 a ss u r e l'interface entre tous les

tiroirs fonctionnels et le calculateur M U L T I - 8 . IL adapte les niveaux, le
form at des m ots (2 4 bits C A M A C - 8 bits M U L T I - 8 ) et ém et une interrup­
tion unique v e r s le M U L T I - 8 après regroup em en t des lignes d'appel p r o ­
venant des différents tiroirs, dans le tiroir J T A .
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -4 737

F IG .3 . Ictom ètre autom atique.

L 1ictomètre automatique J I A C est relié directem ent au t ra n sm et­

teur : il effectue un traitement prélim inaire des informations fournies par
le transm etteur : il fonctionne de façon autonom e, suivant le s c h é m a de la
figure 3 [3] .

L e s im pulsions en provenance du transm etteur sont com ptées dans

une échelle : lorsque le n o m b r e d'im p u lsions dépasse un seuil fixé, l'h o r ­
loge qui compte le tem ps écoulé est arrêtée dès que le tem ps de comptage
T est égal à 2 ^ + ^ m illisecondes ( Ц X 4 16). L e n o m b r e d'im pulsions
com pté à ce m o m e n t là est N . L'icto m ètre émet alors une interruption et
le calculateur peut acquérir les informations N et T qui lui permettent de
calculer la puissance, la période, et la réactivité.

L'icto m ètre automatique J I A C occupe deux positions C A M A C . L e s

données m is e s à la disposition du calculateur sont disponibles dans un mot
de 24 bits (voir figure 4). L e s ordres envoyés à l'ictomètre par le cal­
culateur occupent 8 bits ; les bits W 1 à W 6 sont utilisés pour c o m m a n d e r
les transm etteurs par l'interm édiaire du bloc de télé co m m a n d e, les bits
W 7 et W 8 permettant de c o m m a n d e r la précision de l'ictomètre auto m a ­
tique (1,1 pour cent à 4,5 pour cent).

3 .4 . P a n n e a u de test

Ce panneau p erm e t d'effectuer, dans certaines conditions, quelques

tests sim p les sur les transm etteurs : changem ent de la tension de d iscri­
mination, changem ent de la haute-tension, injection de fréquence-étalon.
П p erm et aussi d'introduire des constantes dans le p r o g r a m m e .

3 .5 . P a n n e a u de conduite

П n 'a pas de présentation fixe et dépend de l'application. D a n s

l'installation actuelle, il ne com porte que deux indicateurs n um é riq u e s,
et quelques touches d'ap pel et voyants.
738 JOVER

R 2L Précision

R 23 Précision

R 22 Parité

R 21 M a r c h e - A rrêt

R 20

Tem ps de c o m p t a g e (T)

R 17

R16

> Nom bre de co u p s com ptés (N )

W 8 Précision

W 7 Précision

W 6

T é lé c o m m a n d e
t ran s m e tt e u r

R 1 W1

Configuration du m o t LECTURE Configuration d u m ot E C R I T U R E

FIG . 4 . M otsCA M A C.

4. PROGRAMMES

4.1. O r g a n is a t io n g é n é r a le

L 'e n s e m b l e des p r o g r a m m e s qui p erm et d'effectuer les différentes

tâches, c'est-à-dire principalement acquérir les informations fournies
par les ictom ètres automatiques, faire les calculs de puissance, période
et réactivité, et émettre les ordres n éce ss a ir e s v e rs les actionneurs, est
écrit sous fo rm e m o d u la ire .

L e s m o dules sont divisés en deux classes :

- ceux qui doivent être exécutés sans retard : ce sont ceux qui sont liés à
l'apparition d'u ne interruption (par ex e m p le acquisition des informations
"ic t o m è t r e "),

- ceux qui sont appelés à des heures fixes (p r o g r a m m e s cycliques) m a is

qui peuvent éventuellement attendre : ces m odules sont r an g é s, par ordre
de priorité décroissante dans une table.
 IA E A -SM -168/ G -4 739

L'e x écu tio n des différentes tâches est gérée par un m oniteur, de la
façon suivante : lorsqu'il y a une interruption, tout m odule de la seconde
classe est im m éd ia tem en t interrom p u. A p r è s l'exécution du p r o g r a m m e de
traitement de cette interruption, le contrôle est ren du au m odule interrom p u.
Qu a n d celui-ci est ter m in é, le contrôle est donné au m oniteur qui r echerch e
dans la table quel est le p r e m ie r m odule à servir et le cycle r e c o m m e n c e .
L e systèm e fonctionne donc avec une discipline de priorité, et service non
préem ptif ; c'est-à-dire qu'il faut finir de servir le m odule en cours de
service avant de servir une unité de plus forte priorité qui est entrée dans
la file d'attente.

L e p r o g r a m m e a été écrit en langage a s s e m b le u r , de façon à

utiliser au m ie u x la m é m o ir e , et à m in im is e r le tem ps d'exécution.

4 .2 . Princip aux p r o g r a m m e s

4 . 2 . 1 . Gestion de s informations ictomètres

Ce p r o g r a m m e p erm et de trier les informations en provenance des

ictom ètres autom atiques, de façon à pouvoir les utiliser correctem en t. E n
effet, au cours d'u n e évolution de p uissance du réacteur, notam m ent p en ­
dant le d é m a r r a g e , les transm etteurs de m e s u r e doivent être arrêtés
lorsqu'ils sont saturés et ceci ne doit être fait que si le transm etteur de
m e s u r e qui a ss u r e le recou vrem ent fonctionne correctem en t. L e taux de
com ptage calculé à partir des informations fournies par un ictomètre est
donc c o m p a ré à plusieurs seuils répartis sur toute la g a m m e de fonction­
n em ent n o r m a l (voir figure 1)

- un seuil m in im a l SI, en ba s de g a m m e

- un seuil m a x im a l S4, en haut de g a m m e

- deux seuils interm édiaires S.2 et S 3.

Si le taux de com ptage est c o m p ris entre les deux seuils SI et S4, il est
utilisé pour le calcul de la p uissance et de la période. Si le taux de c o m p ­
tage est inférieur, on ne l'utilise p a s, sauf si le transm etteur situé au-
d e sso u s n'est pas en service, auquel cas on signale une a n o m a lie. D e
m ê m e si le taux de com ptage est supérieur à S4, on indique qu'il y a ano­
m a l ie . L e s deux seuils interm édiaires S2 et S3 permettent de c o m m a n d e r
les arrêts et m is e s en service des transm etteurs (S2) et de vérifier que le
reco u vrem ent de s transm etteurs se fait bien (S 3 ).

4. 2. 2. Calcul de la p uissance et de la période

L a puissance du réacteur est calculée cycliquement (toutes les

0 ,5 seconde environ) à partir des données ictom ètres, triées par le p r o ­
g r a m m e décrit p r é c é d e m m e n t . L e s calculs sont faits en flottant binaire
^nantisse : 16 bits, exposant : 8 bits).

L a période est calculée à partir de deux valeurs consécutives de

la puissanc e P O (à l'instant tQ) et P I (à l'instant tjj telles que :
740 JOVER

N iv e a u de p u is san ce

FIG . 5. C alcu l de la période.

P étant la puissance m oyenn e sur l'intervalle A t qui sépare le m ilieu des

intervalles d'intégration (voir figure 5) et £ une constante. O n réalise
ainsi un p r e m ie r filtrage avant le calcul de la période ; la valeur de £
ne doit pas être choisie trop grande, si on veut conserver un tem p s de
réponse convenable : à titre d 'e x e m p le , pour £. = 0 ,0 4 , et une période
égale à 30 secon des, le retard apporté par la présence de ce seuil est de
1,2 seco n de.

L a période T est calculée par la form ule :

1 PI - PO 1
T " P x At

Cette valeur, m alg ré un p re m ie r filtrage par le seuil £ est encore

entachée de bruit. O n peut alors am éliorer la précision par un filtrage
additionnel réalisé à l'aide de l'algorithm e suivant :

йк * 1 ■ *к + (I - 0» < *K + l - S K>

X étant la valeur estim ée la m eilleure de v à l'instant K , et y . la

K. ^ 1 J\. + 1
valeur de — à l 'instant К + 1.

L e coefficient Э p erm et de régler le filtre (0 < p < 1).

L e s courbes de la figure 6 représentent des enregistrem ents de

la période calculée lors d'u ne simulation sur calculateur hybride, pour
une divergence correspondant à une période de 30 secondes ; le taux de
com ptage initial est d'environ 1 K H z , et le taux de com ptage final d 'e n v i­
ron 30 K H z . O n constate la bonne efficacité du filtre pour f3 = 0 ,5 , valeur
 IAEA-SM * 168/G- 4 741

□/ 6= 0 ,0 4 ; (3= О

ы е= 0 ,02 j р=о

с/ £=0 , 0 2 ; р = 0,5

FIG. 6. Enregistrements de la période c a lc u lé e .

pour laquelle le tem ps de réponse est encore convenable (cinq échantil­

lons pour atteindre 90 pour cent de la valeur finale dans le cas de la
réponse à un saut unité).

5. C O N C L U SIO N

O n ne peut pas encore juger de l'intérêt d 'u n tel systèm e pour la

conduite d 'u n réacteur nucléaire, puisque l'installation est récente et qu'il
n 'y a pas encore de résultats d'exploitation. Cependant, on a pu vérifier
7 42 JOVER

que l'équipem ent fonctionnait correctem ent et que la configuration choisie,

n o tam m ent pour ce qui concerne le découpage entre les fonctions câblées
(ictomètre automatique) et les fonctions p r o g r a m m é e s (calcul des taux de
com ptage, p uissance et période), était convenable.

R E M E R C I E M E N T S

L 'a u te u r r e m e r c ie G . G A U T H I E R , J . H E D D E et J . K A I S E R des
Services d'Electronique du C . E . N . - Saclay qui lui ont p e r m is , par leur
contribution importante à ce projet, de présenter cette com m unication.

R E F E R E N C E S

[ 1] DOUET, P . , «A d ap tatio n de 1‘ instrumentation n u cléaire à la com m ande par calcu lateu r n um ériq u e»,
N uclear Power Plant Control and Instrumentation (C .r. Groupe de travail, V ien n e, 1971), AIEA, Vienne
(1972) 2 2 9 .
[2 ] JOVER, P . , The use o f a sm all com puter for the control o f a n uclear reacto r, CEA -CO N F-1773 (1971).
[3 ] KAISER, J . , FUAN, J . , Ictom ètre numérique àco n sta n te d e temps v aria b le, C EA -R -3331 (1967).
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -5

CO M PUTERIZED TRAVERSING IN-CORE

PR O B E (TIP) SYSTEM OF THE
DODEWAARD NUCLEAR PO W ER PLAN T
K .P. TERMAAT
N. V. GKN, Arnhem,
The Netherlands

Abstract

COMPUTERIZED TRAVERSING IN-CORE PROBE (TIP) SYSTEM OF THE DODEWAARD NUCLEAR POWER PLANT.
An accurate evaluation of ch aracteristic reactor physics and th erm al-hyd raulic parameters in a power
reactor is necessary for the safe and e ffic ie n t operation of the plant. Moreover optimum conditions o f co re power
and fu e l-c y c le length can then be attained. In the Dodewaard Boiling Water Reactor (5 8 MW(e)) a Traversing
in -c o re probe (TIP) system produces eight a x ia l therm al neutron flux profiles, which form the basis for this
co re perform ance evaluation (C P E). The original layout of this T IP system was only cap ab le of producing
graphically neutron flux values versus detector position in the core. A tim e-consum ing hand ca lcu la tio n had
to follow , resulting in m oderate accu rate ty p ical reactor d ata. By d igitalizin g the analog T IP signals (neutron
flux and a x ial position) and storing on paper tape, the core perform ance evaluation is now done o ff-s ite on
a 16 К com puter. This autom atization has highly increased the functions of the TIP system. Now, accu rate
ty p ical reactor operating data, e .g . the total peaking facto r, m axim um fuel bundle power, ex it void fraction,
minimum c r itic a l heat flux ratio , and burnup are reliably obtained. Moreover, manpower is reduced and the
results can be easily and accessibly stored.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

F o r the safe and efficient operation of a nuclear p o w er plant frequent

evaluation of characteristic reactor physics p a ra m eter s is n ec e ss a ry .
Ap a rt fr o m the application of theoretical com puter codes (e. g. F la re ,
B o rrel) the experim ental code T I P P E L has been developed for the core
p e r fo rm a n c e evaluations of the G K N reactor ( B W R , 173 M W (t h )). T h e
results of this code are b a s ed upon m e a s u r e d axial therm al neutron flux
profiles provided b y à traversing in-core probe system (T IP ).
F o r this purpose the available analog T I P system had to be expanded
with analog-to-digital convertors w hich are scanned by a sm all logging
com puter. F lu x values and positions of the detector are now stored on
paper tape for the off-site w o rkin g up with the code T I P P E L on a 16 К C D C
com puter.
T h is paper attemps to dem onstrate the highly increa sed efficiency of
this expanded flux probing system .

2. G E O M E T R Y A N D P H Y S IC S D A T A

F ig u r e 1 show s a cross-section of the nuclear steam supply system

of the D o d e w a a r d B W R (G. E . design). At an average therm al neutron flux
of 3 .0 x 1 0 13 n - c m '^ s '1 the reactor produces a p o w er of 173 M W (t h ). At
a p r e s s u r e of 70. 0 bar, a total core coolant flow of 1050 k g /s (natural r e c ir c u ­
lation stimulated by the p resence of a chim ney) the average void fraction of
the bundles is 4 0 % , the m a x i m u m core-outlet void fraction 7 2 % . T h e 156 fuel

743
74 4 TERMAAT

10695

F I G .l . Reactor system and core configuration.

 IA E A -SM -168/G -5 745

elem ents ( 6 x 6 rod array, 2. 5 % enrichm ent) are controlled by 37 cruciform

boron-poisoned control rods. W ith a total cooling a re a of 42 6 m 2 the average
heat flux through the Zr- 2 fuel cladding is 38. 8 W / c m 2; with a total core
vo lu m e of 4. 51 m 3 the average p o w er density of the core is 38. 3 k W /lit r e .

P h y s ic s operating limitations:

Total reactor p o w er 173. 0 M W (t h )

R adial peaking factor 1. 50
A x ia l peaking factor 1. 50
M a c r o s c o p ic peaking factor 2. 15
O v e r p o w e r peaking factor 1. 15
M a x i m u m heat flux 136. 0 W / c m 2
M i n i m u m critical heat flux ratio 1 .5
M a x i m u m fuel tem perature 2 8 00 °C

3, T H E T R A V E R S I N G IN - C O R E P R O B E S Y S T E M

T h e traversing in-core probe sy stem (T IP ) is designed to m e a s u r e the

axial neutron flux profiles of the reactor at nine dispersed locations.
T h is is a cco m plish ed by installing guide tubes between the fuel elements
in the reactor co re. F lu x profiles are taken by driving a m iniature fission
c h a m b e r into these guide tubes and then m oving it back out again.
W h e n the neutron detector 235U coating, argon filling gas,
5 x 1 0 "18 А / (n • c m "2 ■ s ' 1) sensitivity is m o v e d through the guide tube, it
p roduces a d. c. output current proportional to the neutron flux level.
T h is current is applied to a d. c. amplifier w hich p er fo rm s a current -
to-voltage transformation; the voltage output fr o m this am plifier is applied
to the vertical axis of an X - Y r eco rd e r. A 40-turn potentiometer, actuated
b y the detector-cable-drive m e c h a n is m , provides a d. c. voltage output that
is the analog equivalent of the detector position in the core. This
position voltage is applied to the horizontal axis of the X - Y recorde r.
T h u s , in m o ving the neutron detector through the reactor core the
X - Y reco r d e r plots an axial flux profile of the reactor at the present
guide-tube location. T h is flux profile at one of the nine possible reactor
locations (see F ig . 1) is given in F ig . 2. Since the expansion of the T I P
system , the output voltage of the neutron flux amplifier and the d .c .
voltage representing the detector position in the core are also applied to
analog-to-digital convertors as s how n in F ig . 3.
W ith the neutron detector m oving fro m the top of the active zone of
the core to low er positions, both analog-to-digital convertors are scanned
with a clock time of 125 m s and the digital results stored in the m e m o r y
of a logging com puter.
W it h an active core height of 179. 3 c m a detector, m o ving speed of
8 .0 c m / s and the above-m entioned clock tim e, approxim ately 180 flux
values and axial positions with a m utual spacing of only 1. 0 c m , are stored
together with a channel identification n u m b e r and start-and-stop signs.
Finally these data are punched on to paper tape in A S C I I code. In this w a y
digitalized flux m ap s for all nine core locations, with a flux value accura cy
better than 1 . 0 % (average of three values) and a detector position accuracy
of approxim ately 0. 5% , are obtained.
746 TERMAAT

sr -)
04
r "1
17
,7 1
TIP position 4 C • 03 03
reactor power 172.6 M W ( t h ) V7 17
date 04- 05- 72 L 04 J
tim e 14 .2 0 h L Js
position 4c
A В с 0 E F G
control rod position

F IG .2 . A xial neutron flux profile.

FIG.3. The computerized TIP system.

 IAEA-SM-168/G-5 747

4. C O R E P E R F O R M A N C E E V A LU A TIO N

F ig u r e 4 show s the m a in block d ia g r a m of the com puter code " T I P P E L " .

T h is p r o g r a m a s s u m e s at least quadrant s y m m e t r y in the neutron flux
distribution of the core, so quadrant s y m m e tr ic control rod patterns and
fuel reload s c h e m e s are basic assum ptions. A s a rule octant s y m m e tr ic
conditions a re present. T h e essential part in the block d ia g r a m is the
p r o g r a m " R E K E N " , w h e re for each of the 936 nodes in one quarter of the
core the n o rm a liz e d p o w er peaking factor P ( J , K ) , (J = 1, 39; K = 1, 24), is
calculated. T h e basic p a ra m e t e r in the calculation of P ( J , K ) is the value
of F L U T I P ( I , K ) , ( 1 = 1 , 8 ; К = 1, 24), the condensed and n o rm a lized neutron
flux distribution. F ig u r e 5 shows an initial digitalized flux profile m e a s u r e d
in TIP-position 4 C (the equivalence of the analog representation in F ig . 2),
while the F L U T I P (I, K ) values for all eight TIP-positions a re given in F ig . 6.
T h e s e n o r m a liz e d flux values a re converted to nodel p o w e r peaking
factors b y the relation:

P ( J , K ) = F L U T I P d , K ) / A F ( J , K)-* V F ( J , K ) - * V O I D F K T ( J , K ) * B U R N F ( J , K ) *
A L E K ( J , K ) * R A N D F ( J ) - * R A N D F K (J , K )

w h e re

A F ( J , K ) = control rod, burnup and void-dependent conversion factors

obtained fr o m diffusion calculations for a unit lattice cell;
V F ( J , K ) = control-rod dependent sharing factors obtained fr o m diffusion
calculations for a four-bundle geom etry;
V O I D F K ( J , K ) = void-dependent sharing factors also obtained fr o m four-
bundle calculations;
B U R N F ( J , K ) = burnup weighting factors to take into account the effect of
the decreasing fission cross-section as a function of burnup (result of
burnup calculations on a unit lattice cell);
A L E K ( J , K ) = leakage factors to take into account the overall radial flux
distribution of the core (derived fr o m F L U T I P ( I , K ));
R A N D F ( J ) = bundle-power weighting factors (input);
R A N D F K ( J , K ) = burnup and control-rod dependent core edge factors derived
fr o m 2 D one-quarter core diffusion calculations.

T h e axial quality, void and slip distribution in the fuel elements follows
fr o m the thermal-hydraulic relations:

X = [ 2 3 8 . 8 * (Q * 0. 9 7 / F ) + E - 302. 7] * 0. 0 0 2 7 8

and

a = - 0 .0 0 0 3 2 8 + 0 . 9 0 6 7 / [ 1 + 0 . 0 5 9 5 7 * (1 - X )/X ] + 0. 1455 * E X P ( - 55. 873 * X )

while

S = 0. 9 + 1. 16 * j a / [ a + (l- e)/S] j-1,48

748 TERMA AT

<
LU
CL

< x ü-b- •
! Я en £a x U-
° 22 2 *
a
A ____________

"TIPPEL"
of program
Main block diagcam
F IG .4.
 i
*
S!
!
5
fe
s

_иi
1
1

¡
.

3
á
l
937. 928. 921. 669. 863. 877. 872.
822» 817. SU . 764. 780. 774. 768.
721. 717. 711. 660. 674. 669. 663.
614. 610. 605. 579. 574. 560. S63.
514. 509. 504. 476. 471. 466. 460.
412. 406. 401. 374. 369. 363. 356.
309. 304. 296. 271. 266. 261* 255*
207. 202. 197. 170. 165. 160. 154.

шиш*

S IS S sS ss ”
iiiiüiiz

0>есг«->О1Г*»<пл|«*
106. 10b 95. 66. 63. 57. 52*

S|s383X3”
ШШШ

ШШШ

Ш М М ё*:

....................
ИШШ*
£
ШШШ
к

2
9 02.9 8 97.9 8 92.6 8 8 6 .7 8 80.7 8 75.6
7 97.7 791.7 786.6 7 82.6 7 7 6.5 7 70.4

k s s
6 9 2.5 6 86.5 6 61.4 6 75.4 6 70.3 664.2
590.4 5 85.3 5 7 9 .3 5 74.2 5 6 6 .1 5 6 3 .1
486.2 4 6 1 .2 4 75.1 4 70.0 4 65.0 458.9
3 82.1 3 77.0 3 71.9 3 6 6 .9 3 6 0 .8 3 5 5 .8
2 78.9 272.8 267.6 2 62.7 2 5 7 .7 2 51.6
IA EA -SM -168/ G -5

1 76.7 170.7 1 6 5.6 160.6 155.5 149.4

S S iïS E ïS g S
-ir^ jín o ín o
n o ?M T ÍM e (?
м оай1Л п-ов
осо «1 Л Пм о с <о

mum*
ñiiiiiii
46 .3

O-CCf-^Cin^riAJ —
73 .6 6 7 .5 6 2 .5 57 .4 51 .3
-*<* ifut ЛЛо&t*

É s 5 ÍS S 5 S 5 «
^МОССМЛПМО»

IIS S S 5 S 2 2 Ï
« I Ш Ш §83=
££s =s s ~
UUiUi¿

Ш Ш 5й5«
0-)M0?N<C4n«
Ote

в1ГП-0*«(ЛП(У
?4ftjoccMT)4iNJe
ÍUM-1HO

•» M © ff-r-tfi * <\»
пШЩ^

á
5
s
197. 202. 217. 224. 233. 256. 275. 291.
315. 319. 327. 332. 337. 350. 364. 378.
414. 414, 419. 427. 437. 449. 448. 456.
490. 493. 491. 467. 489. 495. 497. 494.
536. 542. 554. 561. 566. S75. 583. 591.
616. 61B. 616. 614. 616. 626. 625. 622.
611. 606. ШШШ 600. 595. 566. 566. 559. 576.
577. 575. 558. 547. 541. 531. 525. 519.
442. 424. 413. 402. 375. 349. 322.
2S5Í5SÍ5S

451.
ШШМ

2 2 S ? !S 5 S S S
Sssls53s5s

SasHsssss
Is3 5 7 5 3 ts s

Sssssssssl
UMiiiir шиши

5Ш §Ш ?8

§ ....................
225.
7 49
750 TERMAAT

S ГИЛ
М Г П
1П 1Л
s «о t-

f-O'о<
O S о
S S Оcо
Ф №О Ф

9 О 89 О 1Л

r>®U1U1<\ll/íOSlA<*l<\J<Cf'JSSl/>M4l/1'0 —ППО
00«Cf\¿SSMf"lr)-"tri>0<Mr\jSOS>J>0<\J.Í<,VIOS 4 0 0 М 0 4
(\i 4 О 4 © О
■^^<0(Л9Г»П?»««1Л1Лв^О(*1<£1Л^(Ч1м^Г)Г»С0
П Г> ,» Ц") U1 О S М О Ф О Ф Ф О О О б ? О О Ф СОО <» N « O N О U1
Я ф о ^ о ф

M O X O S O Í
s o > < on o(\j
in e i/io in o ^
O' о <с о в о г*
V) ••«••••

axial flux distributions.

Ф П О в О М О
1
П N o
<о Л о
0 9 0
n O ff J
л о мл
9 0 9 4

— o r t o ir s s n ^ f t j
—(\JirS'£l?')\J^.—U‘><’’'>4f\J<Cf*'>—OL/1>OSl/ï^
> -
о
•С П О Ш в ÿ ш
4-û>cin»iû(\j>'-MiP'Cœo(iMi,i 'i o n M i n n s c c
f
»>í
*»4 l
/>1
Л ^ S SCOCCSffiOO'OOOOOOO в « 4 и
О <ПS -« ftj о
O' <0 S I*1 f* 1А
(K=24>

111
<\j-«<M rginr-a>o<\j(\jceo >с~« Г П Л 'О о — о — со<*> ®

Normalized
K 9 n 0 4 0 4 4 e n N C S 4 C C I / i n 0 4 9 N 4 * aN ас
ООСЧчО— fVJM OS(\ J<\J.C0tfï0<\ J- »<'J«n4OOtf1 о
UILT-Cr-Xao-* —(\ir\J<\¿r-i>í'ítrU1'3nr>í\J--0^ -*
BOTTUM

N nifl
s ir n
ШШ4
r» <c r~

F IG .6.
( K = 1 1 TO

o s o -
к o O o
f> h> 0 > 6
o o o a
TOP
FROM

4»nenoM TM 9«M
ОСО9lAK№
CJ - C f > l44»9nJ4>*n
-
ir O 0> ru S C0 ir O -J C O S -v i) ir ( t n s
<*1
<c
4Л1Г^|СГ>(еС9099ОиммиООООС1*1Г
••••«•••••••««•••«•••••в
в«
CHANNEL

OS4 Оo 1Лo
«o o o <vj в 4
■
CO
ГУ 4
S
«о о о о о в

У
PER

- — к «- сс о м s © s © ir — i / o s» n tn s -o t/ 4 ю
i v « 4 l i v «w444y v0 9 1 0 4 <£«44 I H í n e n s - í í
S -C О (МессГ'Огч
1ГМХ ®<СЛ
с о елм - м м и п 4 tr ir ir ir 4 ^ п м о о л O. N o x o h o ÿ
FLUX-01STRIBUTION

• • « • • • « • • • • • • • • • • * « • Ш N O H o n o iM
o ir о 1Я o t/ t 0 4
o- O I O S o s
o •••••••

0 n o x o s s
ОП^9П9П«Г>МППП44С|ЛвМ9ММ1Г«
s ^ 4 n#j o « s ir <
cecm ftj s 1и>*Пит)/1МП n s o mо о 4
9П1\11ГП«МЛМ«РЙ>«СП4
j # n n í ry -* ir
irl/'NtffOHlNjnnjJiiSSSÍ^IT'JNOS в 9 О9
1 IT О С O S 1/1
О О «С

« r>о tnо о ce
NORMAL I SED

о n S Мм ^ о
9 < C lT K C S №
9 С 9 Ф9 OS
** «Ni П 4 U1 «О»•
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -5 751

у
Ссо-
t
N* о in
м ci г*>

о- •* г» 1Л
4 ПП( №
м-о м п J- 'С r- <\j
О О 9 <0 •С> 0Ом
п о л о
Ut 1Л —

О 0 > » П 1Л 9 -с 9 9 e\j
М Л 001М • • • • «
м—
« © <\j>с О № i f f 1 "С
во Л» в -* 00 (Л СО Г»
«N N <00

16

16
(v iniM б м п

POSITION

POSITION
ф r\J 1р — О О
N O N в м Л г» — 9 'Со со
со л n о « аэ

output d ata.
NвШФN ^
ПО 1Л «

« 4 0 » A i N N

AXIAL

AXIAL
- •« »
tn —® 1Лв <Уш
ï (O N N O N Л 5> (41 N О
-J J - П о и N
CD 1Л O' -С
*N О»
/П <С—

AND

AND

core performance
<- П-Í ftJ Ш СО Ut 1Л -Í M ce O' -Í r-

10

10
9 'SO n Æ O Œ
« О К í - Æ (\J I M - JI\J O O í
■í ■! -Î И fy О N (V Í N O 1П1Л ff
6 4 9 9 N O K

BUNDLEPOSITION

BUNOLEPOSITION
•í Г«- <о 1Л О

•# 9- О М СО в в N41004^4
•4вМЛОШ О
С -®СТОП f u « ftJ N 4 О (VJ »
-С •»«Í 03 ФО со Щ г» — 0>
• * в tn со с о т
а — ^ ^ h»т ^ 1Л—

Characteristic physics and thermal-hydraulic

AT

AT
OEGR.C
О IT N 1Л M N
СГ © «J
•4 <С<£ 1Л (VI (VI
N »С•& Ut Ut lit

2462.
2.2»
СК=2^>

fM ru СС СО (\J Ut СС СС
Г" — СО сс N Г> О J
плмл О М 9- (Л
BOTTlJM

а 9« N "С C t T IT
=

=
(MCHFR)

<MFT>

•» О 9 «С U1 r» n «j m о
ТО

N о — <м 9 -* >£ О "О О

.» О — N tr •» о rvi <с
ir -с >с *> ir
<K = 1>

RATIO

г*» т о » 9 -с rt сс о сс <с N
>J—М1Л(\JФ
ТОР

FIG. 7.

и*. г> «с <м & -t

^ Г> «} N- — 1Л i S N O f t J 1Л
HEATFLüX

N N M - O N IT -С "С "С «С 1Л
TEMP E R A T U R E
FROM

N ОN \ОПн 1
/
\ N оом м 9 «
ппооооп
POWER-DISTRIBUTION

(
NJФ <
»Г)я
*9 <
*
4 П « ^ MN « J ^ ПN О> (У
CRITICAL

П Л О М У в 4 О С ^ <С<С1Л1Г
FUEL

•# 1Л «-• ^ г> — 1Л СО .» т » N» 9 СО O' .»

(М 9 Г- (VI ^ Ф СО О О М П >с OJ -<
ОТ- «в л л о* ut «t « ï ff N 4 м(Ч
MINIMUM

MAXIMUM

<\| <\J í*> (М О 9 О С < С < С 4< 4|Г 1

П Jir. О — N (М ® 9 т 9 9 >©
4 М 4 9 П 4 х ñrtff П^ 9
AXIAL

0 1 4 OtVfl 4 С Ф <0 . 4 О 4
Ut ГУ П в h» 9 г*- С •£ »Л Ut О 1Л
7 52 TERMAAT

1.5074

l\l»'>e(DMrn«te^iMdOl*IU> l0eiVIN4IVJ'<0
Г» Г» h> Ь- -с >c ‘С -£I sO 1Л Ц1 ^ • í ' f n W - O O O ' 9 & O ' 9
API

W*TT/CM2>
FACTOR

J0KIT't4№OO9999(C'l9SN<Cl/1^N4MnirbC0
<ZOh*NK<T-»-«eOOOOOOOOOOOM®CDtCCC®
UHb|\lNNNnnnnnnftnn«nnflrtlflííííí
• • • • • * » . . . « • •
_ | < < —« ^ 4 —^ M «Я M Я* * » M
UJ u.
— ©
PEAKING

38.830
1
_| •-.nf'(\JLP>Cf''£i«J'^-ÎOr-CC**œr'Æ-ÎM'CLnO<'JM
эх ■1ГФ№44МЧПме9Шимм«во(сесФ49П1к
AXIAL

s
и.ШСЕФССПФПШФи'. ом XAJOI/iNCn 1Л4 ПКММ
* - 0 1 1 о я п 4 ^ 1о м о : 1 о - « « - - - о ^ ^ 1 г п н а
— мм^м«4мм«4миМ1\ЛМ(\)1Ч(Чммммм
PERC.
HIGHEST

f100

• • — ecu- ,o 4 f“ a - t f i v i « c ir — «с — к © г- ас r* ir — œ ^ о - .
к ф 1 Ч > « ^ П П | Л О О > С О П м | / >4 | Л м о о 4 ) № | Г < С <c <ú (О
• м 2 4 ' C i r O N < O e i r n i r 4 > * n N l * l | > 9 N « * M i r ir.iM <м
iao<cir^?í*jfviOf~-'«-«w'r' — » — ^n^h-rvjec — о 4 ir
WITH

PERC.
10

IN

•ï(C-}(UN»<CIM4r>C044U'e4C4nCC9
NO.

LPRM-S

u n
Ж i- ► O n n n - D i n O - M t J I O J Î O i Г-Г* - Ít*
r í M t a O O - M I \ J ( \ jr i 4 4 i r ^ n o f f l N í i r n
с ас
BUNDLE

THE
FOR

C«MEOnnN<l'í('JNMOO- >
O H l / i n n ^ H I M J « <VJО Г
OF

O W ^ I T I n v O
иw 9 C C h ^ U I 4 n * < 7 M n i ivrai)' 4
J (№t P
l 4i 0r n« N
« r« t í \ ' ( C J f
> h- ■
£
>-C*C>C-C<0 « С «Г1Г1Г IA
|ЛI1AЛ-í-♦
4 Ar>rM>r\
MJ f(M
tl ^ ^ A A «
OISTR.

DATA
C A L IBRATION
POWER

< H
I m r iA lflít fl^ K e r o x N n ^in O N e ^ O H M n .
1/1 Й ХН ЯЯХМ И »Й А |М А |М
AX.

л
C O N T R O l -ROO positions
1AEA-SM- X68/G-5
753

FIG. 9. Typical reactor input data.

754 TERMAAT

7
ДС
FIG.10 IMPORTANT AXIAL POWER DISTRIBUTIONS
tL, 6
5
4
reactor power : 172.6 MW(th)
element 10- 3
date ; 04-05-72
2
lime : 14.20 h
1

control rod position А В С 0 E F G

FIG. 1 0 . Important ax ia l power distributions.

w h ere:

X = steam weight fraction of the coolant

a = steam vo lu m e fraction of the coolant
S = slip factor = ste a m velocity/water velocity
Q = axial integrated therm al p o w er (M W (th ))
F = bundle coolant m a s s flow (kg/ s)
E = coolant core inlet enthalpy (kcal/kg)

F ig u r e s 7 and 8 dem onstrate the results of the above calculations for

the input conditions show n in F ig . 9. T i m e integration of the p o w er distri­
bution gives the burnup distribution of the core, also shown in F ig . 7.
T h e three- dim ensioned p o w er , void and burnup m a p s (936 values per m ap )
are not given h ere.
B y applying local peaking factors (burnup, void and control rod
dependent; result of unit lattice cell calculations), characteristic reactor
p a ra m eter s are derived fr o m the p ow er and void distributions, e. g. for
1 1 5 % reactor p o w e r the m a x i m u m heat flux ( M H F ) , the m a x i m u m fuel
tem perature and the m in i m u m critical heat flux ratio ( M C H F R ) . See F i g . 10.
A ls o shown in F ig . 8 are the m a x i m u m allowable height of the analog
TIP - cu rv e and the calibration data for twelve local p o w er range m onitors
in the core.
 IA EA -SM -168/ G -5 755

5. D IS C U S S IO N

D u r in g the past two years the described com puterization of the TIP-
system h as proven to be ve ry effective in obtaining reactor physics and
thermal-hydraulic operating data rapidly and reliably. Especially during
variations of the core p o w er distribution or during reactor experim ents
connected with the uprating of the core has the expanded T IP - s y stem
proved its unique u s e . A ls o a detailed p o w er history and end of life burnup
distribution of the fuel elem ents is now conveniently available. A good
a c curacy is obtained since the base of the calculations is fo r m e d by
m e a s u r e d neutron flux profiles in nine different core locations covering
one quarter of the core.
W it h a typical core p erfo rm a nce evaluation time of one hour (with
5 m in com puter time) a large reduction in m a n p o w e r input resulted fro m
this com puterization of the T I P s y s t e m .

DISCU SSION

G . V A N R E I J E N : I think that the B W R p ow er plants constructed by

G e n e r a l Electric C o m p a n y in the U S A are still equipped with the s a m e T I P
system for in-core m e a s u r e m e n t . In the case of large p ow er plants, in
particular, a p recise and rapid evaluation such as that described by
M r . T e r m a a t will be important. I should like to know if one of the partici­
pants fr o m the United States of A m e r i c a could give us s o m e information
on developm ents in this field in their country.
H . H . S T E V E N S : N o further developm ent appears to have taken place
in the United States in this dom ain since the installation of the T I P system
in the D o d e w a a r d nuclear p o w er plant.
 IA EA -SM -168/G -6

D EV ELO PM EN T OF THE IN-CORE

NEUTRON DETECTO RS FO R THE L M F B R
K. MOCHIZUKI, K. MATSUNO
Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Developm ent C o rp ., Tokyo

S. SHIRAYAMA
Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co. L td., Tokyo

A. SEKIGUCHI
Tokyo University, Tokyo

A. TORAISHI
Japan A tom ic Energy Research Institute, Tokai-m ura, Ibaraki P ref.,
Japan

Abstract

DEVELOPMENT OF THE IN-CORE NEUTRON DETECTORS FOR THE LMFBR.

Two types o f in -co re detectors suitable for LMFBR application have been developed. One is the
m iniature uncompensated B S U fission cham ber 10 mm x 100 mm with a 3. 2 -m m -d ia m . tr i-a x ia l m ineral
insulated cab le. By using BeO as a cham ber insulator and a tria x ia l cab le as a guard ring, the leak current
due to high tem perature is decreased. The other type is the self-pow ered detector of
3. 4 -m m -d ia m . x 100-m m long with two em itters that have an alm ost sim ilar atom ic number and density,
but the neutron activ ation cross-sections differ considerably; thus the noise background caused by g a m m a
rays is reduced to o ne-tenth or less by subtracting two output currents.

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

In large therm al p o w er reactors in c o m m e r c ia l operation, several

neutron detectors are installed in the core to m onitor p o w er distribution
and fuel burnup. Th is m onitoring system is essential to the safe o p e r a ­
tion of a large reactor and its ec o n o m y of p o w e r generation.
In-core detectors will also be n e c e s s a r y for large L M F B R s in the
future for the s a m e reasons [1, 2]. H o w e v e r , it s e e m s that no in-core
neutron m onitoring system has been developed for L M F B R service
subjected to severe operating conditions. F o r instance, in the Japan
experim ental fast reactor, " J O Y O " , w hich is now under construction
and expected to be com pleted in 1 9 7 4 , the average coolant tem perature,
m a x i m u m neutron flux and g a m m a background level in the core will be
5 0 0 °C , 4 X 1015 n • c m '2, s "1 and 10® R / h , respectively, at 100 M W (th)
output. A ls o , it is planned to i m m e r s e the detectors in liquid sodium .
T h e object of this w o r k is to develop in-core neutron detectors which
can operate satisfactorily under the above-mentioned conditions for the
L M F B R . At present, two types of detectors s e e m to be candidates for
L M F B R application.
O n e is the m iniature un co m pensated 235U fission c h a m b e r . It has
fast respo nse and is used in B W R s on a large scale for continuous
m onitoring and neutron flux level control. T h e other is the self-powered
detector, w hich is solid, sm all, sim ple and hence relatively inexpensive.

757
758 MOCHIZUKI e t al.

