DENSEMEDIUMSEPARATION

INTRODUCTION

Dense Medium Separation(DMS) is the primarymethod used within the diamondindustryfor the
concentrationof diamondbearingore and dense mediumcyclonesnow representthe major primary
concentratingequipment. To reducedownstreamoperatingand equipmentcosts,it is essentialthat
this concentrationstage should reject the maximum amount of low-densityore, in addition to
maintainingoptimumdlamondrecovery.Two main classesof separatorshave been used i.e' bath
forcetypes.The mainfocus of this documentwill be on the centrifugalforcetype DMS
and centrifugal
separator.Bathtype separators(staticcone separators)will be brieflydiscussed.

OverallDMS processefficiencycan be dividedinto ore separationefficiencyand ferrosiliconrecovery

efficiency.

Separationefficiencycomprisesof a numberof variables,such as recovery,proportionof concentrate

and proportionof misplacedmaterial.lt is not easy to measuresome of these parametersquicklyand
accurately.This meansthat other indirectcriteriamust be selectedto representseparationefficiency,
by which the processcan be controlled.lt is importantto differentiatebetweeninefficiencies due to
diamond losses and inefficienciesdue to the productionof a "bad quality" concentrate(high
percentageof misplacedfloat materialpresent).In orderto achieveoptimumefficiency,the qualityof
the concentrateneeds to be of a high standardwithoutany diamondlosses. lt is also importantto
note that a high yield does not necessarilyimply inefficientseparation.A cyclone can operate
efficientlybut if the heavymineralcontentof the feed is high,the yieldwill increaseaccordingly.

Ferrosilicon recoveryefficiencycan be monitoredby directmethodssuch as the ferrosiliconcontent

in effluentstreamsand indirectlyby recordingthe additionof ferrosiliconover a specificperiod.

OF OPERATIONAND MANAGEMENT
2. PRINCIPLES

2.1. Key TechnicalPrinciples

The DMS process is an intricateprocess with multiplevariablesthat are dependentor

independentof each other. Decidingof what actionto take in controllingthe DMS process
which can be utilised,
can be problematic.There are certainintuitivelyobviousrelationships
such as the dependenceof the recoveryand proportionof concentrateproducedupon the
feed medium SG. However, an elementary, manual feedback strategy utilising such
relationshipscannot be performedcontinuously,and the operationof the DMS therefore
dependsupon subjective,indirectmethodsto controlthe separationefficiency.Key elements
that need to be monitoredare the mediumproperties,ore properties,operationalparameters
and the physicalequipmentproperties.

The DMS can be dividedintotwo areas:

The materialflow circuit is where the ore from the preparationsection is mixed with the
followedby separationwithinthe dense mediumcycloneand medium
medium(ferrosilicon),

7-1
 removalafter separation.The materialreports to a sink (concentrate)or a float (tailings;
section.The medium flow circuitcan be divided into a correct medium circuitand a dilute
medium circuit. The dilute medium circuit consists primarilyof ferrosiliconrecovery anc
contaminantsremoval.Effluentfrom the float and sink washingscreensreportsto the dilute
mediumcircuitwherethe ferrosiliconis recoveredvia magneticdrum separatorsand recyclec
back to the correctmedium circuit.The correctmedium circuitconsistsof the densification
circuitand the mixingof correctmediumwith ore. The reologyof the correctmediumdepends
on the mediumproperties,and is diagnosticof the densityseparation.

2.2. Managementlssues

In order to achieve maximum DMS efficiency,the following key propertiesneed to be

managedclosely:

MediumProoerties

Ore Properties

Materialfeedrate
Ore feed size
Qualityof ore preparationbeforeDMS treatment
Ore characteristics

OperationalParameters

PhysicalDM CycloneProperties

7- 2
 Magnetic drum separator performance(influencedby pickup gap, discharge gap,
magnetposition, and magneticloading)
volumetric

contentof magneticseparatoreffluent
Ferrosilicon
Productscreenadhesionlosses(determinedby screenvelocity,screentime, bed depth'
wash water,ore porosityand shaPe)

Ferrosiliconadditionover a period expressedas gram ferrosiliconconsumedper ton

DMS feed treated.

Housekeeping
Corrosion.

TYPICALEFFICIENCIES

3 . 1 . SeparationEfficiency

3.1.1. Methods

There are three main approaches in determiningthe actual process separation

efficiency:

. Densimetricanalysisof the concentrate

. Tracer test with tracersof known density
o Auditingthe tailingsstreamfor possiblediamondlosses

The first two methods are more instantaneousmethods of determiningseparation

efficiency.The third method has a more extended turn-aroundtime and should
thereforebe conductedon an ad hoc basisas to confirmresultsobtainedfrom the first
two methods.

Althoughthe tracer method is a well-established techniqueto determineefficiency,it

should be emphasized that this procedure(usually conductedwithoutore feed) can
only provide the operator with an approximate indication of the separation
characteristics.For a true reflectionof performancewith real feed at operating
tonnages,there is no alternativeto the collectionof representative feed and product
sarples for densimetricanalysisin a range of sizes.Althoughthe densimetricanalysis
is a more accuratemeasureof the "quality"of the concentrate,the tracer method is
commonlyutilisedwithin the diamond industry.A densimetricanalysis involvesthe
utilisationof hazardousheavyliquids,which requirespecialprecautions.

A tracertest is usuallyconductedwith densitytracers.A full tracertest e"ncompasses a

test with densitytraiers varying in density from 2.9 Vm" to 3.53 Vm", which is the
densitvof a diamond.A routineGst can be conductedwith tracersof only two densities
namely3.3 Um3and 3.53 Um3.The lattertest is only an indicativetest whetherdiamond
lossesoccuror not, it does not determinecycloneseparationefficiency,as with the full
tracertest.