M o r e o v e r , it has the advantage of a low burnup rate in com parison with

the fission c h a m b e r . H o w e v e r , because of its slow response it is u n ­
suitable for reactor control application.
T h u s , the two detector types have m erits and d e m e rits. T h e r e fo r e ,
it is considered that both are n e c e s s a r y and can be usefully applied in
future L M F B R s .

2. D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E F IS S IO N C H A M B E R

2 .1 . S u m m a r y of design

B y using the basic data and information collected for high-temperature

operation of in-core fission c h a m b e r s in 1968 through 1 97 0, the in-core
fission c h a m b e r for L M F B R application w a s designed.
T h e basic design features of the detectors are as follows:

(a) Neutron sensitive substance is 9 0 % enriched 235U .

(b) Tri- axial m in e r a l insulated cable utilizing alum ina as insulator
is connected to the c h a m b e r as the integral part. Its inner
sheath is used as a guard-ring to reduce the leakage current
at high tem peratures.
(c) Insulators for the ch a m b er electrodes are beryllium-oxide.
Sapphire is not adopted because of its difficulty in processing ,
although it is considered to have superior electrical resistivity at
a high tem perature.
(d) T h e c h a m b e r electrode is titanium.
(e) T h e housing m aterial of the c h a m b e r and cable sheath, which is
i m m e r s e d in liquid s o dium , is A IS I 304 stainless steel.
(f) T h e ionization gas filled and sealed in the c h a m b e r at one
atm ospheric p re ss u r e is pure argon.
T h e m ain characteristics of the detector under design are as
follows:

(a) M a x i m u m continuous operating tem perature: 6 0 0 °C .

(b) Insulation resistance including the entire cable: 109 Г2 (at 6 0 0 °C )
(c) G a m m a - r a y sensitivity: 3.3 X 10"14 A / R / h .

B a s e d on the above-mentioned design specification, five detectors

w e r e fabricated on trial. T h e detectors are un com pensated fission

E xhaust tube Cham ber

 IA EA -SM -168/ G -6 759

-14869.5-

FIG. 2. S ch em atic drawing o f tii-a x ia l ca b le (dimensions in m m).

c h a m b e r s 100 m m long and 9.2 m m d ia m . with a tri-axial m in era l in­

sulated cable 15 m long and 3.2 m m d i a m ., being connected to the
h erm etically sealed cold-end term inal. T h e m echan ical dim ensions are
decided according to the m ethod of installing the detector in the reactor
core.
S chem atic draw ings of the detector head and the tri-axial cable are
show n in F ig s 1 and 2.

2 .2 . Results of the p er fo rm a n c e test

2 .2 .1 . Insulation resistance

Insulation resistance is one of the m a in requirem ents for the d.c.

fission c h a m b e r and w a s m e a s u r e d on five detectors at both room
tem perature and high tem perature. T h e resistance value w a s calculated
fr o m the leakage current m e a s u r e d through the signal w ire by applying
100-V bias on both the signal w ire and the guard-ring. A high-temperature
m e a s u r e m e n t w a s carried out at 6 0 0 °C on part of the detector head in­
cluding about a 20- cm length of the cable. T h e results are shown in
Table I.
T o confirm the insulation resistance of the tri-axial m in e r a l insulated
cable only, three 10-cm-long cables having the s a m e diam eter and m aterial
as those of the detectors w e r e fabricated. Insulation resistance w a s
m e a s u r e d on these cables in the s a m e w a y as that m entioned above and it
w a s found to be satisfactory as shown in F i g .3 .
W h e n co m paring the insulation resistance of the detector head with
that of the cable at 6 0 0 ° C , the latter is higher by approxim ately one
d e ca d e. T h e r e fo r e , w h e n the detector is heated up to 6 0 0 °C , the leakage
current is determ ined only by the insulation resistance at the detector head.

T A B L E I. I N S U L A T I O N R E S I S T A N C E O F D E T E C T O R H E A D (Щ

Room temp. 6oo°c

No. 1 >10u 8. 2 x 1 0 8

No. 2 >10 13 5 .4 x 108

No. 3 > 1 0 '3 1. 0 x 1 0 s

No. 4 >10 13 6 .4 x 10s

No. 5 > 1 0 13 6 .8 x 108

760 MOCHIZUKI et al.

TEMPERATURE (°C )
FIG. 3. Insulation resistance o f tr i-a x ia l cab le.

»— —'1
/

APPLIED VOLTAGE (V)

FIG. 4. Saturation current curve for gam m a flux.

2 .2 .2 . G a m m a - r a y characteristics

T h o u g h it is inevitable that the detector produces s o m e noise current

by ionization due to g a m m a - r a y s , the current is required to be as sm all
as possible so as to m e a s u r e neutron flux with a good accuracy.
A g a m m a - r a y test w a s carried out at a 60Co irradiation facility.
Detectors are placed in a g a m m a field of 2.7 X 1 0 5 R / h , and their satura­
tion characteristics w e r e m e a s u r e d . A typical curve is shown in F i g .4.
G a m m a - r a y sensitivity is calculated as 8 .2 X 10"4 A / R / h fro m the result.

2 .2 .3 . Operational characteristics in the reactor

T o confirm so m e operational characteristics of the detectors in the

reactor, a series of tests w e r e carried out on five detectors in the
T o s h ib a T ea c h in g and T rain in g Reactor (100- kW swim m ing- pool type).
A t first, the detectors w e r e arranged in an irradiation tube near
the core in the reactor pool at a n o rm a l tem perature. T h e neutron flux
at this position had been calibrated at 5 X 1 0 10 n • c m "2-s " 1. F igure 5
show s a typical saturation current curve indicating a good p erfo rm a n ce .
F ig u r e 6 shows a typical characteristic of output linearity as a function
of the reactor p o w er and also indicates a good p er fo rm a n ce .
 IA EA-SM -168/ G -6 761

О ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------
О 100 200 300
APPLIED VOLTAGE (V)
FIG. 5. Saturation current curve for neutron flux.

After confirm ing operational characteristics of the detector to be

satisfactory at n o rm a l tem perature as m entioned above, a high- tem pera­
ture test w a s then carried out in the high-temperature furnace placed in
the reactor pool. A s show n in F i g .7, this is a water-tight furnace designed
for a high-temperature irradiation test of various kinds of neutron d e ­
tectors. In the irradiation tube in this furnace w h e re the neutron flux is
1 0 11 n • c m ' ^ s ' 1, the detectors w e r e irradiated at high tem perature up
to 6 0 0 °C . F ig u r e 5 shows a saturation current curve and F i g . 6 shows a
output linearity at various tem peratures. Both figures obviously show the
effect of the leakage current at 6 0 0 °C , w hich is rem ar k a b le in the low
neutron flux region because of the relatively sm all signal current
( 1 0 -5 ~ iq-9 a). js considered that such a phen om enon will disappear
w h e n the detector is placed in the core of a typical L M F B R w h e re the
signal current is expected to be approxim ately 1 0 ' 3 A as described later.

2 .2 .4 . Direct i m m e r s io n in liquid sodium

W h e n an in-core detector is used in the L M F B R , it will be directly

i m m e r s e d in liquid s odium . T o confirm the compatibility of the detector
with liquid s o dium , a long-term im m e r s io n test w a s carried out. A
d u m m y detector, w hich has no sensitive m aterial but has the s a m e
d im ensio n and housing m aterial as the real one, w a s directly i m m e r s e d
in a liquid so dium tank. During the test, sodium tem perature and i m ­
purity concentration w e r e controlled at approxim ately 5 0 0 °C and less than
10 p p m , and the insulation resistance of the detector w a s m onitored to
detect any potential failure of the outer c a s e. After the im m e r s io n test
for a total of 4 3 0 0 h , no deform ation nor corrosion w a s observed by
visual inspection.

2 .2 .5 . H igh flux irradiation test

T o confirm the lifetime and irradiation effect upon the detectors, a

neutron irradiation test up to 1 0 21 n / c m 2 under 5 5 0 °C in a liquid sodium
capsule is in p ro g re ss at the Japan M aterial T esting Reacto r. U p to
approxim ately 2 X 1 0 20 n / c m 2 neutron irradiation, no p er fo rm a n ce
change has been o bserved.
7 62 MOCHIZUKI et al.

REACTOR POWER (W )

FIG. 6. Output linearity.

M ic r o - a m m e t e r

FIG. 7. Arrangement of operational test in reactor.

 IAEA-SM-168/G-6 763

2.3. Discussion of L M F B R application

N o L M F B R is now in operation in Japan ; therefore it is difficult

to test the developed detectors in an L M F B R core. H o w e v e r , the signal
current of the detector due to neutron flux is calculated at approxim ately
1 X 1 0 '3 A without m oderator w h e n considering the cross-section of
235 и and neutron flux and energy, w he n the detector is placed in the core
of a typical L M F B R . O n the other hand, g a m m a - r a y current and leakage
current are a s s u m e d to be 1 X 1СГ4 and 2 X 1 0 '7 A , respectively, based
on the experim ental data.
T h u s , the detector is expected to m onitor neutron flux with an error
of less than 1 0 % in a typical L M F B R core. M o r e o v e r , it is planned to
use the C a m p b ell technique (r m s m ethod) with the developed detector.
M e a n w h ile , it is desirable to test the detector under the L M F B R
environm ent. S o m e detectors are scheduled to be tested in the instrumented
fuel s u b a s se m b ly of the Japan E x p e r im e n t a l F a st Reactor after its
completion.

3. D E V E LO P M E N T OF A SELF- POW ERED DETECTOR

3 .1 . D e s ig n of the detector

T h e self-powered detector is now in use in s o m e p o w e r reactors as

inexpensive m iniature in-core m onitors with good m ech a n ica l integrity
and it is considered to be a candidate for the in-core detectors of the
L M F B R . F o r application to the L M F B R , the characteristics under high
tem perature and high g a m m a flux m ust be im p roved . With regard to
this point, a n ew type of self-powered detector with two emitters has
been designed and trial-fabricated: Both emitters have almost sim ilar
atom ic n u m b e r and density but their neutron activation cross-sections
differ v e ry m u c h . T h e r e fo r e , the noise background due to g a m m a flux
is reduced by subtracting two output currents.
A schem atic draw ing of the construction of the self-powered detector
with two emitters is show n in F i g . 8. T w o em itters have the s a m e
dim ensio ns and are placed in parallel in the detector head. T h e diam eter
and the length of the em itters are decided according to the requirem ent
for neutron sensitivity. F o r the m aterials of the two em itters, rhodium
is suitable for the signal emitter and palladium or m o ly b d en u m for the

T w i n w ir e { Ni )

FIG. 8. Schematic drawing of self-powered detector with two emitters (dimensions in mm).
764 MOCHIZUKI e t al.

1
f
■ Hoff-life Rh signal
< \ / 44 sec

A
K
----— Difference с urrent
q:
û:
D Holf-life
4 //'4.3m in
D K? —
a

3 ,o * \ 4 4%
O 10 20 30 40
TIME AFTER REACTOR SCRAM (MIN )

FIG. 9. T im e response to reactor scram .

a.
a.
3
о
1•
I-
3
a
ь-
i
=>
о -2 0 -10 0 +10 +20
APPLIED VOLTAGE (V)
FIG. 10. Output current as a function o f applied voltage to em itters.

com pensating em itter. T h e combination of V and N i is useful for a

th erm al reactor. T h e overall diam eter of the detector is 3.4 m m and
approxim ately double that of ordinary self-powered detectors with a single
em itter. But this causes no restrictions for in-core application.

3 .2 . E x p e r im e n t a l analysis of the output current

T o evaluate the detector output current in the reactor, the response

to the stepping change of neutron flux w a s m e a s u r e d by the detector
installed in an irradiation rig of the Japan R e se a rc h Reactor-4 at the
Japan A to m ic E n e r g y R e s e a r c h Institute.
F ig u r e 9 shows the tim e response curves of the self-powered
detector with R h and P d emitters to fast s c r a m of the reactor. E a c h
current curve fro m the R h and the P d emitters m in us the sheath and the
differential current curve between the Rh and the P d emitters are indi­
cated (the (3-current w hich flows towards the sheath is plus). The
differential current d e c re a se s by approxim ately 1 0 % instantaneously
at s c r a m , then d e c re a se s to the value of about three decades sm aller
corresponding to the half-life of R h , 4 4 s at first and 4 .3 m in subsequently,
in spite of the effect of delayed g a m m a - r a y s . O n the other hand, the
current of the Rh em itter de c re a se s to a value of only two decades sm aller
corresponding to the half-life of R h. T h u s , it is observed that two
emitter types have an effective g a m m a com pensation.
 IA EA -SM -168/G -6 765

x Ю-'О

FIG. 11. High tem perature characteristics of the Rh-Pd type.

O n e cause of the instantaneous d e cre a se of the output current at

the s c r a m is a s s u m e d from the test result shown in F ig . 10, w hen the
s a m e bias is applied to both emitters (though no bias is usually applied).
T h e sharp current change near ze ro bias in F i g . 10 corresponds to the
instantaneous d e cre a se at s c r a m . T h e fast electron generated in the
em itter by the neutron capture g a m m a - r a y of Rh produces the secondary
electron of low energy as it em anates from the surface of the em itter.
T h is is considered to be the m a in cause of instantaneous d e cre a se .

3 .3 . High- tem perature detector p erfo rm a nce

S o m e irradiation tests w e r e carried out by using the high-temperature

furnace in T o sh ib a T ea c h in g and T rain in g Reactor show n in F i g .7. T h e
experim ental result shows that even un der the s a m e conditions of t e m p e r a ­
ture and radiation level, the high-temperature characteristics of the
detector did not have a sim ilar history up to this experim ental period.
T h e test result un der the w orst conditions is shown in F i g . l l , w h e n reactor
p o w er w a s raised from zero after raising the tem perature to the test level
in adv an ce, and the output current fro m the P d emitter (also the noise
current), indicated the highest value. T h e output linearities w e r e m e a s u r e d
with both kinds of detectors, in the s a m e w a y as m entioned above, and are
show n in F ig s 12 and 13. T h e two-emitter type has a good linearity down
to 10 k W at 4 3 0 °C as show n in F i g . 12, but the single-emitter type only
d ow n to 30 k W even at 1 0 0 °C . as shown in F i g . 13.
7 66 MOCHIZUKI et al.

REACTOR P O W E R ( kW)

FIG. 12. Output linearity o f the Rh-Pd type.

FIG. 13. Output linearity o f the Rh type.

F r o m the results, the two-emitter types are considered to be useful

up to 4 3 0 °C as in-core detectors under a neutron flux of 1 0 10 n • c m ' ^ s ' 1
and a g a m m a flux of 1 0 5 R / h with linearity for one decade under the worst
conditions.

3 .4 . D isc u ssio n of L M F B R application

T h e r e are no experim ental data from the in-core conditions of the

L M F B R . F r o m recent w o r ks [3, 4] on the output current of the R h detector
in the L M F B R and the design data of the Japan E x p er im en ta l F a st Reactor,
" J O Y O " , it is a s s u m e d that the contribution ratio of neutron flux and
 IA EA -SM -168/G -6 767

g a m m a flux to the output current of the detector b e c o m e s one decade

lo w er , atleastin the L M F B R , than that in the above-mentioned ex p e r i­
m ent. M o r e o v e r , the coolant tem perature will be higher than 4 0 0 ° C .
Acc o rdin gly , ordinary single-emitter types a re ve ry difficult to be used
in the L M F B R core judging from the experim ental results, though two-
emitter types have a high possibility of future practical application.
It is desirable to test two-emitter types un der conditions sim ilar
to that in L M F B R a to confirm its sensitivity for fast spectru m in the
L M F B R . A cc o rdin gly , s o m e experim ents are planned to be conducted in
the fast neutron source reactor, " Y A Y O I " , of T o k yo University.

4. C O N C L U SIO N

T w o types of in-core detectors, w hich s e e m to be the condidates

for L M F B R application, have been developed. O n e is the 235jj fission
c h a m b e r and the other is a self-powered detector with two em itters.
Throughout the operational test, both detectors showed good p erfo rm a nce
and are expected to be v e ry possible for practical use under conditions
of the L M F B R core environm ent.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

T h e authors would like to thank M r . Y . M im o to of P N C for advice

and en c o ura ge m e nt. T h a n k s are also due to M r . S. N o za k i and
M r . J . Kinoshita of the T o sh ib a C o m p a n y for co-operation in the tests.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1 ] lOOO-MW(e) LMFBR follow -on study. Research and D evelopm ent Program, A I-A E G -12793 (1969).
[2 ] lOOO-MW(e) LMFBR follow -on study, Research and D evelopm ent Requirement, BA W -1331 (1969).
[3 ] LEWIS, R. H ., A ll-so lid in -c o re power monitors for LMFBR serv ice, A N L-7380 (1967) 140.
[4 ] PRICE, C. G ., Evaluation of self-powered detectors in EBR-II, Trans. Am. nucl. Soc. 15 1 (1972) 366.
 IAEA-SM-168/ G -7

MESURE DE F L U X DE NEUTRONS EN
R EA C T EU RS AVEC CHAMBRES A FISSION
POUR HAUTE T E M P E R A T U R E
E T COLLECTRONS DE COBALT
E. BACCONNET, G. DAUPHIN,
J. DUCHENE, R. VERDANT
CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires de Saclay,
France

Abstract-Resumen

NEUTRON FLUX MEASUREMENTS IN REACTORS WITH HIGH-TEMPERATURE FISSION CHAMBERS AND

COBALT COLLECTRONS,
Twenty cobalt collections were tested in reactors and operated satisfactorily. Three o f them
integrated 5 • 1021 n •cm -2. The sensitivity was 0.7 * 10~22and 1.8 • 10"22 A /(n * cm"2 * s '1) per cm for
emitters 1 and 2 mm in diameter respectively. The response was instantaneous. The noise components
were studied, in particular, and must be taken into account separately by the operator. It has been
shown that the noise o f a collectron cannot be represented by a unique value. The use o f collectrons is
analysed, and their value for recording m acroscopic flux variations and for power reactor safety is indicated.
The results o f prolonged testing o f miniature fission chambers in pulsed operation up to 600°C are described.
The authors report a parallel study o f the behaviour o f chambers containing a gaseous mixture giving a
rapid response and o f chambers in which the filler gas allows only a relatively slow response. The present
results are based on 11740 h o f operation including, for certain chambers, 5000 h at 500°C and 3340 h at 6009C.

MESURE DE FLUX DE-NEUTRONS EN REACTEURS AVEC CHAMBRES A FISSION POUR HAUTE TEMPERATURE
ET COLLECTRONS DE COBALT.
Vingt collectrons de cobalt ont été éprouvés en réacteur. Leur fonctionnement est satisfaisant. Trois
d'entre eux ont intégré 5 • 1021 n •cm "2. Leur sensibilité est de 0, 7 et 1 ,8 • 10_Z2 A /(n •cm -2 •s '1 ) par cm
pour des émetteurs de 1 et 2 mm de diamètre. Leur réponse est instantanée. On a particulièrement étudié
les composantes de bruit. L'exploitant devra en tenir com pte séparément. On a mis en évidence le fait
que le bruit d'un collectron ne peut être représenté par une valeur unique. L'emploi des collectrons est
examiné. Leur intérêt pour les cartes de flux ou la sûreté des réacteurs de puissance est évoqué. Quant aux
chambres â fission, on donne les résultats du fonctionnement en longue durée de chambres à fission
miniatures fonctionnant en impulsions jusqu'à 600°C. On étudie parallèlement le comportement de
chambres contenant un m élange gazeux assurant une réponse rapide, et de chambres dans lesquelles le
gaz de remplissage n'autorise qu'une réponse relativement lente. Les résultats actuels portent sur
11740 h de fonctionnement dont pour certaines 5000 h à 500°C et 3340 h á 600°C.

INTRODUCTION

Les m esures neutroniques effectuées dans des conditions sévères,

que ce soit en coeur dans le s centrales à eau légère ou dans le sodium des
centrales à neutrons rapides, imposent le développement de détecteurs
capables de fonctionner dans de hauts flux de neutrons et gammas et des
tem pératures élevées, avec une bonne fiabilité.
Pour répondre à ces exigences, deux cla sse s de détecteurs ont été
développées : des collectron s de cobalt d’ une part et des cham bres à f is ­
sion miniatures d'autre part. *

769
770 BACCONNET et al.

Les com portem ents de ces deux cla sse s de détecteurs, au cours
d 'e s s a i de longue durée, sont analysés successivem ent dans ce rapport.

P rem ière partie : UTILISATION DE COLLECTRONS DE COBALT

1. GENERALITES

Le caractère essentiel de ce type de détecteurs étant de ne pas né­

cessiter d'alimentation électrique, ils sont souvent appelés "self-p ow ered
neutron d etectors". En France, le term e "co lle ctro n " a été récem m ent
adopté après que bien d'autres appellations eurent eu cours.

L 'exp osé de leur fonctionnement a souvent été fait [1] à [ 6 ].

Rappelons seulement que les p rem iers m is au point utilisent l'argent, le
rhodium ou le vanadium com m e ém etteur. Mais leurs temps de réponse
sont prohibitifs pour le contrôle des réa cteu rs. On a cherché à les dim i­
nuer de d iverses façons :
- corp s dont le s isotopes d'activation soient à période courte,
- am plification préférentielle de la dérivée d'une variation du cou­
rant,
- utilisation des électrons instantanés, produits dans l'ém etteur,
par les gammas de la capture du neutron.
C 'est cette dernière voie que nous avons adoptée avec le s c o lle c -
trons de cobalt. En effet, ce corp s répond bien aux exigences posées :
- section effica ce moyenne (com prom is entre sensibilité et durée
de vie),
- période de 5,3 ans de l'isotope 60 et faible rendement |3.
Depuis janvier 1970, nous en avons éprouvé une vingtaine dans les
réacteurs OSIRIS, TRITON et, en collaboration avec le Département de
Propulsion N ucléaire (DPN), dans le coeur du Prototype A T e rre (PA T).
Le calcu l théorique du courant produit, généralisable à tout c o lle c ­
tron, a été exposé dans la note [5].

2. RESULTATS EXPERIMENTAUX
A OSIRIS et TRITON les dispositifs sont ouverts et l'eau circu le à
l'in térieu r. Dans le PAT les collectrons sont dans un doigt de gant. On
trouvera dans le tableau I les détails concernant les matériaux constitu­
tifs et les dim ensions.

2 .1 . Sensibilité - Linéarité - Temps de réponse

- Sensibilité :
Pour le s 4 diam ètres d'ém etteur, on obtient, les collectron s étant
placés en prem ière périphérie du coeur :
0, 5 mm de diam ètre: 0, 18 ■ 10"22 A /(n •cm "2 •s '1) par cm
1 mm de diam ètre: 0, 75 • 10‘ 22 A /(n - cm ' 2 •s"1) par cm
1, 5 mm de diam ètre: 1, 25 • 10"22 А / (n •cm ' 2 •s"1) par cm
2 mm de diam ètre: 2, 00 • 10' 22 A /(n •cm "2 •s '1) par cm
 IAEA-SM-168/G-7 771

TABLEAU I. DIMENSIONS DES COLLECTRONS ET MATERIAUX

CONSTITUTIFS
1. C ollectrons

Diamètre EMETTEUR
Nombres
extérieur
Longueur diamètre testés
(mm)
(cm) (mm)

2,5 20 1 9
2,5 20 1,5 3
4,1 20 2 10

2. P seu d o-C ollectrons

2,5 sans émetteur 3

11 2
4 ;i

Mise à part l'absence de l'ém etteu r, le s p seu d o-collectron s sont

en tous autres points sem blables aux collectron s. Dans les deux cas
l'isolant est en alumine frittée.

Câbles (dans tous les cas)

Diamètre ext. 2 mm
gaine épaisseur 0,12 mm
conducteur Inconelde 0,7 mm de diamètre
isolant m agnésie en poudre
longueur 12 m ètres
Les gaines des câbles et des têtes de détection sont en Inconel 600.

La sensibilité n'est pas proportionnelle au volume de l'ém etteur

com m e on pourrait s 'y attendre. Cela est dû à l'au to-absorption du cobalt
pour les électrons Compton [5] .
- Linéarité :
La figure 1 en donne un exem ple en fonction de la puissance du r é ­
acteur OSIRIS.
Le détecteur étant neuf, la droite passe par l'o rig in e . Puis à m esure
que, par irradiation, le cobalt-60 s'accum ule, elle est translatée v e rs le
haut. En tenant compte de ce fait, on doit pouvoir con trôler la puissance du
réacteur jusqu'à quelques pour cent de la valeur nominale.
772 BACCONNET et al.

FIG. 1. Linéarité d'un collectron de cobalt en fonction de la puissance.du réacteur Osiris.

- Tem ps de réponse :
A bstraction faite des courants de bruit, dont nous parlons plus loin,
la réponse est instantanée. C'est la chaûie de m esure qui en donne la
lim ite .

2 .2 . Etude du bruit
La connaissance du bruit est prim ordiale pour les co lle ctro n s. En
effet, si les sensibilités sont considérées com m e suffisantes, compte tenu
des moyens actuels de m esure, le bruit a été ju squ 'ici trop peu explicité.
Dans le cas de détecteurs en coeur, les collectron s sont souvent
disposés verticalem ent par grappes et les câbles sous rayonnements peu­
vent atteindre plusieurs m ètres. IL im porte donc d'en connaître la con tri­
bution.
Pour évaluer les d iverses com posantes du bruit, nous avons utilisé
à TRITON, pour les différents diam ètres d'ém etteurs, des couples, l'un
norm al, l'autre sans émetteur (dits "p s e u d o -co lle ctro n s "). L'un de ces
couples possède, de plus, deux m ètres de câble bobiné dès la sortie de
l'ém etteu r. L 'effet du câble doit ainsi être m is en re lie f.
 IAEA-SM-168/G-7 773

2 .2 .1 . Composantes du bruit, réacteur à l'a rrê t

Les sou rces principales en sont :
a) Le cobalt-60 de l'ém etteur :
C elu i-ci devient une source de cobalt-60 au rythme de l'ir r a d ia ­
tion . Les deux ra ies 7 de 1,17 et 1,33 MeV produisent un courant d 'é le c ­
trons Compton qui se superposent au signal. A OSIRIS, après intégration de
5 lO^^n.cm - ^, ce courant est de 'v 15 nA.
On peut s'en s erv ir com m e test de fonctionnement après un arrêt
prolongé et com m e intégrateur de flux.

b) L'activation du collectron , du voisinage et les produits de fission

A vec des détecteurs v ierg es, dès l'a rr ê t du réacteur, un courant
négatif apparaît. Il dé.croft suivant le s périodes dominantes de l'en viron n e­
ment. Dans le PAT, les expérim entateurs du DPN ont établi que la valeur
de ce courant était proportionnelle à la puissance avant l'a r r ê t, et que la
période de d écroissa n ce était de 2h50mn environ. Puis, à m esure que les
collectron s ont été irra d iés, l'am plitude négative diminue, s'annule et
enfin, on n'obtient plus que des courants positifs : le courant issu du cobalt-
60 a supplanté la composante négative, qui n'en existe pas m oins, com me
le m ontre les rem ontées des courbes des figu res 2 et 3.

OSIRIS

1 -

EMETTEUR 1mm

---- 1--------------- 1--------------- 1__________ I__________ 1________

0,1 1 10 10* 103
t(m in )
FIG. 2. Evolution du courant d'un collectron de cobalt après irradiation:
© D is p o s it if en réacteur, arrêt sur chute de barres.
© R e t r a it rapide du dispositif, réacteur en marche.
774 BACCONNET et al.

De plus, on voit sur ces figures qu'il existe aussi une composante
positive dont la période d'évolution est de quelques m inutes. Nous pensons
que l'activation de l'alum ine en est la cause et peut-être aussi, pour une
faible part, la transition isom érique de 10,5 mn du cobalt-60.
Dans tous les cas, les courants sont stabilisés une quinzaine
d'heures après l'a rr ê t. L'influence du voisinage se fait sentir lo rs du retrait
de d ispositifs voisin s. Les deux courbes de la figure 2 le montrent nette­
ment .
L 'em p loi d'un fourreau de Z irca lo y , en rem placem ent de l'a c ie r
inoxydable, dans le PAT, ram ène la proportion du courant négatif de 13 à
O» 4 %.
 IAEA-SM-168/G-7 775

Remarquons que l'étude des courants négatifs pendant l'a r r ê t n 'offre

guère d'intérêt en soi, m ais que l'o n cherche à rem onter aux valeurs de
ces com posantes réacteur en m arche. On v e rra plus loin qu'il existe un
moyen indirect d'en faire une estim ation.

2 .2 .2 . Composantes du bruit, réacteur en marche

T rois com posantes sont ici à retenir :
a) L'activation et le s produits de fission
C 'est la même sou rce qu'en 2 .2 .1 . m ais à un niveau plus élevé.
A près que le réacteur a atteint sa puissance nominale, on observe, pen­
dant 24 heures, une baisse systématique des signaux, d'environ 10 % . S i
l'o n tient com pte, par com paraison avec une chambre à fission , du r e c a ­
lage de la puissance qui se fait toujours dans le même sens, on en déduit
que la m oitié environ de cette baisse est due à l'ex isten ce de la composante
négative, soit 8 % et 5 % du signal total, pour le s ém etteurs de 1 et 2 mm
de d ia m ètre.
b) Le rayonnement gamma de fission et de capture
Cette composante n'est pas fa cile à évaluer. Pour en avoir une
idée, un essa i prélim inaire a été fait en exposant des câbles et des c o lle c ­
trons aux rayonnements gamma de l'irrad ia teu r PAGURE du CEN.SACLAY
dont le s sou rces de cobalt-60 donnent 5, 6 Mrad 'h '1. On a obtenu des
courants négatifs :

- câble : - 0 ,8 .1 0 ” ^ A /(ra d - h '1) par cm

1O , ,
- collectron : - 1.10" A /(ra d •h" ) par cm (cas de l'ém etteu r 1,5 mm).
Ces valeurs ne sont qu'indicatives car le spectre 7 en réacteur est
pratiquement continu, avec une énergie moyenne de'X» 0,8 MeV, et le cou­
rant produit n’ est pas indépendant du spectre d 'én ergie [7]
c) Influence du câble
Les p seu d o-collectron s donnent des courants p ositifs, de quelques
nanoampères dans notre cas d 'ex p érien ce. Le câble irra d ié se com porte
donc com m e un prolongem ent de la partie détectrice. Au moyen des 2 m è ­
tres bobinés dans un champ homogène et connu, on a pu évaluer leur sen­
sibilité dans le flux mixte n eu tron s-gammas à :
s câble ^ 3 , 5 . 1 0 '^ A /(n - cm ' 2 ■s '1) par cm

soit un allongement de 0,1 % par cm de câble par rapport au collectron

ayant un ém etteur de 2 mm de d ia m ètre.

3. CONCLUSIONS PRATIQUES SUR LE RAPPORT BRUIT/SIGNAL

Deux des com posantes principales de bruit ne gênent pas l'e x p lo i­
tation du signal prompt d'un collectron de cobalt :
- Le courant du cobalt-60 : il suffit d'en faire les rele v é s su cce s­
sifs pendant le s a rrêts et de le soustraire du courant m esu ré.
- Le flux gamma des fission s et des captures étant instantané ne
provoque qu'une diminution de la sensibilité dont l'exploitant n'aura pas à
tenir com pte.
776 BACCONNET ét al.

Par contre, l'utilisateur aura à se p réoccu per, dans tous les cas,
des com posantes suivantes :
- celle due à l'activation, dont les périodes d'évolution pourraient
être gênantes et que nous estim ons à environ 5 % du signal prom pt,
- la contribution du câble, non négligeable dans les réacteurs de
grande ta ille.
Tous les détails concernant les essa is sont exposés dans le rapport
[8 ] .
En conclusion, on retiendra que le bruit d'un collectron ne peut
valablement être représenté par une valeur unique.

4. DOMAINE D'EMPLOI DES COLLECTRONS

Le nombre de publications depuis quelques années indique un regain
d'intérêt pour ces détecteu rs. L'application principale envisagée concerne
les cartes de flux dans les réacteurs de puissance où la tendance est de
placer de plus en plus de détecteurs en coeur, soit en grappes, soit avec de
grandes longueurs sur la m oitié ou toute la hauteur de l'élém en t com bus­
tible .
Pour cet usage, les collectrons ne seront pas forcém ent à réponse
rapide ; ils pourront être avec émetteur de vanadium ou de rhodium . Par
contre, pour des chalhes de sûreté ou de pilotage, la réponse doit être r a ­
pide et l'em p loi des collectron s de cobalt est à exam iner.

Seconde partie : CHAMBRES A FISSION POUR HAUTE TEMPERATURE

1. INTRODUCTION
Ce sujet a déjà été abordé au cours du Colloque de l'AEEA sur les
perform an ces des com posants des réacteurs de puissance de 1969. Il s 'a ­
gissait à l'époque de résultats d 'essa is effectués au cours d'une phase p ré­
paratoire au développement de chambres à fission à im pulsions fonction­
nant à 600° C [9].
Nous avions signalé la difficulté de ré a lis e r des cham bres à fission
pour haute tem pérature à réponse rapide, du fait de l'évolution à haute
tem pérature et sous flux des mélanges gazeux permettant une collection
rapide des ch arges.
Différents types de chambres ont été développés depuis et en parti­
cu lier une chambre à fission miniature dont plusieurs exem plaires ont subi
des essa is qui font l'o b je t de cet exposé [ 10 ].
Le but de ces essa is en pile et en tem pérature était de dém ontrer
la fiabilité de ce type de cham bre, m ais également de p ré c is e r ce que nous
avions observé avec le mélange argon-azote et de con firm er qu'une cham­
bre à réponse rapide évoluant en chambre à réponse lente , par suite de la
disparition de l'a zote du mélange, peut fonctionner parfaitement en cham­
bre lente avec simplement un temps de collection plus long et les con sé­
quences que cela entraîhe au point de vue de la dynamique du fonctionnement
(cinq décades au lieu de six) et de la sensibilité aux gam m as.
 IAEA-SM-168/G-7 777

2. R A P P E L DES CAR ACTER ISTIQU ES DES CHAMBRES

Les cham bres miniatures dont il est question ic i sont des cham bres
de type industriel connues sous les sigles RTC, CFUE32 et CFUE34, et
dont les caractéristiques ont été détaillées en [ 1 1 ].
Les cham bres sont réa lisées en structure triaxiale dans une techno­
logie a cier inoxydable - alumine, avec un câble triaxial intégré sem i-rigid e
à isolant magnésie de longueur 10 m ètres. Leur diam ètre est 8 mm et
celui du câble 6 m m .
A vec un dépôt de 0,1 m g /cm d'uranium enrichi à 90 % en 235U
la sensibilité aux neutrons est de 10-3 c / s par (n - cm -2 •s '1).
La seule différence entre CFUE32 et CFUE34 concerne la nature
du gaz de rem plissage : argon dans le prem ier cas, argon-azote dans le
second, la p ression absolue étant de 4,5 b a rs.

A la tension nominale de 400 volts, le tem ps de montée et la durée

de l'im pulsion sont respectivem ent de 70 et 250 nanosecondes avec argon
pur, 15 et 50 nanosecondes avec le m élange.
Le câble triaxial est un câble SODERN type 1 ZS(Ac C)AC60 dont
l'âm e est en cuivre recou vert d 'a cie r inoxydable, la gaine intérieure est
en inox recou vert de cuivre pour des raisons d'immunité aux parasites.
L'im pédance caractéristique est de 50 ohms, la capacité linéique de l'o r d r e
de 180 pF et la résistan ce linéique de l'â m e 1,78 ohm.

3. NATURE ET CONDITIONS DES ESSAIS

3 .1 . D ispositif d'irradiation
Quatre cham bres, dont deux CFUE32 et deux CFUE34, sont in tro­
duites dans un four "М Ш Е Т ТЕ " où chacune peut être chauffée séparément
jusqu'à 600° C. Le four est disposé dans la pile "TRITON" en plusieurs
em placem ents correspondant à différentes valeurs de flux. Le flux est
m onitoré par un neutrocoax à l'argent disposé dans l'a xe du fou r.
3 .2 . Nature des essa is
Le but des essa is est de m ontrer le bon fonctionnement des cham­
b res en impulsions jusqu'à 600° C dans les conditions d'utilisation en r é ­
acteur, où la chambre après avoir été utilisée en im pulsions au cours d'un
dém arrage est la issée en place à fort flux et doit être à nouveau disponible
après un fonctionnement prolongé en puissance.
Le four est donc déplacé périodiquement entre un emplacement à
bas flux (3.10® n •cm "2 s"1) où les m esu res sont faites en im pulsions, et des
em placem ents à haut flux (3,8 à 8 •1011 n - cm ' 2 ■s"1) où le contrôle ne peut se
faire que par des m esu res en courant ou en fluctuations.

3 .3 . Appareillage de m esure
Les m esures en im pulsions sont faites au moyen de quatre voies
m ultibloc à collection de courant M -G SAITB1- 50Q dont deux avec con ver­
tisseu r courant-charge, appelé aussi allongeur, pour les cham bres lentes.
778 BACCONNET et al.

гЧ
СО 1-1 СО 1-1

Flux
о о о о
W r°H
2 1—1 1—f
со* со*

0„009
со со со со
Ф о о о о о о
41) О "Ф о
и о ^
p о со О со о ю
Q т—1 Cd 14 см i—( í-Ч

СО со со
о о о
г—1 »ч
g
со со со
O Ë
0
O
Ю ф
Ю 41) о о о
о о о
s UO ю ю
Q
гЧ
со со - о
S о °
гЧ 2 гн
U
fa СО* » со• со
CONDITIONS DES ESSAIS DES CHAMBRES A FISSION

0 со со
O
O Ф
Ю g
'Ф
b 9 оо О
о gg
00 00 со 00
S со со

тЧ »ч »Ч
X со СО СО 1-4
p о ° о ° о о
гЧ *-< тЧ тН тЧ гЧ
e со* со со* со
O со со
0 со* со
O
O
Ф о о о о о о
41) о о о о о о
*4 тЧ СО гЧ СО 00 00
P
Q тЧ н
гЧ тЧ
*4 Í—1 СО
ÇQ /(бtH со о о °
О *-н * тЧ
о 32 в
2 » 2 н • 1-1 1-1

Ф • 00
"H
e "p « ” со" со• 00 со* со
СО4
cd C со
Xi Ф о о
41) § o о о g
° оо о о
1 ° г со со «5 со о
ю
о
со
s8 t- ^ Ю гЧ
1
1

:
Chambre rapide!
Chambre rapide
Chambre lente
Chambre lente
Tem pérature

référen ce
II.

n° 114

n° 118

n° ИЗ

n° 116
TABLEAU
 IAEA-SM-168/G-7 779

FIG. 4, Courbe de discrimination de la chambre à fission CFUE 32 n°113. Voie SAITB 1, 50 fi, sans allongeur.

Pour le contrôle permanent à bas flux on sort sur un intégrateur

suivi d'un en registreur, et sur éch elles pour les tra cé s périodiques de
de courbes de discrim ination.
Pour le contrôle permanent à haut flux on dispose de tro is chaûies
à fluctuations et d'une chaîhe à courant continu.

4. DEROULEMENT DES ESSAIS

L'analyse des résultats d 'e s s a is sur le s cham bres n° 113 et 116

dites cham bres "ra p id es" et le s n° 114 et 118 dites cham bres "len tes"
couvre une durée de 11 740 heures, 7 000 ont été effectuées à bas flux
et 4 740 à haut flux. Les cham bres ont intégré approximativement
10-19 n •cm"2.
On trouvera dans le tableau II le déroulem ent des e ssa is, pour
chacune des quatre cham bres en fonction de la durée d'irradiation, du
flux et de la tem pérature.