The efficiencyof the dense mediumcycloneis generallyexpressedin terms of size-by-

size oartitroncurves.These curvesdescribethe proportionof feed materialof a given

7- 3
 size and densitythat reportsto one or other product(sink or float). This separation
curveis also knownas a Tromp curve.The Tromp curveis illustrated'in Figure l.

SEPARATIONCURVE

100

90 I
80

70 A,
'6 /
60

1 s o /
:<

I
; 4 0

30
:_L
20

10 -/'1
0
sG25 SG50 sc75

Figure 1: Tromp cunle

From this curve the SGso and the Ep values are determined.The SG5e value
(commonlyreferredto as the cut-point)is the pointwhere all particleswith this
specific
density,have an equal chance(50% probability)of reportingeitherto sinks or to floats
The Ep (Ecart ProbableMoyen)value (commonlyre'ferredto as the efficiencyor the
sharpnessof separation)can be calculatedby meansof the followingequation:

SG"-L9t'
Eo:
z

The EcartProbableMoyen(Ep) value gives an indicationof the misplacedmaterial.A

perfectseparationis representedby a verticalline at the separationdensity,Ep = 0
HigherEp values indicateless efficientseparators,but for most separationsine center
portionof the curve approximatesa straightline. A cut-pointof g.tS
Vm3and an Ep
valueof less than 0.05 will representa satisfactorily
operaiingcyclone.

3.1.2. Application

Sincea tracertest is the preferredmethodwithina productionenvironmentto establish

the cycloneefficiencyquicklyand relativelyaccurately,this methodwill be discussed
further.

ldeally,one must conducta tracertest with tracerssimilarin size to that of the average
diamondrecovered.Usuallythe averagesize diamondrecoveredis less than 1 mh
(square mesh). Conducting a tracer test with 2 mm or smaller tracers can
be
problematic,as the tracersare difficultto recoverand "hangup" withinthe circuit.
practicalpoint of view, it is suggestedto utilise 2 mm tracers only as an
from a
indicationthat diamondlossesdo not occur in the fine size ranges.Togetherwith this.
4 mm tracerscan be utilisedto establisha relativecut point anO fp vJlue. lf changes

7-4
 are madeto the cycloneor wear partsare replaced,a full tracertest can be conducted
with the 4 mm tracers.Since a relativecut point and Ep value has been established
with the 4 mm tracers,it will be possibleto determinewhetherthe cycloneperformance
has been enhancedor not. The effectof each operationalparametercan be linkedto
the separationcurve.

It is very difficultto recovertracers if the test is conductedwith feed. A tracer test is

usuallyconductedwithoutfeed, only with mediumflow. The tracersare introducedto
the medium at the mixing box at a specificmedium density and cyclonefeed inlet
pressure.After it has passedthroughthe cyclone,it is recoveredon the float and sink
screensrespectively. Althoughthere is a theoreticalnumberof tracersthat have to be
addedto make the test 95% representative, this is not always practical.One hundred
tracersof each densityrange give a fairly representative indicationof the separation
efficiency.

Sincethe tracertest is an indirectmethodto establishefficiency,it is necessaryto audit

the DMS tailingsstream on an ad hoc basis as to verify that diamondlosses do not
occur. Althougha,bulk sample will give an indicationof efficiency,it is advisableto
have an automatic sampler on the tailings stream. Once the sample has been
accumulated,it can be audited.This will give a betterindicationof processefficiency.
The auditingmethod or diamond loss is usually expressedin terms of carats per
hundredton tailings.This figure will vary from mine to mine, as it is dependentupon
manyfactors.

3.2. MediumConsumptionEfficiency

The mediumcommonlyutilisedwithinthe diamondindustryto recoverdiamondsin a dense

mediumis ferrosilicon.Ferrosiliconconsumptionhas been one of the main key performance
indicatorswithinthe industryand ongoingeffortsare beingmade to minimisethe consumption
of this costlyreagent.

Ferrosiliconconsumptioncan be minimisedby maximisingwashingon the float and sink

screens as well as by optimisingthe performanceof the magnetic separator. Magnetic
separatorstend to be overlookedby both maintenanceand metallurgicalpersonnel. The
physicalsettingson the machineshouldbe monitored,as these are usuallyincorrectlyset. This
is in extremelyrobustmachineand inferiorrecoveriesare usuallya resultof settingsfar from
thosespecifiedby the manufacturer.

3.2.1. Methods

lossesin operatingplantscan be dividedintofive main groups:

Ferrosilicon

. Adhesionlosses- ferrosiliconstill adheringto the float and sink screen products

(factorsto considerare the amount and quality of wash water, screen velocity,
screen ore bed depth, screeningtime, medium adhesion prior to washing, ore
porosity,ore size and the propertiesof dense medium). Highlyporousores could
resultin excessiveadhesionlosses.

. Magneticlosses- ferrosiliconlost in effluentstreams

. losses
Housekeeping
. Corrosionlosses
. Lossesdue to inferiorferrosilicon

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 Of these the adhesion and effluent losses are generally the most significant
lossesare frequentlythe largestsinglecomponentof the operatingcostsof
Ferrosilicon
densemediumplants,amountingto 10-4oo/o of dense mediumplantoperatingcosts.

The mediumrecoverycircuithas three distinctfunctions- those of medium recovery'

and mediumcleaning.
mediumdensification

recoveryis usuallymonitoredon a daily basis by samplingthe float screen

Ferrosilicon
productand the magneticseparatoreffluent.The resultsreceivedfrom these samples
can highlight possible abnormalitiesfairly quickly, which can receive immediate
attention.

Ferrosiliconconsumptionhas always been a key performanceindicatorfor any DMS

plant.This is usuallyexpressedin terms of gram ferrosiliconconsumedper ton DMS
feed treated.This figure is calculatedby dividingthe cumulatedferrosiliconaddition
over a periodof time by the tonnageof DMS feed over the same periodof time. This
figurewill vary from plantto plant.