5. RESULTATS DES ESSAIS

5 .1 . Effets instantanés de la tem pérature

Le fonctionnement de courte durée à 600° C n'a aucuneincidence
sur le fonctionnement des cham bres et on peutv o ir en particulier sur la
figure 4 que le s courbes de discrim ination à l'am biante et à 600° C sont
pratiquement su perposées.
780 BACCONNET et al.

FIG. 5. Courbe de discrimination de la chambre à fission CFUE 32 n°116. Voie SAITB 1, 50 П, sans allongeur.

5 .2 . Comportement des chambres lentes

La chambre n° 114 choisie com m e chambre de référen ce a fon c­
tionné à l'am biante pendant toute la durée des e s sa is . Mais la chambre
n° 118 a subi 1 900 h à 400° C, 5 000 h à 500° C et 3 340 h à 600°C sans
p rob lèm e.

5 .3 . Evolution des cham bres rapides

La chambre n° 113 est devenue "len te" après 800 h à 3, 8 •1011 n •cm "2 •s’ 1
à la température ambiante, puis 1100 h dans 3 •106 n ' cm ' 2■s ' 1 à400°C
et 4600 h dans 3, 8 •1011 n •cm ' 2 •s"1 à 500°C.
La chambre n° 116 est devenue "len te" après 5500 h à
3 ■106 n •cm "2 •s' 1 et 1600 h à 3, 8 •10 11 n . cm "2 •s-1 à la température
ambiante, puis 1600 h à 3, 8 •1011 n - cm' 2 ■s-1 à 400°C, 500 h à
3 •10® n •cm"2 ' s' 1 à 500°C et enfin 1000 h à 3 •106 n •cm "2 •s"1 à 600°C.
 IAEA-SM-168/G -7 781

15/10/71 • AVANT EVOLUTION

5/10/72 + APRES EVOLUTION ET
FONCTIONNEMENT A 600 °C DANS
(¡= : 8-IO’ n c m 'V PENDANT
1500 HEURES

\ '

FIG. 6. Courbe de discrimination de la chambre i fission CFUE 32 n°116. Voie SAITB 1, 50fi, avec allongeur.

On peut v o ir sur la figure 5 l'évolution des courbes de d iscrim in a ­

tion correspondant à l'évolu tion du tem ps de collection des charges de 50 ns
à 250 ns approxim ativem ent. Dans les deux cas, le flux intégré en fin d 'é ­
volution était de l'o r d r e de 2 à 3.10^®n- cm '2.

5 .4 . Comportement des cham bres rapides devenues lentes

A près leur évolution les deux cham bres rapides ont poursuivi leur
ca rr iè r e de cham bres lentes sans perturbations ; c 'e s t ainsi que la chambre
n° 116 après son évolution a fonctionné com m e chambre lente pendant
3 340 h à 600°C et la chambre n° 113 pendant 1 540 h.
L'évolution d'une chambre rapide en chambre lente passerait d 'a il­
leurs inaperçue à l'utilisateu r d'une électronique sensible à la charge.
A insi que le m ontre la figure 6 , les courbes de discrim ination tra cé e s avec
un am plificateur de courant suivi d'un con vertisseu r courant-charge et une
chambre rapide avant et après évolution sont extrêmement voisin es.

6. CONCLUSION

Ces essa is de longue durée ont m ontré la parfaite tenue des con s­
tituants des cham bres à l'excep tion de l'a zote que nous avions ajouté en
connaissance de cause dans deux d'entre elles, et dont les réactions p ro ­
bables avec le s com posants ne semblent pas avoir réduit la bonne tenue
de ce u x -ci, du moins dans les lim ites de notre irradiation.

On peut en conclure à la bonne fiabilité en tem pérature jusqu'à

600° C des cham bres à fission miniatures du type CFUE32.
782 BACCONNET et al.

REFERENCES

[1] MITELMAN, M .G ., Atomn. Energ. 10 1 (1961) 72-73.

[2] HILBORN, J .W ., Nucleonics 22 2(1964) 69-74.
[3] ANDERSON, I. О . , SODERLUND, В ., АЕ-359 (janv. 1969).
[4] SOVKA, J. А. , AECL-3368 (juin 1969).
[5] VERDANT, R. , CEA-N-1330 (juill. 1970).
[6] SCHULKEN, H . , KFK-1355 (sept. 1970).
[7] SHIELDS, R.B. , AECL-3564 (juill. 1970).
[8] VERDANT, R ., CEA -R-4411 (1973).
[9] BACCONNET, E ., C OM TE, R ., DUCHENE, J ., «Quelques performances des détecteurs de neutrons
développés en France pour le contrôle des réacteurs » , Performance of Nuclear Power Reactor Components
(С. г. Coll. Prague, 1969), AIEA, Vienne (1970) 151.
[10] BACCONNET, E ., DAUPHIN, G ., DUCHENE, J ., CEA, Rapport a'paraître.
[11] BACCONNET, E ., DUCHENE, J ., FARCY, P., Chambres a'fission miniatures CFUE22-CFUE32,
CEA-N-1292 (févr. 1970).
 IAEA-SM-168/G -8

DEVELOPMENT AND IN-CORE APPLICATION

OF SELF-PO W ERED NEUTRON DETECTORS

P. GEBURECK, W. HOFMANN*, W. JASCHIK,

W. SEIFRITZ, D. STEGEMANN
Institut Шг Kerntechnik,
Technische Universitât Hannover,
Federal Republic o f Germany

Abstract

DEVELOPMENT A N D IN-CORE APPLICATION OF SELF-POWERED NEUTRON DETECTORS.

Development work for self-powered neutron (SPN) detectors and results of in-core applications are
described. The primary aim of the research and development work is directed towards SPN detectors, which
follow changes in neutron flux promptly. This offers the advantage: (a) to use these in-core detectors within
the safety and control systems; (b) to apply the sensors at the same time for reactor noise detection as a
diagnostic tool for an early measurement system of reactor malfunctions. The in-core application is a long­
term program to test and to prove the reliability of these sensors in present-day power reactors. Besides the
well-known emitter material cobalt, a number of promising new emitter materials have also been investigated.
Furthermore, a comparison has been made between SPN detectors having wires as emitters and such construc­
tions using foil emitters. More basic experiments concern neutron- and у -sensitivity measurements with
prototype detectors, which have been constructed for this special purpose to find an optimum design regarding
the ratio of neutron-to-gamma efficiency. The experimental results were compared with theoretical cal­
culations. The detector dimensions investigated range from 25 m m in diam. and 90 m m in length (prototype
detector) to 1.6 mm in diam. and 130 mm in length. The SPN detectors developed and built have been
and are being tested in high flux materials test reactors as well as in a running boiling-water reactor. Results
from these test series and also from noise measurements are presented. The results include a comparison
between SPN detectors and other in-core sensors, such as fission chambers and 235U-coated thermocouples.

1. INTRODUCTION

S elf-pow ered neutron detectors have a very sim ple and rugged construc­
tion and are th erefore well suited for in -co r e application. They consist of
a neutron sensitive m etallic em itter surrounded by a ceram ic insulator.
This cylin drical assem bly is en closed by a m etallic sheath as shown in
Fig. 1.
Two types of SPN -detectors can be distinguished:

(a) SPN detectors using em itter m aterials, which are activated by

neutron capture and undergo /Г -decay. The electrons emitted cr o s s the
insulator and reach the outer sheath. This electron current can be m easured
externally. The well-known em itter m aterials used for this type o f detec­
tors are p rim arily rhodium and vanadium [1-3] . Regarding the time
response of the detector current to changes in rea cto r power, the h alf-life
o f the corresponding m aterial has to be taken into consideration.

v Kemkraftwerk Lingen GmbH.

783
784 GEBURECK et al.

Em itter

Insulator
Sheath
(Collector)

Cable
(Twin cable
compensation)

FIG. 1.
le
1 Picoammeter

Operation of self-powered neutron detectors. Ig = detector emitter.

(b) SPN detectors using em itter m aterials in which, owing to neutron

capture, electrons are produced by Compton effect, photo effect, pair
production and conversion electrons. A suitable em itter m aterial investi­
gated so far is cobalt [4]. B esides cobalt also erbium and hafnium as new
em itter m aterials are discussed in this paper. These detectors respond
prom ptly to neutron flux variations.

The prompt response as well as the interesting new m aterials were the
main reason why this type of SPN detector was incorporated into the
resea rch and development program of the institute about three years ago.
On the one hand, the long tim e-behaviour (burnup, power distribution etc. )
of rea ctors can be followed. On the other hand, the fast response together
with reasonable neutron sensitivity suggested the idea of using these
detectors at the same tim e for at power rea ctor noise m easurem ents in
order to have a valuable tool fo r in -c o r e diagnostics. In the meantime the
m easurem ents have demonstrated this applicability very clea rly, as is
shown below.

2. CALCULATIONAL MODEL FOR PROMPT SPN DETECTORS

The SPN -detector electron current created by the neutron flux at the
detector position within the core is of p rim ary interest. Figure 2 shows
a schem atic diagram of the effects, which have to be considered for the
calculation. F or prom pt-responding SPN detectors the useful contributions
to the current are shown in the upper part of Fig. 2, whereas the co n tri­
butions of the low er part can be regarded, m ore or le ss , as background
current.
The quantitative calculation of the detector current is based on the
neutron capture rate within the em itter as well as on the conversion of
capture gam m a-rays into m easurable electrons. Within the calculational
m odel neutron self-sh ielding, neutron flux depression and electron absorp­
tion within the em itter have to be taken into account. Recently W arren [5]
developed a calculational m odel for self-p ow ered neutron detectors with
beta-decaying em itter nuclei. This m odel has been m odified and extended
for the calculation of prompt responding SPN -detectors.
 IAEA-SM -168/G -8 785

The general equation for the calculation of the neutron-induced detector

current is given by

^nmax

h = PK e V J ( En ) * ( E n ) f ( E „ ) F ( E n ) d E n (D
о
where

= detector current (A)

<HEn) = neutron flux per unit energy (cm -2 s"1 eV ' 1 )
E„ = incident neutron energy (eV)
111 nm ax = max. incident neutron energy (eV)
£ n(E n ) = m a croscop ic neutron capture cr o s s section (em itter) (cm ' 1 )
f(EJ = correction factor for neutron self-sh ield in g
F (E n) = correction factor for neutron flux depression
V = em itter volume (cm 3 )
e = electron charge = 1. 602 X 10"19 (A •s)
Pk = conversion probability: probability fo r the generation of
m easurable electrons per neutron captured in the em itter

The integral in Eq. (1) gives the number of neutrons per second and
per cm 3 captured within the em itter m aterial of the detector. Multiplication
by the em itter volume gives the neutron capture rate (neutrons/ s) within the
em itter. W hereas everything regarding the incom ing neutrons is covered
by the integral, the total m echanism regarding the conversion of capture
gam m a-rays into m easurable electrons has to be incorporated into the
conversion probability P K .
The conversion probability can be found from

E
max

PK = J e ( E y )P v (Ey ) Y ( E y )d E y (2 )

where

Y (Ey) = number of 7 -ra ys per 7 -energy interval per neutron captured

in the em itter (e V "1 )
P (E ) = probability fo r absorption of the 7 -ra y within the em itter,
or probability for production of an electron p er 7 -ra y of
energy Ey
e (E y ) = probability for an electron, produced within the em itter,
to cr o s s the insulator and reach the co lle cto r (measurable
electron! )

Although Eqs (1) and (2) are quite general, we only con sider cylindrical
detectors fo r p ractical reasons. At first the correction factors in the
integral of Eq. (1) will be considered.
786 GEBURECK et al.

C
оt
о 5
lï"
о kl lï->
сэ rO

Q eU
h.
ti %
S b. (t
3 1
1
q
kj tt b
kj ?
03IN V M N D

8 *ki
1 •J - î Q:
edt 5 S 5 s est
kl O 1 kl O u
§

for detector current computation.

>
o
12 6
et
!|
О
> lt
o

5*
O k.
s
¡5
o
a. o ^ o
kj _ kl
*
c
u,
u
5
* £
u» S Q
c Ui Q. k) û- ?
Q.

Schematic diagram
iî“ 1
«J § 1
1
O ** S
Í § I
Uj
y X
Uj 4
1
Q o
S 8 es
1

FIG.2.
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 ■787

2 .1 . C orrection factor for neutron self-sh ield in g f (En )

The problem encountered here is identical with the situation if cylin d ri­
cal probes are activated, and has been treated in Ref. [ 6 ], according to
which the correction factor is given by

£(Еп ) = 2 Л ° (E ) <3)
0 n n

where

En =m a croscop ic neutron capture cr o s s -s e c tio n of the em itter

m aterial (cm -1 )
r0 =radius of the emitter
X0(Enr0) =absorption probability of neutrons with an isotrop ic distribution
of velocities incident on the infinite cylin drical em itter

For abbreviation we put x = En r Q , then

X (x) = f x 2 { 2 [x { K jI x J + K jW I o (x)} - 1 ]+

-K jW l^ x l+ K jW ljt x )} (4)

where I and К are m odified B essel functions of thefirst and second kinds,
resp ectively. F or sm all x (x s 0. 2) xo approaches 2 I n r 0 and the c o r r e c ­
tion fa ctor f (En) tends to 1.

2 .2 . C orrection factor for neutron flux depression, F ( E n )

The insertion of a SPN detector into the rea ctor co re produces a flux
perturbation at the detector position, because the additional neutron absorber
d ecreases the flux com pared with the unperturbed situation. The actual
number of neutrons captured p er second and спя? of the em itter, C, is
th erefore sm aller than that number o f neutrons captured per second and
cm 3, C 0 , that would occu r within the unperturbed neutron field. The
correction factor, F ( E n), is therefore

F ( E n) ~ = ------
<~o ! + -çT (5)
С

An equivalent problem has a lso been treated in Ref. [ 6]. Using the notation
of Ref. [ 6 ] we can write

F ( E n) = T ^ - ( 6)
Лс

where

X = (7 )
788 GEBURECK et al.

and fo r this in Ref. [ 6 ] the following estimation is given:

3r0 2L
In X o (Enro) (8)
4jrXtr

where

Xtr =mean free transport length

L = neutron diffusion length
y = E ulers constant = 0. 577

and the other quantities are as defined before.

One can now proceed to calculate the 7 -so u rce within the em itter and
the electron sou rce strength, respectively.

2. 3. Strength of y source of emitter

From the neutron absorption rate R (number of neutrons captured per

second) within the emitter
^nmax

H =V J En (En ) * ( E n) f ( E n) F ( E n )d E n (9)
0

the 7 sou rce strength, of the em itter can be derived by considering

the 7 yield Yy , already defined, for the total 7 energy range of interest.
We have
Ey max

Qy = f R Y ( E y )dEy (10)
0

2 .4 . E lectron source strength

The capture 7 -ra ys produced within the em itter traverse the emitter
and generate free electrons mainly by Compton and photo effects. The
interaction probabilities are given by the m a croscop ic cr o s s -s e ctio n s ,
Ey , fo r Compton and photo effects. The track length which the 7 -rays
traverse within the em itter depend on the em itter geom etries. A ccording
to Ref. [5] the distribution of these track lengths 1 can be determined from
the track-length probability function, N (1), given as follow s:

T rm 2 (1 - p 2 ) T, , , 2 ( 1 - 2 d2 ) , 1 +4p2 . . .
N (1) = ----- 2 *- К (p) - E (p) - -------- tl“ « arc sm (p)
3 7Г r Q p ^ 37Г T q p $ 7 Г Q! Г q p Г

2
EL
4r~—
0 a +' 87
ab'l
га rÜP„
0p \ / 1 "Р 2 for p s 1 ( 1 1 a)

and

N (1) = 2 ^ ~ 1} E (-1 ) - I (p2 ~ К ( 1 ) - j - 1 -^ for p â 1 (lib )

Зтг r 0 p \p/ Зттг0р \ р/ 1 6 a r0 p ¿
 МЕЛ -SM-168/G-8

where

Р " 2r 0

L
* = 27
K(p) = com plete elliptic integral of the first kind
E (p) = com plete elliptic integral of the second kind

and

/ N (1) dl = 1
J
0

Now the probability Pv , defined in Eq. (2), for the production of an electron
per em itter y - ray can be calculated as
L max

Pv = 1 - [ N (1) e 7 dl (12)

where

Zy = m a croscop ic 7 -absorption cr o s s -s e c tio n of the em itter

L max = max. track length

The electron source strength of the em itter, Q e , is now given

у max
Qe = R I v ((E
Y i , ), Pv
, ,(E ) dE (13)
У’ v ' У ' У

The last task to be solved is the calculation of e (E y ), the probability for

an electron produced within the em itter, to cr o s s the insulator and reach
the co lle cto r. Owing to electrons trapped within the insulator a space
charge e le ctr ic field exists. T h erefore, electrons leaving the em itter
must have a minimum energy, E min , to cr o s s the insulator. E lectrons
having low er energies than E min are thrown back to the em itter from the
isolator and do not contribute to the detector current Ie . This influence
of the e le ctr ic field has been quantitatively treated in Ref. [5] where values
of E min can be found fo r various thicknesses and kinds of insulators.
The probability e (E y ) can then be calculated by the procedure of W arren [5]
to be

N [R (E ') - R ( E ) ] P ( E ') d E ' dE (14)

790 GEBURECK et al.

where

E'max = maximum energy an electron can gain, if produced by a

7 - ray of energy E y
dE
= sp ecific energy lo ss p er unit length fo r electrons of
dx
energy E
R (E ) = range of electrons with energy E
P (E') = distribution of electrons having starting energy E 1 (e le c ­
tron sou rce spectrum)
N [R (E ') -R (E )] = N (1), where 1 is the track length, which is the difference
in ranges of electrons of energies E' and E within the
em itter m aterial

The distribution function P (E ') is a delta-function for photoelectrons.

F or Compton electrons P (E1) can be found in Ref. [7]. Ranges of electrons
are given in Ref. [ 8]. The sp ecific energy lo ss has been derived from the
ranges by differentiation.
A ccordin g to Eq. (1) and the quantities derived the detector current is
given by
max

eV e ( Er )Pv ( Er ) Y ( E r ) d E y L (E )ф (E ) f (E ) F (E ) dE
П V П' r V П ' V П' ' ПГ I

(15)

The calculations are perform ed for different groups of neutron- and

7 -en ergies. T h erefore — using the sym bol ^ for sum m ation— we have
n m L max

^ = ^ [ 1 { i i (Ëi ) E l(Ë i ) f i (Ë i )F i (Ë i ) } £ { y .( i - j N (1) e"£j 1 dl

xi[(-£):i{
i=l j= l 0
j max j max

N [R (E'j ) - R (Е^ )] P (Ej ) dE! ^ dE (16)

where
i = neutron energy groups
j = 7 -en ergy groups

The calculational procedu re of the detector current has been p r o ­

gramm ed and is now being perform ed by the com puter program DEBE.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

Within the experim ental program three main objectives can be

distinguished: (a) The fabrication of prom pt responding S PN -detectors with
new m aterials and different geom etries; (b) testing of the detectors within
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 791

a m aterial test rea ctor (MTR) and a boiling-w ater rea ctor (BWR); and
(c) com parison of SPN detectors with each other and with other neutron
detectors such as fission cham bers etc.

3.1 . Fabrication of SPN detectors

The fabrication of SPN detectors was started at the institute in order

to have a fairly high flexibility fo r variation of detector m aterials and
detector geom etries. The p rim ary aim of the program is to im prove the
ratio of useful current-to-background current, and to investigate how the
ratio is affected as a function of rea ctor operating time or fluence, r e s p e c ­
tively. Furtherm ore, it is of interest to demonstrate the reliability of
SPN detectors together with new applications.
SPN detectors fabricated and tested successfu lly by us so far have
been com piled in Table I. In addition, further detectors having E r-w ire
and C o-em itters in a hollow cylinder geom etry were also fabricated as well
as two SPN detectors for 7 -flux m easurem ents having lead -em itters. As
can be seen from Table I, vanadium -detectors were also included for
com parison. Special la rg er prototype detectors (25 mm d ia m ., 90 mm long,
1 mm co lle cto r thickness) containing at once three different em itter foils
(erbium, cobalt, hafnium) w ere a lso made in ord er to gain m ore basic data
fo r the m aterials. The operation of these prototype d etectors, however,
was not su ccessfu l.

3. 2. Testing of detectors

D etectors fabricated at the institute as w ell as com m ercia l detectors

were tested in the m aterial test rea ctor FRG1 (Geesthacht R esearch
Centre) and in the b oiling-w ater rea ctor of Lingen nuclear power station.
Figure 3 surveys the tests perform ed so far. In the MTR the detectors
w ere irradiated while being positioned in the re fle cto r , very close to the
co re . During the tests they are in direct contact with the cooling water
("wet p osition"), which has about room tem perature. The therm al neutron
flux at this position is approxim ately 2 .7 5 X 1 0 13 cm ' 2 s ' 1. F or testing
SPN detectors under conditions typical fo r p ressu rized -w ater rea ctors
(PWR), heated and p ressu rized irradiation capsules were used. The d e te c­
tors to be tested were inserted into the sealed capsules. During irradiation,
the water p ressu re was 150 bar and the water tem perature 340°C. In
Fig. 3 this has been indicated by "P W R -sim ulation".
Since the middle of 1970, SPN detectors have been in operation within
the co re of the boiling-w ater rea ctor of Lingen nuclear power station.
A la rg er number of erbium and hafnium SPN detectors was scheduled to be
already under test, but the power plant had to be shut down, so that these
tests were delayed. During the test period the operational behaviour of
these detectors was observed very carefully. A typical plotter diagram
of the detector output currents is shown in Fig. 4. The top row shows the
e le ctrica l pow er output of the plant. Below, the detector signals are
plotted. F or the rhodium and vanadium detectors a special tim e -co rre ctin g
network was used in parallel to co r re c t fo r the tim e delay due to the half-
life of the em itter m aterial. These curves have been marked by (т -с о г г . ).
792 GEBURECK et al.

d ia m .
C a b le

(m m )
CD

0*1

0*1
•о

1 .0

1 .6

1 .6

1 .0

1 .6

1 .6
wi с Ю Ю Ю Ю
о O Ю (N CD <N СО N CO (N ю ю ю ю ю л ю ю о ю л ю
tí '£2 £
(N O <N O (N О O OJ О со о со о СО о со о со о со о
« g g
il il Il II II II 11 И II II 11 il 11 И 11
0 В w
и -5 •O Crt X сл •0 и тГ X v> XI «о X V) X сл X сл X м X сл

s = thickness
o 0) 0) ,4
s 3 C G c С с— С" г- с-
<U Q) O n)
O O О ■ф
C C g 2 с
? S
u S

0 .2 5
0 .3 9

2 « W5 ю UO 1Л ю
«A c "e Ю СО о со 03 (N OJ irt <N
'Д Л E
0 o n ii о о о О о 0 О '
x *0

1 = length;
X
c
« to
O «
« s « s (O S t) el « 5 со <5 n 5 m И)
rt 'Ci
O *3 O «3 0 u 0 я О ’g О О 1
■3 2 -J* Л ™ £> ° ?
_î* -î* 0 л
< 3 C 3 < q- 2 < 2 < < D- < < о- < CL. < а.
•S S
T E S T E D

(N rH LO
c— СО <-i ю с-
a
i-t c- i-H О СО гН О OJ 05 CJ с- см о г-t О О О (3
0 s 05 S
AND

2 Ё
S S i
Il II Il 11 il II il И II 11 II il il il II 11 il Il II li И
E E J=
"О г-н Xi < X сл -н X г-4 X X -H X г-1 X X •о -н СО

d¿ = inner diam .;
“ =3
F A B R I C A T E D

^ b •> S
2 3 <U <û 1 1 V а> 0) 0) а) 0) а)
■“ E
1 S £ s S o ’ 2 3= ? S 2
00
D E T E C T O R S ,

Y tte rb iu m

V a n a d iu m

V a n a d iu m
m a te ria l
E m itte r

H a fn iu m
H a fn iu m

H a fn iu m

E rb iu m
E rb iu m

C o b a lt

C o b a lt

outer diam.;
SPN

а
о

2 S
o у гН <N со
tu СО
I.

<Û d N
UJ X X >н > > и и W X
Q g
T A B L E

x
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 793

REACTOR DETECTORS
TEST PERIO D
TYPE TESTED
1970 |oe7 1971 IC tr.lM » fa c L b n fa ih jrl 1972

M TR C d (re f)
GEESTHACHT Ег I
Hf 1
Hf F l
y. Ybl
z'. я VI
'A 1/2
Col
DETECTOR POSITION Co2
PW R Rh
SIMULATION H f3
('pressure capsule) Er 3

V
Rh
Co
Co

Er
BWR Hf
U N G EN

FIG.3, Test of SPN detectors.

----------------- t(h)
FIG.4. Typical plotter diagrams of measurements in BWR Lingen (21 March 1971). W ei = electric power.
794 GEBURECK et al.

3.3. C om parison of resu lts

F or the SPN detectors tested, the total sensitivity et and the gamma
sensitivity are given in Table II together with the ratio of current due to
external 7 -radiation to total current, Jy / J t . The quantities in Table II
are defined as follow s:

Total sensitivity et = - — total----- ( a - (n/cm 2 •s) "1 • c m '1)

Ф ‘ emitter ■ '

Gamma sensitivity e = *--------

emitter

emitter

The total sensitivity was m easured at the co re positions indicated.

The gamma sensitivity was determined in the MTR co re after shutdown.
The neutron sensitivity was calculated using the m odel described before.
M easured values which are considered as not very reliable have been put
into brackets. F or the com m ercial detectors, the em itter diam eter is
given in the first column of Table II.
The detectors E r-1 and Hf-1 show total sensitivities com parable to
that of the Co (ABA) detector, although the em itter diam eters of E r-1 and
Hf-1 are only 1 mm and 0. 75 mm, resp ectively (see Table I), com pared
with 2 mm of the Co detector. The sm all diam eter, on the other hand, is
presum ably responsible for the relatively high ratio J y /J t of 10% and 14%,
resp ectively. It can be concluded that by increasing the em itter diameter
to 2 mm the neutron sensitivity will be enlarged appreciably, while the
7 -sen sitivity can be kept almost constant, so that the ratio Jy / J t could be
d ecreased to less than 3%.
Detector H f-F -1 , having hollow cylinder geom etry for the em itter,
d elivers a la rger signal than a corresponding w ire em itter of equal m ass.
However, the 7 - sensitivity is also increased considerably, so that the
ratio Jy / J t deteriorates. Assuming that about 30% of the 7 -cu rren t is
due to fission -produ ct 7 -ra y s , the contribution, which is not proportional
to the neutron flux, would amount to 6-7% in this case. An improvement by
alteration of detector dimensions should be possible.
As expected, the detector Yb-1 shows low sensitivity and a large ratio
Jy / J t . It was included into the program only out of curiosity.
The investigations regarding insulator effects in prompt C o-d etectors
and vanadium /3-detectors showed a much stronger increase of 7 -sensitivity
com pared with neutron sensitivity, if air is used as an insulator instead of
A12 0 3. The negative signal m easured fo r the air-insulated Co detector could
not be explained so far.
Interesting are the higher sensitivities of the detector V -2 and Co-1
com pared with V (ABA) and Co (ABA). The insulator thickness of detectors
V -2 and Co-1 is only half of that in detectors V (ABA) and C o(A B A ), whereas
the co llector has tw ice the thickness. These observed tendencies make it
p ossible to optim ize the detector configuration.
Com parison between m easured and calculated neutron sensitivities
shows agreem ent from - 15 to +13%.
 IAEA-SM-168/G-8 795

T A B L E II. RESULTS OF S P N -D E T E C T O R TESTS

calc.
Detector ly cn
etX 10-22 ey X 10-18 e n X 10-22 f-W o]
identification ,meas,
Ll bn

Er 1 3.1 5.85 2.91 10.3 1.04

Hf 1 2.1 (5.55) 2.38 (14.4) 1.13

HfF 1 4 .4 17.8 - 22 -

Yb 1 1.1 (9) - (44.6) -

V 1 8.3 102 - 67 -

V 2 7.95 (-)6.9 - 4.7 -

Co 1 (C-)28.57) (( -)250) - (47.7) -

Co 2 3.14 (-)0.425 2.87 0.74 0.92

Commercial detectors

Cd (ABA)
9.58 5.35 7.8 3.04 0.85
d = 2 mm

Rh(ABA)
15.4 2 - 0.71 -
d = 0.7 mm

Rh(RS)
12 2.12 - 1 -
d = 0.5 mm

V (ABA)
4.8 (-)4 - 4.5 -
d = 2 mm

Co (ABA)
2.64 (-)2. 9 2.68 6 0.96
d = 2 mm

Finally som e rem arks should be made regarding the com parison of
SPN detectors with other in -co r e sen sors used in the Lingen power plant.
Originally therm ocouples deposited with U 0 2 (98% 235U) w ere used as
in -co r e sen sors. Over the core volume 60 sen sors were located at
15 radial positions each of which contained four vertica l positions. They
were used to m easure the quasi-stationary spatial flux distribution. The
tim e constant was about 1 s. These in -co r e sen sors partly failed during
operation because the Ni connecting w ires w ere broken, owing to therm al
expansion of the sen sors (tem perature increase was about 500°C). During
1970 these therm ocouple sen sors w ere replaced by miniature fission
cham bers filled with N 2 or A r, resp ectively. At the same tim e, SPN d etec­
tors w ere installed. Meanwhile a number of fission cham bers failed. One
failure also occu rred with one SPN detector because a plug-cable connection
was broken. Apart from this, the self-p ow ered neutron detectors tested
796 GEBURECK et al.

under in -co r e conditions in the Lingen nuclear power plant for m ore than
two y ea rs, operate fully satisfactorily. The conclusion is that SPN detectors
are at least as reliable as fission cham bers. In this special case they have
turned out to be even m ore reliable.

4. APPLICATION OP SPN DETECTORS FOR at-POW ER REACTOR

NOISE ANALYSIS

B esides the developments and m easurem ents already described a

m ajor effort was made on the application of SPN detectors fo r at-power
rea ctor noise investigations in water rea ctors. This is of particular
interest in view of in -co r e diagnostics, which might be useful for an early
warning system.
F irst experim ents, using the prompt responding cobalt detectors that
w ere installed in the B W R -core at Lingen, showed that these detectors can
be used su ccessfu lly to sense the randomly fluctuating part of the neutron
flux (rea ctor noise) in a large light-water rea ctor. Measurements have
also been perform ed at the Halden Boiling Water R eactor (HBWR) so as to
investigate the dynamical response of vanadium’ detectors [9-11] . The
main interest in the experim ents perform ed at the BWR Lingen was a
system atic investigation of the space dependent behaviour of the neutronic
rea ctor noise along the axial coordinate by use of SPN detectors.
The norm alized root mean squared noise amplitudes (NRMS) as func­
tion of the axial coordinates are shown in Fig. 5. The horizontal beams
indicate the spatial resolution of the m easurem ents due to the length (21 cm)
of the cobalt detector. The NRMS value is expected to be constant in a
"point rea ctor" [9 ,1 0 ,1 2 ] . In contrast to the point rea ctor behaviour here
the NRMS value increases linearly up to the centre of the core and rem ains
constant in its upper half.

FIG. 5. Normalized root mean square value (NRMS) of the neutron flux fluctuations in the Lingen BWR
as function of the axial coordinate.
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 797

FREQUENCY (H z)

FIG. 6. Typical autocorrelation and power spectral density function of the neutronic reactor noise in the
Lingen Boiling Water Reactor for (a) lower part of core, (b) upper part of core.

Two ch a ra cteristic autocorrelation functions of the reactor noise in the

same rea ctor core, together with their corresponding power spectral
density functions, are shown in Fig. 6 in absolute units. The curves, which
are ch aracteristic fo r the low er and the upper part of the Lingen B W R -core,
are labelled by corresponding detector positions A and В marked in Fig. 5.
The autocorrelation functions are m easured by means of a rea l-tim e
c o r r e la t o r 1 and the power spectral densities are obtained by F ou rier tra n s­
form ing these functions via a Hanning lag-window weighting function.

1 Correlator Model 3741 A , On-Line Correlation for Engineering and Research, Hewlett Packard,
Palo Alto, Calif., USA.
798 GEBURECK et al.

A s can be seen from Fig. 6 the shapes of the power spectra change —
also in contrast to the "point rea ctor" m odel — from a low pass ch arac­
te r is tic in the non-boiling zone to a band pass ch aracteristic in the bulk
boiling zone. M ore details concerning the experim ental procedure and
arrangements are given in Refs [9,1 0].
To explain the behaviour of the NRMS values, a heuristic m odel can
be used, which has been treated in Ref. [10]. Owing to the larger content
of steam bubbles in the upper half of the core the fluctuations of the m odera­
tor density also produce larger loca l stochastic perturbations of the
infinite m ultiplication factor к » , than in the non-boiling low er part of the
core. This can be taken into account by considering the axial variation of
the steam void fraction, which is responsible fo r the variance of the
m oderator density fluctuations. These density fluctuations in turn directly
generate perturbations of k „ via variations of the m a cro sco p ic scattering
and absorption cr o s s -s e ctio n s . The effective noise source in boilin g-w ater
rea ctors is th erefore mainly given by the variance of the m oderator density
fluctuations weighted by the neutron im portance. F or the further develop­
ment of the m odel, the concept of "coh eren ce length" has been introduced.
The coherence length can then be derived from the m easured space
dependent NRMS values. F or the Lingen BWR core a coherence length,
which contains the whole frequency spectrum , was found to be 1. 3 m.
B ecause this coherence length depends on the steam void fraction it has
been proposed to use it as a m easure fo r the steam void fraction. Owing
to the magnitude of this length, 1.3 m, this does not look very prom ising.
If, however, NRMS values within certain frequency bands are analysed
and frequency dependent coherence lengths are derived which might be much
shorter, the picture may change. This w ill be investigated in future with
resp ect to in -co r e diagnostics, to detect variations of the steam void fraction.
The pow er spectral density function in the upper part of the Lingen
BWR core (see Fig. 6 ) shows a resonance structure with a maximum at
0. 4 Hz and a resonance halfwidth of 0. 7 Hz. A second sm all maximum
is found at 2 Hz. To explain the structure, the mean effective transport
tim e of bubbles from their place of birth to the core exit has been calculated
to be 530 m s. The re c ip r o ca l of this tim e can be regarded as an estimation
fo r the upper break frequency, if the coherence length is large enough and
if the zero-p ow er tran sfer function is constant up to this frequency. Both
conditions are satisfied and the results shown in Fig. 6 confirm that the
break frequency of 1.9 Hz is a good estim ate for the noise spectrum.
These have been the applications so far of prompt responding cobalt detec­
tors in the Lingen boiling water rea ctor.
Finally it w ill be demonstrated that not only prom pt-respon se SPN
detectors can be used as sen sors fo r power noise m easurem ents but also
self-p ow ered 0 - current devices such as vanadium SPN detectors. The
current from these detectors results mainly from j3-particles emitted by
activated nuclei. The detector response tim e is therefore determined by
the decay of the radioisotope in question (T \/2 =42 s fo r 104Rh and 3. 76 min
fo r 52V, resp ectively). In addition to this predominant current contribution,
however, there exists also a prompt current contribution. This minor
prompt contribution appears because prompt capture 7 -ra y s are also
emitted from the compound nuclei ( 52V) imm ediately after the absorption
of a neutron [13] . These 7 -ra y s generate electrons by the same m echanism
as described in section 2 .
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 799

FREQUENCY (Hz)

FIG. 7. Reactor noise spectra of the HBWR measured simultaneously by a cobalt detector (upper curve)
and a vanadium detector (lower curve).

It can be shown, both theoretically and experim entally, [14], that for
angular frequencies

( 2 - ^ +1 (17)

^ (since Wp « Wd in general)
P
800 GEBURECK et al.

where

Wp = prompt detector sensitivity (^A/(n- cm "2 s "1 ))

Wd = delayed detector sensitivity ^ A /(n - c m ' 2 s '1)^)

X = decay constant of |3-active nuclei ( s ' 1)

only the prompt part of the total response of a /3-current detector becom es
effective in its transfer function.
To prove the possibility of using a vanadium j3-current detector for
rea ctor noise m easurem ents, experim ents w ere ca rried out with a prompt
cobalt detector near the vanadium /3-current detector in the core at the same
tim e. The results of power spectral density m easurem ents at the Halden
B oiling Water R eactor perform ed simultaneously with both detectors is
shown in Fig. 7. During the experiments the rea ctor was run at a thermal
power of 13 MW.
F o r the vanadium detector used the corresponding param eters in Eq. (17)
are X = 3.072X 10 "3 s"1 and Wp /W d = 0. 065 (see Ref. [14]). Therefore,
in the frequency range f ë 0. 008 Hz the power spectral density obtained by
the vanadium detector (low er curve) must show the same shape as the
power spectral density m easured by means of the cobalt detector (upper
curve). This is the case, as can be clea rly seen from Fig. 7. It can be
concluded that vanadium detectors can be used as effectively as cobalt
detectors fo r in -co r e rea ctor noise investigations, since the interesting
part in the noise spectrum of a power rea ctor is norm ally in the frequency
range above 0. 008 Hz. Regarding the analysis of the noise signals m eas­
ured, it may be mentioned that heterodyne digital filter algorithm s were
implemented on a p rocess com puter and have been su ccessfu lly applied to
sampled rea ctor noise data. This method d elivers directly and on-line
the pow er spectral density function. It is described in Ref. [15]. From
all the experience gained so far, it can be concluded that the application
of prompt responding SPN detectors as w ell as of /З-cu rren t detectors is a
very powerful tool fo r stationary and non-stationary in -co re m easurem ents.

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge the excellent co-op eration with the
G esellschaft für Kernenergieverw ertung in Schiffbau und Schiffahrt,
Geesthacht, as w ell as with Kernkraftwerk Lingen GmbH, and the support
given by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und W issenschaft, Bonn, and
K ernforschungsanlage Jülich for enabling an active participation in the
OECD-Halden Program .