3.2.2. Application

ln orderto establishthe ferrosiliconrecoverycircuitefficiency,a representative sample

of the floatscreensproduct as well as the magneticdrum separator effluentis required
on a daily basis as to determinethe gram ferrosilrconper ton tailingsor per volume
effluent. The turn-aroundtime of these samples is fairly quick and can induce
immediateattention.

The actual ferrosiliconconsumptionin terms of gram ferrosiliconconsumed per ton

DMS feed can give an indicationof long term consumptionrates.A specifictype of ore
can perhaps be more porous,absorbingmore ferrosilicon,which leads to a higher
consumDtion rate.

4. OPERATINGCONDITIONS

4.1. SeparationEfficiency- CentrifugalType Separators(Cyclones)

Separationefficiency can only be maximised by constant monitoringof the operational

parameters.However,it must be notedthat if the overallDMS and cycloneconfigurationis not
correct(misalignmentof parts,cyclonemodule imbalances,excessivelyworn parts etc.), any
monitoringof farameterswill not ensuremaximumefficiency.The basicsmust be right before
otherparameterscan be optimised.

4.1.1. Cyclone "Suite of Parameters"

As mentionedabove,the basic setupof the DM cyclonehas to be correct.lf this is not

the case, all efforts down the line in maximisingefficiencywill be compromised.
Recommendedcycloneconfigurationparametersare listedbelow:

4.1.1.1. CycloneDiameter

The major role of cyclone diameter is the effect that it has on centrifugal
acceleration. Higher accelerationsare required for finer particles in an

7-6
attempt to overcome the drop in separationefficiencyas a function of
decreasingparticlesize. The cyclonediameterselectedwill in-turnstipulate
the minimumoperatinghead, maximumparticlefeed size and the resultant
volumetriccapacity.

Larqe diameter cvclones

Particlesizes of up to 100 mm can be treatedusing large diametercyclones

while retaining the efficiencies associated with conventional cyclone
operation. Indeed, results show that Ep values obtained for bath type
separatorsare inferiorto those obtainedfrom a cycloneseparatortreating
coarsersizefractions.

Two problems arise when treating finer materialthrough large diameter

cyclones,namely a drop in separationefficiencyand a shift in cutpoint.
Smallerdiametercyclones,resultingin highercentrifugalforces,have been
used to overcomethis problem. A furtherproblemresultingfrom the use of
large diametercyclonesis the reductionin relativespigot capacity(spigot
capacityrelativeto cyclonefeed volume). The cost of cyclonesand volume
of media requiredcould increasewhen using large diameter cyclones in
applicationsthat are spigotcapacitycontrolled. Largerspigotsare supplied
for applicationswhere spigot capacity is a constraint. The larger spigot
allows for a 30% increasecapacitywhen comparedto a standardspigot.
Coarseparticlehang up withinthe cycloneis reducedwith the use of larger
spigotsthereby reducingthe excessivewear associatedwith particlehang
uD.

The increasein cyclonepulp capacityand particletop size when using large

diameter cyclones (800 mm and 1000 mm) when compared to small
diametercyclones(350 mm) can be seen in the followingtable:

Table 1: Large Diameter Cyclones

Cyclonediameter Pulpcapacity(m"/h) Topsize(mm)

(mm)
350 60 25
800 (smallinlet) 418 55
800 (largeinlet) 627 85
1000(smallinlet) 690 70
1000(largeinlet) 1080 105

Additionaladvantagesassociatedwith the use of large diametercyclones

are:

. The use of a coarser grade of ferrosilicon when compared to

conventionalcyclones while still maintainingmedia stability. Hence,
reducedoverallmedialossesoccur.

. Simplicityof the dense medium circuit. Fewer cyclones per module

resultingin a more equalfeed distribution.

7-7
4.1.1.2. BarrelLength

. An increasein barrellength has the same effectas narrowingthe corie

angle of the cyclone. lt has been noted that a decreasein cone angte
from 20' to 15" resultedin a 16% increasein capacitywhile an increase
in barrel length from O.7D to 1.5D resulted in a 107o increase
throughput

4.1"1.3. VoftexFinder

There is an optimumvortexfinder lengthfor maximumseparationefficiency

(0.54D or 0.77 times the barrel length).An excessivelylong vortex finder
reducesthe capacityof the cyclone without any apparentimprovementin
cyclone efficiency. lf the vortex finder is too short, short-circuitingis
increased.

For normalplantoperationsthe vortexfinderdiametershouldbe 0.43D. For

extremely fine separationsthis ratio should 0.143D (not applicable tc
diamondprocessing).

4.1.1.4. lnlet

The inlet diametercan vary between 0.2D to 0.27D. The larger inlet wili
resultin an increasedcyclonecapacityand a reducedwear rate in the barrel
sectionof the cyclone. Cyclonesare suppliedwith rectangular,square or
circulartangentialfeed openings. Involute inlets (rectangularor sQUarar
result in reduced inlet turbulence(+ 40%), higher density differentialsanc
increasedcapacities. Generallystated, "involute"designsgive moderately
higher differentials in comparison to the "tangential" designs, bui
deteriorationin efficiencyalso startsat a higherdifferential.

The top of the inlet should be flush with the roof of the cycloneto eliminate
any "deadspace"which assistsin shortcircuitingand particlehang-up.

Increasing
the openingsize:

. Increasesthe cyclonethroughput
. Increasesthe densitydifferential
o Increasesthe cycloneseparationefficiencyto an optimumfollowedby a
reductionin separationefficiency.

The lengthof the inletextensionshouldbe at leastseven times the effective

diameterof the inlet.

4.1.1.5. SpigotDiameter

Spigot diameters range from 0.2D to 0.3D depending on the cyclone

diameter (recommendedmaximum to 0.25D). Spigots must be regularly
inspectedand changedafter 3 to 6 mm wear in diameter. Increasingthe
spigotdiameter:

o Increasesthe cyclonethroughput. The smallerthe spigotdiameter,the

higherthe cut densityand the lower the spigotcapacity. Largerspigots

7- B
 reduce particlehang-upwithin the cone section of a cyclone and the
resultant wear rate. However, the increase in spigot diameter is
associatedwith a reductionin separationefficiencyand hencecufpoint.

the densitvdifferential

4.1 1 6 ;",::;s

The standard cone angle used in dense medium cyclones is 20'. A

reductionin cone anglewill resultin an increasein particleresidencetime.

4.1.1.7. CycloneComponents

Alignmentof parts: When the cyclone is installedor parts of it are being

replaced,the danger arises that some of the parts can be miss-aligned.
Alwaysensurethat the alignmentis correctand verifythe performanceof the
cyclonewfth a tracer test after alterations.

4.1.2. Medium Density

The positionof the partitioncurve is mainly determinedby the cut-point,with the

viscosityand stabilityeffectingthe shape of the curve. The density is monitored
continuouslyby means of an onlinedensitometer(nuclearor magnetic).ffre medium
densitymust be.stablewithoutmajor fluctuations.This can be achievedby settingup
the controlcircuitcorrectly.The densitometermust not be far from the correctmedium
pump dischargeas to allowfor fast reactiontimes.Dilutionwatercan be added direcly
to the correctmediumsump or to the correctmedium pump suctionend via a control
valve.Continuousand effectivedensificationis also essential. lt is recommendedthat
the feed pulp densitybe equalto that of the densityof the ore beingtreated.

It is also importantto verify the readingsfrom the automaticdensity meter with a

manualmeasureof densityat regularintervals.Diamondlossescan occurif the density
is higherthanthe readingon the densitometer.

It is importantnot to operatewith too high a mediumdensity,as this will increasethe

percentageof misplaced material resulting in possible diamond losses. Normal
operationalmediumdensitiesvary between2.40 SG and 2.70 SG.

4.1.2.1. On-LineNon-ContactNuclearGauges

Although these devices involve slightly higher capital costs, they have
nonethelessprovenextremelycost efficient.The mainreasonsare:

. Long lifeexpectancy
. Simpleand quickmaintenance
o Solid-statesensingand actuationof the process

A nucleartype density gauge works on the principleof the absorptionof

gamma rays by mass interposedbetweenthe sourceand the detector. lf the
slurry density increases,fewer gamma rays will reach the detector,thus
indicatinggreater mass. The gamma rays emitted from the source are
usuallycollimatedinto a narrowbeam passingthroughthe centerof the pipe
only.

7- 9
 There are three main types of radiationdevices in use today;the phola
multiplieriscintillatorcounter, the Geiger Muller tube and the ionisatioe
chamber.

whether consideringnatural or man-made radioactiveisotopes,there

are
three main types of radiationenergy emitted from an isotope during
c
naturalprocessof decay,namely:

' Alpha- particleemissionconsistingof two protonsand two neutrons

r Beta- electronemissiononly
. Gamma - this radioactiveemissionis similarto that of radio and ligh
waves in that it is basically electromagneticin form, although oi
a
differentmagnitudeof frequency. This llectromagnetic radiationalsc
exhibits particle acceleration characteristics,the particles beins
termedphotons.
,commonly
see rable 2 for the energyleveland half-lifeof severalradioactivesources.

Table 2 : Energy Level and Hatf-Life of several Radioactive sources

lsotope Energy Half-life

Americium(Am241) oo 455
Caesium(Cs 137) 660 33
Cobalt(Co 60) 1250 5.5
Radium(Ra 226) 1500 1620

4.1.2.2. Safety

Radiationdose is defined as the measure of radiationabsorbed in

a unrl
volumeof materialat a prescribeddistance,and is commonlyexpressed
in
rontgens(R).9rcoulombs/kg (C/kg). For practicaluse the ,nit is
1rill stil a
standard unit when appreciatingisotope emissions. The South African
EnergyCorporation,which followsthe UnitedStatesof America,allows non-
radiationworkers (general public) to operate in a radiationfield of
O.2S
mR/hr,eight hours per day and five days per week, i.e. a totarof 1OmR
oer
week accumulated.Radiationworkersare allowedten times more, i.e.
1.5
mR/hrfor 40 hoursper week i.e. ,100mR per week.

4.1.2.3. Requirementfor Accurate DensitvMeasurement

. Flow profileswill affectthe accuracyof a densitygauge. For best results.

fix the gauge heads to a verticalpipe in which-t[erJis an upwardsflow
having a straight rine approach for approximateryten pipe diameters
beforeenteringthe sectionwherethe densitygaugeis rocaied.

r Absorption of gamma rays is proportionateto the interveningmass.

Density measurementis therefore onry possibrewhen the vorume is
constant. For this reason the pipe must be full at the point of
measurementand must be of rigidconstruction.

7-10
 Aeration(air bubbles)is a commonfault which has detrimentaleffectson
densitygaugesand is not easilynoticed.Air is suckedintothe pump due
to poor sealsor cavitation.Sump level controlplus correctlydesignedin-
flowswillcurethis problem.

Pipe scaling may also result in incorrectdensity readings. Increased

slurryvelocitywill assistin preventingscale build-up. Pipe scalingaffects
the densitygaugethe followingways:

. The pipe wall thickness is increased causing greater radiation

absorption,
and

. The effectivepipe inner diameter is reduced,thus decreasingthe

sensitivityof the gauge.

Pipe wear is often encounteredwhere coarseslurriesare pumped. The

effecton the densitygauge is oppositeto that of scaling. Periodicdensity
gauge standardisation will keep the gauge within reasonablecalibration
limits,but calibrationchecksshouldbe done from time to time.