REFERENCES

[1] MITELMAN, M . G . , EROFEEV, R.S., ROZENBLYUM, N . D . , Soviet J. At. Energy 10 (1961) 70.
[2] HILBORN, J .W ., Nucleonics 22 2 (1964) 69.
[3] ANDERSON, I . O ., SÔDERLUND, B., Vanadium beta emission detectors for reactor incore neutron
monitoring, AE-359, Aktiebolaget Atomenergi, Stockholm (1969).
 IAEA -SM-168/G-8 801

[4] STRINDEMAG, О ., "Self-powered neutron and gamma detectors for in-core measurements'', Rep.
AE440 (1971).
[5] WARREN, H .D ., Nucl. Sci. Engng 48 (1973) 331-42.
[6] BECKURTS, K .H . , WIRTZ, K ., Neutron Physics, Springer-Verlag (1964) C h .11.
[7] SIEGBAHN, K ., Alpha-, Beta-and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy 1, North Holland Publishing Company
(1968) C h .2.
[8] PRICE, W . J . , Nuclear Radiation Detection, McGraw-Hill Book Company (1964) Ch. 1.10.
[9] SEIFRITZ, W . , An analysis of the space dependent flux density fluctuations of the Lingen boiling water
reactor (KWL) by methods of stochastic processes, Atomkernenergie 19 (1972) 271.
[10] SEIFRITZ, W . , Zur Analyse des Reaktorrauschens in Siedewasserreaktoren, Inaugural Dissertation,
Technical University Hannover (1972).
[11] SEIFRITZ, W . , Results of space dependent in-core noise measurements at the Lingen and Halden
boiling water reactors, Paper presented at the IAEA Specialists Meeting on Analysis of Measurements
to Diagnose Potential Failures in Nuclear Power Plants, Rome, 10-11 April 1972.
[12] SEIFRITZ, W . ( STEGEMANN, D . , Reactor noise analysis, Atomic EnergyRev. 9 1(1971).
[13] Reactor Handbook (BLIZARD, E .P ., ABBOT, L .S ., Eds) 3, 2nd Ed., Pan В, Shielding, (1962)
43-51.
[14] SEIFRITZ, W . , Measurement of the ratio of the prompt to the delayed response of a self-powered
vanadium detector by cross-correlation techniques, Nucl. Sci. Engng 49 (1972) 3 38; HPR-Rep. No. 146,
OECD Halden Reactor Project, Halden Norway (1972).
[15] SEIFRITZ, W . , LINDMO, T . , ROGGENBAUER, H ., Power Spectral Density Analysis of Sampled Reactor
Process Data Using Heterodyne Digital Filtering Techniques, Submitted for publication in Energia
Nucleare (1972).

D IS C U S S IO N

R. M. BALL: Have you determined the separate prompt and delayed

gamma contributions in the hafnium and erbium detectors?
D. STEGEMANN: No, we have only determined the total contribution
from external 7 -radiation.
J. GOURDON: Several papers have dealt with the use of detectors in
the co re s of w ater-m oderated rea ctors, and it would appear that they have
to be installed in ord er to maintain a check on the power distribution. In
this connection, I should like to ask in particular the representatives of the
United Kingdom and the Soviet Union whether they are using detectors in
the co re s of their fast rea ctors and whether it w ill be n ecessary to install
them in the large fast rea ctors of the future.
R. J. COX: In the United Kingdom we have no intention of installing
in -co r e neutron flux m easuring devices in any of our present or future
fast power rea ctors. We believe that when we have installed the instruments
n ecessary to deal with su b-assem bly fault conditions we shall have all the
data n ecessary to deal with any changes in power distribution.
L. V. KONSTANTINOV: In the Soviet Union resea rch is being carried
out on the p ossibility of installing beta-em itting neutron probes in fast
re a cto rs. However, nothing sim ilar to the power distribution control
system in the Leningrad power station rea ctors has yet been developed for
fast rea ctors.
L. O. JOHANSSON: F irst of all I should like to comment on
M r. Stegem ann's diagram showing the different contributions to the detector
current (Fig. 2). It is a very good diagram, but I think that the importance
o f the higher isotopes for the sensitivity of the detector could be stressed
m ore clearly. If these isotopes have cr o s s -s e ctio n s com parable with that
802 GEBURECK et al.

of the original isotope, the sensitivity decrease due to burn-up may be con­
siderably delayed. In my view, it would th erefore be appropriate to insert
another arrow in the diagram, showing a neutron flux to the higher isotopes.
D. STEGEMANN: The influence of the higher isotopes is considered
within the calculation m odel, but a p recise calculation of their influence
is not possible because of the lack of cr o s s -s e c tio n data on them. A certain
amount of guesswork is inevitable.
L. O. JOHANSSON: I should also like to say a few words about the
mathematical m odel. It is very detailed, but is it not based on assumptions
that are not fulfilled, namely that the charged p articles are induced in the
m aterial isotropically and are uniform ly distributed in the em itter, and
further that the high-energy electrons m ove along a straight path while
slowing down? E rr o rs can be introduced in this way, particularly with
resp ect to regions near a surface, and in an em itter of sm all dimensions
a surface is always near.
D. STEGEMANN: Isotropic generation of charged p articles over the
em itter is assumed, but, owing to the low probability of absorption of
capture gammas within the em itter, the assumption is w ell fulfilled. The
inclusion of anisotropy effects would make the calculation much m ore
difficult and com plicated. P ossible straight paths fo r the electrons (track-
length concept) are weighted by electron range-energy relations, so that
the straggling effects are taken into account to within a good approximation.
L. V. KONSTANTINOV: Since it is particularly important to find out
m ore about the effect of tem perature on the ch a ra cteristics not only of
fission cham bers but also of beta-em itting probes, I would suggest the
follow ing approach. Experimental investigations should be ca rried out into
the effects of tem perature and radiation fluxes on the ch a ra cteristics of
probes manufactured in various countries; and this should be done under a
single coherent program . T h eoretical investigations of probes should
be undertaken with a view to recom m ending an optimum calculation m odel.
On the basis of the above, recom m endations should then be drawn up with
resp ect to the tem perature and radiation lim its of probe application inside
rea ctors.
I have another proposal. A s neutron detectors based on the principle
of collection of the electrons leaving an em itter and falling on a collector
always entail the escape of Compton or conversion electrons, I suggest
that they be called by the standard name of "e le ctr o n -e m is sio n detectors".
Even in the sm all number of papers on in-pile probes presented here they
have been given a number of different names: "s e lf-p o w e re d neutron
d etectors", "b e ta -e m issio n detectors" and " collectron s" (paper
IA E A -S M -1 68 /G -7 ).2 B eta-em ission detectors, C om pton-em ission detec­
tors and electron -con v ersion detectors can all be regarded as varieties
of electron -em ission detector.

2 These Proceedings.
 \

DETECTION OF FAILED FUEL ELEMENTS

(Session H)
 Chairman

О. NISHINO (Japan)
 IAEA-SM- 168/H -1

LE ROLE DE SECURITE
ASSURE PAR LES INSTALLATIONS
DE DETECTION DE RUPTURES DE GAINES

J. GRAFTIEAUX, F. VASNIER
CEA, Centre d'études nucléaires
de Saclay, France,

Abstract-Résumé

ROLE OF FAILED FUEL ELEMENT DETECTORS IN REACTOR SAFETY.

Most reactors have a system for the detection of fuel element failures. Its main functions are to detect
fuel element failures as early as possible, to locate them and to follow their development until the defective
fuel element is removed from the core. Speed of response and a constant surveillance capability are the
fundamental requirements of a reactor safety system. The system must be able to trigger automatic emergency
procedures; high operating reliability is essential. As a rule a specialized and — if possible — independent
installation is used. The entire reactor is monitored continuously by one or more detectors, with analogue
processing of the information being performed independently of the computer; it is this system which triggers
the necessary safety procedures.
Experiments have shown that, for gas-cooled reactors, measurement of fission gas concentrations is the
most suitable method. The independence of the different gas circulation loops makes it possible to obtain
an improved detection threshold as well as preliminary information on the location of the failed fuel element.
A detector capable of continuous measurement ensures the detection of an incident within 20 seconds in the
course of fuel handling. The design of the equipment installed at Chinon, St. Laurent and Bugey is described.
In the case of water-cooled reactors, delayed neutron detection is a convenient method of surveillance,
continuous measurement with a short response time being possible. Three types of installation are discussed.
The RHF (high flux) heavy-water reactor has two detection systems, one of which is designed for safety monitoring
and contains three measurement channels. The Osiris light "cold” water reactor has a single system with four
counters and two measurement channels. In the case of pressurized light-water reactors, a system utilized
in one irradiation loop consists of an assembly for measuring the gamma activity of the water and one for
detecting delayed neutrons.
As regards sodium-cooled reactors, three methods of overall detection have been tried in Rapsodie, the
detection of delayed neutrons proving particularly suitable because of its selectivity and speed. The Phenix
reactor is equipped with an assembly which takes six sodium samples for simultaneous examination by 12
measurement channels arranged in a 6 x 2 matrix.

LE ROLE DE SECURITE ASSURE PAR LES INSTALLATIONS DE DETECTION DE RUPTURES DE GAINES.

La plupart des réacteurs sont équipés d'une installation de DRG dont le rôle est de détecter les ruptures
de gaines le plus tôt possible, de les localiser, d’ en suivre l'évolution jusqu1au déchargement de l’ élément
combustible défectueux. Pour assurer un rôle de sûreté, la rapidité de réponse et la permanence de la
surveillance sont primordiales. Le système doit pouvoir déclencher des actions automatiques d'urgence; une
grande fiabilité de fonctionnement est indispensable. Le plus souvent, une installation spécialisée et si
possible indépendante est utilisée. Un ou plusieurs détecteurs surveillent Г ensemble du réacteur en perma­
nence, le traitement des informations est analogique et indépendant du calculateur, il provoque les actions
de sécurité nécessaires.
Pour les réacteurs à gaz, les expérimentations entreprises ont montré que la mesure de la concentration
en gaz de fission est la mieux adaptée. L ‘ indépendance aérolique des boucles de soufflage permet d1améliorer
le seuil de détection et d* obtenir une information de prélocalisation. Un détecteur à mesure continue assure
une détection d'incident en moins de 20 s pendant la manutention des combustibles. La conception des
équipements de Chinon, St-Laurent et Bugey est décrite.
Pour les réacteurs à eau, la détection des neutrons différés est bien adaptée à la surveillance; elle
permet des mesures continues à temps de réponse court. Trois installations sont examinées. En eau lourde,
le réacteur RHF possède deux ensembles de détection dont l'un est affecté à la surveillance de sécurité, il
comporte trois voies de mesure. En eau légère «froide», le réacteur Osiris est équipé d'un seul ensemble

805
806 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

à quatre compteurs et deux voies de mesure. En eau légère sous pression, une installation sur une boucle
d'irradiation est composée d'un ensemble de mesure d'activité gamma de l'eau et d'un ensemble de détec­
tion des neutrons différés.
Pour les réacteurs à sodium, trois méthodes de détection générale ont été expérimentées sur Rapsodie.
La détection des neutrons différés s'est montrée particulièrement bien adaptée en raison de sa sélectivité
et de sa rapidité. Le réacteur Phénix est équipé d'un ensemble recevant six prélèvements de sodium examinés
simultanément par douze voies de mesure groupées en une matrice de 6 par 2.

1. GENERALITES

Pour le s réacteurs de production d 'én ergie, il est norm al de rech erch er

un rendement maximal du com bustible et un taux de disponibilité aussi
élevé que p ossible. Une attention toute particu lière est apportée à la sur­
veillance du com bustible. Parm i les appareillages utilisés sur ce s réacteurs,
il existe habituellement une installation de détection de ruptures de gaines
(DRG) plus ou m oins com plexe chargée de l'auscultation permanente de
l'éta t du com bustible pendant le fonctionnement.

1 .1 . Que dem ande-t-on habituellement à une DRG?

Par définition une installation de DRG doit être capable de détecter les
diverses ruptures de gaines survenant au com bustible. On souhaite que
son seuil de détection soit le plus bas p ossible, et cela pour plusieurs raison s.
Tout d'abord, si le conducteur de pile est averti dès l'apparition d'une fis ­
sure, il pourra re n forcer la surveillance, préparer toute intervention utile,
adapter éventuellement le program m e de m arche du réacteur. Le temps
disponible pour l'analyse du défaut sera d'autant plus grand que la détection
sera p ré co ce . Enfin, et c 'e s t là une considération économique im portante,
le dispositif de localisation de la rupture pourra être plus lent ou selon le
cas com porter m oins de détecteurs.
La seconde tâché d'une installation de DRG est de d élivrer les inform a­
tions permettant, si p ossible, d'identifier le défaut (s 'a g it-il d'une rupture
franche? de diffusion lente au travers de porosités ou fissu ration s? de
relâchem ents de bouffées de produits de fissio n ? . . . ). Mais c 'e s t aussi et
surtout la localisation du canal ou de l'élém en t com bustible défectueux.
Cette phase importante peut être assurée soit par le m ême appareillage
utilisé selon un program m e particu lier, soit par un appareillage sim ilaire
réserv é spécialem ent à cet usage, soit encore par un dispositif différent
spécifiquem ent adapté à ce genre d'analyse.
Enfin, lorsqu'une rupture de gaine est identifiée et lo ca lisé e , on de­
mande à la DRG d'en suivre en permanence l'évolution jusqu'à l'a r r ê t du
réacteur ou jusqu'au déchargement du com bustible défaillant si le réacteur
est équipé d'un d ispositif de déchargement en m arche.
Tout ce p rocessu s suppose évidemment que l'installation possède un
temps de réponse et d'analyse com patible avec les vitesses d'évolution
habituellement ob servées sur le com bustible du réacteur.

1 .2 . Que fau t-il pour a ssu rer la sécu rité?

Les considérations qui viennent d 'être énoncées sont essentiellem ent

d ictées par le souci d'obtenir une exploitation plus aisée du réacteur en
 IAEA- SM- 168/H -l 807

présence de ruptures dégain és. Mais si l'on examine le problèm e sous

l'a sp e ct prim ordial de la sécu rité, des critè re s nouveaux et parfois contra­
dictoires vont apparaître. En effet, les cas exceptionnels doivent être con­
sid érés avec plus d'attention encore et l'installation doit être réputée
infaillible.
Certaines ruptures de gaines peuvent être provoquées par un incident
indépendant du; com bustible, tel que la m ise en circulation dans le fluide
réfrigéran t d'un corp s étranger. E lles évoluent très rapidement et peuvent
aller jusqu'à la fusion partielle du gainage. Des essa is en boucles d 'i r ­
radiation ont m ontré qu'à puissance nominale, elles peuvent atteindre un
niveau considéré com m e dangereux pour le réacteur en quelques dizaines
de secondes à quelques minutes selon la nature du com bustible. Il s'ensuit
qu'une installation de détection doit d'abord être rapide: un temps de réponse
d'une minute, et m êm e quelquefois m oins, est généralement demandé. Mais
cette considération en implique une autre qui est aussi im portante: c 'e s t
la permanence de la surveillance. Cet im pératif s'applique facilem ent à
une m esure continue, m ais dans le cas de m esu res discontinues ou échan­
tillonnées, la p ériodicité doit être au plus égale à ce m êm e laps de temps.
Ce nouvel aspect du problèm e amène à recon sid é re r la notion de seuil
de détection. Il n'est plus pensable de rech erch er le niveau m inim al possible
ca r cela conduirait à m ultiplier de façon prohibitive le nom bre d'ensem bles
de détection (à la lim ite, un par canal ou assem blage com bustible! ). Dans
une optique de sécurité, il faut et il suffit qu'un ord re d 'a rrêt soit délivré
avant d'atteindre le niveau de danger cité plus haut. Ce niveau de danger
dépend de la nature du com bustible et du type de réacteur. L 'o rd re de
grandeur le plus fréquemment rencontré correspon d à la détection d'une
quantité de produits de fission équivalente à celle qu'ém ettraient dix à
cent centim ètres ca rrés d'uranium naturel placés au centre du cœ ur.
Le resp ect de ces deux critè re s im portants, rapidité et perm anence,
n'aura toute son efficacité que si l'instrum entation utilisée possède c e r ­
taines qualités, qui sont:
— la fiabilité du m atériel,
— la stabilité des caractéristiqu es,
— l'im m unité aux parasites,
— la certitude de l'inform ation d élivrée,
— la sélectivité de la m esure aux produits de fission .
Les deux p rem iers points sont suffisamment évidents pour n'appeler
aucune justification p articu lière. Quant aux suivants, ils sont n écessa ires
pour obtenir la «q u a si-in fa illib ilité» de l'installation. Ils ont pour but de
réduire au maximum la probabilité d'alarm e intempestive et le risque de
non-détection d'un incident. Toute alarm e doit être causée par ùne rupture
grave et réciproquem ent toute rupture grave doit déclencher une alarm e.
En conséquence, il faut con sid érer que l'apparition d'une alarme de
ce type implique une action im m édiate de sauvegarde.

1 .3 . Comment fait-on ?

Le plus souvent l ’ installation norm ale de DRG n 'est pas adaptée à

rem p lir ce rôle de sécu rité. L 'existen ce d'une prospection n 'assu re pas
la permanence et la simultanéité de la su rveillance, entraînant un temps
de détection trop long. La disponibilité et l'in fa illibilité ne sont pas r e ­
cherchées ave la m êm e rigueur. On p réfère généralement lui adjoindre
808 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

une installation spécialisée dite de détection générale (DRGG). Un prem ier

avantage est de pouvoir ch o isir, si cela s ’ avère n éce ssa ire , une autre
méthode de m esu re, par exemple la détection des neutrons d ifférés,
m oins sensible m ais plus rapide que l'analyse des gaz de fission.
Tout d'abord, les prélèvem ents de fluide réfrigérant sont étudiés
pour être représentatifs de tout l'en sem ble du cœ u r, soit par région s, soit
globalem ent; leurs cheminements sont équilibrés et aussi courts que p ossible.
Un soin particulier est apporté à la stabilité et à la continuité des débits,
ce qui conduit quelquefois à em ployer une pompe de circulation séparée.
Pour les m esu res, le plus souvent deux ou trois détecteurs — ou groupes
de détecteurs si les prélèvem ents intéressent des régions d ifféren ciées du
cœ ur — strictem ent identiques sont u tilisés, a ss o cié s à autant de voies
de traitem ent. La totalité du réacteur est donc su rveillée par cette instal­
lation à tout instant avec une redondance d 'o rd re deux ou tro is. Cette
redondance est très utile et a plusieurs buts principaux:
— elle a ccroît la qualité de certitude de l'inform ation délivrée par la
concordance de ses m esu res;
— elle perm et d 'élim in er sur discordance la plupart des alarm es intem­
pestives imputables à une panne ou à des parasites;
— elle am éliore la continuité du fonctionnement en permettant en particulier
d 'effectu er toutes les opérations de con trôle, de maintenance et de dé­
pannage sur chaque ensem ble séparément sans interrom pre la surveillance;
la redondance est seulement diminuée momentanément;
— les signaux d'alarm e sont traités par un circu it de coïncidence en 2 sur
2 ou en 2 sur 3; cette seconde com binaison est ch oisie chaque fois que
cela est possible ca r c 'e s t celle qui réa lise le m eilleur com prom is
de disponibilité entre les pannes provoquant ou non un dépassement;
— l'installation étant ainsi réputée «quasi in fa illible» , il est logique de
con fier à un automatisme le déclenchem ent des actions de sauvegarde:
baisse de puissance program m ée ou chute des barres de sécurité.
Il reste encore un point important à évoquer, c 'e s t l'indépendance
de l'installation v is -à -v is des autres m esu res. La DRGG doit rester
efficiente tant que m arche le réacteur, m êm e s 'il survient des périodes
de perturbation, d'incident ou des pannes de calculateur. A cette fin, on
p réfère u tiliser un traitement des m esu res et des alarm es entièrement
analogique, chaque voie — ou groupe de voies — étant distincte et alimentée
par un réseau séparé et secouru.

2. REACTEURS A GAZ

Les réacteurs de la filiè r e graphite-gaz sont tous équipés d'un d is­

p ositif de détection par canal. La p ériodicité de scrutation des canaux est
com p rise entre 20 et 60 min et le seuil de détection inférieur à un centi­
m ètre ca rré d'uranium naturel.
Dans un réacteur du type Saint-Laurent, l'en sem ble de détection
assure quotidiennement p rès de 25 000 scrutations automatiques sur la
charge com bustible. Toutefois, ce systèm e ne peut à lui seul assu rer toute
la sécurité du réacteur. En effet, l'ex p érien ce acquise en exploitation ainsi
que de nombreux essa is effectués dans des boucles d'irradiation ont montré
que par suite soit d'un défaut d'étanchéité de la gaine, soit d'un accident
de refroid issem en t, la cinétique de dégradation de l'élém en t com bustible
 IAEA-SM-168/H-1 809

pouvait conduire à des dommages graves allant jusqu'à la fusion de la gaine,

puis celle de l'uranium , dans un temps très inférieur à celui du cy cle de
prospection. C 'est pourquoi l'e ffo r t a porté sur l'étude et la réalisation
d'un dispositif de détection générale suffisamment effica ce pour obtenir
un ord re d 'a rrêt automatique avant que l'in tégrité du gainage du com bustible
ne soit dangereusement affectée.

2 .1 . Choix de la méthode de détection

Dans les réacteurs à gaz, la méthode classique utilisée est ce lle de

la collection électrique des descendants des gaz de fission transportés
par le gaz caloporteur. T rès sen sible, son temps de réponse n 'est guère
inférieu r à une minute.
A u ssi, vu le critè re de rapidité rech erch é, nous avons examine la
possibilité de m ettre en oeuvre un systèm e basé sur la m esure des neutrons
d ifférés ém is par les p récu rseu rs halogènes transportés dans le C 0 2 . Les
essa is effectués sur réacteur ont m ontré que cette dernière méthode était
environ cent fois m oins sensible que la collection électrique et que, pour
un m êm e seuil de 200 cm 2, le temps de réponse des deux m éthodes était
sensiblem ent voisin , c 'e s t -à -d ir e p rès d'une minute. Par a illeu rs, des
essa is spéciaux ont été entrepris dans des boucles d'irradiation du réacteur
Pégase avec des com bustibles com portant une fuite de gaine volontaire. Ils
ont m is en évidence que la réponse des deux m éthodes était très différente
lo rs de la dégradation de l'élém en t com bustible: en effet, si la m esure des
gaz de-fission est bien significative du degré d'altération de l'élém en t, la
m esure des neutrons différés ne donne qu'une évolution représentant tout au
plus la surface réelle de gaine déchirée ou fondue.
Dans ces conditions, la méthode par les neutrons différés ne p ré ­
sentant qu'un intérêt très lim ité (réponse un peu plus rapide dans le cas
d'une importante fusion de gaine), c 'e s t la méthode par collection électrique
qui a été retenue (fig. 1 ).

PHO TO M ULTIPLICATEUR
HT C O L LE C T IO N

5 C IN T ILLA TEU R

FIG, 1. Détecteur à collection électrique différée.

810 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

< PRELEVEM ENTS A PRELEVEM ENTS

FIG.2. Exemples de groupements des prélèvements de gaz.

2 .2 . Installations de DRGG

Si l'a sp ect dimensionnel des grands réacteurs présente quelquefois

un inconvénient, la structure même des circu its de soufflage a pu toutefois
être m ise à profit pour individualiser la détection par secteu rs, grâce à
l'indépendance relative des boucles de soufflage, m êm e dans les réacteurs
intégrés. C eci présente un avantage, soit pour une action de prélocalisation,
soit pour am éliorer le seuil de détection notamment en cas de pollution im ­
portante du réacteur.
La représentativité des prélèvem ents de gaz a fait l'o b je t d 'e ssa is parti­
cu liers. Dans les réacteurs du type Chinon (non intégré) les p rise s de
prélèvem ent ont été im plantées au travers des conduits de sortie, près du
coeur. Pour ceux du type Saint-Laurent (intégré) elles ont été disposées
en nappes au-dessus des tours d'échangeurs; les p rise s sont regroupées
en quatre secteu rs indépendants. Dans le réacteur Bugey 1 (également
intégré) le s p rise s sont implantées au niveau des turbosoufflantes.
La surveillance continue peut donc être assu rée, soit par secteurs
de soufflage, soit collectivem ent sur un regroupem ent total ou partiel des
prélèvem ents. Le nombre des détecteurs varie ainsi de trois à six, une
logique de sécurité élaborant une action automatique d 'a rrêt du réacteur
pour deux dépassements simultanés. Le seuil de détection, qui dépend
bien sûr de l'état de pollution et du groupement des prélèvem ents, a été
m esuré dans le m eilleu r des cas entre 20 et 50 c m 2. Le temps de réponse
est de l'o r d r e de la minute (fig. 2 ).

2. 3. Sécurité à la manutention des com bustibles

Dans ces réa cteu rs, le déchargement et le rechargem ent des éléments
com bustibles s'effectuent pendant la m arche en puissance. A u ssi, pour
a m éliorer la sécurité pendant la manutention un nouveau dispositif a été
ajouté. Il s'agit d'un appareil statique à collection électrique continue
mesurant également l'a ctivité globale J3 des produits de fission présents
dans le CO 2 , d'où son nom de détecteur j3 continu. Grâce à ce détecteur.
 IAEA-SM-168/H -1 811

H T C O L L E C T IO N

FIG.3. Détecteur à collection électrique continue.

il est possible d'obtenir une alarm e en m oins de 20 s pour un seuil de dé­

tection d'environ 10 cm 2. De plus, quand le prélèvem ent de gaz est indi­
vidualisé, la m esure d'activité J3 du gaz perm et, grâce au bruit de fond dû
à l 'a z o t e - 16, un contrôle du débit de C 0 2 dans le canal pendant la manu­
tention (fig. 3).

3. REACTEURS A EAU

Lorsque le fluide caloporteur est de l'ea u , on peut envisager à p rio ri

l'em p loi de trois méthodes de m esure:
— la détection des rayonnements /3 par effet Cerenkov dans l'eau e lle -m ê m e ,
— la détection par collection électrique des gaz de fission après séparation
physique,
— la détection des neutrons différés sur une canalisation principale ou
dérivée de l'eau.
Le p rem ière méthode a été écartée car elle est très délicate à mettre
en oeuvre et elle manque de sélectivité v is -à -v is des produits de co rro sio n
et d'activation ( 16N par exem ple).
La seconde méthode est utilisée sur des piles piscines (Siloé, Pégase).
Sa sensibilité est très bonne: m oins de 5 cm 2 d'uranium naturel à Pégase
avec un temps de réponse de 1 â 2 min. Mais la séparation des gaz par
h ydrocyclone s'a v ère d ifficile à ré g le r et le coût d'une telle installation
est élevé.
La troisièm e méthode est la plus intéressante. En effet, les p ré­
cu rseu rs sont entraînés par l'eau sans piégeage notable, la sensibilité et
la sélectivité sont suffisantes, la m esure est continue et le temps de r é ­
ponse peut être très court, l'installation ne fait appel qu'à un m atériel
entièrement statique, plus sûr et m oins coûteux. D'autre part cette méthode
est utilisable aussi bien sur l'eau lég ère que lourde, sous p ression ou non.
812 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

P LO M B

FIG. 4. Détecteur de neutrons différés pour réacteur à eau lourde.

3 .1 . Eau lourde

Nous prendrons pour exemple le réacteur expérim ental franco-allem and

RHF. Un prélèvem ent d'eau est effectué dès la sortie du cœ ur et traverse
deux ensem bles détecteurs de neutrons différés identiques, séparés par
une ligne à retard. Le temps de transit jusqu'au p rem ier est de 10 s et
jusqu'au second de 1 min. Ces temps ont été ch oisis pour perm ettre d 'o b ­
tenir respectivem ent soit un temps de réponse m inim al, soit un seuil de
détection m inim al. Seul le p rem ier ensem ble assure un rôle de sécu rité,
le second étant affecté à la surveillance fine du réacteur. L'ensem ble
détecteur (fig. 4) est essentiellem ent constitué d'un serpentin (d'un volume
utile de 2 litre s) situé à l'in térieu r d'un bloc m od éra teu r-réflecteu r en
polyéthylène. Au centre se trouvent trois com pteurs de neutrons ther­
m iques à B F 3 ; ils sont re lié s à trois chaînes de m esure analogiques indé­
pendantes dont le s inform ations de dépassement traitées par une logique
en deux sur trois commandent la chute des barres de sécu rité. Le temps
d'action est inférieur à 15 s et le seuil de détection inférieur à 5 cm 2 d'u ra­
nium naturel. Le bruit de fond affectant la m esure est uniquement dû aux
neutrons ém is par 17N et par les photoneutrons de 16N; son niveau est donc
uniquement lié à la puissance du réacteur.

3 .2 . Eau légère «fro id e »

Il s'agit ic i de réacteurs de puissance inférieure à 100 MW(th) environ

ou de piles piscine dans lesquelles la température de l'eau n'atteint pas
100°C. Le problèm e de la détection est sensiblem ent le m êm e que pour
les réacteurs à eau lourde avec l'avantage de présenter un taux de réactions
Y-n plus de m ille fois inférieu r. Sans nous y attarder, nous citerons
simplement l'installation réa lisée sur le réacteur O siris. Le prélèvem ent
d'eau est effectué dans la canalisation de sortie et traverse un ensemble
détecteur unique (fig. 5). C elu i-ci est constitué d'un volume central con­
tenant 2, 5 litre s d'eau, entouré d'un bloc m odérateur en polyéthylène dans
lequel sont disposés quatre com pteurs de neutrons therm iques à dépôt de
b ore. I ly a deux voies de m esure sépa rées, l'une à variation lin éaire,
 IAEA-SM-168/H-1 813

FIG. 6. Détecteur de neutrons différés pour réacteur â eau sous pression.

l'au tre à variation logarithm ique. Le temps de réponse est d'environ 30 s

et le seuil de détection est inférieur à 5 cm 2 d'uranium naturel. En raison
de la très grande stabilité du com bustible, l'a r r ê t du réacteur n'a pas été
automatisé.

3. 3. Eau sous pression

Dans le s réacteurs â eau sous pression de nouvelles difficultés sur­

gissent. C ertes, il y a la tem pérature et la p ression de l'ea u , m ais il
faut tenir com pte d'une part d'une activité instable des produits de co rro s io n ,
et d'autre part de l'ex isten ce probable d'une contamination en produits de
fission à vie longue. Pour a ssu rer le rôle de sécu rité, il nous a donc paru
utile de con trôler simultanément l'a ctivité gamma de l'eau et l'é m issio n
des neutrons différés pour les c o r r é le r . Une installation de ce type est
montée sur une boucle d'irradiation de com bustible implantée à Saclay.
Indépendamment, il existe aussi un systèm e d'analyse et d'identification des
produits de fission . L'eau du circuit prim aire traverse un volume d'environ
un litre entouré d'un bloc m odérateur et de ses protections (fig. 6 ). Deux
814 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

com pteurs de neutrons thermiques à dépôt de bore mesurent l'a ctivité en

neutrons de l'eau . D'autre part, un photomultiplicateur a ssocié à un crista l
Nal contrôle l'a ctivité gamma de ce m êm e volume d'eau dans une bande
d 'én ergie réglable entre 1 et 3 MeV. Le choix de cette bande est défini
en fonction du spectre d'én ergie des produits d'activation présents dans le
circu it. La voie de m esure d'activité des neutrons com porte un prem ier
seuil qui commande automatiquement une réduction de puissance. La chute
des barres de sécurité n 'est déclenchée que par le dépassement simultané
des seuils hauts des voies de m esure gamma et neutrons, le temps de
réponse étant de l'o r d r e de 30 s.

4. REACTEURS A SODIUM

Les réacteurs refroid is au sodium sont essentiellem ent des réacteurs

à neutrons rapides, m ais l'em p loi de ce m étal fondu com m e caloporteur
amène un certain nom bre de difficultés technologiques dues principalem ent
à sa tem pérature élevée, à sa forte affinité chimique et à l'im portante
radioactivité gamma qu'il acquiert sous flux. La partie supérieure de la
cuve com porte une couverture de gaz inerte, généralem ent de l'a rgon .
Dans ces réa cteu rs, les produits de fission solides sont entraînés par
le sodium , en particu lier les halogènes qui se combinent chimiquement
avec lui; les gaz de fission , eux, s'échappent progressivem en t v ers la
couverture d'argon.

4. 1. Les méthodes expérim entées

Sur le p rem ier réacteur rapide français Rapsodie plusieurs méthodes

de DRGG ont été expérim entées: deux font une m esure des gaz de fission
dans l'a rg on , la troisièm e détecte les neutrons d ifférés dans le sodium.
Pour les deux p rem ières, un prélèvem ent d'argon d'environ 10 litres
par minute est effectué dans la couverture. A près passage dans un piège
à vapeur de sodium, il traverse un détecteur à collection électrique instantanée
(fig. 7 ) puis un volume dans lequel on m esure l'a ctivité gamma globale du gaz
avec un détecteur à scintillations. La sensibilité de la prem ière méthode

FIG. 7. Détecteur à collection électrique instantanée.

 IAEA-SM-168/H -1 815

FIG. 8. Détecteur de neutrons différés pour réacteur à sodium.

est excellente et l'appareillage détecte la m oindre fissuration d'une aiguille

com bustible bien avant qu 'il y ait danger réel pour le réacteur. La seconde
m esure est peu sélective car elle est gênée par l'a ctivité du gaz lui-m êm e
et surtout par l'accum ulation des gaz de fission à vie très longue qui peuvent
être relâchés par bouffées au travers de m icro fiss u re s . Mais ces deux
méthodes présentent un m êm e défaut: leur temps de réponse est très long
(plusieurs minutes) ca r il est lié au temps de dégazage des xénons et kryptons
dans la couverture.
La m esure par collection électrique pourra donc être utilisée pour la
détection p récoce des ruptures de gaines, m ais le rôle de sécurité incom bera
à la troisièm e installation. Pour c e lle -c i, des prélèvem ents de sodium sont
d érivés à la sortie du coeur sur les deux boucles prim aires. Ils traversent
chacun un volume d'environ un litre calorifugé et blindé, autour duquel est
disposé un bloc m odérateur qui reçoit six com pteurs de neutrons thermiques
à dépôt de bore (fig. 8 ). Ces com pteurs sont re lié s deux à deux à trois voies
de m esure analogiques indépendantes. Deux circu its de coïncidence en deux
sur trois élaborent les signaux d'alarm e. Le temps de réponse de cette
installation est'de l'o r d r e de 20 s, son seuil de détection est d'environ 1 cm 2
de 235U. Il faut noter en outre que tout signal délivré par ce mode de m esure
est significatif d'une rupture ouverte de la gaine.

4 .2 . La DRGG de Phénix

Les résultats obtenus sur Rapsodie ont guidé la conception de l'in sta lla ­
tion de DRGG de Phénix qui est, elle aussi, basée sur la détection des neu­
trons d ifférés, m ais en lui apportant certains perfectionnem ents. En raison
de la conception intégrée du réacteur, les prélèvem ents sont faits dans la
cuve, en amont des échangeurs p rim a ires. Ils sont au nombre de six. Tout
com m e dans le s réacteurs à gaz, la répartition hydraulique des débits p ré­
sente une sym étrie d 'ord re six qui est m ise à profit. Ces prélèvem ents sont
acheminés à l'ex térieu r de la cuve v ers un ensem ble détecteur unique (fig. 9)
816 GRAFTIEAUX et VASNIER

12 COMPTEURS

FIG. 9. Détecteur de neutrons différés avec prélocalisation pour réacteur à sodium.

qui com porte en son centre six volum es de 1, 7 litre placés à 60° et disposés
dans les creux d'une étoile de graphite sem i-réfléch issan te pour les neutrons.
Cette partie centrale est entourée des calorifu ge, blindage et ventilation
n écessa ires puis d'une couronne m odératrice en polyéthylène. Dans cette
couronne se trouvent placés en regard des volum es, six paires de com pteurs
de neutrons therm iques à 3 He. Une telle disposition perm et d'influencer
préférentiellem ent chaque com pteur par le volume placé en regard direct,
tout en restant sensible à l'a ctivité globale des six volum es. Les com pteurs
sont a ssociés à douze voies de m esure autonomes dont les inform ations de
sortie sont traitées selon une m atrice additive de deux sur six. La sommation
des voies paires et im paires délivre deux signaux de détection générale
également représentatifs de l'en sem ble du cœ ur. Une coïncidence des
dépassements en deux sur deux provoque la chute des barres de sécurité.
Le temps de réponse de cette installation est d'environ 30 s, son seuil de
détection est estim é équivalent à quelques cm 2 de 235U.
D 'autre part, la sommation des signaux d élivrés par deux com pteurs
voisins perm et, en cas de rupture de gaine, d'obtenir six signaux d 'a m p li­
tudes normalement différentes. C eu x -ci n'entrent pas dans la logique de
sécu rité, m ais leur corrélation avec la partition hydraulique des débits de
sodium dans le cœ ur est destinée à fournir au conducteur de la pile une in­
form ation de p rélocalisation du défaut. Cette inform ation lui permettra
d 'orien ter la rech erch e de l'assem blage défaillant par le système de lo ca ­
lisation des ruptures de gaines en place sur le réacteur.

D IS C Ü S S IO N

E .A . ZHEREBIN: Do you con sider Cerenkov radiation detectors prom ising

from the operational point of view? Do you make use of them as the main
d etectors in nuclear power stations?
J. GRAFTIEAUX: This is a method which we have not used in rea ctors
because it is tricky to operate and lacks selectivity with resp ect to corro sio n
and activation products (16N fo r example). We have adopted the delayed-
neutron method instead.
 IAEA-SM-168/H -1 817

A .E . SOUCH: Have you any figures fo r the reliability of the general

detection (DRGG) system designed to trip the reactor in case of m elt-ou t?
J. GRAFTIEAUX: The reliability of the measurem ent chains has
effectively been demonstrated: I am referrin g here to chains of the multiblock
type developed specially fo r rea ctor control. The detectors are the same
as those fitted in all the assem blies for the detection of failed fuel elements
in this line of rea ctors. They have proved quite satisfactory fo r the purpose.
Z . MELICHAR: In paper IA E A -S M -1 6 8 /B -l1 the application of gamma
gas chrom atography fo r the detection of failed fuel elements in fast rea ctors
is discussed. M r. Graftieaux did not mention this technique. Does that
mean that he has rejected it?
J. GRAFTIEAUX: It will be applied in the Phénix rea ctor. If I failed
to mention it here, that is only because it has not been adapted to perform
a safety function in the general burst cladding detection system s discussed
in my paper.

1 These Proceedings.
 IAEA-SM-168/H-2

DETECTION OF FAILED FU EL
IN A PRESSURE-TUBE BOILING
LIGH T-W ATER REACTOR (SGHWR)

A. GOODINGS
Atomic Energy Establishment, Winfrith,
Dorchester, Dorset, United Kingdom

Presented by I. Wilson

Abstract

DETECTION OF FAILED FUEL IN A PRESSURE-TUBE BOILING LIGHT-WATER REACTOR (SGHWR).

This paper discusses the factors which influenced the choice of methods by which failed fuel is
detected and located in the prototype SGHWR. The main installed system employs steam/water sampling
followed by steam separation and the detection of rare-gas fission products in the steam by means of special
beta sensitive counters. This is operated in conjunction with measurements on the turbine off-gas and
backed up by monitoring steam main gross gamma activity. Some of the basic experimental work is described.
Difficulties which were encountered during commissioning are discussed and more recent operational
experience outlined.

1. INTRODUCTION

The 100-MW(e) SGHW rea ctor at AEE W infrith is a d ir e ct-cy cle boiling
system using light water as the coolant and a heavy-water m oderator [ 1 ].
The fuel, uranium oxide bonded in Z ir c a llo y -2 , is assem bled in 36 rod
clu sters within the Z ir ca llo y -2 p ressu re tubes which serve to isolate the
coolant from the m oderator. There are 112 o f these p ressu re tubes in the
original concept, 104 o f them, with Z ir ca llo y -cla d fuel w ere designed for
operation as boiling channels and eight with steel clad fuel fo r the p rovision
of nuclear superheat. In the event, nuclear superheat has never been
employed but the p ossible use o f steam -cooled channels played a part in the
selection o f the failed -fu el detection system .
The W infrith rea ctor is a prototype and the fir s t of its cla ss to be built
in the United Kingdom and it was decided that a com prehensive failed -fu el
detection system would be installed despite the fact that experience may
perm it a reduction in the amount of such equipment on future, com m ercia l
stations. In the present ca se the philosophy adopted was to design a schem e
which would indicate all reasonable types of failure and which would perm it
channel identification so that individual faulty elements could, if required,
be m onitored over a period o f tim e. It was obviously unnecessary, however,
to provide rapid channel scanning and hence it was decided that the schem e
would be based on two detectors, one providing continuous bulk coolant
monitoring and the second acting as an installed spare as w ell as being
available, when required, fo r use as a channel scanning device.
In the final schem e a supplementary g ross gamma m onitoring system
was added to provide rapid shutdown in the event of a m ajor fuel failure
and extra equipment was added to perm it separate surveillance of in-pile
fuel test loops.

819
820 GOODINGS

2. SELECTION OF A SYSTEM

The ch oice of which system, to use was clea rly related to the type of
situation which can occu r on the rea ctor. F o r SGHWR, as fo r many boiling
rea cto rs, these are:
(a) A continuous relea se of fission products through the turbine and
condenser to atm osphere. In this situation k rypton -87 dominates
the p ossible isotopes by about a factor 10 , so the relea se can be
interpreted in term s of curies p er day of krypton -87.
(b) The total fission product content of the coolant must be lim ited
to m inim ize the consequences of circu it failu re. In this, case
io d in e -131 is regarded as the dominating isotope.
(c) Obviously, if maintenance of circu it equipment is to be possible,
the fission product content of the coolant must not be allowed to
ris e unduly. E xperience has shown, however, that this aspect
of the problem is not limiting provided that (a) and (b) are adequately
covered .
Numerous different techniques can be used to provide protection against
these situations and the ch oice eventually fe ll in favour of a system based
on the detection of ra re -g a s fission products in the steam phase of the
coolant, i. e. on what is, essentially, an off-ga s o r stripper system . This
d ecision was made because the rare gases provide situation (a) which is,
in p ra ctice, the one which lim its the p erm issible number of failed fuel
elem ents with which the rea ctor can run. It is clea rly desirable to m inim ize
differences between the isotopes selected fo r m onitoring and those which
cause a hazard. There was little doubt that ra re -g a s products would be
ca rried in the steam and hence separated from co rro s io n products by the
act of steam separation in the coolant. In addition, because the ra re gases
are, to a fir s t approximation, insoluble in water there was likely to be
little recircu lation of "detectable" activity and good channel-to'-channel
discrim ination should be achieved without dependence on isotopes with
h a lf-liv es v ery much shorter than those against which protection was
required. F urtherm ore, since one would be considering fission products
in steam , the boiling and superheat channels should behave in essentially
the same way and sim ila r, if not identical, detectors could be used. This
would not have been the case if, for example, a system based on iodine
had been chosen.
At the time of d ecision there was a likelihood o f there being experimental
fuel in sp ecia l channels emptying directly into the turbine condenser which
ruled out relian ce on a conventional off-ga s system and, as a result, the
final arrangem ent fo r the main reactor used a steam c a r r ie r system for
both general surveillance as w ell as for individual channel identification.
This was not done on the test loop s. They are provided with separate
c o o le r/co n d e n s e r sub-system s and it was p ossible to m onitor condenser
o ff-g a s from them in a m ore conventional manner.

3. THE MAIN REACTOR SYSTEM

As has been stated, the schem e chosen was analogous to the well-known
o ff-g a s system , but had the disadvantage of using hot steam as a fission
 IAEA-SM-168/H-2 821

product c a r r ie r . This made it n ecessary to find a device which would

indicate, with high efficien cy, the p resen ce of krypton o r xenon in steam
and one obvious solution was the development of the well-known precipitator
fo r steam c a r r ie r operation. Such a cou rse would probably have been
feasible (provided problem s of condensation during startup could be o v e r­
com e) but it would not have been particularly econ om ic. The precipitator
is an efficient device fo r the separation of fission product activity from
coolant activity and co rro s io n products but in the present case it was argued
that the only unwanted activity likely to be present was that of 16N and 19О
which could easily be reduced by sim ple delay. It was decided that a
straightforward counter in the sample lines would be adequate.
The ch oice of beta versu s gamma detection rem ained and, since only
two of the ra re -g a s isotopes have useful activity as gamma em itters whilst
all of them yield fairly high energy betas, the adoption of beta counting was
obvious. It was also argued that such a choice was beneficial in d is­
crim inating external gamma radiation at the detector site. If R is the rate
at which desired p articles (photons or betas) pass into the detector and P¡
is the probability of their producing a count, the signal counting rate w ill
be R P j. In the same way, if the number of background photons passing
through the detection system is N, the background counting rate w ill be
NPe so that the signal to background ratio w ill be (R P j/N Pg). C learly, for
a given geom etry the optimum ratio w ill be obtained when P£ /P e is large.
Now fo r gamma signal detection this factor w ill not be greater than
unity whereas for beta counting with a gas ionization detector P¡ can exeed
0 .1 whilst rem ains at 2 X 10"3. A beta counting gas ionization detector
was cle a rly a good ch oice. It could be made with essentially 4jr geom etry
round a large collection volum e (which would be difficult and expensive to
do with scin tillators) and no great difficulty was expected in operating at
elevated tem peratures.
The schem e adopted is outlined in F ig . 1. Three detectors were
em ployed and the design perm itted operation with various combinations
of rea ctor tappings. It was intended that under norm al circum stances one
d etector would m onitor the superheat channels continuously, whilst the
other two sampled from the two saturated steam m ains. If a fault were
detected, manual valving would take place to perm it, fo r exam ple, the use
of one of the latter two detectors on a combination o f the steam main sam ples
by p arallel or sequential connection whilst the other device was employed
to scan the channel tappings and locate the faulty elem ents. In p ra ctice,
o f cou rse, the superheat side of the system has proved unnecessary and
the arguments which prevented the use of a true condenser o ff-g a s arrange­
ment have been altered to the extent that operation has not followed these
origin al p rop osa ls. Main bulk gas monitoring is ca rrie d out with G eiger
counters on the turbine o ff-g a s and the system of F i g . l finds its main
employment in the location and monitoring of suspect channels.
The method of operation involves the use of the static delay period for
16N and 19О decay with a sequence as follow s:

(a) At the start of a cy cle all the valves in the particular d e la y -d rie r-
d etector chain are opened and the system is purged.
(b) The valve between the d rier and the delay tank clo se s and the
latter fills to near rea ctor p ressu re.
 822 GOODINGS

2
Q.
О Oû
О
ьО z
z û> о
a u. Ш Z
52
OO О X z
ши 4ЛХ О

& DRAIN
CHANNELS

CONDENSER
2 OF 8 SUPERHEAT
 IAEA-SM-168/H-2 823

(c) The delay tank is isolated fo r a specified time — the so -ca lle d
delay period. In p ra ctice the true delay is longer than this time
because the filling time (b) is relatively long. In fact, little mixing
takes place within the delay tank so that individual elem ents of the
sample queue behind one another and, since the filling and emptying
tim es are different, are delayed fo r different lengths of tim e.
(d) The tank outlet valve is opened and the sample flow s at a controlled
rate through the d rier, p ressu re redu cer and counter to drain.
The integrated signal from the counter is record ed .
(e) Another cy cle is started.

Under norm al conditions, 0.04 k g -s ' 1 of steam flow through the counter
during the 20 - s counting period and, on average, an elem ental volum e of
steam is delayed by 175 s before it enters the counter. These param eters
have been selected by a com bination of theoretical analysis and experiment
and their values are related to the optim ization of 16 N and 190 rejection as
w ell as to other plant param eters. Figure 2 shows som e calculated curves
of total fission product count (from fuel contamination) and total 16N plus 19О
count as a function of delay time and m ass flow -ra te through the counter.
These results w ere, it should be noted, derived under a number of sim p li­
fying assumptions but represent a fair approximation to the behaviour of
the system . F rom them one can deduce that, in the absence of contamina­
tion at the counter, one would expect a detector in a single-channel sampling
mode to be sensitive to a krypton -87 relea se rate in the range 10' 7 to
5 X 10"3 Ci* s '1 . The same detector operated in a bulk m onitoring mode
should co v e r from 10"4 to between 1 and 19 C i. s ' 1. At higher relea se rates
the bulk coolant gamma activity w ill exceed that norm ally provided by
160 (n , p) 16N activation and hence failures can be detected by sim ple gamma
m onitoring. This is done on the prototype rea ctor with a group of con ­
ventional mean current gamma ionization cham bers adjacent to the steam
mains at a point where the time delay is 10 s from a typical channel.
It w ill be appreciated that the key to the above system lies in the design
o f an appropriate beta-sensitive detector and the proportional counter which
was developed is sketched in F ig .3 . F ission products in the steam ca rr ie r
travel through a thin-walled steel tube and betas arising from decays in the
tube pass through its walls to be detected in the surrounding annular counting
volum e. The steam does not norm ally m ix with the counting gas and,
provided that the steam working p ress ure of about 7 X 10 5 N- m "2 is not greatly
exceeded, the detector w ill operate satisfa ctorily. In the event of a fault
which leads to ex cessiv e p ressu re, the thin tube w ill fail but personnel w ill
be protected by the main p ressu re shell of the instrument. In early m odels
difficulties were encountered in fabricating the thin-wall tube/bellow s
assem bly and 2 -p ly steel sheet was used, each ply having a thickness of
0.178 m m . This led to certain com m issioning problem s (described below)
and in later m odels sin gle-ply 0 . 35-m m -thick m aterial is em ployed.

4. THE LOOP SYSTEMS

As has been stated the prototype SGHWR is fitted with individual loops
in which specia l fuel can be irradiated. Each loop is provided with its own
steam condenser system and it was arranged to pass the o ff-g a s from these
824 GOODINGS

TOTAL CO U N TS/CYCLE

H O LD -U P TIME (s)

FIG.2. The counts expected from the channel monitor.

 IAEA-SM-168/H-2 825

COUNTING W IRES rTH ER M A L EXPANSION BELLOWS

6 O FF EQ U A LLY SPACED INSULATOR

TO A M PLIFIER
-rpjr.
& E.H.T SUPPLY r f c ?

zzzzzzzzz7 7 7 - Й
STEAM
& R S S IO N PRODUCTS
/ / / / / / / / / //ЛЛ

WELD

COUNTING
VOLUME
r
MAIN P RESSU RE
SH ELL
THIN WALL STA IN LESS
S T E E L TUBE

FIG. 3. A sketch of the steam monitor counter.

WELD

FIG. 4. A sketch of the off-gas counter.

condensers through delay tanks to beta sensitive detectors. These system s

are sensitive to ra re gases in the same way as the main installation, but
the counters are not subjected to the same conditions of temperature and
sample p ressu re. A m odified side window, beta sensitive, proportional
counter was therefore em ployed, the m odifications relating to the guard-
ring structure so that the device could be used in either a pulse o r in á
mean current m ode. It was mounted (F ig .4) such that betas from off-ga s
decays could enter the sensitive volum e through a minimum thickness o f
attenuating m aterial.
826 GOODINGS

It was shown that such an arrangement could detect channel fission

rates at background contamination level and would reach its limiting pulse
counting rate at a krypton -87 release rate of about 5 X 10"6 Ci • s ' 1. F o r
failures above this level the counter can be switched to the mean current
mode and the range of measurement extended to above the maximum p e r­
m issible release rate of 3. 7 X 10 ‘ 3 Ci • s"1 . An additional system provides
mean current ionization cham bers for g ross gamma monitoring and has
the advantage of giving rapid response to a m ajor failu re.

5. PRE-INSTALLATION DESIGN AND TESTING WORK

The system set out above had, in its original form , a number of
uncertainties which had to be resolved p rio r to its adoption fo r the re a cto r.
In particular it was n ecessary to prove that a counter could be built for
the purpose and basic data on its perform ance had to be obtained. A number
of pre-prototype m odels w ere consequently built and, finally, one with
a 3 -in -d ia m . working tube was selected. This device had an outside
diam eter o f 6 -in . and had six counting w ires each 0.05 mm in diam eter.
T ests were ca rried out with a strontium -90 beta sou rce and cobalt-60
gamma sou rce and both gave an E .H .T . plateau between 200 and 300 V in
length centred at 1. 8 kV. The integral bias plateaux fo r the same sou rces
at an operating potential of 1. 8 kV proved to be in excess of 6 dB with
am plifier integrate and differentiate time constants of 0. 8 u s. It was shown
that counting rates of up to 5 X 104/ s could be achieved without serious
lo ss e s and that the response of the counter to sou rces in different positions
within its volum e was sensibly flat. The average efficien cy to a 90S r /90Y
sou rce (2 betas at 0.61 and 2 .24 MeV) was 0 .1 , i . e . the device would
detect 10% of all betas emitted within the tubular volum e. Its gamma
sensitivity proved to be 2000 counts • s ' 1 •R • h "1 which is a high value but
not unreasonable when the size of the chamber is taken into account. The
gas gain of the unit was m easured as a function of applied E .H .T . and was
shown to be about 3 X 10 3 at the operating point which, although somewhat
higher than norm ally would be expected from a proportional counter, was
inevitable in view of the low energies deposited by betas in the counting gas.
It was further shown that this perform ance could be achieved at the
proposed operating temperature of 180°C and that the outer case (including
the m e ta l/ce ra m ic seal) could withstand full rea ctor operating pressu re
with an adequate safety margin should the need a rise .
Finally, a test rig was built in which steam should be generated and
passed to the counter via a variable delay system . 16N was produced in
the b oiler by means of a high energy neutron generator, and on another
occa ssion fission products were produced with slow neutrons in uranyl
nitrate solution. On both occasion s satisfactory detector response was
achieved and it was clea r that an operational system could be designed.

6. INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND EARLY OPERATIONAL

EXPERIENCE ON THE REACTOR

The system was installed during the constructional period of the rea ctor
and routine com m issioning tests were satisfactory. They included conven-
 IAEA-SM-168/H-2 827

tional proving o f the steam side of the circu its and nuclear m easurem ents
on the counters as w ell as e le ctr ic a l interference checks with and without
the anti-condensation trace heating tapes energized. In this context it is
of interest to note that the counters w ere installed with ele ctrica lly insulating
gaskets to m inim ize the effect of external e le ctrica l interferen ce. Checks
w ere also ca rried out on the whole system by injecting 16 mCi of 41A into
one of the rea ctor steam drum s. This showed that the concept was sound
and it was noted with satisfaction that the counting rate due to the argon was
within about 30% of prediction.
Despite the apparent ease with which the installation and com m issioning
had been ca rried out, however, a number of operational difficulties were
encountered during the early se rv ice of the equipment. These w ere partly
due to e r r o r s in the detailed design and partly to the way in which the
equipment was operated. The main problem s were:

(a) At a fairly early stage there were a number of ca ses of e le ctrica l

breakdown in the counter/head am plifier area. This was shown
to be due to water leaks from adjacent plant reaching the counter
in sufficient quantities to cause trouble despite the trace heating.
It was cured by curing the leaks but as an insurance m easure the
ch a m b er/cab le glands w ere m odified to be com pletely w aterproof.
(b) A fter about six months of operation a counter failed and, on examina­
tion, it was found that the centre tube had im ploded. It was known
from the design stage that this tube was not stable in the p resen ce of
counter gas p ressu re at 180°C on the outside and vacuum on the
inside and the failure was initially attributed to operator e r r o r in
selectin g a valve sequence which perm itted the condensation of
steam within the counter. It was later shown that the tw o-ply
tube system was not entirely satisfactory in any case since the
gas trapped in the space between the two plies caused breathing
of the inner sleeves when the steam sample p ressu re cy cled . This
in turn led to fatigue failure of the inner ply with a consequent
reduction in its ability to withstand internal p re ssu re . The counter
ply alone was sufficient to withstand operating p ressu re but had
little m argin o f safety. Further investigation showed that, despite
e a rlie r inform ation to the contrary, it was p ossible to obtain a
single-thickness 0 .3 5 -m m component and in due cou rse all the
detectors w ere m odified in this way. The new bellow s have been
shown to be capable of withstanding at least 172000 rev ersals
of s tress and up to 2. 23 X 10 6 N • m ' 2 gauge positive internal pressu re
without difficulty. An incidental advantage is the fact that the new
design can tolerate internal vacuum without failu re.
(c) Some difficulty has also been experienced with contamination
buildup on the counters and on the walls of the pipework leading
to them. This has been attributed to an operational period in
which rea ctor coolant chem istry problem s led to appreciable crud
buildup, com bined with p oor perform an ce by the failed -fu el
d etection-system steam separators. Both these faults have now
been rectified and the situation has im proved since it was first
noted in 1967. It is not yet, however, com pletely solved and
the background counting rate in a fresh ly decontaminated counter
828 GOODINGS

ris e s from about 103 counts • s ' 1 to about 104 counts • s "1 over
a period of about six months. P eriod ic cleaning and decontamination
at about this interval is therefore n ecessary.
It is interesting to note that one im provem ent to the system has resulted
from this background problem in that provision has been made fo r the use
of fission product gamma detection on the sample steam . This gives
additional data to that provided by the beta m onitor and yields a low er
sensitivity m easurem ent in the event of the beta counter upper counting
rate lim it being exceeded.

7. THE PRESENT POSITION

E xperience has shown that, under norm al circum stances at least,
the origin al fea rs that experim ental loop discharge would prejudice the
validity of turbine condenser off-g a s m easurem ents are not ju stified.
Thus, since such a technique is m ore sensitive than steam sampling, bulk
monitoring of the rea ctor is now carried out partly with the installed devices
and partly with a G eiger cou n ter/off-g a s system . The latter equipment
is used on a d ay-to-day basis and in the absence of failures the steam plant
is operated weekly on sam ples from the bulk steam mains for standardiza­
tion purposes. A com plete single-channel rea ctor scan is made on a
routine basis from time to tim e.
The sensitivity of the off-ga s system is such that it should be able to
detect a relea se rate of around 2 /uCi • s ' 1 of k rypton -87. This is quite
satisfactory when com pared with an output of ord er a few hundred jaCi . s "1
from a typical failu re, with the design sensitivity (100 /uCi • s"1) fo r the
main m onitors when sampling the bulk rea ctor steam with the k rypton -87
relea se rate lim it o f about 3500 juCi • s " 1. The predicted sensitivity of
the single-channel system was close to 0. 2 juCi • s "1 but contamination has
raised this level in p ra ctice to between 2 and 100 /uCi • s "1 depending on
the cleanliness o f the system at the time of m easurem ent. This reduction
in sensitivity is unfortunate but the perform ance is still m ore than adequate
and, once the p ossibility of a failure has been indicated by the off-ga s
system the search fo r the fault may be speeded up by grouping channels
together. Such grouping reduces the effective sensitivity of the m onitor
but, n everth eless, groups of up to five have been used su ccessfu lly and
no difficulty has been encountered in isolating defective channels o r in
keeping them under surveillance when required. It is not, of cou rse,
n ecessa ry to discharge defective fuel im m ediately and the p ossibility of
m ore than one failure existing at a single time cannot therefore be ruled
out. This has, in fact, happened on the prototype rea ctor but difficulty
occu rred in monitoring the individual faults.
E xperience with the main reactor h igh-level gamma m onitor and with
the loop system s cannot, at present, be reported in detail. No problem s
have been encountered but on the other hand, no fuel faults have occu rred
which would have necessitated their operation.

8. CONCLUSIONS

The prototype SGHWR failed -fu el detection system has now been
operational fo r about five yea rs and despite an unexpected degree of
 IAEA-SM-168/H-2 829

contamination and initial teething troubles has proved entirely satisfactory.

It has detected every failure which has occu rred and has always perm itted
the isolation of such failures to single channels for monitoring and eventual
disch arge. O ff-gas monitoring has proved to be a sensitive way of detecting
fissio n product relea se in the rea ctor and it has been shown that the steam
c a rr ie r /b e ta detector assem bly is an effective channel identification facility.
Operational experience has demonstrated that the system fulfils extrem ely
w ell the requirem ents which it was designed to m eet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work which has been reported is that of a large number of people
o v e r a relatively long period and the present author would like to acknowledge
all of the contributions that have been made. He would like to thank
M r. M. A . C ooper in particular fo r the supply of recen t SGHWR operating
data.

REFERENCE

[1] FIRTH, A .. HOLMES, J.E .R ., The SGHW Prototype Reactor, Atom No. 100 (Feb. 1965).
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /H - 3

D E L A Y E D NEUTRON PR O TECTIO N
AGAINST M E L T -O U T IN
S T E E L PRESSURE VESSEL M AG NO X REACTORS

L .K . BURTON, W .H .R . HUDD, J. P. LONGWORTH,

A .E . SOUCH, K. WILKINS
Central E lectricity Generating Board,
Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories, Berkeley, Gloucestershire,
United Kingdom

Abstract

D E L A Y E D N E U TR O N P R OTE C TIO N A G A IN S T M E LT - O U T IN STEEL PRESSURE VESSEL M A G N O X REACTORS.

The consequence of rapid failure of metal fuel with a low melting-point alloy cladding.is reviewed in
the light of two such failures, at Chapelcross and St. Laurent des Eaux. The long time taken to restore
the reactor to full power operation leads to a large economic penalty and this may be enhanced by further
tripping due to contamination of the circuit. The inadequacy of current failed-fuel detection and location
systems in preventing such an incident and the difficulty of ensuring their efficiency under all circumstances
has led to the investigation of other possible means of protection. The method selected, from several
possibilities, was that of detection of delayed neutron emitters, in the circulating bulk coolant gas, at the
outlet ducts of the reactors. Early trials established the feasibility of the method and determined sensitivity
and speed of response. Questions of transport in the presence of aerosols are discussed in view of their
significance under accident conditions. A final set of tests were conducted in a test reactor in which two
elements were melted and satisfactory signals received at a suitable time, after can melting but well before
incipient fuel bar failure. The design of final installations required detailed studies at each power station
to be equipped. In addition, correlation of the melt-out experiments with power reactor conditions has
been achieved by means of a computer analysis of the melt-out process and also of the response of the electronic
instrumentation. Operational problems associated with putting this equipment into service are noted.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 N a t u r e of th e M e l t - o u t Incident

T h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d in t h i s p a p e r is t h a t p e r f o r m e d b y B e r k e l e y N u c l e a r
L a b o r a t o r i e s * s t a f f (in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the U K A E A a n d o t h e r C E G B d e p a r t ­
m e n t s ) to e s t a b l i s h the v i a b i l i t y of d e l a y e d n e u t r o n p r o t e c t i o n as a m e a n s of
p r o t e c t i n g the U K A E A a n d C E G B m a g n o x r e a c t o r s a g a i n s t m e l t - o u t i n c i d e n t s o f
the t y p e w h i c h o c c u r r e d in the U K A E A r e a c t o r R2, C h a p e l c r o s s (May 1967),
W h i l e t his w o r k w a s in p r o g r e s s a s e c o n d s u c h i n c i d e n t o c c u r r e d i n t h e E . D . F .
r e a c t o r St. L a u r e n t 1 ( O c t o b e r 1969). T h e e v e n t s l e a d i n g up to m e l t - o u t a re
b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d in the l a t t e r c a s e b u t it is g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t he
introduction of debris o r s o m e f o r m of m a l o p e r a t i o n m a y c a u s e a l a r g e r e d u c t ­
i o n of the c o o l a n t gas f l o w in an i n d i v i d u a l chann e l . W i t h fuel elements
h a v i n g a t h i c k c a n of an a l u m i n i u m - b a s e d a l l o y surrounding a metallic uranium
bar, the melt-out process comprises l o s s of h e a t transfer le a d i n g to m a s s i v e
progressive failure of the c a n w a l l , possibly enhancing channel blockage.
T h e r e is t h e n the consequent further loss of h e a t transfer f r o m the u r a n i u m
a n d a r i s e of u r a n i u m t e m p e r a t u r e t o w a r d s a m e l t i n g / i g n i t i o n r e g i m e . A t this
f i n a l s t a g e c o m p l e t e c h a n n e l b l o c k a g e m a y o c c u r (as at C h a p e l c r o s s ) a nd
i g n i t i o n m a y d i s p e r s e m a n y k i l o g r a m s of o x i d i s e d u r a n i u m i n t o t he r e a c t o r
circuit. In b o t h cases, the e v e n t w a s d e t e c t e d and t h e r e a c t o r s h u t d o w n
w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t r a d i a t i o n h a z a r d to the s t a t i o n s t a f f o r p u b l i c . The
n e e d is thus e s t a b l i s h e d to p r o t e c t the r e a c t o r s a g a i n s t a n i n c i d e n t w h i c h
is s h o w n to h a v e n o g r e a t s a f e t y i m p l i c a t i o n s b u t l a r g e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s .

831
832 BURTON e t al.

1.2 Consequences of the Incident

In the c a s e of R2 C h a p e l c r o s s the r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s lasted s o m e 2J

years an d th e r e a c t o r h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d at r e s t r i c t e d p o w e r levels afterwards.
T h e loss in r e s p e c t of r e p l a c e m e n t g e n e r a t i o n f o r t h i s 50-MW(e) r e a c t o r w a s
n e a r l y £2 m i l l i o n [1]. In th e c a s e of St. L a u r e n t 1 the l o s s e s d o n o t a p p e a r
t o h a v e b e e n q u a n t i f i e d b u t this 480-MW(e) r e a c t o r w a s o u t o f o p e r a t i o n f or o v e r
1 year. A s e c o n d f e a t u r e of s u c h an a c c i d e n t is t h a t l a t e r o p e r a t i o n m u s t b e
conducted against a m u c h higher, and o f t e n v a r y i n g , background s i g n a l i n t he
failed fuel d e t e c t i o n gear (BCDG - UK, D R G - France) and such indications of
f u e l f a i l u r e m a y c a u s e the r e a c t o r to b e o p e r a t e d w i t h a l o w e r l e v e l of
p r o t e c t i o n or l e a d to s p u r i o u s t r ips [ 2 ].

1.3 Requirements for a P r o t e c t i o n S y s t e m

In physical terms, a method is h e e d e d t h a t w i l l o p e r a t e b e f o r e signifi­

c a n t d e f o r m a t i o n or i g n i t i o n of u r a n i u m o c c u r s a n d t h e u s e of the c o nventional
precipitator system poses several major problems. T h e n o r m a l u s e o f this
s y s t e m is to d e t e c t d a u g h t e r s of n o b l e gas fission products w hich pass through
leak paths in the f u e l cladding, long b e f o r e any m a j o r defect occurs. Hence
the f u e l m a y be k e p t u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s s u r v e i l l a n c e b y a s c a n n i n g p r o c e s s .
E a r l y a n a l y s i s of the r a t e at w h i c h m e l t - o u t o c c u r s g a v e t i m e - s c a l e s to
i n i t i a t e p r o t e c t i v e a c t i o n (i.e. t r i p p i n g t h e r e a c t o r ) of a b o u t 2 0 s e c o n d s
[3, 4]. T h e r e w o u l d b e m a s s i v e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s in summing signals fro m
several thousand BCDG pipes into a r e a sonably small represen t a t i v e num b e r for
a r e a l i s t i c p r o t e c t i o n system; gas o u t l e t d u c t s a m p l i n g w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
p r o v i d e a t r u e s a m p l e s i n c e t h e r e w a s s o m e e v i d e n c e of f l o w s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in
s u c h r e a c t o r ducts. In a d d i t i o n t h e r e w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t y in e n s u r i n g that
c o m p l e x e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l d e v i c e s c o u l d b e e n g i n e e r e d to s a f e t y circuit
s t a n d a r d s w i t h an a c c e p t a b l y l o w n u m b e r of s p u r i o u s trips.

2. SELECTION OF THE METHOD

2.1 Methods Considered

2 . 1 . 1 D e t e c t i o n of a e r o s o l p r o d u c t s f r o m m e l t i n g m a g n o x s h o u l d , i n p r i n c i p l e ,
p r o v i d e t h e m o s t r a p i d m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m b u t w a s r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e of
practical difficulties. Su c h a sys t e m w o u l d involve a long d e velopment pe r i o d
fo r o p t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s u c h as the P o l i a k c o u n t e r to r e a c t o r s t a n d a r d s
an d s o m e e v i d e n c e f r o m o p e r a t i n g r e a c t o r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a e r o s o l p o p u l a t i o n
of c o n d e n s a t i o n n u c l e i w o u l d b e m a r k e d l y a f f e c t e d b y r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n s
concerned with drying the c o o l a n t gas [5].

2 . 1 . 2 T h e d e t e c t i o n of f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s w a s considered to b e slightly slower

than m a g n o x detection but t h e r e w a s w i d e e x p e r i e n c e of engineering nucleonic
s y s t e m s to s a f e t y c i r c u i t st a n d a r d s . The duct B.C.D.G. sy s t e m was first
c o n s i d e r e d s i n c e it w a s an e x i s t i n g e q u i p m e n t w h i c h c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e g i v e n
the r e q u i r e d p r o t e c t i o n w i t h o n l y m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s . It w a s s h o w n that the
precipitator system could be modified to s h u t d o w n i n t h e r e q u i r e d t i m e b u t
th e m e t h o d w a s r e j e c t e d o n th e g r o u n d s discussed in 1.3.

2 . 1 . 3 D i r e c t m o n i t o r i n g of th e coolant gas in an outlet duct o f f ered a me t h o d

of d e t e c t i n g f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s f r o m th e m e l t i n g c a n u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l n u c l e o n i c
c i r c u i t r y and w i t h o u t the n e e d to m a k e p e n e t r a t i o n s of t h e p r e s s u r e c i r c u i t .
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 / H -3 833

G a m m a d e t e c t i o n w a s r e j e c t e d a f t e r e a r l y e x p e r i m e n t s at B e r k e l e y P o w e r S t a t i o n
d e m o n s t r a t e d that th e l a r g e l y b a c k g r o u n d w a s too h i g h f o r t h e u s e of
simple detectors [ 6 ].

A l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s n o d i r e c t e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e of t h e p r e s e n c e of
d e l a y e d n e u t r o n s i n r e a c t o r c o o l a n t gas th e m e t h o d w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d b e c a u s e its
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n m i g h t n e e d only s imple d e t e c t o r systems w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y low
background count-rate. An experiment, p e r f o r m e d at B e r k e l e y P o w e r S t a t i o n
[ 6 ] u s i n g a ^He n e u t r o n spectr o m e t e r , s h o w e d that d e l a y e d n e u t r o n s f r o m u r a n i u m
c o n t a m i n a t i o n o n fuel e l e m e n t cans w e r e p r e s e n t i n the c o o l a n t gas. This was
v e r i f i e d b y i n s e r t i n g an e l e m e n t c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h n a t u r a l u r a n i u m i n t o an
empty fuel channel at B r a d w e l l P o w e r S t a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g the n e u t r o n s i g n a l
with a small B F 3 counter in a m o d e r a t o r at a p o s i t i o n a d j a c e n t to a g as o u t l e t
duct. A small step f u nction in cou n t r a t e w a s obtained shortly after t he
e l e m e n t w a s ins e r t e d .

F r o m t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t s and c a l c u l a t i o n s it w a s c o n c l u d e d that
effort s h o u l d b e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n th e d e l a y e d n e u t r o n s y s t e m of m e l t - o u t
protection.

3. TRIALS AT BRADWELL P OWER STATION

3 .1 Purpose

To test t h e c o n c e p t of a delayed neutron protection system a major

experiment was mounted at B r a d w e l l P o w e r S t a t i o n [7] w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g
objectives:

Ci) To d e t e r m i n e m a g n i t u d e of s i g n a l s f r o m e x p o s u r e of a k n o w n a m o u n t
of n a t u r a l u r a n i u m in c h a n n e l s in d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f t he r e a c t o r
a n d to m e a s u r e t h e t i m e fo r th e d e l a y e d n e u t r o n e m i t t i n g f i s s i o n
products to r e a c h the d e t e c t o r s situated near the g as outlet ducts,

(ii) T o i n v e s t i g a t e v a r i a t i o n of s i g n a l s t r e n g t h a nd t r a n s i t t i m e as
a f u n c t i o n of r e a c t o r p o w e r o v e r t h e r a n g e 3 0 Z to 100%.

(iii) To investigate the p o s s i b l e r e t e n t i o n of fission products i n the

fuel channels a n d o n m a g n o x cans (see s e c t i o n 4).

(iv) To investigate the v a r i a t i o n in b a c k g r o u n d signal during normal

reactor operations.

3.2 Test Method

The signal was g e n e r a t e d by loading a m a g n o x fuel element externally

c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h 4 0 0 m g of n a t u r a l u r a n i u m i n t o an e m p t y f u e l c h a n n e l
w h i l e t h e r e a c t o r w a s o p e r a t i n g o n load. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d e d to s o m e 9 . 1 % of
t h e u r a n i u m s u r f a c e b e i n g b a r e of c l a d d i n g . One detector system was placed
n e a r e a c h of th e s i x o u t l e t gas d u c t s so t h a t th e t o t a l s i g n a l a nd i ts d e t a i l e d
d i s t r i b u t i o n c o u l d b e stud i e d . E a c h d e t e c t o r sy s t e m comprised two connected
1 m e t r e l o n g B F 3 t u bes (20с^ C e n t u r y E l e c t r o n i c s t y p e 1 0 7 E B 7 0 / 5 0 G ) i n a
p o l y t h e n e m o d e r a t o r w i t h p o l y t h e n e or w a t e r s h i e l d i n g a r o u n d all f a c e s e x c e p t
t h a t t o w a r d s th e duct. The m o d e r a t o r d i m ensions we r e optimised for the k n o w n
d el ayed n e u t r o n energies. Signals were recorded by mutli-channel analysers
u s e d i n t h e m u l t i - s c a l e r mod e . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t i m e b e t w e e n i n s e r t i o n and
signal rise was obt a i n e d by p h o t o g r a p h i c correl a t i o n b e t w e e n the charge
machine depth indicator an d c h a n n e l n u m b e r i n t h e m u l t i - s c a l e r .
834 BURTON e t al.

3.3 Results at Full Power

Signal strengths an d t r a n s i t t i m e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m 20 c h a n n e l s
chosen to c o v e r v a r i o u s r a d i i a n d s e g m e n t s of the core. I n g e n e r a l the
m a x i m u m signal was o b t a i n e d f r o m the d u c t corresponding to t he segment in
which the e l e m e n t w a s inserted an d th e signal strength was roughly twice
background. In the c a s e of channels near the c o r e centre the s i g n a l w a s
distributed among th e d u c t s w i t h a m a x i m u m s i g n a l about 25% of b a c k g r o u n d .
Transit tim e s b e t w e e n c h a n n e l and duct detector position were 5 to 12 s e c o n d s .
These results showed that adequate protection could be obtained over 95% o r
m o r e of the core, p r o v i d i n g a t i m e to trip of 20 to 30 s e c onds. This was
considered acceptable since, apart from a very few channels at the core
ce n tre, the c h a n n e l s w i t h a l o w e r d e g r e e of p r o t e c t i o n w e r e n e a r the core
periphery where more time w a s a v a i l a b l e b e c a u s e of t h e i r l o w e r rat i n g .

3.4 Results during Power Variation

D u r i n g a r e a c t o r p o w e r v a r i a t i o n d o w n to o n e t h i r d f u l l p o w e r the
t r a n s i t t i m e v a r i e d f r o m 4.6 - 11.7 s e c o n d s for the p a r t i c u l a r c h a n n e l
i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d the r a t i o s i g n a l / b a c k g r o u n d c h a n g e d f r o m 2 . 3 7 to 1.7. Thus
for the 95% of the c h a n n e l s f u l l y p r o t e c t e d at f u l l p o w e r , p r o t e c t i o n s h o u l d
b e a s s u r e d d o w n to on e t h i r d power.

3.5 Results of S i g n a l L o s s E x p e r i m e n t s

L o s s of d e l a y e d n e u t r o n e m i t t e d f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s o n t o g r a p h i t e w a s
i n v e s t i g a t e d b y m e a s u r i n g the s i g n a l f r o m a c o a t e d e l e m e n t at two p o s i t i o n s
in a c h a n n e l h a v i n g th e same flux. The difference was equal to the e x p e r i ­
m e n t a l e r r o r a r i s i n g f r o m p o s i t i o n i n g of th e e l e m e n t . T h u s , a l t h o u g h the
g r a p h i t e t a k e - u p w a s p r o b a b l y sma l l its m a g n i t u d e c o u l d n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d
conclusively.

T h e loss o n t o m a g n o x w a s c o n s i d e r e d m o r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e the
e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a s i n g l e e l e m e n t a n d i n p r a c t i c e the
f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s w o u l d n e e d to pass o t h e r e l e m e n t s b e f o r e l e a v i n g the
chann e l . A special element was constructed w h i c h could be inverted; one
q u a r t e r of its l e ngth, at on e end, w a s c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h 4 0 0 m g o f n a t u r a l
uranium. C o m p a r i s o n of the s i g n a l s f r o m the two a l i g n m e n t s of t h i s e l e m e n t
at the s a m e p o s i t i o n in th e r e a c t o r g a v e the d e l a y e d n e u t r o n f i s s i o n p r o d u c t
loss o v e r I of a fuel e l e m e n t . B e c a u s e of e x p e r i m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t he
r e s u l t s of this m e a s u r e m e n t can o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d as a n u p p e r l i m i t b u t
the loss o v e r f of a n e l e m e n t d o e s n o t e x c e e d 5 % o f t h e t o t a l s i g n a l [ 8 ].

A l t h o u g h n o t c o n c l u s i v e , t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t l o s s e s to
g r a p h i t e an d m a g n o x w i l l n o t i n v a l i d a t e the m e t h o d ; f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n is
in s e c t i o n 4.

3.6 Results of R e a c t o r O p e r a t i o n s

T h e e f f e c t of r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n s u p o n n e u t r o n b a c k g r o u n d w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d
b y r e c o r d i n g 2 - s e c o n d m u l t i s c a l e r co u n t s o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s . This da t a was
analysed and deviations from a normal distribution were s h o w n to c o r r e l a t e w i t h
refuelling operations. A f u r t h e r v e r y l o n g r u n for a p e r i o d of s e v e r a l m o n t h s
w i t h a p e n r e c o r d e r o u t p u t v e r i f i e d that c e r t a i n c h a r g e m a c h i n e o p e r a t i o n s
w o u l d give rise to s p u r i o u s trip signa l s . These signals were identified as
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - 3 835

originating from delayed neutrons f r o m th e f u e l elements as they w e r e r emoved

f r o m the re a c t o r into the charge machine. T h i s p r o b l e m has b e e n o v e r c o m e b y
increasing the o u t — o f — c o r e d w e l l time be f o r e the e l e m e n t is lifted into the
charge machine.

3.7 Conclusions

The B r a d w e l l investigation showed that d e t e c t i o n of del a y e d neut r o n s

w o u l d p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l e m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p a i r of
m a g n o x reactors. S o m e 95% or m o r e of the fuel c h a n n e l s w o u l d b e p r o t e c t e d
a g a i n s t a m a g n o x c a n loss o v e r 10% of th e s u r f a c e . A m o r e l i m i t e d s e r i e s of
m e a s u r e m e n t s w a s t h e n c a r r i e d ou t at al l C E G B m a g n o x r e a c t o r s w i t h s t e e l
p r e s s u r e vessels. T h e s e c o n f i r m e d the g e n e r a l f i n d i n g s of t h e B r a d w e l l
trials.