Particlesize effectsare encounteredwith coarse slurries,but is seldom

problematicunlessthe particlebecomesbig enoughto the point where it
no longer travels at the liquid velocity. A complete change in size
distributionmay causea smallcalibrationshift.

Calibrationwill determinethe absoluteaccuracyof a densitygauge. lt

therefore imperative that it must be fairly convenient to draw
representativesamples from the process line. These samples should
coverthe entireworkingrange,which necessitateschangingthe process
densityand holdingit steadyfor a long enoughperiodto read the gauge
and take a few samples.

The source decay will cause a slow change in the calibrationof the
density gauge. This change commensuratewith other slow changes
taking place in the electronicsystem as well as pipe wear or scaling,
resultsin the needfor "standardisation".

Standardisation is achievedby interposinga standardlead block between

sourceand detectorand settingthe densitygaugeup to readthe same as
the originalreadings. Duringthe standardisation procedure,the process
pipe must be empty to ensure compensationfor either pipe wear or
scalingas well. The requiredfrequencyof standardisation is determined
by the applicationconditions,varyingfrom one to four times a year for
units with built in sourcecompensation.Older analogequipmentmay
requirestandardisation up to twentytimes per year.

Standardisationis not sufficientto ensure the maintenanceof accuracy,

being a single point calibrationcheck. The next step is to check the
instrument'sspan. Standard practice involvestaking manual density
samplesfrom the process line preferablyclose to the extremesof the
measurement range(upperand lowerlimit).

Refer to the manufacturer'scalibrationguide for details pertainingto the

following:

'7
1,1
, - l l
 . Densitysensorassembly
. UNIPROtransmitter
. Standardisation
. Theoreticalcalibration
. Two pointcalibration
. Absorberset-uo
. Calibrationchecks

4.1.3. Medium Viscosity

Mediumviscosityhas always been recognisedas an importantprocessvariable.The

influenceof medium viscosity is complex because it controls the separationboth
directly,throughits influenceover particlemotions,and indirectly,throughits effector
the mediumbehaviourwithinthe cyclonewhich in turn influencesseparation.The effec
of higherviscosityis known to be detrimental,reducingthe qualityof separationanc
also affectingthe densityof separation.High viscositiesreducethe velocityof minerai
particlesbeing separated,increasingthe chance of particlemisplacementand thus
reducingthe efficiencyof the separation.

shape and size distributionof the

Viscosityis largelydeterminedby the concentration,
solidsmakingup the medium. Viscosityvarieswith the rate of shearand thereforecan
only be fully definedthrougha shear rate-shearstress flow curve. For convenience
however viscosity is usually defined at a particularshear rate, which has some
relevanceto the orocessunderconsideration.

An increasein mediumviscosityis usuallya result of a high percentageof ultra fine

contaminants presentin the medium.lf a nucleardensitometer is utilised,the density
will be adverselyaffectedas the nucleardensitometerdeterminesthe mediumdensity'
by the amountof solidspresentin a specificvolumeof medium.The densityof an ultra
fine clay particle is less than a ferrosilicon particle. Thus, if the percentage
contaminantsare excessivelyhigh, the densitometercan give a false reading(higher
than the actual density if measured by means of a density scale). Determining
quantitatively the influenceof viscosityon separationhas alwaysbeen difficultbecause
of the difficultyof measuringviscosityon line,and of decouplingthe effectsof viscosiry*
from other variables,in particularmediumdensity.lt is also difficultto controlviscosity
directlythrough any one fast-responsecontrol action. The measurementof mediurr
viscosity is made difficult by the necessityof maintainingthe solid particlesin a
homogeneoussuspensionwhile the measurementis being made. The majorityof
viscometersmeasure the resistivedrag force, or the effect of drag, in one way or
another. Usuallythe viscosityis managedby selectingthe correctoperatingconditions
(correctmedium grade, controlof medium densityand minimisationof contaminants
enteringthe medium circuit). In practicea criticalvalue of pulp density is reachec
beyondwhich the viscosityrises sharply. lt is inadvisableto use any given grade in
any applicationin the regionbeyondthis criticalpoint as a small increasein mediurr
contaminantswill resultin a dramaticrise in mediumviscosity,with deleteriouseffects
on separationand pumpingcharacteristics.

A high viscosityresultsfrom:

r Highmediumdensity
r Fine particlesize distribution(fineferrosilicon)

7-12
 . lrregularshapedparticles(milledferrosilicongrade)
. The presenceof low densitycontaminating
solids
. Magnetisation
of the medium

A low viscosityresultsfrom:

o Low mediumdensity
. Coarseparticlesize distribution(coarseferrosilicon)
. Smoothroundedparticles(atomisedferrosilicongrade)
. A clean,de-magnetised, medium
uncontaminated

An increasein medium viscositywill result in a lower cut-pointand poor efficiency.

Reductionsof medium viscosityby the additionof peptizingagents have also been
reported,this effectis howeverhighlypH dependent. lt is generallyacceptedthat the
apparentviscosityfor centrifugaltype separatorsshould not exceed 30cP at a shear
rate of 150s-1and in the case of bath type separatorsshould not exceed250cP at a
shearrateof 10s-1.

An acceptablelimitof non-magnetic contaminationin the correctmediumin production

operationsis lessthan 3% by mass.

4.1.4. Medium Stability

The stabilityof the medium is the tendency of the medium solids to settle out. All
conventionaldense mediumis inherentlyunstable.The reciprocalof the rate at which
the medium settles out under gravity is a measure of the stability.In general it is
desirableto have a stablemediumbecauseif the mediumsettlesout too readily,then
separators,pipelinesand pumps will sand up. With an unstablemedium,strong
densitygradientscan result in the separator,which will detractfrom the separator's
performance.The differencebetweenthe underflowdensityand the overflowdensityis
calledthe differential.Densitydifferentialsin cyclonicseparatorsshould not exceed
400-500kg/m'. Operatingconditions,includingmedium grade should be tuned to
therebymaximisingthe separationefficiency.
optimisethe differential

Stabilityand viscosityare positivelycorrelated.A mediumwith a high viscositywill have

a highstabilityand vice versa.Any factorthat affectsone will also affectthe other.