4. LOSS PROCESSES U NDER ACCIDENT CONDITIONS

4.1 General

The c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t s at B r a d w e l l w a s that there we r e

no anomalies in transport of d e l a y e d n e u t r o n p r e c u r s o r s from core to g a s outlet
duct under normal reactor conditions. In fact, loss p r o c e s s e s w e r e r a t h e r less
than expected by using oversimplified models. Under fault conditions the
question would arise whether the p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r m a t e r i a l in t h e g a s i n the
channel (due to v a p o r i s a t i o n of m e l t i n g m a g n o x or its ignition) w o u l d affect
this b e h a v i o u r , in particular causing e n hanced d e p o s i t i o n and loss o f signal.

4.2 I g n i t i o n and A g g l o m e r a t i o n

U sing currently-accepted data on i gnition rates of m a g n o x [9] the m a x i m u m

s i z e o f a g g l o m e r a t e s i n c h a n n e l s w a s c a l c u l a t e d as 5 ym; thus a e r o d y n a m i c
b e h a v i o u r m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d of s p e c i e s f r o m m o l e c u l e s up to t h i s size.
Between these limits the v e l o c i t y of d e p o s i t i o n d e c r e a s e s rapidly to a m i n i m u m
v a l u e a n d it w a s sufficient to c o n s i d e r th e ext r e m e s .

4.3 Transport Experiments

210 . . . . .
Laboratory experiments using radioactive Pb ions m an air rig with
d u m m y e l e m e n t s Û.0 ], t e s t e d an d j u s t i f i e d the g e n e r a l m o d e l , w h i c h d e p e n d s
u p o n the e q u i v a l e n c e o f h e a t a n d m a s s tr a n s f e r . Th is, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t
B r a d w e l l r e s u l t s , s h o w e d that for the w o r s t c a s e d e p o s i t i o n o f a t o m i c s p e c i e s
or small aerosols would not exceed 25%.

F o r the o t h e r e x t r e m e of the s i z e r a n g e a n ai r r i g w a s a g a i n u s e d a n d
d i b u t y l p h t h a l a t e d r o p l e t s of a b o u t 1 0 p m d i a m e t e r w e r e i n j e c t e d and c o u n t e d
i n f l i g h t w i t h a R o y c o counter. Such droplets stick upon contact with a
surface; as f l o w r a t e an d p a r t i c l e size i n c r e a s e d so d i d d e p o s i t i o n , d e m o n ­
s t r a t i n g its d e p e n d e n c e u p o n i n e r t i a l effe c t s . In the size a n d f l o w r e g i m e s
of interest, deposition was negligible an d o t h e r w o r k s h o w e d that, in practice,
d e p o s i t i o n of n o n - s t i c k i n g p a r t i c l e s by inertial processes is m i n i m a l because
of l a c k of forces to r e t a i n t h e m o n sur f a c e s .

4.4 Ignition

Ignition data was reviewed an d it w a s shown that m a g n o x ignition would not

occur until some tens of seconds after magnox melting [111 Thus t h e r e w o u l d be
adequate time to trip.
836 BURTON e t a l.

5. EXPERIMENTS AT CADARACHE

5.1 Introduction

Despite the a p p a r e n t l y f a v o u r a b l e o u t c o m e of the w o r k up to this stage two

major questions remained:

i. Were the a d m i t t e d l y p e s s i m i s t i c m o d e l s of the r a t e of r i s e of uranium

temperature valid, particularly since igni t i o n of h i g h l y - i r r a d i a t e d
u r a n i u m m i ght occur well before its m e l t i n g p o i n t ?

ii. W o u l d m e l t - o u t of a m a g n o x c a n e x p o s e sufficient u r a n i u m surface

or a n y at all?

Some preli m i n a r y experiments an d s t u d i e s n o t a b l y b y the U K A E A d i d n o t serve fully

to r e s o l v e these questions an d it b e c a m e apparent that an in-reactor experiment,
w i t h full s i m u l a t i o n of m e l t - o u t conditions ( e x c e p t h i g h l y - i r r a d i a t e d fuel) would
p r o v i d e the b e s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the system. B e c a u s e of t he g e n e r a l uns u i t a b i l i t ;
an d u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of s u i t a b l e test loo p s in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , t he U K A E A
negotiated w i t h C E A and designed an experimental arrangement to b e tested in a
loop at the P é g a s e r e a c t o r at C a d a r a c h e .

5. 2 D e s i g n of the P é g a s e E x p e r i m e n t s

P é g a s e is a s w i m m i n g p o o l r e a c t o r w i t h a n u m b e r of test l o o p s w h i c h a r e
c o m p l e t e l y i m m e r s e d in the pool. Th e f l u x in the t e s t s e c t i o n is v a r i e d b y
moving the w h o l e loop r e l a t i v e to the core. Because of t he c o o l i n g e f f e c t o f the
pool it w a s impossible to a c h i e v e m a g n o x m e l t i n g temperature fro m the test e lement
alone. A W A G R fuel element c l u s t e r w a s m o u n t e d u p s t r e a m of a special short m a g n o x
test e l e m e n t in o r d e r to ac t as a gas p r e - h e a t e r . V a r i o u s n e u t r o n f i l t e r s , notabl;
of C a d m i u m a n d S i l ver, w e r e u s e d to o b t a i n a f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e d
m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e at the c e n t r e of the tes t e l e m e n t . The f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n s wer<
checked with a mock-up in the zero e n e r g y f a c i l i t y P e g g y .

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n c o m p r i s e d n e u t r o n and g a m m a d e t e c t o r s and a fast act i n g

B S D p r e c i p i t a t o r m o u n t e d e i t h e r o n the loop o r o n its B S D p i p e wor k . The
detectors were started simultaneously from a common clock and data was recorded
on multiscalers. T h e f l u x d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t he test e l e m e n t w a s m e a s u r e d b y
g a m m a s c a n n i n g f o u r l o n g i t u d i n a l P t - С о w i r e s w h i c h w e r e r e c o v e r e d a f t e r the
melt-out. The equipment was calibrated during a preliminary run with a known
e q u i v a l e n t a r e a of u r a n i u m in the test loop. The flux during c a l i b r a t i o n was
m o n i t o r e d w i t h a c o b a l t wire.

5. 3 Two m a g n o x m e l ting experiments were carried out using different melting

rates. A f t e r l e n g t h y c a l i b r a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s to e s t a b l i s h the c o r r e c t e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n d i t i o n s at f u l l ga s flow, m e l t i n g w a s a c h i e v e d b y r e d u c i n g t he gas f l o w b y
c l o s i n g a v a l v e i n t h e loop. A t the same time, t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w a s s t a rted.
M a g n o x , u r a n i u m an d gas t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e r e c o r d e d a n d t h e r e a c t o r w a s t r i p p e d
w h e n the u r a n i u m s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e d 8 00°C. T h e r e s u l t s o f the e x p e r i ­
ments have been reported [121 a n d are a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c o n t e x t of the P é g a s e
r e a c t o r p r o g r a m m e [13].

5.4 Post-melting Examination

The m a g n o x elements from both melt-outs were examined in t he C a d a r a c h e

P. I . E . (LECA) f a c i l i t y [14]. The elements were s e c t ioned l o n g i t u d i n a l l y and the
cans were removed. After photography, u r a n i u m a nd m a g n o x w a s sectioned and
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - 3 837

photo-micrographed. High resolution gamma scanning was used to o b t a i n f u r t h e r

data on flux distribution. Th e r e s u l t s of this e x a m i n a t i o n h a v e b e e n a n a l y s e d
[13.

5.5 R e s u l t s of the E x p e r i m e n t s

Positive results were obtained f r o m al l the d e t e c t i o n systems (except

on-loop f i s s i o n chambers) w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d e d q u i t e w e l l w i t h the o b s e r v e d a r e a s
exposed. The highly sensitive gamma detector showed a s e r i e s of d i s c r e t e increases
in c o u n t r a t e w h i c h a g r e e d w i t h the P.I.E. finding that t he m e l t i n g p r o c e e d e d in a
s t e p - w i s e m a n n e r , l e a v i n g a s e r i e s of c o n c e n t r i c m a g n o x r i d g e s . A t h i n l a y e r of
m a g n o x r e m a i n e d o n the u r a n i u m surface, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a b a r e s u r f a c e w a s n o t
n e c e s s a r y f o r the r e l e a s e of d e l a y e d n e u t r o n p r e c u r s o r s . T h e t i m e - s c a l e of m e l t i n g
a n d r i s e of uranium temperature was markedly slower than that predicted. M u c h of
t h i s is d u e to the l o wer an d less i s o t r o p i c n e u t r o n f l u x b u t it w a s c l e a r t h a t s o m e
a l l e v i a t i o n in i n s t r u m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s c o u l d be a s s u m e d if a s u i t a b l e
melt-out model could be f o r m u l a t e d .

6 . ANALYSIS OF CADARACHE EXPERIMENTS

6 .1 Introduction

The results of the m e l t - o u t experiments in the P é g a s e loop have been used

to d e s i g n a d i g i t a l computer model for pre d i c t i n g the q u a n t i t a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s
of coolant flow reduction in C E G B m a g n o x r e a c t o r c h a n n e l s . T h e p r o b l e m is a
c o m p l i c a t e d o n e of t r a n s i e n t h e a t t r a n s f e r w i t h tim e v a r i a b l e h e a t s o u r c e s (e.g.
p r e h e a t e d gas) a n d s i nks (e.g. l a t e n t h e a t o f m e l t i n g ) , in a d d i t i o n t h e r e a re
c h a n g e s in h e a t t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as f i n s d i s t o r t a n d f u e l is e x p o s e d .
O t h e r f e a t u r e s of the e x p e r i m e n t , s u c h as the a z i m u t h a l t e m p e r a t u r e a n d n e u t r o n
f l u x v a r i a t i o n s w e r e i n c l u d e d in the mo d e l . A n e w c o m p u t e r code, M E L T [1(3 w a s
w r i t t e n and t e s t e d u s i n g the e x p e r i m e n t a l resu l t s . T h e m e t h o d is b a s e d u p o n a
simple three d i mensional transient finite dif f e r e n c e approach, w i t h a l l o wance
for g as h e a d i n g an d m a g n o x m e l t i n g .

6 .2 Method

In the c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m , MELT, the fuel c h a n n e l (or f u e l loop in the

P é g a s e case) is a x i a l l y d i v i d e d into r e g i o n s e a c h c o n t a i n i n g o n e f u e l e l e m e n t .
T h e t r a n s i e n t b e h a v i o u r of e a c h r e g i o n in t u r n is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f or a g i v e n time
in a s e r i e s of f i n i t e t i m e steps, At; the g a s t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n at the
b o t t o m of e a c h r e g i o n is g i v e n by the v a l u e s at the top of t he r e g i o n b e l o w . If
n o m a g n o x m e l t i n g is i n d i c a t e d in th e time the p r o c e s s is a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e p e a t e d
u n t i l e i t h e r m e l t i n g o c c u r s or a g i v e n m a x i m u m n u m b e r of c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
performed; in t h i s w a y the f u e l e l e m e n t w h i c h f i r s t m e l t s is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n
the c a l c u l a t i o n .

In d e t a i l , e a c h r e g i o n is d i v i d e d into thr e e m a i n s e c t i o n s , i.e. fuel,

c a n n i n g an d gas. T h e f u e l an d c a n n i n g s e c t i o n s a r e s u b - d i v i d e d i n t o f i n i t e
elements in c y l i n d r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s of sizes Дг-^ (fuel), Л Г 2 ( c a n n i n g ) , Д0 a n d
Azj the gas s e c t i o n is no t divided radially, since turbulent m i x i n g is a s s u m e d .
T o i n c l u d e the e f f e c t of m a g n o x m e l t i n g s l o w l y b e t w e e n 6 3 0 ° C a n d 6 4 0 ° C a
v a r i a b l e h e a t - s i n k t e r m is i n c l u d e d in the f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n ; this
h e a t - s i n k , w h i c h is r e - a s s e s s e d f o r e v e r y m a g n o x v o l u m e e l e m e n t a t e v e r y t i m e -
step, is a f u n c t i o n of th e t o tal l a t e n t h e a t of f u s i o n a n d t h e m a g n o x t e m p e r a t u r e .
E a c h m a g n o x v o l u m e e l e m e n t ha s a p a r a m e t e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it to d e s c r i b e w h e t h e r
it is s t i l l solid, s t a r t i n g to m e l t (i.e. a b o v e th e s o l i d u s t e m p e r a t u r e ) , c o m p l e t e l y
838 BURTON et a l.

m e l t e d (i.e. a b o v e the l i q u i d u s t e m p e r a t u r e ) o r a v a c u u m d u e to h a v i n g f l o w e d a w a y
the h e a t c o n d u c t i o n b e t w e e n v o l u m e e l e m e n t s is a f u n c t i o n of the f o r m o f n e i g h ­
b o u ring elements.

S i n c e the gas f l o w r a t e is h i g h it p a s s e s s e v e r a l a x i a l f i n i t e e l e m e n t s in
a single time-step; to d e a l w i t h this p r o b l e m t he t i m e - s t e p At is s p l i t into
su b - s t e p s , such that o n l y o n e a x ial element is p a s s e d , f or t he c a l c u l a t i o n of
the gas t e m p e r a t u r e chan g e s . The m a x i m u m size of time-step all o w e d in the g e n e r a l
f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e a p p r o a c h is c o n t r o l l e d by the s i z e of the s p a t i a l elements chose
for the p r o b l e m ; the g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n for s t a b ility of the m e t h o d is

using standard notation. H o w e v e r , in this p r o b l e m t he t i m e - s t e p m u s t a l s o be

less t h a n the time t a k e n b y the gas to f l o w b e t w e e n f u e l e l e m e n t s .

I n th e c a s e of the P é g a s e e x p e r i m e n t the c o n d i t i o n for s t a b i l i t y of the m e t h

is the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r o n At; an d t 0.004s.
t he total time b e f o r e r e a c t o r trip in the P é g a s e
n u m b e r of t i m e - s t e p s r e q u i r e d is a b o u t 10^.
t i m e v e r y l o n g a n d m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n so u g h t
economically.
is t he o p t i m u m s e t t i n g . Since
c a s e w a s a b o u t 6 m i n . , t h e t o tal
T h i s o b v i o u s l y m a k e s the c o m p u t a t i o n
to e n a b l e s u c h a p r o g r a m to b e r u n

7. RESPONSE OF INSTRUMENTATION

7.1 Electronic Design

Electronic i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n was d e v e l o p e d for the j o i n t C E G B / U K A E A / S S E B

r e q u i r e m e n t s by A . E . E . W i n f r i t h 0.7]. Pulses from each boron trifluoride propor­
tio n a l c o u n t e r p a s s to the 4 9 2 0 R a t e m e t e r U n i t v i a the p r e a m p l i f i e r . I n the
ratemeter unit the p u l s e s are shaped an d p a s s through a discriminator to a
d i o d e pump. T h e o u t p u t of the d i o d e p u m p feeds a logarithmic amplifier whose
o u t p u t is d i s p l a y e d o n a m e t e r c a l i b r a t e d in p e r c e n t a g e of f u l l p o w e r b a c k g r o u n d
(FPBG) c o u n t rate. T h e f e e d c a p a c i t o r in the d i o d e p u m p c i r c u i t m a y b e c h a n g e d
b y s w i t c h o p e r a t i o n to e n s u r e a r e a d i n g of 1 0 0 ÍJ o n the m e t e r w h e n the r e a c t o r is
o p e r a t i n g at full power.

The logarithmic amplifier time c o n s t a n t v a r i e s inversely with the

input counting rate so that t h e standard d e v i a t i o n of the v o l t a g e output
of the amplifier is i n d e p e n d e n t of the c o u n t i n g r a t e f o r a g i v e n F P B G
s ett i n g . T h e o u t p u t of the l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r p r o v i d e s one of three
in p u t s to a M a r g i n A m p l i f i e r loop w h i c h includes an I n t e g r a t o r . The other
t w o i n p u t s a r e f r o m the I n t e g r a t o r and a Se t M a r g i n C o n t r o l . Under steady
s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s the o u t p u t of th e l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r is c a n c e l l e d by
the o u t p u t of the I n t e g r a t o r and the r e s u l t a n t o u t p u t of t he M a r g i n A m p l i f i e r
is t h a t d u e to t h e S e t M a r g i n input, a n d t h i s is d i s p l a y e d u p o n t h e M a r g i n
M e t e r in terms of f r a c t i o n of c o u n t i n g rate. A cons e q u e n c e of the vari a b l e
l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r time c o n s t a n t is that, f o r a g i v e n s e t t i n g o f the
m a r g i n t h e s a m e s e c u r i t y a g a i n s t t r i p p i n g du e to r a n d o m s t a t i s t i c a l
variations in the c o u n t r a t e is m a i n t a i n e d at all p o w e r leve l s .

T h e i n t e g r a t o r o u t p u t is a v o l t a g e r a m p a r r a n g e d to r i s e a t a r a t e
e q u i v a l e n t to a f i x e d p e r c e n t a g e c h a n g e of c o u n t r a t e p e r m i n u t e ; b e c a u s e
it o p p o s e s c h a n g e s in the l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t t h e i n t e g r a t o r a l l o w s
the r a t e m e t e r u n i t to f o l l o w c h a n g e s in c o un t r a t e up to t h e f i x e d rat e , b u t
f o r c h a n g e s e x c e e d i n g this r a t e the m a r g i n a m p l i f i e r o u t p u t w i l l m o v e t o w a r d s
z e r o and a t r i p c o n d i t i o n . T h u s the r a t e m e t e r u n i t is a b l e to f o l l o w s l o w
c o u n t r a t e c h a n g e s , d u e to r e a c t o r p o w e r c h a n g e s a n d o t h e r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s ,
with a suitable i n t egrator output, or 'following rate', and m a r g i n setting.
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /H - 3 839

7.2 Simulation of Electronic Performance

Digital computer models of the r a t e m e t e r u n i t h a v e b e e n u s e d to s t u d y

the p r o b a b i l i t y of t r i p p i n g du e to r a n d o m c o u n t r a t e v a r i a t i o n s under steady
state conditions [18] and times-to-trip fo r v a r i o u s t y p e s of input signal [19].
By t h i s m e a n s the e x p e c t e d n u m b e r of r e a c t o r t r ips due to r a n d o m v a r i a t i o n s
in c o u n t r a t e at o n e coolant d u c t m a y be c a l c u l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s m a r g i n levels
and i n t egrator following rates.

The time-to-trip will depend upon the l o g a r i t h m i c amplifier time

constant, th e m a r g i n s e t t i n g an d th e f o l l o w i n g rate. The margin setting and
the a m p l i f i e r time cons t a n t are n o t completely independent since if t h e t i m e
constant is i n c r e a s e d t h e n the r e s p o n s e of the s y s t e m is s l o w e r and the
m a rgin may be set c l o s e r to trip. However, the time constant is n o r m a l l y
s e t at a f i x e d v a l u e ( 1 0 s) and t h u s it is n e c e s s a r y to s e l e c t o n l y the
margin and the f o l l o w i n g rate. H e n c e s e t t i n g s w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d b y the
n e e d to p r e v e n t trips du e to cou n t r a t e c h a n g e s c a u s e d b y n o r m a l p l a n t
o p e r a t i o n s , b u t w i t h i n t h e s e limits t h e m a r g i n is m a d e as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e
w i t h the slowest p o s s i b l e following rate.

The i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of the two settings may be inve s t i g a t e d for a

g i v e n l i n e a r r a m p inc r e a s e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a m e l t - o u t p r o c e s s a nd times
to t r i p c a l c u l a t e d fo r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h c a l c u l a t e d t i m e s to u r a n i u m
deformation (see s e c t i o n 6 ). At reduced power there is a l o n g e r time
c o n s t a n t of th e l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r an d the s a m e v o l t a g e c h a n g e at the
l o g a r i t h m i c a m p l i f i e r w o u l d o c c u r in a l o n g e r time. C o n s e q uently, there
would be longer times-to-trip w h i c h ar e j u s t i f i e d b y t h e p o w e r - d e p e n d e n c e
of t he m e l t - o u t p r o c e s s .

8 . STATION INSTALLATIONS

8.1 D e t e c t o r D e s i g n an d P o s i t i o n i n g

Following the p r o v i n g tr i a l s at B r a d w e l l a decision was made to instal

delayed neutron protection systems an d t e sts w e r e c a r r i e d o u t at all ste e l
pressure vessel magnox stations to:

(i) determine a s u i t a b l e p o s i t i o n for the n e u t r o n d e t e c t o r .

(ii) o p t i m i s e t h e s h i e l d i n g of th e d e t e c t o r a g a i n s t n e u t r o n
background.

(iii) o p t i m i s e th e s i g n a l to b a c k g r o u n d r a t i o at the c hosen

po s i t i o n .

T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s r e v e a l e d s o m e c o m m o n f e a t u r e s [20]. Acceptable
v a l u e s of s i g n a l to b a c k g r o u n d r a t i o w e r e o b t a i n e d e i t h e r at the v e r t i c a l
s e c t i o n of the c o o l a n t d u c t j u s t a b o v e the b o i l e r at t h e s i d e r e m o t e f r o m
the r e a c t o r , o r at the top of the b o i l e r a n d a b o v e the top b a n k s of b o i l e r
t ubes. A t b o t h of t h e s e l o c a t i o n s a d e q u a t e s h i e l d i n g is p r o v i d e d b y 100 m m
of p o l y t h e n e . However, the background neutron spectrum varied between
s t a t i o n s an d d i f f e r e n t m o d e r a t o r f a c e f i l t e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e the
b e s t r a t i o s of s i g n a l to b a c k g r o u n d . T h e e f f e c t of i n t e r p o s i n g a f i l t e r ,
c o n s i s t i n g of m a t e r i a l s s u c h as p o l y t h e n e , C a d m i u m a nd B o r o n C a r b i d e ,
between source and th e f a c e of the d e t e c t o r a s s e m b l y m o d e r a t o r b l o c k is to
alter t he p o s i t i o n in the m o d e r a t o r o f t h e thermal neutron flux peak arising
fr o m i ncident fast n eutrons and to d i s c r i m i n a t e against lower energy
840 BURTON e t a l.

neutrons w hich contribute to th e b a c k g r o u n d . Thus a common detector

assembly design was designed, with sufficient space in f r o n t o f the
moderator to a c c o m m o d a t e v a r i o u s filters. Two vertical detector assemblies
were mounted adjacent to a d u c t or b o i l e r at equal distances on either side
of th e c e n t r e l i n e f r o m the r e a c t o r core c entre and f acing the reactor. Each
a s s e m b l y c o n t a i n s two b o r o n t r i f l u o r i d e p r o p o r t i o n a l c o u n t e r s (20*-^ C e n t u r y
E l e c t r o n i c s type 107EB40G) provi d i n g three detec t o r s for a two-out-of-three
tripping s y s t e m a n d an i n s t a l l e d spare detector.

T h e b a s i c m o d e r a t o r b l o c k in w h i c h th e c o u n t e r s are located measures

1 6 3 m m x 28 0 ram x 1 . 2 5 m a n d is c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a n o p e n a l u m i n i u m b o x
l i n e d w i t h 1 . 0 m m of C a d m i u m . T h e o p e n f a c e ( m o d e r a t o r face) is c o v e r e d
b y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f i l t e r and p r o v i d e d w i t h a l i d to s e a l t h e box. The
c o u n t e r h o l e s p e n e t r a t e th e m o d e r a t o r a s s e m b l y l o n g i t u d i n a l l y a n d a re
lined with aluminium. T h e m o d e r a t o r b o x a n d t he 1 0 0 m m of p o l y t h e n e w h i c h
s u r r o u n d s f i v e s i d e s of it a r e a p u s h fit in t o a s u p p o r t b o x m a d e o f m i l d
s t eel w h i c h h a s a c c e s s h o l e s f o r e l e c t r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s to t h e c o u n t e r s .

8.2 Instrumentation Layout

Three head amplifiers are a s s o ciated w i t h e a c h p a i r of dete c t o r

assemblies. They are contained within a weatherproof storage box situated
as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e to the d e t e c t o r s to m i n i m i s e p i c k - u p , b u t r e m a i n
a c c e s s i b l e to m a i n t e n a n c e s t a f f w i t h o u t the n e c e s s i t y o f o b t a i n i n g s p e c i a l
passes or c l o t h i n g . There is d i s c r e t e a c c e s s to e a c h o f t he h e a d amplifiers
but the spare de t e c t o r m a y be connected to a n y o n e h e a d amplifier. The head
amplifiers are c o n n e c t e d to the main amplifiers using a 'composite' cable
m ade up of 2 c a b l e s t y p e TJR92 (test and si g n a l h e a d s ) , 1 cable type UR67
(EHT), and 1 cable (12 core, he a d amplifier supplies). The four cables a re
c o n t a i n e d in a f l e x i b l e a r m o u r e d sheath and covered overall i n PVC.

The main amplifiers/ratemeters Type 4 9 2 0 are m o u n t e d w i t h i n c u b i c l e s

located in a n a r e a affording r e s t r i c t e d a c ce s s ; t he s a m e a r e a is u s e d f or
the cubicles con t a i n i n g the tripping logic facilities and p ower supply
t r a n s f o r m e r / r e c t i f i e r units. A full d i s p l a y of all a l a r m s a n d i n d i c a t i o n s
associated with each monitor (Type 4920) c h a n n e l is p r o v i d e d i n the m a i n
c o n t r o l room.

9. OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS

9.1 General Philosophy

T h e m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m s h o u l d o p e r a t e w i t h a v e r y l o w trip
p r o b a b i l i t y f r o m b a c k g r o u n d c o unt r a t e c h a n g e s c a u s e d b y n o r m a l r e a c t o r
operations. H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of w a y s in w h i c h t h e b a c k g r o u n d
c o u n t r a t e i n c r e a s e s as a r e s u l t of s u c h o p e r a t i o n s , a n d i n s o m e c a s e s the
r a t e s a r e h i g h e n o u g h to c a u s e concern. A t b e st, t h e c h a n g e s i n c o u n t r a t e
m a y be a c c o m m o d a t e d b y a c h o i c e of r a t e m e t e r s e t t i n g s w h i c h d o e s n o t i m p a i r
the p r o tection afforded by the system. At worst, for t h e p e r i o d d u r i n g
which the c h a n g e takes place, the a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e to:

(i) Alter th e r a t e m e t e r settings to a l l o w t h e o p e r a t i o n to

take place without causing the s y s t e m to trip.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /H - 3 841

(ii) Leave th e r a t e m e t e r setting unchanged but to change the

operational procedure to e n s u r e an acceptable count
r a t e c h ange.

(iii) Veto the s y s t e m , or p a r t of t h e s y s tem , during the period

of the r e a c t o r o p e r a t i o n .

9.2 Specific Problems and Possible Solutions

W h e n t h e r e a c t o r is at full p o w e r s i g n a l s m a y b e g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g
refuelling. At B r a d w e l l P o w e r S t a t i o n large t r a n sient b a c k g r o u n d counts
o c c u r w h e n a d i s c h a r g e d fuel e l e m e n t e n t e r s t h e s u b - p i l e cap l e v e l j u s t
b e l o w t he f u e l l i n g m a c h i n e . N e u t r o n s f r o m the e l e m e n t c a u s e s a h i g h n e u t r o n
f l u x at t h e d e t e c t o r p o s i t i o n by e i t h e r d i r e c t s h i n e o r a f t e r s c a t t e r . The
m a g n i t u d e of t h e t r a n s i e n t v a r i e s w i t h s p e e d of f u e l . r e m o v a l a n d t h e p r o b l e m
is o v e r c o m e by i n t r o d u c i n g a f i x e d s m a l l t i m e d e l a y i n t he d i s c h a r g e
procedure. Spurious signals also arise from refuelling operations a nd d u r i n g
c h a n g e s of a b s o r b e r b a r s c a u s e d b y th e c h a n g e s in p o w e r , a n d h e n c e neutron
background, w h e n the f u e l e l e m e n t g r a b e n t e r s and l e a v e s the core. These
c h a n g e s , h o w e v e r , ar e sma l l enough (< 5%) to b e accommodated by t he m e l t - o u t
p r o t e c t i o n system.

More serious changes in background ar e c a u s e d b y g a s f l o w c h a n g e s .

During reactor start-up and w h e n b r i n g i n g a h e a t exchanger into service, the
g a s f l o w is c o n t r o l l e d b y v a l v e s in e a c h gas circuit, and the rate at w h i c h
these are opened affects the m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n system. The s e v e r i t y of
t he p r o b l e m v a r i e s f r o m s t a t i o n to s t a t i o n d e p e n d i n g u p o n t he d e s i g n of the
valves a n d th e o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r . At Sizewell
P o w e r S t a t i o n n o p r o b l e m s arise; h o w e v e r , at T r a w s f y n y d d P o w e r S t a t i o n the
p r o b l e m is m o r e a c u t e a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u s t b e g i v e n to the t h r e e p o s s i b l e
courses of action outlined earlier. Thus it is p o s s i b l e to i m p o s e p h y s i c a l
a n d / o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l s on t h e r a t e o f o p e n i n g o f t h e v a l v e s , to
v e t o t he m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m d u r i n g v a l v e o p e r a t i o n o r to c h a n g e
t he f o l l o w i n g r a t e of t h e m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m d u r i n g v a l v e o p e r a t i o n .
T h e l a t t e r tw o c o u r s e s m e a n t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be r e d u c e d p r o t e c t i o n d u r i n g
c e r t a i n p h a s e s of r e a c t o r s t a r t - u p , c h i e f l y at the l o w e r p o w e r s , w h i l s t t h e
f o r m e r c o u r s e of a c t i o n m a y n o t b e a c c e p t a b l e s i n c e it m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y
under special circumstances to o p e n t h e v a l v e s rapi d l y .

No other re a c t o r operations, i n c l u d i n g ele c t r i c a l switching, have

caused spurious trips. S i z e w e l l P o w e r S t a t i o n h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g f or
several months w i t h the m e l t - o u t p r o t e c t i o n s y s t e m c o n n e c t e d to the r e a c t o r
trip s y s t e m and t h ere has been no i n t e r f e r e n c e due to n o r m a l reactor
operations.

ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS

T h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d w a s p a r t of a c o l l a b o r a t i v e C E G B - U K A E A p r o g r a m m e ,
also s u p p o r t e d b y th e S o u t h of S c o t l a n d E l e c t r i c i t y B o a r d ( S S E B ) . A l a r g e
n u m b e r of p e o p l e h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d b u t especially relevant contributions
are t h o s e of M e s s r s . H. A. Hughes, R. D o d d s an d I Wilson, UKAEA, a nd
Dr. D. J. S i l v e r l e a f a n d t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s an d S t a f f of the s t e e l p r e s s u r e
v e s s e l m a g n o x s t a t i o n s (CEGB a n d SSEB).
84 2 BURTON e t a l.

R E F E R E N C E S

[1] HU G H ES, H. A . , Electrical Rev. (1970) 244.

[2] G R A U V O G E L, A . , LE N O C , J .P ., Bull, d'information A T E N 92 (1971) 23.
[3] JEN K IN SON, P ., U K A E A Rep. C X /R . Z /S u /W P / P .1 1 (1968).
[4] T H O M A S , C .J . , C .E .G . B . Rep. R K R /N P D /275 (1969).
[5] M E G A W , W . J ., WIFFEN, R .F ..J . nucl. Energy Parts A /B 20 7 (1966) 521.
[6] BURTON, L. K . et al., CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 1266 (1969).
[7] BURTON, L. K . et a l ., CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 1283 (1970).
[8] BURTON, L . K . , HA LL, J . A . , WILKINS, K . , CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 1686 (1970).
[9] RABY, N . . H IG H A M , E. J.,G A L E, L . , U K A E A D . E. G . M em o 486 (W ).
[10] D A V IS , R . E . , Rodliffe, R .S ., SAM U EL, M . J . , CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 1 6 9 1 (1970).
[11] PEARCE, R .J ., A N D R E W S, N . L . , CEGB Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories, Private Communication (1968).
[12] LACHESE, G . , M A RIN, F ., R E N A V O T , J . M . , C EA Rep. DPE/SPP 70-252 (1970).
[13] LURIE, R . , H O U S E A U X , O . , S O U C H , A . E . , D O D D S , R . , OLLIER, H . , C O U R C O N , P ., Int. Conf.
peaceful Uses Atom Energy A /C o n f .4 9 /P /5 8 0 (1971).
[14] PERAY, R .. CEA Rep. SELECA 2 9 1(19 71).
[15] U G L O W , A. G . , PEARCE, R . J . , CEGB Rep. RD/B/R 2017.
[16] L O N G W O R T H , J .P ., CEGB Rep., to be published.
[17] W ILSON , I ., U K A E A Instruction Manuals AEEW-M1042 and M1046 (1972).
[18] D AVIES, B .S .J ., SK YRM E, G . , CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 2 2 8 2 (1972).
[ 19] SKYRM E, G . , CEGB Rep. R D /B /N 2 2 8 3 (1972).
[20] BURTON, L .K . et a l ., CEGB Rep. RD/B/R2126 (1971).
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H -4

ВЫ БОР С Ч Е Т Ч И КО В ДЛЯ И ЗМ ЕРЕН И Я

ЗА П А ЗД Ы В А Ю Щ И Х Н Е Й Т Р О Н О В П Р И К О Н Т Р О Л Е
П О В Р Е Ж Д Е Н И Я ТЕПЛО ВЫ ДЕЛЯЮ Щ ИХ
ЭЛЕМ ЕНТОВ

3. М Е Л И Ч А Р , Я . М О Р А В Е К
Научно-исследовательский институт
энергетики,
П ра га,
Чехословацкая Социалистическая Республика

Я. Л О П У Ш И Н С К И , Я . Р И Н Ц А Р Ж ,
А. ЯНИКОВСКИ
И нститут ядерных исследований,
С в ер к ,
Польская Народная Республика

Abstract-Аннотация

T H E SELECTION OF D ETE C T OR S FOR FAILED FUEL ELEM ENT D E T E C T IO N BY M E A N S OF D EL AY ED

NE U TR ON M E ASU REM EN T .
The selection of detectors for failed fuel element detection by means of delayed neutron measurement.
Experimental and computational works for the comparison of several types of detectors for failed fiiel element
detection by means of delayed neutron measurement, are described in the paper. The comparison included
helium, BF3 and corona counters and fission chambers. A source - detector geometry optimization was
performed for water and polyethylen moderators. Neutron sources A m -Ве and Am-Li in different gam m a fluxes
were used for calibration.

В Ы Б О Р С Ч Е Т Ч И К О В ДЛЯ И З М Е Р Е Н И Я ЗАПАЗДЫ ВАЮ Щ ИХ Н Е Й Т Р О Н О В П РИ К О Н Т ­

РО Л Е П ОВРЕЖ ДЕНИЯ ТЕПЛОВЫ ДЕЛЯЮ Щ ИХ ЭЛ ЕМ ЕНТОВ.
В докладе дается описание экспериментальной работы и расчетов на Э В М , свя зан ­
ны х со сравнением нескольких типов детекторов для обнаруж ения пов реж ден ного топлив­
н ог о эл ем ента по запаздывающим ней трона м . Сравниваются счетчики с гел и ем, с т р е х ­
ф т о р и с т ы м б о р о м и счетчики, с использованием кор он ного разряда, а такж е камеры д е ­
ления. Была проведена оптимизация геом етри и источник-детектор для водных и поли­
этиленовы х замедлителей. Для калибровки использовались источники нейтронов А т - В е
и A m - L i в различных гамма- потоках.

Для контроля повреждения тепловыделяющих элементов (Т В Э Л )

из экспериментальны х и энергетических реакторов в об щ ем исполь­
зуется м е тод идентификации продуктов деления путем измерения за ­
паздывающих нейтронов.
Для размещ ения детектора выбирается оптимальное время транс­
сигнал
портировки, для которого соотношение — ---- дает м а кси м ум .
фон
Поддерживание оптимального времени транспортировки пробы в
течение примерно 60 сек означает, что у энергетических реакторов
работают детекторы запаздывающих нейтронов в поле г а м м а - излуче­
ния различной интенсивности.

84 3
844 М Е Л И Ч А Р и др.

Изготовление оптимального детектора для детекции запаздывающих

нейтронов разделяется на:
а) выбор подходящ его счетчика;
б) замедление нейтронов (выбор замедлителя, геометрия) и сниж е­
ние всех составляющих нейтронного фона (контаминация Т В Э Л о в ,
нейтроны из 17N , понижение влияния реакции ( у , п) на дейте­
рий - при использовании полиэтилена).
Выполнение условия б) м о ж н о обеспечить вы бором конструкции
детектора, а выполнение условия а) обеспечивается с тех точек зрения,
которые важны при выборе счетчика.

ВЫ БОР И СРАВНЕНИЕ НЕЙТРОННЫ Х ДЕТЕКТОРОВ

Осн овн ы м и критериями, которые применяются при реализации

счетчика, являются:
- чувствительность счетчика к тепловым нейтронам;
- нечувствительность к гамма-излучению.
В торостеп енны м и критериями, которые играют свою роль при
выборе двух равноценных счетчиков, выполняющих основные условия,
являются:
- величина амплитуды импульса от нейтронов и связанная с этим
сложность электронной аппаратуры;
- срок службы счетчика;
- способность счетчика работать при повышенной температуре.
Экзоэнергетические реакции, использованные для детекции
нейтронов, следующие:

Я дро Реакция Сечения захвата для

тепловых нейтронов
(барн)

3Н е ' 3H e (n ,p )T 5 400
10D , . 7Г .
О

В (п ,« ) L i 3 813
CQ

6L i 6L i ( n , a ) T 945

Pu, U 600
14 14
14n N (n ,p ) C 1,9

Для сравнения счетчиков по основны м и второстепенны м критериям

были выбраны:
1) пропорциональные счетчики, заполнение - a) B F 3, б) Н е ;
2) коронные счетчики, имеющие на поверхности катода слой В ;
3) камеры деления, имеющие на поверхности катода слой U .
 IA E A -S M -16 8 /H -4 845

СРАВНЕНИЕ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ ДЕТЕКТИРОВАНИЯ СЧЕТЧИКОВ

Чувствительность счетчика для тепловых нейтронов на единицу

поверхности выражает эффективность детектирования счетчика. Э т а
величина выражает вероятность регистрации нейтрона, который п опа­
дает на поверхность счетчика.
Э ф ф е к т и в н ос ть детектирования е. характеризует тип детектора
независимо от его размеров.

Е. N.
ei = = Х 5 --- (имп ' нейтР ]
i

где е. - эффективность детектирования нейтронного счетчика,

N.
i
Е = ф-- - чувствительность счетчика,

N j - частота импульсов [имп ' сек 1 ] , зарегистрированная в п о т о ­

ке нейтронов Ф [нейтр ■с м ' 2 ■ сек"1 ] ,
„ Г 2 !
Р. - площадь поверхности счетчика [см J .

Для сравнения счетчиков вводится потом понятие относительной

эффективности детектирования еотн

N.
i
е. ФР. N. Р
i 1 10
е°тн е0 N0 N qP i

~ФР
о

где величины с индексом нуль (e Q, N , Р ) относятся к сравниваемому

детектору.
Из-за различных размеров счетчиков нельзя их сравнивать только
по частоте импульсов. Для исключения влияния различных длин чув­
ствительной области счетчика 1¡ была измерена частота импульсов
N t от стерж невого источника нейтронов длинной с испусканием ней­
тронов

1.
i

Для иском ого была измерена зависимость частоты импульсов

от положения реального источника с длиной 10 над чувствительной
длиной детектора. Пл ощ адь, ограниченная этой кривой над длиной
чувствительной области, представляет частоты импульсов N ¡ от с те р ­
жневого источника длиной 1. с испусканием нейтронов А . . Э т а
зависимость показана на рис. 1.
846 М Е Л И Ч А Р и др.

d (cm)

Р и с . 1. Зависимость частоты импульсов от геометри и источника нейтронов-счетчика.