Magnetic separators induce a residual magnetism in the medium, which cause

flocculationand agglomeration of magnetisedparticles.This effectincreasesmedium
stabilityand hence viscosity. Demagnetisation coils are installedto demagnetised
medium having passed through the magnetic separator. Where coils are used a
minimum field strengthof 350 Oersteds is requiredto achieve demagnetisationof
milledferrosilicon.Atomisedferrosiliconrequiresa field strength,which is at leastfour
times as strongas that usedfor milledferrosilicon.

4.1.5. Inversion

Densityinversionoccurs when the overflowdensityof a dynamicseparatorexceeds

that of the underflow.Inversionresultsfrom an unusualcombinationof high medium
viscosity,associatedyieldstressesand the appropriatecyclonegeometry.

7-13
 It has been suggestedthat to maintaininversionessentiallyrequiresa residencetime
that is sufficientto allow the slowly settlingsolids to migraieto the overflowwhich, rn
turn, impliesa slow rate of revolution,a high inletvelocityloss factorand a low cyclone
velocityconstant. These are all associatedwith a medium operatingwitfr i nigl
viscosity. Pointsmay thereforeexist withinthe cycloneat which solid bJdy rotationis
approached' A situation,which is reinforcedby the presenceof high yieid stresses
Minimal variationin the tangentialvelocitywill thereforebe experiencedacross the
radiusof the cyclone.

Extremeinversionalways occurswith fine media at high feed densities,for which the

mediumviscosityand yield stressesare high. Observitionshave shown that minima
medium classificationoccurs. lt has been recorded that inversionresults in an
increase in the proportionof feed medium reportingto the underflow (in certair.
instancesexceeding50% for milled ferrosilicon). Standarddense medium cyclone
operation results in 20-25o/oof the feed medium to the cyclone reportingio the
underflow.

Low-densityparticles that are easily centrifugedto the periphery are unable tc

penetratethe slow movingmass of high-densitymediumin the centralsectionnear
the
axis. High-densityparticlesthat are also centrifugedto the peripheryare recoveredin
the normalmanner. A band of mediumresultswith an intermediatedensityinto whicn
particlesare "locked-up"and dividein the same proportionas the medium.

Correctiveactioncouldconsistof the following:

. Modifythe in-circuitmediumpropertiesi.e. reducethe mediumviscosity,

. Replacethe mediumin totality,and
' Check the existingcyclonegeometry. The cyclonegeometryshould be such tha:
any "back-pressure"is minimised.

4.1.6. Se/ecfion of the Medium

The most importantfactorwhichare to be taken into accountwhen selectinga mediurr

grade for a particularapplicationis the operatingdensity, sharpnessoiseparation
required,feed ore characteristics
and costs.The idealmediumis one with high stability
and low viscosity.Any selectioninvolvesa compromisebetweenthese two mutually
exclusiveproperties.

' High-pressure dynamicseparatorsrequirefiner gradesthan low-pressure

systems.
to preservestability.

' The coarsergrades are preferredto finer grades becauseunder most conditions
mediumlossesoccur preferentiallyin the finer sizes.The coarsergradesare ofter-
also cheaper.

' The separationof fine ore particlesin dynamicseparatorsrequiresthe use of finer

grades than those appropriatefor coarserseparations,becausehigh differentials
are particularly
deleteriousto fine particleseparation.

r Atomisedgradesare to be used when operatingat high densities(abovea relative

density of 3.2) as milled ferrosiliconwill result in high viscosiiiesdue to the
increasedfrictionof collisionof the irregularlyshapedmilledparticles.

7-14
r Atomised ferrosiliconwill also be preferred when operating under corrosive
conditionsor wherehighlyporousgroundis to be treated.

Tables 3,4,5 and 6 list the required particle size distributions,bulk chemical
compositionsand relevant physical data that have to be adhered to by the
manufacturersof ferrosilicon.The followingqualityassuranceprovisionshave been
implementedto ensure that the final ferrosiliconproduct conforms to the required
specifications:

. Qualitymanagement- the Contractor'squalitymanagementsystemshall comply

with the requirements
of the SABS ISO 9000 series.

. Qualityplan- the Contractor shallcompileand submita qualityplan which,shall

be approvedpriorto the commencementof manufacture.The qualityplan shall list
tests, methodsof test and equipmentto be used
all major works, specifications,
and acceptance/rejectioncriteria.

. Test facilities- the Contractorshall providea test sample,qualifiedlabour and

approved testing equipment for tests. lf facilities are not available at the
Contractor'spremisesthey shallarrangefor teststo be conductedby approvedtest
authorities.

. Inspection- independentinspectionsof the manufacturing

facilitieswill be carried
out by a QualityAssuranceRepresentative.

. DebTechhave a laboratoryfacilitythat is used to conductqualityassurancetests

on ferrosiliconsuppliedby Samancor(the Contractor)therebyensuringaccurate
qualitycontrol.