1 - П С (BFg / 10В )
2 - П С ( Н е)
3 - К С ( В)
4 - К Д ( 235U )

Т А Б Л И Ц А I. СРАВНЕНИЕ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ ДЕТЕКТИРОВАНИЯ

СЧЕТЧИКОВ.

Т и п счетчика €отн [%] При мечани е

Пропорциональный 115 7 ,6 3Н е (5 ат)

счетчик
68 4 ,8 B F 3 ( 0 ,7 9 ат, 9 2 % 10В )

10
К ор он н ы й счетчик 49,7 3 ,3 В
235
К а м е р а деления 1 0 ,0 6 6 90% и

П у т е м использования этих соотношений получаются следующие

результаты сравнения счетчиков, показанные в т а б л .I . В качестве
сравнивающего счетчика была выбрана камера деления.
В с е измерения проводились при одинаковой геометрии с замедли­
телем из полиэтилена и источником нейтронов A m - L i .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H -4 8 47

loV
1 - П С ( He )
2 - n C (B F 3/'°B )
10
3 -KC('°B)
4 - К Д (23SU)
10l

Id’

10'
10’ 10° 10 ' 102 103 10‘ 105
J J R /h )

Р и с . 2. Сравнение нейтронны х счетчиков по эф ф ек ти в ности детектирования и по

чувствительности к гамма-излучению.
1 - П С ( 3Н е)
2 - П С (B F ¿ / В )
3 - К С ( 10В )
4 - К Д ( 235U)

ТАБЛИЦА И . О Ц Е Н К А У Д О Б Н О С Т И Н Е Й Т Р О Н Н Ы Х С Ч Е Т Ч И К О В ДЛЯ
Д Е Т Е К Ц И И ЗАПАЗДЫ ВАЮ Щ ИХ Н Е Й Т Р О Н О В
1 - отличный , 2 - хороший, 3 - посредственный.

Основны е критерии В т ор о ст е пе н ны е критерии

чувстви­ чувстви- слож ность срок работа

тельность тельность электрон- служ­ счетчи­
к тепл о­ к 7 -излу- ной аппа- бы ка при
вы м н ей ­ чению ратуры по в ы ­
трона м ш енной
темпе­
ратуре

П ропорциональные 3Н е 1 3 3 1 2
счетчики
BF 1 1-2 3 2 2
3

К ор онны е 1 1 2- 3 1
счетчики
К а м е р ы деления 3 1 1 1 1

ЧУВС Т В И Т Е Л ЬН О С Т Ь К ГАММ А-ИЗЛУЧЕНИЮ

Сравнение нечувствительности счетчиков к гамма-излучению

проводилось в г о м о г е н н о м поле гамма-излучения от 60С о при и с­
пользовании источника нейтронов A m - L i и замедлителе нейтронов
из полиэтилена.
Отдельны е типы нейтронных счетчиков по эффективности д е ­
тектирования, по способности работать при повы ш енном поле гамма-
излучения,приведены на р и с .2.
848 М Е Л И Ч А Р и др.

И з этого рисунка видно, что оба основны х критерия действуют

противоположным с пос об ом . П о э т о м у при выборе счетчика необходи­
м о принять разумны й компромисс или же принять еще вспомогательные
критерии.

ЗАКЛЮ ЧЕНИЕ

Для выбора счетчиков с целью измерения запаздывающих нейтро­

нов для детекции повреж денны х Т В Э Л о в были получены критерии,
которы ми м о ж н о пользоваться при их вы боре. В качестве примера
использования приведенных критериев для проверенны х счетчиков
приводится табл. I I .
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H -5

О Б Н А Р У Ж Е Н И Е ТЕПЛОВЫ ДЕЛЯЮ Щ ИХ
СБОРОК С ДЕФ ЕКТНЫ М И ТВ ЭЛА М И
ПОСЛЕ О СТАНОВКИ РЕ А КТО РА

Е .А .Ж Е Р Е Б И Н
Союзный научно-исследовательский
институт приборостроения,
М осква,
Союз Сов етск и х Социалистических Республик

A bstract- Аннотация

T H E L O C A T IN G O F F U E L A S S E M B L I E S W IT H D E F E C T I V E F U E L E L E M E N T S A F T E R . R E ­
A C T O R S H U T -D O W N .
T h e a u th o r c o n s i d e r s m e th o d s c u r r e n t ly e m p lo y e d in n u c l e a r p o w e r s t a t i o n s w ith b o i ­
l i n g w a te r and p r e s s u r i z e d w a te r r e a c t o r s to l o c a t e fu e l a s s e m b l i e s w ith d e f e c t iv e fu e l c a n s
d u rin g r e f u e l l in g o p e r a t i o n s . T h e c h e c k in g o f fu e l a s s e m b l i e s a f t e r r e a c t o r s h u t-d o w n c o n ­
s i s t s o f: 1) s a m p lin g w a te r fr o m th e fu e l a s s e m b l i e s and 2) d e t e r m in in g th e r e f e r e n c e
is o to p e c o n c e n t r a t io n s in th e s a m p l e s . S p e c i a l a tte n tio n i s d e v o te d to th e q u e s tio n o f o b ­
t a in in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w a te r s a m p le s fr o m th e fu e l a s s e m b l i e s . M e th o d s o f o b ta in in g s a m ­
p le s w ith o u t e x t r a c t i n g th e fu e l a s s e m b l i e s f r o m th e c o r e a r e c o m p a r e d f r o m b o th th e t e c h ­
n i c a l and th e o p e r a t io n a l p o in t o f v ie w w ith th e m e th o d o f p la c in g fu e l a s s e m b l i e s in a
" c a s k e t".

О БН А РУ Ж ЕН И Е ТЕП ЛО ВЫ ДЕЛЯЮ Щ И Х С Б О Р О К С Д ЕФ ЕК ТН Ы М И ТВЭ Л А М И П ОСЛЕ О С ­

ТАН ОВКИ Р Е А К Т О Р А .
В д о к л а д е р а с с м о т р е н ы п р и м е н я е м ы е в п р а к ти к е э к сп л у а т а ц и и А Э С с к о р п у сн ы м и ки ­
пящими и с водо й под д а в л е н и е м р е а к т о р а м и м е т о д ы о бн ар у ж ен и я теп л о вы д ел яю щ и х сб о р о к
( Т В С ) с д е ф е к т а м и в о б о л о ч к а х т в э л о в в о в р е м я п е р е г р у зк и я д е р н о г о г о р ю ч е г о . К о н тр ол ь
Т В С на о с т а н о в л е н н о м р е а к т о р е п о д р а з д е л я е т с я на 2 т е х н о л о г и ч е с к и х э т а п а : 1 ) п олу чен и е
проб в о д ы о т к о н т р о л и р у е м ы х Т В С и 2 ) а н а л и з проб на со д е р ж а н и е р е п е р н ы х и з о т о п о в .
О с о б о е в н и м ан и е у д е л е н о в о п р о с у п олучен ия п р е д с т а в и т е л ь н ы х проб во д ы о т Т В С . При
э т о м с р а в н и в а ю т ся к а к с т е х н и ч е с к о й , т а к и с эк сп л у атац и о н н о й точк и зр ен и я м е т о д ы п о л у ­
чения проб б е з и зъ я т и я Т В С и з ак ти вн о й зо н ы с м е т о д о м п ом ещ ен и я к о н т р о л и р у е м ы х Т В С
в "п е н а л е ".

Н а корпусных водо-водяных и кипящих реакторах ( В В Э Р и В К ) а т о м ­

ны х электростанций (А Э С ) обнаружение тепловыделяющих сборок (Т В С )
с деф ектам и в оболочках твэлов осуществляют, как правило, в период
плановой перегрузки ядерного горючего путем контроля уровня активнос­
ти определенных продуктов деления в пробах, отби р аем ы х от контроли­
р у е м ы х Т В С . Поскольку стоим ость Т В С сравнительно высока и р е ш е ­
ние об отбраковке или продолжении дальнейшей эксплуатации испытуемой
Т В С сущ ественно влияет на состояние радиационной обстановки и э коно­
мические показатели эксплуатации А Э С , достоверности результатов кон­
троля придается большое значение. В ряде случаев вы груженные из
активной зоны Т В С подвергаются дополнительному контролю уж е после
пуска реактора с целью более достоверного определения состояния о б о ­
лочек твэлов.
В настоящ ее время считается возм ож ной и экономически выгодной
эксплуатация Т В С с твэлами, имеющими небольшие дефекты оболочек [1],
к р ом е того, допускается наличие уж е в первоначальный период эксплуа­
тации несколько десяты х процента твэлов (от всего их количества в ак-

849
8 50 Ж ЕРЕБИН

тивной зоне) с производственными д е ф ектам и . В с е эти обстоятельства

предъявляют большие требования к качеству контроля и отбраковки Т В С
на остановленном реакторе и требуют оснащения современны х А Э С м е ­
тодами и аппаратурой контроля, предназначенными для установления не
только факта наличия негерметичности оболочек т в э л о в ,н о и для получе­
ния количественной информации, позволяющей судить о величине и харак­
тере дефектов в оболочках твэлов.
Процедура контроля каждой Т В С четко разделяется на 2 основных
этапа:
1) получение от контролируемой Т В С возм ож но представительной
пробы воды;
2) измерение активности этой пробы по од ном у или нескольким
реперны м изотопам - продуктам деления.
В зависимости от конструктивных особенностей, технологических
в о зм ож н ос те й , загрязненности теплоносителя I контура активными про­
дуктами данного реактора 1-й этап контроля м о ж е т различаться как
по способу его выполнения, так и по представительности получаемой
п робы . На практике используют три основны х варианта получения проб
воды: 1) от бор пробы теплоносителя от каждой кассеты без извлечения
последних из активной зоны ; 2) вытеснение теплоносителя из кассеты
с промы вкой, настаиванием чистой воды в кассете и последующим о т б о ­
ро м этой воды [2 ,3 ]; 3 ) извлечение Т В С из активной зоны , помещение
в специальный пенал бассейна, промы вка, настаивание чистой воды и
отбор пробы (например, А Э С в Г у ндр ем и нге не. Ф Р Г , при контроле в
бассейне хранилища и другие). Очевидно, что представительность пробы
и "к он т рас тн ост ь " результатов измерений (отношение эф ф е к т а от Т В С
с негермети чны м твэлом к среднему фону от герметичны х Т В С ) улуч­
шается от первого варианта получения пробы к третьем у, но вм есте с
т ем увеличивается затрачиваемое время и трудоемкость контроля.
На 2-ом этапе контроля — измерение активности проб — также ис­
пользуются несколько м е тод ов , отличающихся как по реперны м изотопам —
измеряют концентрацию в пробах йода-131 (например, А Э С в Обриггей-
м е - Ф Р Г ) , йода-132 [ 2 ,3 ,4 ] , газообразны х продуктов [5], так и м е т о ­
дами их измерения.
При измерении концентрации реперны х изотопов йода в пробах при­
меняют предварительное выделение йода с последующим измерением
активности йода-131 и 132 на простой радиометрической установке
(гамма- спектрометрический детектор и интегральный дискриминатор с
пересчетны м устройством), измерение пробы (без предварительного
выделения) на гамма- спектрометрическом германиево-литиевом детек­
торе (например, А Э С - Райнсберг, Г Д Р ) или измерение по йоду-132 на
установке г ам м а - гам м а совпадений [ 3 ] . Для измерений по га зоо бр а з­
ны м продуктам применяют как предварительную подготовку газовой про­
бы путем барботажа из воды с последующей радиометрией, так и полу­
чение газовы х проб путем "осу ш ени я" Т В С (во время ее нахождения в
пенале) вы теснением воды воздухом на допустимый (в соответствии с
остаточны м энерговыделением Т В С ) интервал времени с последующим
изм ерением концентрации ксенона-133 или криптона-85 в пробе воздуха
из пенала. Последняя методика получения и измерения газообразны х
проб применяется в большинстве случаев для контроля Т В С спустя зна­
чительное время после остановки реактора, когда исключаются повреж ­
дения оболочек твэлов из-за чрезмерного повышения температуры т вэл ов.
 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H -5 851

ПОЛ УЧЕНИЕ И ПРЕДСТАВИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ ПРОБ ОТ КОНТРОЛ ИРУЕМ Ы Х

ТВС

Практика контроля Т В С после остановки реактора показы вает, что

наиболее трудоем ким, отнимающим наибольшее время, и сложным явля­
ется этап подготовки и отбора пробы от Т В С . Э т о т этап оказывает и
доминирующее влияние на достоверность результатов контроля. До
настоящ его времени после завершения контроля на остановленном реак­
торе процент подозрительных Т В С , о которы х нельзя однозначно сказать,
герметичны ли они или нет, еще достаточно велик. Э т о вызывает н е о б ­
ходим ость контроля не по од н ом у , а по нескольким реперны м изотопам
и часто требует повторного контроля. Таким о б р а зо м , аппаратура о т ­
бора проб должна обеспечивать получение пробы наименее трудоем ким,
п росты м с п ос об ом , занимать возм ож но малое время и обеспечивать
достаточную представительность пробы.
П о д представительностью пробы будем понимать соответствие в е ­
личины и зм еряем ой активности реперного изотопа в отобранной пробе
утечке этого изотопа через повреждение в оболочке твэла. Следует
от м ет и т ь , что величина утечки реперного изотопа при одних и тех же
д е ф ектах в оболочках твэлов м ож е т сущ ественно изменяться в зависи­
м ости от выгорания топлива, характера эксплуатации Т В С перед оста нов­
кой, м е ст а расположения деф ектного твэла в Т В С и т .п . При р а с ш и ф ­
ровке результатов измерений эти факторы в большей или м еньш ей с т е ­
пени учитываются, используя опыт контроля при предыдущих перегруз­
ках. П о э т о м у очень важно обеспечивать хорошую представительность
проб, т . е . применять методику пробоотбора и аппаратуру, сохраняющие
максимально в о з м ож н ое постоянство реж има операций подготовки и о т ­
бора проб.
В таблице представлены результаты повторны х измерений на реак­
торе ВК - 50 для отдельны х Т В С (с негерметичны м и и подозреваемы ми
в негерметичности твэлами).
В данном случае отбор проб проводили без изъятия Т В С из актив­
ной зоны и промывки кассеты, закрывая верхнюю часть кассеты и на­
стаивая реакторную воду в течение 20 м и н . Активность проб измеряли
по йоду-1 3 2 . Как видно из таблицы,для данных Т В С наблюдаются зна­
чительные разбросы в измерениях повторны х проб от одних и тех же
кассет (необходимы е поправки на распад йода-132 и теллура-132 введе­
ны ). Анализ результатов контроля показал, что разброс обусловлен не-

Т А Б Л И Ц А I. П ОВТОРН Ы Е ИЗМ ЕРЕНИЯ ОТДЕЛЬНЫ Х ТВС

Н о м ер 0 6 -3 8 0 9 -3 5 0 4 -3 6 0 7 -3 5 0 6 -4 2 0 8 -4 4 0 5 -3 3
ячей к и

П р евы ш ен и е 184 0 21 30 37 50 36
н ад с р е д ­ 47 37 36 67 24 7 0
ним у р о в н ем 119 5
фона г е р м е ­ 68
ти ч н ы х
к а с с е т (%)
852 Ж ЕРЕБИН

четким соблюдением реж има отдельных операций по времени, нестабиль­

ностью реж има циркуляции охлаждающей воды в процессе контроля и дру­
гими факторами, связанными с оборудованием пробоотбора.
Использованный в э том случае метод отбора проб является наименее
трудоем ким и требует ми ни м ум времени, но его применение м ож е т быть
оправдано только для сравнительно "ч и с т о г о " реактора с негерметичны ми
твэлами. При реальной эксплуатационной загрязненности реактора, н а ­
пример, порядка 1 0 '4 Ки /л по долгоживущим продуктам деления, о т н о ш е ­
ние величины активности пробы по реперному изотопу от негерметичной
кассеты к герметичной (по сущ еству,к активности воды I контура) даже
для Т В С со значительными дефектами будет слишком ма л о.
Усоверш енствование этого метода отбора проб путем добавления
промывки контролируемых кассет водой и настаивания на "ч истой" во­
де [2,3 ] привело к сущ ественном у повышению эф ф екта к фону. Т е м не
м е н е е , остался фактор, ухудшающий представительность пробы, это -
зависимость концентрации реперного изотопа в пробе от места положе­
ния деф ектного твэла в Т В С . При значительной длине Т В С [7] (напри­
м е р , для реактора В В Э Р - 4 4 0 общая длина кассеты - 3 2 0 с м , активной
ее части — 242 см при ширине шестигранника — 14,4 с м ), отборе пробы
из верхней части кассеты, наличии дистанционирующих перегородок в
Т В С и разницы в ос та точ ном энерговыделении следует ожидать сущ ест­
венной нестабильности концентрации реперного продукта в пробе при
одной и той же эмиссии этого продукта из д еф екта.
Другой фактор, ухудшающий представительность при отборе пробы
таким с п ос об ом , заключается в в о з м о ж н о м подмешивании реакторной
воды в объ ем контролируемой кассеты через уплотнение пробоотборного
устройства, а также с нижней открытой части кассеты . При загрязнен­
ности реакторной воды порядка 10’4 Ки /л (после длительного срока р а ­
боты реактора) незначительные протечки во время операций пробоотбора
через уплотнения будут вызывать сущ ественное ухудшение представи­
тельности пробы, если учесть, что концентрация реперного изотопа в
пробе, например, йода-131 или 132 от кассеты, с негерметичностью ко­
торой надо считаться, составляет несколько единиц на 10 К и /л .
Т е м не м енее,рассматри ваемы й способ отбора проб с успехом ис­
пользуется на А Э С в Райнсберге ( Г Д Р ) уж е несколько лет [ 6 ] . У д о в ­
летворительное конструктивное решение уплотнения пробоотборной г о ­
ловки с кассетой обеспечило надежные результаты контроля Т В С в у с ­
ловиях реактора А Э С Р а й н с бе р г . Но при этом следует учитывать и то
обстоятел ьство, что теплоноситель реактора этой А Э С и его активная
зона находятся в течение всего периода эксплуатации в хор ош е м состоя-
янии(за все время отм еч ено при контроле только 4 Т В С с негерм ети ч­
ны ми твэлами) и это не промышленный реактор, работающий с полной
н агр узкой .
Ра сс м от р е н н ы й способ пробоотбора не предусматривает изъятия
каждой контролируемой Т В С из активной зоны . Э т о значительно с о ­
кращает время и трудоем кость контроля. Но таким пробоотбор ом нель­
зя ограничиться при длительной эксплуатации такого, например, про­
м ы ш л енного энергетического реактора, как В В Э Р - 4 4 0 . Э к оном и к а экс­
плуатации и радиационная безопасность требуют более полной информации
о состоянии Т В С .
Уп ом я нуты й в начале доклада третий способ пробоотбора предусмат­
ривает изъятие Т В С из активной зоны и помещ ение ее в пенал, изолиро­
 IA E A -S M -168/H -5 853

ванный от окружающей реакторной воды. Пенал имеет входной и вы ход­

ной (вверху и внизу) трубопроводы , через которые с помощью стенда
управления п робоотбором проводится промы вка Т В С , настаивание чис­
той воды в пенале, перемешивание воды и от бор проб. В необходи мы х
случаях из пенала м ож е т быть получена также и газообразная проба
путем вытеснения воды воздухом , настаивания с сам ор азогревом Т В С
(до допустимы х пределов) в воздушной среде и обратного вытеснения
настоенного воздуха в измерительный объ ем детектора излучений. С
технической стороны этот способ пробоотбора является наиболее сов е р ­
ш е н н ы м , дающим наилучшую представительность проб и наиболее р а з­
вернутую информацию (благодаря возм ож ности измерения по ряду "т в е р ­
д ы х" и газообразны х изотопов) о состоянии оболочек твэлов в Т В С .
Н о он требует дополнительного времени на изъятие Т В С из активной
зоны , пом ещ ение их в пенал и т .д . Т е м не м е н ее , практика эксплуата­
ции промы ш л енны х энергетических реакторов, например, в Гундремин-
гене и О б р и ггей м е (Ф Р Г ) ,и др . свидетельствует о необходимости о б о р у ­
дования реакторов пеналами. Преимущ ества "п ена л ьного" способа о т ­
бора проб особенно очевидны при наличии в активной зоне значительного
количества Т В С с деф ектны ми твэлами. Тщательная всесторонняя
проверка всех Т В С в начальный период эксплуатации предупреждает
в о з м ож н ы е серьезны е загрязнения I-го контура продуктами деления в
последующие годы и позволяет принимать более обоснованны е решения
по размещению в активной зоне или изъятию Т В С из н е е. В с е это ведет
к повышению экономики эксплуатации А Э С .
Технические недостатки пробоотбора без изъятия Т В С из зоны и
повышенная трудоемкость пенального способа отбора проб стимулирова­
ли поиски новы х конструктивных решений контроля Т В С после ос та нов ­
ки реактора. В связи с этим, представляют интерес предложения по
устройствам для обнаружения Т В С с негерметичны ми твэлами, изложен­
ные в патентах [8] и [9], которые исключают необходи мость п роб оот бо­
ра после остановки реактора, чем резко сокращают время и трудоемкость
контроля Т В С .
В патенте [8 ] предложено устанавливать над активной зоной специ­
альную раму со смонтированной на ней арматурой, состоящей из механи­
ческих фильтров (по количеству кассет в активной зоне) для накопления
тверды х частиц с продуктами деления. В ходны е трубочки каждого филь­
тра находятся в потоке вы ходящего из кассеты теплоносителя. После
остановки реактора на перегрузку и вскрытия крышки аппарата, все
фильтры одновременно извлекаются и затем поочередно измеряются.
П атент [9] отличается т е м , что вм есто фильтров на выходе кассет
помещаются жалюзийные поглотители, материал которы х избирательно
сорбирует некоторы е продукты деления.
Ц е н н ост ь этих предложений очевидна, но пока отсутствуют количест­
венные характеристики по испытаниям подобны х устройств на практике.
Н е сом н е н н а необходи м ость, экономическая и техническая целесообраз­
ность разработки устройств пробоотбора такого типа. Следует о т м е ­
тить, что применение подобны х устройств позволит существенно повы ­
сить достоверность контроля — все кассеты контролируются о д н ов р ем е н ­
но, в одних и т е х же термодинамических условиях. Безусл ов но, что и
эти предложения имеют свои недостатки (конструктивные трудности,
во зм ож н ос ть засорения фильтров и д р .) , но очевидные принципиальные
преимущ ества таких устройств требуют затраты сил на их разработку
для практического использования.
 854
Ж ЕРЕБИН

иода и цезия в пробах при

 I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H -5 855

ИЗМ ЕРЕНИЕ А К ТИ ВН ОС ТИ РЕПЕРНЫ Х ИЗОТОПОВ В П РОБАХ

Второй этап контроля Т В С заключается в измерении относительной

активности проб, главным об р а зо м ,п о изотопам йода-131 и 132, иногда
цезия-137, ксенона-133 или криптона-85 (в зависимости от времени,
прош едш его после остановки реактора, способа отбора проб и конкрет­
ной задачи контроля - выбирается количество реперных изотопов).
Принципиальная сторона методики измерения отдельного реперного
изотопа в смеси других активных продуктов в пробе не представляет
каких-либо трудностей. Качественны й изотопный состав пробы, как
правило, известен заранее и количество их в пробе невелико. С у щ е с т ­
вуют комплекты аппаратуры, позволяющие с достаточной точностью
проводить такие измерения для решения более сложных исследователь­
ских задач. Н о к м е тод а м и аппаратуре, используемым для ш татного
контроля в производственны х условиях А Э С , предъявляются свои спе­
цифические требования. П о наш ему мнению они заключаются в ни ж е­
следующем.
П огреш н ость относительны х измерений реперных изотопов должна
быть не более погрешности в представительности проб. По-видимому,
точности относительны х измерений в 5 % достаточно.
К ом пл екс измерительной аппаратуры должен иметь высокую надеж ­
ность, обеспечивающую бесперебойную работу в течение нескольких с у ­
ток, отвод им ы х на контроль Т В С , а также хорошую стабильность всего
измерительного тракта, легко контролируемую перед каж ды м и зм е р е ­
нием пробы.
Э ф ф е к т и в н ос ть регистрации реперного изотопа должна обеспечивать
проведение измерений в промеж утке м е ж д у поступлением проб (порядка
10 минут) с достаточной статистикой.
Комплекс приборов и аппаратуры должен обеспечивать измерение
реперного продукта на фоне примеси, превышающей на 2-3 порядка из­
м еряем ы й изотоп.
Резул ьтаты измерений должны непосредственно или после простей­
шей обработки давать сведения об активности пробы по реперному про­
дукту в промеж утках м еж д у поступлением проб.
Резул ьтаты измерений желательно иметь в ф о р м е , позволяющей
вводить их в Ц В М для окончательной обработки.
Приборы и аппаратура должны быть просты в наладке и обслужива­
нии. Р а бо та на них должна обеспечиваться 1-2 человеками техничес­
кого персонала средней квалификации.
К ак упоминалось выше, в практике контроля Т В С последнее время
используют различные методы выделения и измерения реперны х п ро­
дуктов в пробах. Наиболее совр ем енны м из методов является п римене­
ние германиево-литиевого гам м а - спектрометра. Но его эксплуатацион­
ные преимущества в условиях А Э С для измерений при контроле Т В С на
остановленном реакторе ставятся под сомнение, например, на А Э С
Райнсберг [ 6 ] . А в тор ы доклада [6], несколько лет использовавшие
германиево-литиевый спектрометр, пришли к выводу, что для измерений
проб достаточно использования гамма- спектрометрического детектора
с кристаллом N a J (Т1 ). Jîani опы т также подтверждает эту точку зрения.
Для определения концентрации изотопов отдельно йода-131 и 132,
а такж е цезия-137 в пробах при контроле Т В С на Ново-Воронеж ской А Э С ,
а такж е А Э С с реактором В К - 50 в М ел ек ессе нами использовалась м е ­
856 Ж ЕРЕБИН

тодика оперативного выделения йода и цезия на сорбенты за время п о ­

рядка 8 минут с последующей поизотопной радиометрией на обы чном ин­
тегральном дискриминаторе. В последнее время для выделения йода и
цезия из проб, применяется прибор автоматического радиохимического
выделения. На р и с .1 представлен комплекс аппаратуры, состоящий
из 3 - х приборов: блока автоматического выделения йода и цезия из
проб, сцинтилляционного гамма- спектрометрического датчика с встроен­
ны м реперны м источником для контроля стабильности и интегрального
дискриминатора с пересчетны м у стр ой ств ом . Как показал опыт эксплуа­
тации этого простого комплекса аппаратуры в производственны х усло­
виях А Э С — он вполне удовлетворяет перечисленным выше требованиям к
аппаратуре измерения проб в процессе контроля Т В С после остановки
реактора на перегрузку горю чего.

ВЫ В О ДЫ

Для штатного производственного контроля Т В С как во время пере­

грузки горючего, так и для контроля спустя значительное время после
остановки реактора , оптимальными м етод ам и и компл ексом оборудова­
ния м ож н о считать нижеследующие.
1 . Контроль Т В С необходимо проводить по изотопам:
а) спустя несколько дней после остановки реактора — по йоду-131
и 132, цезию-137 и ксенону-133;
б) по прошествии 20 дней и более после остановки — по йоду-131,
ксенону- 133, цезию-137 и криптону-85 (позднее 50-60 дней -
последние два изотопа).
2. Оборудование подготовки и отбора проб должно состоять из 3-4-х
пеналов с соответствующим стендом управления, позволяющим
автоматизировать весь цикл операций по подготовке и отбору
проб от каждой Т В С .
С точки зрения затраты времени такой вариант не является идеаль­
н ы м , но эта его отрицательная сторона вполне компенсируется выгодой,
полученной от повышения достоверности результатов контроля.
Желательно ускорение разработок, направленных на практическое
применение способов отбора проб одновременно от всех кассет еще на
работающем реакторе непосредственно перед его остановкой с целью
исключения трудоемких и неблагоприятных по радиационным условиям
операций отбора проб на откры том реакторе. При э том пенальное о б о ­
рудование целесообразно оставить, как резервное и для повторного
контроля.
3. Аппаратура для измерения проб должна включать:
а) автоматизированный прибор оперативного выделения йода
и цезия на сорбенты;
б) сцинтилляционный гамма-спектрометрический детектор с
контролем стабильности всего измерительного тракта для п о­
изотопной радиометрии сорбентов с выделенными йодом и цезием;
в) проточный детектор для измерения газообр азны х проб;
г) электронную измерительную установку с дискриминатором,
позволяющим менять уровень дискриминации через 1 % от всего
диапазона,и пересчетны м у с тр ой с тв ом . Аппаратура должна
иметь связь с Ц В М для введения информации и ее обработки.
 IA E A - S M - 1 6 8 / H - 5 857

Э т о т оптимальный комплекс оборудования и аппаратуры вполне, по

н а ш е м у мнению, м о ж е т обеспечивать контроль Т В С после остановки р е ­
акторов корпусного типа В В Э Р и В К в течение их многолетней эксплуа­
тации.

Л И Т Е Р А Т У Р А

[1 ] LO CKE, D . , N u c l .E n g . I n t e r n . , № 1 5 9 , 1 9 6 9 .
[2 ] K O H L E R , F . , K À S T N E R , R . , M E H N E R , H . C . , K e r n e n e r g ie , M a i, 1 9 7 0 .
[3 ] М А Р Ч Е Н К О , E . B . , Д о к л а д на с и м п о з и у м е С Э В по в о д н о м у р е ж и м у в о д о -в о д я н ы х
р е а к т о р о в , М о с к в а , а п р ел ь 1 9 6 8 г .
[4 ] O S B O R N , R . N . , N u c le o n ic s , v .1 9 , № 7 , 1 9 6 1 .
[5 ] C E J A , S . N . , D e te c tio n an d l o c a t i o n o f fa ile d fu e l e l e m e n t s , S y m p ., V ie n n a , IA E A ,
213, 1967.
[6 ] Ч И Р Н Е , Г . , К Е Л Е Р , Ф . , Д о к л а д на с и м п о з и у м е С Э В по в о д н о м у р е ж и м у в о д о ­
в о д я н ы х р е а к т о р о в , Ш т р а л ь зу н д , Г Д Р , м ай 1 9 7 2 г .
[7 ] Е Р М А К О В , Г . В . , А т о м н а я т е х н и к а з а р у б е ж о м , NS 4 , 1 9 7 0 .
[8 ] J A K O B S , I . М . , J O S E , S . , П а т е н т СШ А № 3 .1 7 8 .3 5 5 , к л . 1 7 6 - 1 9 , 1 9 5 8 .
[9 ] K R A E M E R , I . e t a l . , П а т е н т Ф Р Г № 1 2 0 0 .4 5 2 , к л . 2 1 , 1 9 6 0 .

D IS C U S S IO N

J . F U R E T : Could you state an o r d e r of m agnitude for the average time

required for the complete p rocedu re of localizing a fuel-element failure in
a light-water p o w er reactor without channels by the m ethod described (in
the case of m an ual w ater sam p ling). Y o u spoke of "s e v e r a l d a y s ".
E . A . Z H E R E B I N : After the cover of the reactor has been raised
6 or 7 days are required for checking all the fuel asse m blie s in the core.
P r e lim in a ry localization of the core regions with defective fuel elem ents
(see paper I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 3 )1 enables us to reduce this tim e. W h e n the
n u m b e r of regions containing defects is no m o r e than three to five, say,
the time required in practice is only one or two days.
R . M . B A L L : T h e Shippingport reactor in the United States of A m e r i c a
had an on-line sam pling system known as " F E D A L " w hich did not w o r k well,
and system s of that type are not us ed com m e rcia lly now.
P resen t practice is to use a detector for the whole p rim a r y w ater
sy stem , the principle of the detector being, for ex a m p le , delayed-neutron
or fission-gas detection. If a failure is noted, flux tilting is used to get a
general localization of the failed elem ent. After rem oval of the p re ssure
vessel head the individual elem ents are r e m o v e d and tested in a separate
container.
D . von H A E B L E R : In the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y the system s
m entioned by M r . Ball have also be en installed and u s ed in P W R s . A s the
delayed-neutron on-line m e a s u r in g channel has not so far indicated a dangerous
situation, w e think that continuous m onitoring is not n e c e s s a r y and that
periodic sam pling and analysis of the coolant is sufficient. T h e delayed-
neutron system will not therefore be installed in future plants.
T . O B A : T h e sipping m ethod of detection is not very effective w h e n the
reactor contains a large amount of crud as it is difficult to separate a
reference isotope such as 131I or 132I from the crud with any degree of
efficiency.

1 These Proceedings.
858 Ж ЕРЕБИН

J . G R A F T I E A U X : W it h respect to w ater reactors the experts from the

United States of A m e r i c a and the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y have been
speaking only about the detection of fuel-element failures due to fuel aging,
for w h ich s o m e kind of maintenance schedule is available. W h a t view do
they have on the detection of defects that develop rapidly, such as those
caused by initial faults in the fuel or local obstructions inthe cooling system ?
R . J . C O X : I think s o m e of the differences in the approach to the
detectioh of fuel-element failure in different countries can be explained as
follows. In F r a n c e and in the United Kin gdo m m ost of our experience has
b e e n with reactors that have uranium , m etal fuel cooled with C 0 2 gas, in
w h ic h the ch em ical reaction rate between the u ra n iu m metal and the coolant
can be very rapid once a sm all cladding fault appears. T h e fault can th ere­
fore take on serious proportions rather quickly. Another point is that the
M a g n o x reactors have facilities for changing fuel elements while the reactor
is on load, so that failed elem ents, once located, can be discharged quickly
without m u c h loss of p o w er generation.
In the United States of A m e r i c a and the F e d e r a l Republic of G e r m a n y ,
on the other hand, m ost of the experience has b e e n with reactors fuelled with
u r a n iu m oxide, in w hich the reaction rate betw een the fuel and w ater coolant
is quite slow. Faults do not develop rapidly and faulty fuel elem ents do not
need to be discharged quickly. M o re o v e r, fuel can be discharged only by
shutting do w n the reactor and rem o ving the cover of the p re ss u r e vessel.
T h is is a tim e- consum ing operation.
T h e s e differences m a y account for s o m e of the differences in outlook
w e have h eard today. F u r t h e r m o r e , I doubt w hether it is anybody1 s intention
to design new plants operating on fuel that reacts rapidly with the coolant;
and if I a m right about this, the F r e n c h views will perhaps m ove closer to
those that have prevailed.
D . E . A N D E R S O N : T h e Candu reactor has a n u m b e r of clear advantages:
it is loaded with oxide fuel, w hich is stable in water-cooled circuits, and
one can determ ine a p recise failure location by sam pling each channel indi­
vidually and m onitoring the sam p les by the delayed-neutron technique. T h e
fuel can then be re m o v e d by the fuelling m ach in es while the reactor is
operating at full p o w e r . T h is has been dem onstrated satisfactorily at the
D ouglas Point 2 2 0 - M W (e ) p o w er station.
H o w e v e r , these system s are costly. In large reactor units they could
im p o s e a severe m aintenance bu rd en on the operators. T h e delayed-neutron
system w a s not installed in the Pickering reactors, but it is being installed
in the B ru c e reactors.
T h e s e apparent changes in approach are associated with the changing
possibilities offered by the fuel as the p o w er density increases with new
reactor units. T h e long-term approach is to devote as m u c h effort as
possible to developing good fuel designs with sufficient operating m arg in s,
so that fuel monitoring system s will not be required in future designs.
B . S . P R A B H A K H A R : T h is question is a d d r es s ed p rim arily to
M r . A n d e r s o n of C a n a d a . A new system for the detection of failed fuel
elem ents, ba sed on the principle of the deposition of fission products on metal
coupons, has been introduced at the Pick ering station. I should like to hear
what C an ad ian experience of this system has been, and whether it is going
to be used in future Ca n ad ian stations.
D . E . A N D E R S O N : T h e D F P System w a s installed at Pick ering for the
detection of fuel-element failures, and w a s a rranged in such a w a y that it
 I A E A -S M -1 6 8 /H -5 859

could locate the failure to within 1 /1 2 of the reactor core. T h e system

operates satisfactorily as a bulk m onitor. In future w e plan to use a sim p ler
system than that installed at Pick ering — one designed for bulk m onitoring
only, not for failure localization.
J . F U R E T : Judging from papers I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 1 3 1 and H- 51 from the
Soviet U nio n and p aper I A E A - S M - 1 6 8 /A - 9 1 from the F e d e r a l Republic of
G e r m a n y , there are differences of opinion about the need for failed fuel
detection system s in light-water reactor c o res. O u r Soviet colleagues
have stressed the need for integrating the burst cladding detection instru­
mentation during the design and construction stages — and they have
e m p h a size d the im portance not only of general detection but of localization.
I m a y w ell be m istaken, but it s e e m s to m e that in other countries, particu­
larly in the United States and in the F e d e r a l Republic, no great em p h a sis is
being placed on this type of equipm ent.
It would be desirable for the builders of such plants (w ho in m an y
instances have very full o rder books) and the present or future operators
to s u m m a r i z e their view s in o rder to assist design ers. I would suggest that
they consider first the need for a general failed cladding detection system
(apart from the overall m e a s u r e m e n t .of p r im a r y circuit activity) and the
w a y in w h ic h the information obtained should be u s ed . Secondly, they should
present their ideas on the need for a localization system and its effect on the
availability of the p o w e r station.

1 A l l papers in these P roceedings.

 CHAIRMEN OF SESSIONS
Session A D. E. ANDERSON Canada
(Papers A - l to A - 6
and A -1 2 , A -13)
Session A F. VELONA Italy
(Papers A -7 to A - 11)
Session В W. BASTL Federal Republic of
(Papers B - l to B -4) Germany
Session В J. E. LUNDE Norway
(Papers B -6 to B -8 )
Session С R. E. UHRIG United States of A m erica
Session D J. A. GOLDER United Kingdom
(Papers D - l to D-5)
Session D P. STIRSKY C zechoslovak Socialist
(Papers D -6 to D -9) Republic
Session E J. R. COX United Kingdom
Session F P. E. BLOMBERG Sweden
Session G J. FURET France
(Papers G-00 to G-4)
Session G L . V . KONSTANTINOV USSR
(Papers G -5 to G -8)
Session H O. NISHINO Japan

SECRETARIAT
Scientific
Secretary: A. KEDDAR D ivision of N uclear Pow er
and R eactors, IAEA
Adm inistr ative
Secretary: Caroline DE MOL VAN Division of External
OTTERLOO R elations, IAEA
Editor: M onica KRIPPNER Division of Publications,
IAEA
R ecords O fficer: A. MACRAE D ivision of Languages and
P olicy-M aking Organs,
IAEA

861
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
A R G E N T IN A

Mayans, С .A. Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica,

Avda. del Libertador 8250,
Buenos Aires

A U S T R IA

Binner, W. Ósterr. Studiengesellschaft für Atomenergie.GmbH.,

Lenaugasse 10,
A -1082 Vienna

Nedelik, H.A. Osterr. Studiengesellschaft fur Atomenergie GmbH.,

Lenaugasse 10,
A -1082 Vienna

Vychytil, P. Bundesministerium ffir Gesundheit und Umweltschutz,

Stubenring 1,
A -1010 Vienna

Weiss, H. Atominstitut der Osterr. Hochschulen,

Schüttelstrasse 115,
A -1020 Vienna

B E L G IU M

De Donder, M. Belgonucléaire S . A .,
25, rue du Champ de Mars,
1050 Brussels

Stevens, L.J.E. Belgonucléaire S. A .,

25, rue du Champ de Mars,
1050 Brussels

B R A Z IL

Oliveira, L .A .Q . de Comiss2o Nacional de Energía Nuclear,

Rua General Severiano 90,
Rio de Janeiro

B U L G A R IA

Markov, A .M . Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

Rachev, A.S. Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

863
864 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Semov, A .M . Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,

Institute of Physics,
49 Iliya Philipov str.,
Sofia

Simeonov, I.I. Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

Stanev, N. Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

Vaptzarov, N.13. Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

Velikhov, N.N. Nuclear Power Station,

Kozloduj

CANADA

Anderson, D.E. Ontario Hydro,

Toronto, Ontario

Cloutier, P.M. Hydro-Quebec,

75, Dorchester W .,
Montreal, Que.