Ferrosilicongrading analysisand quality control is of the utmost importancewhen

optimisingseparationefficiency.The followingparticlesize distributions
apply:

Table 3: Particle Size Distributions - Milled Ferrosilicon

Percentageby mass (%)

Particlesize (pm) 4BD 65D 100D 150D 270D

+212 0-10 0-2 0-1 0-1 0
-212+150 4-15 0-3 0-2 0-1 0-'l
-'150+106 11-19 0-9 0-5 0-3 0-2
-106+75 14-22 6-1B 2-12 0-7 0-4
-75+45 17-26 24-38 22-34 14-24 6-16
-45 (limits) 26-36 46-56 60-70 72-82 84-94
-20 (typical) 5-15 15-25 25-35 40-50 52-62

7 -15
 Table 4: Particle Size Distributions - Atomised Ferrosilicon

Percentageby mass (%)

Particlesize (pm) Specialcoarse Specialfine Cyclone60 Cyclone40

+212 2-4 1-3 U 0
-212+150 5-9 3-7 0-'1 0
- 15 0 + 10 6 11-15 8-12 0-3 0
-106+75 15-21 13-17 2-4 1-3
-75+45 20-26 19-25 20-24 10-14
-45 (limits) 32-40 42-50 68-78 82-90
-20 (typical) 9-19 15-25 32-42 47-57

The bulk chemicalcompositionof ferrosiliconshall complywith the requirementsgiven

in Table 5.

Table 5: Ferrosilicon Bulk Chemicat Composition

Element Milledferrosilicon(%) Atomisedferrosilicon(%)

Silicon 14.0-16.0 14.0-16.0
Carbon 1 . 4m a x 0.5max
lron 8 0 . 0m i n 8 0 . 0m i n
Sulphur 0.05max 0.05max
Phosphorus 0 . 1 5m a x 0 . 1m a x
Manganese 0.8 max
Copper 0 . 5m a x
Chromium 0 . 5m a x
Thefollowingprecisionlimitsof anatysisshattappty:

Silicon: + 0.2%
Carbonwith 1.0%maximumcontent: + 0.05%
Carbonwith 0.5% maximumcontent: + 0.02%
lron: + 0j%
Referto lable 6 for the applicablephysicaldata.

7-16
 Table 6: Ferrosilicon Physical Data

Physicalproperties Atomised Milled

ferrosilicon ferrosilicon
Soliddensity(g/ml) 6.7-7.1 6.7-7.1
% Rust index(max) 1.2 1.2
% Non-magnetics
(max)(by mass) 0.5 0.75
% Homogeneity 80 80
Minimum% by numberof particleswith a 90 N/A
circularityindexgreaterthan 0.64
% Satmagan(min)(magnetic 5B 5B
susceptibility)

4.1.7. Cyclone Feed Inlet Pressure

The pressuredrop througha cycloneis the differencebetweenthe theoreticalpressure

at the feed inlet and the pressuremeasuredat the overflow.However,the cyclone
normallydischargesat atmosphericpressureand thereforea pressuregaugemounted
at the cycloneinletwill give an indicationof the pressuredrop.Varioustypesof gauges
can be utilisedto measure inlet pressure.The pressurecollar type gauge with a
diaphragmaroundthe total circumferenceof the pipe usuallygives the most accurate
pressurereadingbut does not last very long.The side mountedWika type gaugedoes
not give such an accuratepressurereading(usuallylowerthan the actualpressure)but
lasts much longer.lt is recommendedto conducttests at variouspressurereadingsas
to establishan optimumpressure.This will then be a relativepressurewhere optimum
performanceis achieved.

Gravitysystemsare at times preferredto pumpfed systemsfor the followingreasons:

a) Reducedpumpmaintenance
(glandpacking,voluteand impellerreplacement).

b) Less particle degradation and subsequent medium contamination (it is

recommendedthat the tip speed of cyclonefeed pumps be kept below 20m/s to
preventpossiblediamonddamage).

c) Constantoperatinghead (in certaininstancesit is deemedan advantageof pump

fed systems that the pressure set-pointcan be varied accordingto feed ore
characteristics).
The problemof excessiveimpellerwear resultingin diminished
throughputhas been overcomewith the use of variablespeed cyclonefeed pumps.
The cycloneinlet pressurewill be controlledin a feedbackloop with the speed of
t h ep u m p .

The followingtwo factors need to be consideredwith regard to cyclone feed inlet

pressure:

. Pressurestability
e Actualpressure
As mentionedearlier,fluctuationsin cyclone inlet pressurecan have a detrimental
effect on separationefficiency.ldeally,the cyclone inlet pressureshould remain as

7-17
 stableas possibleunder feed conditions.This is achievedby monitoringthe follow,^,3
factors:

a) Cyclonemodulefeed distribution- this is a pendingproblemfor an idealdistribu::r

does not exist at present.The closestto this is the pressuredistributor,but t:'-rs
also has some shortcomings.There are various methodsto establishwhethera
cyclonemoduleis balancedor not, the quickestand easiestmethodbeinga vrsua
inspectionof the spigotflares.lf one of the cyclonesin the moduleis beingoverfe:
its flare will be wider and strongerthan the other cyclonesin the module.A mon=
accuratemethodis to installpressuretransmitterson all the inletsof the cyclones
in the module. The cyclonesare supposed to have a similar inlet pressure.A
variation will indicate overfeeding or starving and as indicated later in ths
document,overfeedingor starvinghave a detrimentaleffecton the efficiencvof tne
cyclone.

b) co[q91rg9jgn-Eu0plqyel- this aspect is usually overlookedwhen it comes ::

oplimising DMS eff[iency. However, this can 6e the root of all prsdsrn5
Historically,
ferrosiliconconsumptionwas made the be all and end all of the DMS
plant.The operatorwas reluctantto add ferrosiliconresultingin the plant runninc
with a very low correctmedium sump level (insufficientmedium in the circuit)fcr
extendedperiods.The result of this practiceis that the efficiencyof the correc
medium pump that pumps ferrosiliconto mixing box/ header tank is adversei,
affected,resultingin less mediumreachingthe mixingbox. This causesa decrease
in the cycloneoperatingpressureand an incorrectore to mediumratio. lt can arsc
cause majorcycloneinlet pressurefluctuations.Mixingboxesthat operatewith lor
levelscould result in cyclonefeed pump surgingin pump fed DMS circuits. Th.s
practicehas a detrimentaleffect on the overall DMS efficiencyas it can have a
negativeeffecton densitycontrolas well as ferrosiliconconsumption.The correq
medium sump level has to be kept constant. Regular visual inspection,ou:
preferablyan automatedcontrol system can achieve this. The correct mediur
-> sump levelshouldbe monitoredusinga
lqg_elmeter
c) Mixingbox level- the maintainingof a correctmixingbox level,runs "hand-in-han6"
with the correctmedium sump level control.lf the level of the mixing box is kep:
steady, it will prevent pressurefluctuationsand converselypoor efficiency. The
level of the mixing box slggjd bg monitoredwith the use of a la-sermeter. This
should in turn be interlockedwith the feeder,stoppingthe feeder as soon as the
mixingbox leveldropsbelowa criticalvalue.