Molloy, T.J. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.,

Sheridan Park, Ontario

Pearson, A. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.,

Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories,
Chalk River, Ontario

Serdula, K.J. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.,

Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories,
Chalk River, Ontario

Yaremy, E.M. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.,

Sheridan Park, Ontario

CUBA

Portuondo Luna, P. Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas,

I o Avenida y 22 Miramar,
Havana

C Z E C H O S L O V A K S O C IA L IS T R E P U B L IC

Bastí, K. Energoprojet,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7

Be6var, J. §koda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 865

Bednafik, К Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Blaáek, J. Institute of Nuclear Research,

Йе2 near Prague

Borskÿ, М. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Brabenec, J TESLA-VÚPJT, PfemysTeni,

250 66 — p. Zdiby

Capek, M. Institute of Nuclear Research,

$ez near Prague

Cejnar, F. Laboratory of Radiological Dosimetry,

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Na Truhláfce 39/2a,
Prague 8

Chÿlek, Z. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Derian, L. Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission,

Slezská 9,
Prague 2

Dráb, F. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Frankl, M. Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7

Hájek, J. Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7

Haniger, L. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Havel, J. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Hefmanskÿ, B. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Engineering,

Kfemencova 10,
Prague 1

Holousovà, M. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Hrstka, V. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Hrusa, L, Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7
8 66 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Jambor, J. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bíehová 7,
Prague 1

Jech, V. Sez,
Jungmannova 29,
Prague 1

Kacetl, V . Research Institute for Automatization,

ul. 1. pluku 12a,
Prague 8-Kariin

Kadlec, J. Cez,
Jungmannova 29,
Prague 1

Karpeta, C . Power Research Institute,

Bëchovice near Prague

Koryëânek, J. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Brehová 7,
Prague 1

Kovanic, P. Institute of Theory of Information and of Automation,

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Vysehradská 49,
Prague 2

Kováf, Z . Laboratory of Radiological Dosimetry,

Czechoslovak Academ y of Sciences,
Na Truhlárce 3 9/2a ,
Prague 8

Кгбек, V . CEZ-ORGREZ,
Radias 18,
Brunn

Kuklík, B. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Kurka, J. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

M e d , F. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Melichar, Z . Power Research Institute EGU,

Jaslovské Bohunice near Tm ava

MiCkal, A . Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Morávek, J. Power Research Institute EGU,

Jaslovské Bohunice near Trnava

M ulak, J . Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 86 7

Novák, S. Power Research Institute EGÚ,

Jaslovske Bohunice near Tmava

Peíínka, К. Permanent Mission of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

to the International Atomic Energy Agency,
Penzingerstrasse 11-13,
1140 Vienna

Pfann, J. Institute of Nuclear Research,

near Prague

Pilât, M . Institute of Nuclear Research,

Rez near Prague

Plânovskÿ, L. Nuclear Power Plant A-l,

Jaslovské Bohunice near Tmava

Polívka, V . T E S L A -VÚPJT, Premysleni,

250 66 — p. Zdiby

Prokop, K . Ce z ,
Jungmannova 29,
Prague 1

Rosol, J. Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Roubal, S. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Rubek, J. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Rÿgi. J. Institute of Nuclear Research,

£ei near Prague

Saroch, V . Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Seda, J. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bfehová 7,
Prague 1

Semerád, J. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

S e v è i k , A .L . Ministry of Fuel and Power,

Stépánská 28,
Prague 1

Simânë, С . Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bfehová 7,
Prague 1

Simek, S. Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission,

Slezská 9,
Prague 2
8 68 LIST OF PARTI QPANTS

Spurnÿ, Z . Laboratory for Radiological Dosimetry,

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Na Truhláíce 39/2a,
Prague 8

Stehlík, J. Power Research Institute EG U ,

Jaslovské Bohunice near Tm ava

Stirskÿ, P. Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 1

Suráñ, V . Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7

Suransky, F. Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission,

Slezská 9,
Prague 2

Svec, V . Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bfehová 7,
Prague 1

Thom a, M . Institute of Theory of Information and of Automation,

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Vysehradská 49,
Prague 2

Tvrdík, J. Energoprojekt,
Bubenská 1,
Prague 7

Volf, K . Power Research Institute,

Partyzánská 7a,
Prague 7

Votruba, J. Ministry of Fuel and Power,

Stepánská 28,
Prague 1

Wagner, K . Skoda Nuclear Power Machinery Plant,

Pilsen

Wilhelmová, L. Laboratory of Radiological Dosimetry,

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences,
Na Truhláfce 3 9/2a ,
Prague 8

Záruba, P. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bfehová 7,
Prague 1

Z em an , J. Faculty of Nuclear Science and Physical Engineering,

Bfehová 7,
Prague 1
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 869

DENMARK

Els, H . Elsamkraft,
Kraftvaerksvej 43,
7000 Fredericia

Fitfslev, K . Elsamkraft,
Kraftvaerksvej 43,
7000 Fredericia

Pedersen, O . M . Danish AEC Research Establishment Ris^,

Electronics D e p t .,
4000 Roskilde

F IN L A N D

Aarnio, S .E . Ekono O y, E. Espl. 14,

Helsinki

Haapanen, P. Technical Research Centre of Finland,

Laboratory of Electrical Engineering,
02150 Otaniemi

Hurme, M . E . Finnatom L td.,

Aleksanterink 15 A ,
00100 Helsinki 10

Koponen, P .K . O y Nokia A b Electronics,

P .O . Box 10780,
00101 Helsinki 10

Masala, A . L . H . Imatran Voima Osakeyhtio,

P .O . Box 138,
00101 Helsinki 10

Saastamoinen, J.J. O y Nokia A b Electronics,

P .O . Box 10780,
00101 Helsinki 10

Salminen, P .T . Technical Research Centre of Finland,

Laboratory of Electrical Engineering,
02150 Otaniemi

Tuomi, P .O . O y Nokia A b Electronics,

P .O . Box 10780,
00101 Helsinki 10

Vatanen, S .V . Institute of Radiation Physics,

Department of Reactor Safety, PL 268,
00101 Helsinki 10

FRANCE

AillcJud, J. C E A , Centre d’ études nucléaires de Saclay,

В .P. № 2 ,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Artozoul, P. C E A , Centre d’ études nucléaires de Marcoule,

30-200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze
870 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Authier, J .C . Framatome,
77, rue du Mans,
92 Courbevoie

Brecy, J.P. Framatome,

77 rue du Mans,
92 Courbevoie

Caillet, C .P . C E A , Centre d’ études nucléaires de Saclay,

B .P . № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Chapelot, A .B . D C P , Centre d'études nucléaires de Saclay,

B .P . № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Decool, F. C E A , Centre d’ études nucléaires des Monts d'Arrée,

B.P. № 3,
29251 La Feuillée

Déroché, B. Électricité de France,

Etudes et recherches,
17, Avenue du Général de Gaulle,
92 Clamart

Furet, J. C É A , Centre d ’ études nucléaires de Saclay,

B .P . № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Gourdon, J. C E A , Centre d* études nucléaires de Cadarache,

B .P . № 1,
13115 St. Paul-lez-Durance

Graftieaux, J.P, C E A , Centre d'études nucléaires de Saclay,

B .P . № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Guerre, J. Merlin Gerin,

B .P . № 83,
Cedex, Grenoble

Heymann, M . SO G ER CA ,
20, av. Edouard Herriot,
92 Le-Plessis-Robinson

Jover, P. C E A , Centre d ’ études nucléaires de Saclay,

B .P . № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Langlade, R. Electricité de France,

1, rue de Messine,
75008 Paris

Lannou, L . M . Electricité de France,

2, rue Louis Murât,
Paris
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 871

Lecocq, P . A . L . Electricité de France,

Etudes et recherches,
6, Quai Watier,
78400 Chatou

Leroy, R. Electricité de France,

Service de la production thermique,
В .P. N e 23,
Avoine

Maltini, F. Framatome,
77 rue du Mars,
92400 Courbevoie

Masson, J .C . Electricité de France,

2, rue Louis Murat,
Paris

Quénée, R. C E A , Centre d'études nucléaires de Saclay,

В .P. № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Raymond, G . Merlin Gerin,

B .P . № 83,
Cedex, Grenoble

Roche, R. Electricité de France,

6, Quai Watier,
78400 Chatou

Saul, G . C E A , Centre d'études nucléaires de Marcoule,

30-200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze

Sueur, P. le Electricité de France,

Cedex № 8,
92 Paris-la-Défense

Tomachevsky, E.( j. C E A , Centre d’ études nucléaires de Saclay,

B.P. № 2,
91190 Gif-sur-Yvette

Wilmart, Y . H . M . Babcock-Atlantique,
4 8, rue de la Boétie,
Paris 8

GERMANY, F E D E R A L R E P U B L IC O F

Bastí, W . Laboratorium für Reaktorregelung und Anlagensicherung,

D-8046 Garching near Munich

Bauernfeind, V . Laboratorium fur Reaktorregelung und Anlagensicherung,

D-8046 Garching near Munich

Becker, W . Technischer Überwachungs-Verein Baden e. V . ,

Richard Wagnerstr.2,
D-6800 Mannheim

Brixy, H . Kemforschungsanlage Jülich,

D-517 Jülich
872 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Burghardt, J. Kraftwerk Union A G ,

Oskar-Sommer-Str. 15,
D-6 Frankfurt 70

Dio, W . H . Siemens A G ,
Abt. RT 13,
D-852 Erlangen

Dôbele, R. Gesellschaft für Kernforschung m bH ,

D-75 Karlsruhe 1

Edelmann, M . F . Gesellschaft für Kernforschung m bH,

D-75 Karlsruhe 1

Eggert, H . Institut fur Reaktorsicherheit,

Glockengasse 2,
D-5 Cologne

Floh, W . Technischer Uberwachungs-Verein Bayern e. V .

D-8 Munich 12

Frass, F. Kraftwerk Union A G ,

D-852 Erlangen

Gebureck, P. Institut für Kerntechnik,

Technische Universitat,
Davenstedterstr. 54,
D-3 Hanover

Geiger, K . M . Ministerium für Arbeit, Gesundheit und Sozialordnung

des Landes Baden-Württemberg in Stuttgart,
Rotebühlplatz 30,
D-7 Stuttgart 1

Glockel, R. Technischer Überwachungs-Vereín Bayern e. V . ,

D-8 Munich 12

Haebler. D . von Siemens A G ,

D-852 Erlangen

Heining, U . Rhein. -Westf. Elektrizitâtswerk A G ,

Kruppstr. 5,
D-43 Essen

Hoermann, H . Technische Universitât München,

Laboratorium fflr Reaktorstation,
D-8046 Garching near Munich

HCrning, H . W . Interatom G m b H ,
Fr. Ebertstr.,
D-506 Bensberg

Hottmann, D . Interatom G m b H ,
Fr. Ebertstr.,
D-506 Bensberg

Klein, D . Interatom G m b H ,
Fr. Ebertstr.,
D-506 Bensberg
 LIST OF PARTI CIPANTS

Müller, J. Institut für Reaktorsicherheit d. T Ü V e . V . ,

Glockengasse 2,
D-5 Cologne 1

Renk, K . D . Technischer Uberwachungsverein Norddeutschland,

Grasse Bahnstr. 31,
D-2 Hamburg 54

Robinson, E. Gesellschaft für Kernenergieverwertung in Schiffbau

und Schiffahrt m bH ,
D-2054 Geesthacht

Sartori, R. Rheinisch-WestfSlischer Technischer Überwachungs-

verein e . V . ,
Steubenstr.,
D-43 Essen

Schallopp, B. Büro Schallopp,

Ringstr. 71,
D-l Berlin 45

Stegemann, D . H . Institut für Kemtechnik,

Technische Universitát,
D-3 Hannover

Steiger, W . Gesellschaft für Kernforschung m bH ,

D-75 Karlsruhe 1

Stevens, H . H . Babcock-Brown Boveri Reaktor G m b H ,

Heppenheimerstr. 2 7/29,
D-68 Mannheim 41

Stute, H . M . Institut fur Reaktorsicherheit d. T Ü V e . V . ,

Glockengasse 2,
D-5 Cologne

Wechselberger, E, Kernkraftwerk-Betriebsges. m bH ,
D-7501 Leopoldshafen

Wintergerst, R. T Ü V Stuttgart e . V . ,
D-7 Stuttgart 1

Wolany, G . Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Wissenschaft,

Heussallee 2-10,
D-5300-Bonn

HUNGARY

Horányi, S. Central Research Institute for Physics,

P .O . Box 49,
H-1525 Budapest 114

Messing, G . Central Research Institute for Physics,

P .O . Box 49,
H-1525 Budapest 114

Zobor, E. Central Research Institute for Physics,

P .,0. Box 49,
H-1525 Budapest 114
874 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

IN D IA

Prabhakar, B .S . Department of Atomic Energy,

C S M Marg,
Bombay I

Surendar, C . Department of Atomic Energy,

C S M Marg,
Bombay I

IT A L Y

Colombo, A . Pan Electric,

P .O . Box 153,
Novara 2800

Giordano, P. C N E N , C S N - Casaccia,
Strada Anguillarese km 1300,
Rome

Mathis, A . C N E N , C S N - Casaccia,
Strada Anguillarese km 1300,
Rome

Noviello, L. ENEL-BCO,
Via G .B . Martini 3,
Rome

Torielli, E. SNAM-Progetti,
San Donato Milanese,
Milan

Velonâ, F. ENEL,
Via G .B . Martini 3,
Rome

Zappellini, G . CNEN,
Via R. Margherita 2 2 f
Rome

JAPAN

Izumi, S .I . Atomic Energy Research Laboratory,

Hitachi C o ., Ltd.,
Ozenji, Tama-ku,
Kawasaki, Kanagawa

Kato, Y . Hitachi Research Laboratory,

Hitachi C o . L td .,
4026 Kuji-cho, Hitachi-shi,
Ibaraki-ken,
Tokyo

Kawada, T . Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation,

9-13, 1-chôme,
Akasaka, Minato-ku,
Tokyo
 LIST OF PARTI QPANTS 875

M iyazawa, T . Research and Development Center of Tokyo Shibaura

Electric C o . L td.,
250, Suehiro-cho,
Kawasaki-City, Kanagawa Pref.

Nakamoto, K . Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation,

9-13, 1-chome,
Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo

Nakasa, H . Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry,

1229 Iwato,
Komae-shi, Tokyo

Nishino, O . Department of Nuclear Engineering,

University of Tokyo,
Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo

6ba, T . Tokyo Electric Power C o . ,

1-11-17 Sargaucho Higashikurume,
Tokyo

Ogushi, K . Fuji Electric C o . Ltd.,

1-1 Tanabeshinden,
Kawasaki, Kanagawa

NETHERLANDS

Beerens, A . A . Foxboro,
Koningsweg 30,
Soest

Berg, P .C . van den Reactor Centrum Nederland,

Westerduinweg 3,
Petten ( N . H . )

De Meulemeester, F .M . Reactor Centrum Nederland,

Westerduinweg 3,
Petten ( N . H . )

Putten, A . P . W . van der Reactor Centrum Nederland,

Westerduinweg 3,
Petten ( N . H . )

Termaat, K ,P . N .V. G .K .N .,
Utrechtseweg 310,
A rnhem

NORWAY

Grumbach, R. Institutt for Atomenergi,

O E C D Halden Reactor Project,
P .O . Box 173,
N-1751 Halden

Lunde, J . E. Institutt for Atomenergi,

O E C D Halden Reactor Project,
P .O . Box 173,
N-1751 Halden
876 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

POLAND

Bouzyk, J. Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock - 05-400

Ciechanowicz, W Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

áwierk, p. Otwock - 05-400

Czosnowski, S . W . Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology,

Miodowa 6 /8 , Warsaw

Drabik, J .K . Energoprojekt,
6-14 Krucza str.,
Warsaw

Dziakowski, E. Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

áwierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Felicki, J. Government Commissioner’ s Office for Nuclear Energy,

Paîac Kultury i Nauki,
Warsaw

Filipczak, W . Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. O t w o c k — 05-400

Glowacki, S. Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

éwierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Jabtocki, J. Energoprojekt,
6-14 Krucza str.,
Warsaw

Jabtoñski, К . Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock - 05-400

Janikowski, A . Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock - 05-400

Kaniewski, J. Instytut Badañ J§drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Latek, S. Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock- 05-400

M a Гек, T . Energoprojekt,
6-14 Krucza str.,
Warsaw

Mlicki, К . Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Ostrowski, A .R . Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

áwierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Poliak, J. Instytut Automatyki Systemów Energetycznych,

Ul. Wystawowa 1,
Warsaw

Szczechla, B. Instytut Badañ J^drowych,

Swierk, p . Otwock - 05-400
 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 877

Szulc, P. Instytut Badafi J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

Wiçckowski, R. Instytut Automatyki Systemów Energetycznych,

Ul. Wystawowa 1,
Warsaw

Zebura, S. Government Commissioner's Office for Nuclear Energy,

Paiac Kultury i Nauki,
Warsaw

Zieliñski, T . Instytut Badaft J^drowych,

Swierk, p. Otwock — 05-400

PORTUGAL

Cabral Fonseca, F .L . Junta de Energía Nuclear',

Laboratorio de Fisica e Engenharia Nucleares,
Estrada Nacional No. 10,
Sacavém

Rodrigues, J .F .S . C . Junta de Energia Nuclear,

A v . de República, 45-6°,
Lisbon

R O M A N IA

Vasilescu, M . Institute for Nuclear Technology,

P .O . Box 4615,
Bucharest

S P A IN

De Carlos, J.E. Junta de Energía Nuclear,

A v . Complutense 22,
Madrid 3

SWEDEN

Andersson, G .B . Swedish State Power Board,

S-16287 VSllingby

Blomberg, P .E . AB Atomenergi Studsvik,

S-61101 NykSping

Johansson, L .O . А В Atomenergi Studsvik,

S-61101 Nykóping

Sundén, D . Swedish State Power Board,

S-16287 VSllingby

S W IT Z E R L A N D

Stobbs, J . J . Nuclear Assurance C o.

Mainaustr.8,
CH-8008 Zurich
878 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

TURKEY

Yazgan, E. Çekm ece Nuclear Research and Training Center,

P .K . 1 Hava Alani,
Istanbul

U N IO N O F S O V IE T S O C IA L IS T R E P U B L IC S

Konstantinov, L. V. State Committee of Atomic Energy,

Staromonetnyi Per. 26,
Moscow

Kouvshinnikov, B .A . Mission of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

to the International Atomic Energy Agency,
Wohllebengasse 4,
A-1040 Vienna, Austria

Nikolaiev, V . D . State Committee of Atomic Energy,

Staromonetnyi Per. 26,
Moscow

Petrov, D .I . State Committee of Atomic Energy,

Staromonetnyi Per. 26,
Moscow

Z-herebin, E .A . State Scientific Research Institute of Instrumentation,

Moscow

U N IT E D K IN G D O M

Butterfield, M . U K A E A , Winfrith,
Dorchester, Dorset

Castle, J.R. Central Electricity Generating Board,

Courtenay House, Warwick Lane,
London, E .C . 4

Cox, R.J. U K A E A , Winfrith,

Dorchester, Dorset

Dixon, F. Central Electricity Generating Board,

Walden House, 34, Cathedral Place,
London, E .C . 4

Ellis, B .G . Central Electricity Generating Board,

Laud House, 20, Newgate Street,
London, E .C . 1

Golder, J .A . U K A E A , Reactor Group, Risley,

Warrington, Lancs.

Lowe, B. Ferranti L td ., Simonsway, Wythenshawe,

Manchester 22

Malins, B .H . Central Electricity Generating Board,

Sudbury House, Newgate Street,
London, E .C . 4
 LIST OF PARTI QPANTS 879

N eal, R. South o f Scotland E le ctricity Board,

Inverlair Avenue,
Glasgow S . 4 , Scotland

Sandiford, K . Department o f T rade and Industry,

Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, Tham es House South,
M illbank,
London, S .W . 1P4QJ

Souch, A .E . C entral E lectricity G enerating Board,

Berkeley N uclear Laboratories,
Berkeley, Glos. GL13 9PB

W ilson, I. UKAEA, W infrith,

Dorchester, Dorset

U N IT E D S T A T E S O F A M E R IC A

B all, R .M . Research and Developm ent Division,

Babcock and W ilcox C o . ,
P .O . Box 1260,
Lynchburg, V a. 24503

Dunn, M .J . Bechtel Corporation,

P .O . Box 3 9 65, U B - 12, A/19,
San Francisco, C a lif. 94119

K erlin , T .W . . University o f Tennessee,

K n oxv ille, T en n .

Uhrig, R. E. University o f Florida,

300 Joseph W eil H all,
G ainesville, F la . 32601

Y U G O S L A V IA

Kavsek, Z . Elektroprivreda -Z agreb,

Proleterskim Brigada 37,
4 1 .0 0 0 Zagreb

M avko, B. Institute J o ie f Stefan,

Jam ova 3 9 ,
Ljubljana

N a jie r , M . Institute Jo 2 e f Stefan,

Jam ova 39,
Ljubljana

S m ilja n ié , G. Institute Ruder Boskovié,

Bijenicka 54,
Zagreb

O R G A N IZ A T IO N S

CCE (C o m m is s io n des C o m m u n a u t é s Euro p éenn es)

Audoux, M .S . CCE, D irection G énérale des Affaires Industrielles,

Technologiques et Scientifiques,
2 0 0 , rue de la Loi,
B -1040 Brussels, Belgium
880 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Van R eijen , G. CCE, D irection G enérale des Affaires Industrielles,

Technologiques et Scientifiq ues,
2 0 0 , rue de la Loi,
B -1040 Brussels, Belgium

CMEA (Council for M utual and E c o n o m ic Assistance)

Korotkov, L .I . Counsellor, Division o f A tom ic U tilizatio n for Peaceful

Purposes, CMEA,
Prospekt K alinina 56,
Moscow, USSR

V ylkov, V .I . Expert, Division o f A tom ic Energy U tilizatio n for

Peaceful Purposes, CMEA,
Prospekt K alinina 56,
Moscow, USSR

FORATOM

Binner, W .* O sterreichische Studiengesellschaft für A tom energie GmbH,

Lenaugasse 10,
A -1082 V ienna, Austria

IA E A (International A to m ic E n e r g y Ag ency)

C h em ilin , Y . Deputy D irector G eneral, Departm ent o f T ech n ica l

Operations,
International A tom ic Energy Agency,
Kârntner Ring 11,
A -1 0 1 0 V ienna, Austria

K arger, J .P . Division o f N uclear Power and Reactors,

Departm ent o f T e ch n ica l Operations,
International A tom ic Energy Agency,
KSm tner Ring 11,
A -1 0 1 0 V ienna, Austria

IE C (International Electrotechnical C o m m is s io n )

Furet, j . * CEA, C entre d'étud es nucléaires de S a cla y ,

В .P . № 2 ,
91190 G if-su r-Y v ette

NEA (N uc lear E n e r g y Ag ency)

Stad ie, K .B . N uclear Energy Agency,

3 8 , boulevard Suchet,
75016 Paris, France

* S e e also under Austria

** S e e also under France
 AUTHOR INDEX
(including participants in discussions)

The numbers underlined in d icate the first page o f a paper by an author.

Other page numbers denote discussion com m ents

A k s e n o v , V . A . : 169 G odefroy , G . : £9
Anderso n, D . E . : 70, 121, 1 8 7 , G o lde r, J . A . : 4 4 9 , 4 6 0 , 544 , 569
2 5 4 , 858 G olubev, L . I. : 169
A ntonov, V . L . : 159 G oo din gs, A . : 819
A u d o u x , M . S . : 5 2 9 , 5 4 4 , 648 G o u rd o n , J . : 1 2 1 , 1 7 5 , 5 7 0 , 801
Bacconnet, E . : 769 Graftieaux, J. : 8 0 5 , 8 1 6 , 858
B all, R . M . : 70, 7 32, 8 0 1 , 857 G r u m b a c h , R. : 3 0 3 , 316
Bastí, W . : 211 , 4 4 9 , 716 G uro vich, V . Y a . : 683
Batenin, I. V . : 169 H a e b le r , D . von: _57, 69, 3 1 7 , 857
B auern feind, V . : 1 1 1 , 121 H a y a k a w a , S. : 587
B l o m s n e s , B . : 303 H e c k e r , R. : 637
B o riso v, Y u . A . : 169 H eining , U . : 2 1 3 , 218
B r ix y , H . : 6 3 7 , 648~ H o fm a n n , W . : 783
B u iss o n , J . : 503 H o e r m a n n , H . : 4 4 1 , 448
Burton, L . K . : 831 H o rá n yi, S. : 6 4 9 , 657
Butterfield, М . H . : 2 5 5 , 3 1 9 , 335 H o s h i, T . : 5 5 7 , 5 8 7 , 601
Chapelot, A . B . : 2 3 1 , 253 , 570 H u d d , W . H . R. : 831
C ie c h a n o w ic z, W . : 3 1 7 , 335 Iida, S. : 601
Cloutier, P . M . : 373 Inikhov, A . G . : 691
C o x , R . J . : 2 1 1 , 8 0 1 , 858. Janik ow sk i, A . : 6 9 9 , 7 0 8 , 843
C u m m i n s , J . D . : 319 Ja schik , W . : 783
Dauphin, G . : 769 Jeannot, A . : 231
D ec o o l, F . : 8 9 , 1 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 8 , 717 J e c h , V . : 217
D en iso v , V . K . : 683 J e r v is , M . W . : 71
D io , W . H . : 1 1 1 , 121 J ohansso n , L . O . : 801
D ix o n , F . : 2 1 J o v e r , P . : 3 1 6 , 3 5 7 , 708 , 717 ,
D u c h e n e , J. : 769 733
D u n n , M . J. : 5 4 5 , 569 Ka rp e ta , C . : 289
E d e l m a n n , M . F . : 3 5 7 , 5 6 9 , 571, K e d d a r , A . : 2_9
585 , 6 5 8 , 732 Kendall, J . D . : 373
E h r h a rd t, J . : 571 K e rlin , T . W . : 3 4 3 , 3 5 6 , 395
Ellis, B . G . : 4 5 1 7 459 K hy lek , Z . : 4 95
E m e ly a n o v , I . Y a . : 683 K is e le v , B . L . : 159
F o w l e r , E . P. : 513 K o lb , M . : 359
F u ret, J. : 2 1 0 7 3 1 6 , 4 4 8 , 524 , Konstantinov, L . V . : 70, 6 8 3 , 7 3 2 ,
5 8 5 , 7 0 8 , 7 3 2 , 857 801
G a r a p o v , E . F . : 691 K o s y c a r z , A . : 699
G a r io d , R . : 219 Kov an ic, P . : 399
G a s c , B . : 4 79 K ru g lo v , V . P . : 169
G e b u r e c k , P . : 783 K r z y c k i, A . : 699
G iard in o , P. : 265 Kuklik, B . : 4 95

881
8 82 AU TH O R INDEX

L a n g la d e , R . : 123 Prouteau , L . : 231

L a n n o u , L . : 6 1 3 , 633 Pu lac ci, A . : 265
L a w r e n c e , С . B , : 373 Putten, A . P . W . van d e r: 634
L e c o c q , P . : 613 R aschti, M . A . : 359
L e r o y , R . : 123 R in ts a rzh , J . : 843
L o m a k in , S. S . : 691 R o b in son , E . : 359
L o n g w o r th , J. P . : 831 R ou ba l, S. : 289
L o u r m e , P . : 89 R y zh o v , N . V . : 159
L o p u szin sk i, J. : 843 Sam o jlov, P . S. : 691
L o w e , B . : 1 5 1 , 158 Sam ojlov, S. N . : 169
L u n d e , J . E . : 69, 1 2 1 , 1 5 8 , 2 7 5 , Sartori, R . : 2 5 3 , 585
316 Seifritz, W . : 783
M a lin s , В . H . : 451 Sekiguchi, A . : 757
M a s s i e r , H . : 571 S e m e r a d , V . : 495
M a s s o n , J . C . : 613 Serdula, K . J. : 3 7 3 , 3 95, 569
M a t s u m iy a , M . : 5 5 7 , 587 S h ir a y a m a , S. : 757
M a tsun o , K . : 757 S im â n ë , С . : 5 2 4 , 633
M a tv ee v , V . V . : 159 Skatkin, V . M . : 159
M c M i n n , K . W . : 719 Souch, A . E . : 2 5 4 , 4 9 4 , 6 0 0 , 8 1 7 ,
M elic h a r , Z . : 8 1 7 , 843 831
M ic k a l, A . : 494 S tegem ann, D . H . : 342, 356, 544,
M i y a z a w a , T . : 5 5 7 , 569 569, 612, 657, 783, 801
M o c h izu k i, K . : 5 5 7 , 587 , 6 0 1 , 757 Stevens, H . H . : 7 5 5
M o n t m a y e u r , R . : 659 Stirsky, P . : 2 8 9
M o r a v e k , Y a . : 843 Term aat, K . P. : 743
N a g a n u m a , T . : 601 Tom achevsky, E . G . : 478, 4 7 9 ,
N a k a s a , H . : 4 6 1 , 478 494
N a k a m o to , K . : 5 5 7 , 6 0 1 , 612 T o ra ish i, A . : 757
Netland, K . : 275 T o u r n ie r , E . : 219
Novelli, P . : 265 U h rig , R . E . : 335, 3 3 9 , 342
Novi ello, L . : 2 1 1 , 2 1 8 , 449 V a n R e ijen , G . : 69, 1 1 0 , 4 6 0 ,
O b a , T . : 857 493, 755
O g u sh i, K . : 5 8 7 , 600 V a s n ie r , F . : 8 0 5
O h a n ia n , M . J. : 545 V elo n a, F . : 4 5 9
O s t ro w s k i, A . R , : 5 2 4 , 6 9 9 , 7 0 8 , 732 1 V erdant, R . : 7 6 9
Ov erh o ff, T . : 637 V o gel, K . : 5 7 1
0 v r e e id e , M . : 275 Volf, K . : 2 8 9
Pallagi, D . : 649 V uong Q u a n M a i : 2 1 9 , 7 1 1
P a l m g r e n , T . : 2 75 W eber, A. : 359
Panfilov, G . G . : 691 W ilk in s, K . :~ 8 3 1
P e a r s o n , A . : 648 W ils o n , I. : 5 1 3 , 5 2 4 , 7 1 7 , 7 1 9 ,
Petro v, V . I. ; 691 732
P in k , W . : 111 Yarem y, E . M . : 1 8 7 , 210
Pla ige , Y . : 2 1 9 , 711 Z h e r e b in , E . A . : 8 1 6 , 8 4 9 , 8 5 7
Postnikov, V . V . : 683 Zhernov, V . S . : 159
P r a b h a k a r , B . S . : 6 9 , 4 6 0 , 858 Zobor, E . : 4 09
 TRANSLITERATION LIST

В .А .А ксенов V . A . A ksen o v
В . Л .А н то н ов V . L . Antonov
И .В .Батенин I. V . Batenin
Ю . А .Бори сов Y u . A . B o risov
Э .Ф .Гарапов E . F . G a r ap o v
Л . И .Г о л у б е в L . I. Golubev
В .Я .Гурович V . Y a . Guro vich
В .К .Д енисов V . K . Den isov
И .Я .Емел ьянов I. Y a . E m e ly a n o v
Е . А . Жеребин E . A . Z h er eb in
В .С .Ж ернов V . S . Z h er n o v
А .Г .Инихов A . G . Inikhov
Б . Л .Киселев B . L . Kiselev
Л . В .Константинов L . V . Konstantinov
В .П .Круглов V . P . Kruglov
Б .Куклик B . Kuklik
С .С .Л ом аки н S. S. L o m a k in
Я . Лопушинский Ya. L opushinski (J. Lop u szin sk y )
В .В . М атвеев V . V . M atveev
3 . Меличар Z . M elichar
Я . М оравек Y a . M o ra v e c
Г . Г . Панфилов G . G . P a n filov
В .И .П етров V . I. Petrov
В .В .Постников V . V . Postnikov
Я . Ринцарж Y a . R in tsa rzh (J. Rintsarzh)
Н .В .Р ы ж о в N . V . R y zho v
П .С .Самойлов P . S. Sam ojlov
С . Н .Самойлов S. N . Samojlov
В .С ем е р а д V . Sem erad
В . М . Скаткин V . M . Skatkin
3 . Хылек Z . Khylek
А .Я н и к о в с к и й A . Yanikovski (A . Janikowski)

883
 INDEX OF PREPRINT SYMBOLS

Paper Symbol
Authors Page
IAEA-SM-168/

A-l von H aebler 57

A- 2 Jervis 71
A -3 Decool et al. 89
A-4 Bauernfeind et al. 111
A-5 L a n g la d e , L ero y 123
A-6 Lowe 151
A -l G ourdon 175
A-8 Y a r e m y , Andersen 187
A-9 Heining 213
A- 11 G a rio d et al. 219
A-12 Antonov et al. 159
A-13 A k s e n o v et al. 169
B-l Chapelot et al. 231
B-2 Butterfield 255
B-3 G iardano et al. 265
B-4 L u n d e et al. 275
B-6 K a rpeta et al. 289
B-7 G r u m b a c h , B lo m s n e s 303
B-8 C u m m i n s , Butterfield 319
C-0 U hrig 339
C-l Kerlin 343
C-2 Kolb et al. 359
C-3 Serdula et al. 373
D-l Kovanic 399
D-2 Zobor 4 09
D-3 H oerm ann 441
D-4 Ellis, M alins 451
D-5 N akasa 461
D-6 G a sc , Tom achevsky 479
D-7 Buisson 503
D-8 W ils o n , F o w ler 513
D-9 Kuklik et al. 495
E-l Audoux 529
E-2 M o chizuk i et al. 557
E-3 E d e lm a n n et al. 571
E-4 M o chizuk i et al. 587
E-5 M o chizuk i et al. 601
E-6 D u n n , Ohan ian 545
E-7 L e c o c q et al. 613
F-l B rixy et al. 637
F-2 Pallagi, Horányi 649
F-3 M o n tm ay eu r 659

885
LIST OF PREPRINT SYMBOLS

Authors Page

E m e ly a n o v et al. 683
G a r ap o v et al. 691
Janikowski et al. 699
Plaige, V uong Q u a n M a i 711
Goodings et al. 719
Jover 733
Term aat 743
M ochizuk i et al. 757
Bacconnet et al. 769
G eb u r ec k et al. 783
Graftieaux, V asn ie r 805
Goodings 819
Burton et al. 831
M elichar et al. 843
Zh ereb in 857
F uret 3
Keddar 29
 HOW TO ORDER IAEA PUBLICATIONS
Exclusive sales agents for IAEA publications, to whom all orders

■ and inquiries should be addressed, have been appointed

in the following countries:
U N IT E D K IN G D O M
U N IT E D STA TE S OF A M E R IC A
Her M ajesty's S tation ery O ffice , P.O. Box 569, L o ndon SE1 9N H
U N IP U B , Inc., P.O. Box 433, New Y o rk , N .Y . 10016

In the following countries IAEA publications may be purchased from the

■ sales agents or booksellers listed or through your

major local booksellers. Payment can be made in local
currency or with UNESCO coupons.

A R G E N T IN A Com isión N acional de Energía A tóm ica , A venida del L ib e rta d o r 8250,
Buenos Aires
A U S T R A L IA H unter P ublications, 58 A G ipps S treet, C ollingw o od, V ic to ria 3066
B E L G IU M O ffic e In te rn a tio n a l de Lib ra irie , 30, avenue M a rnix, Brussels 5
CANADA In fo rm a tio n Canada, 171 S later S treet, O ttaw a, O n t. K1 A OS 9
C.S.S.R. S .N .T .L ., Spálená 51, Prague 1
A lfa , Publishers, H urbanovo námestie 6, Bratislava
FR AN C E O ffic e In te rn a tio n a l de D ocum enta tion et Lib ra irie , 48, rue Gay-Lussac,
F-75 Paris 5E
HUNGARY K ultu ra , Hungarian T rading C om pany fo r B ooks and Newspapers,
P.O. Box 149, Budapest 62
IN D IA O x fo rd B ook and S tation ery Com p., 17, Park S treet, C alcutta 16
IS R A E L H eiliger and Co., 3, Nathan Strauss S tr., Jerusalem
IT A L Y L ibrería S cientifica, D o tt.d e Biasio L u cio "a e io u ",
V ia M eravigli 16, 1-20123 M ilan
JAPAN Maruzen C om pany, L td ., P.O. Box 5050. 100-31 T o k y o Interna tiona l
N ETHERLANDS Marinus N ijh o ff N .V ., Lange V o o rh o u t 9-11, P.O. Box 269, The Hague
P A K IS T A N M irza B ook Agency, 65, The M all, P.O. B ox 729, Lahore-3
P O LA N D A rs Polona. Céntrala H andlu Zagranicznego, K rakow skie Przedmiescie 7,
Warsaw
R O M A N IA C artim ex, 3-5 13 Decem brie S treet, P.O. B ox 134-135, Bucarest
SOUTH A F R IC A Van S chaik's B ookstore, P.O. Box 724, Pretoria
Universitas B ooks (P ty) L td ., P.O. Box 1557, Pretoria
SPAIN N autrónica, S .A., Pérez A yuso 16, M adrid-2
SWEDEN C.E. Fritzes Kungl. H ovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, S to ckh o lm 16
U.S.S.R. M ezhdunarodnaya Kniga, Smolenskaya-Sennaya 32-34, M oscow G-200
Y U G O S L A V IA Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, Belgrade

Orders from countries where sales agents have not yet been appointed and

■ #
requests for information should be addressed directly to:
Publishing Section,
V u "*5$ International Atomic Energy Agency,
Karntner Ring 11, P.O.Box 5 9 0 , A-1011 Vienna, Austria
 INTERNATIONAL
ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY
V IE N N A , 1973

PRICE: US $3 4.00 SUBJECT GROUP: V

A ustrian Schillings 714,- Reactors and N uclear P ow er/
(£13.50; F.Fr. 150,-; D M 94,-) Reactor Technology