- Historically,a considerableamount of work was done

d ) cyclone pr.ggslrre-ggnggl
on the effectivecontrol of the medium density.However,it was found that inle:
pressurecould have an even greatereffecton separationefficiencyif it fluctuates
Pressurefluctuationsoccur mostly in pump feed systems.This occurs as a resul:
of:

lmbalancesbetweenthe cyclonefeed pump and correct medium pump. The

cyclonefeed pump looses suctionbecausethe medium supply to the mixing
box is insufficient.

Temporaryblindingof the impellervanes will causea dramaticdrop in cyclone

pressure.

Blockagesin the wash or pressurelinesfeedinginto the mixingbox will cause

fluctuationsin the mixingbox level.

7-18
 lf a DMS plant does not have an adequatepressurecontrol system with pressure
transducerson all operationalcyclones,the managementof the DMS plantwill become
problematic.A pressure reading is the closest one can get to what is actually
happeninginsidethe cyclone.

The actualcyclone inlet pressureshould also not be too high or too low as this can
affectseparaiionefficiencynegatively.An idealoperatingpressurerangesfrom 10D to
12D.lf the oressureis reducedto less than 8.5D,the vortex insidethe cyclonewill "fall
flat",resultingin highyields.ldeallythe turbulenceof the feed to the cycloneand inside
the cycloneshouldbe reducedas much as possible.An increasein operatingpressure
will resultin an increasein cyclonewear rate and turbulencewithinthe cyclone. The
percentageof misplaced materialwill increase significantly.lt is thus possibleto
in"rea." the cut-pointof a dense mediumcyclonethat operateswith a low operating
pressure(12D) to well above 3.'15Um3 withoutthe danger of losingdiamonds.The
percentageof misplacedmaterial will be low. However,this cannot be done with a
cyc|one operating with a high operating pressure(+14D), as the danger of |osing
diamonds will increase Refer
significantly. to Figure2-

Multotechaveclaimedthat wear rate is proportional to the pressureraisedto the power

of 2.5. The relativewear rate for a 6'10mm cycloneoperatingat a 12D head when
comparedto a 10D head is 1.74times more (i.e.the cyclonewearsat almostdouble
the rate). Excessiveinletpressurescan resultin internalgroovingwithinthe cycloneas
a resultof high inletvelocities.

SEPARATION CURVE - EFFECT OF INLET PRESSURE

100

90
>fr-:.-
I __\_
80 t_Plqnno!ol.ossEs l-

70
o
; 6 0
I
o- 50
E<
E 4 0
=
()
30
I
20
, / l
10
./' I
o
sc5o
,o,"t-1Ti-n,

Figure 2: Separation Curve - Effect of Inlet Pressure on separation

4.1.8. Medium : Ore Ratio

Currentpracticesfor diamondseparationindicatesthat a minimumof 5:1 mediumto

ore ratiois necessaryfor efficientseparation.This parameteris not easilymeasuredor
controlled.lf the feed-rate to a cyclone increases,the medium feed should also
increase.This parameter should be establishedby means of a ferrosiliconflow
balance.lf the mediumflow has been determined,the maximumore feed should be
fixedand controlled.

7-19
 A ratio of less than 4:1 will affect the separationefficiencyadversely.Over-feedinga
cyclonewill result in spigot crowdingwhich in{urn can lead to diamond losses and
excessiveyields. Underfeedingcan lead to an increasein yield as a result of more
misolacedfloat materialin the concentrate.The use of excessivemedium is wasteful
of power and requiresextra screeningand cleaningcapacity. For a high degree of
concentrationmedium to ore ratios of 7:1 should be maintainedfor fine particle
separationand 5:1 for coarseparticleseparation.

4.1.9. Ore Feed Size

In generalmaterialfinerthan 50 mm can be treatedin a centrifugaltype separatorbut il

is good practiceto limit the size range of materialbeing treated in a module(-30+0.5
mm). Althougha largecyclonecan treata wide size range(e.g.2 mm to 32 mm), it is
preferableto split the feed into a coarse and a fine fraction,thereby enablingthe
optimisationof the circuitin terms of mediumgrade,cycloneselection,spigotdiameter
and medium density. Generalpracticedictatesthat the top size should not be more
than 6 times the bottomsize howevera ratioof B:1can be tolerated.

There is some debate regardingthe selectionof a small diametercyclonefor the fine

size rangesand vice versafor the coarserrangesor treatingboth size fractionsthrough
a large cyclone.However,whicheverway is preferred,it is essentialto establishthe
efficiencyof the cyclonefor the bottomsizefractionof the selectedsplitas this is where
diamond losses can occur primarily.Properfeed preparationis essentialbecausea
coarsecyclonewill be set up to treat a coarsesize fractionand if fines shouldreporttc
the coarsecyclone,diamondlossescan occur.

Lightparticlesthat are flat or elongatedcan be entrappedwith the heavyfractionin the

dense medium cyclone as is the case with coastal operationsor inland operations
miningslabsof shale. Furthermore,it is recommendedthat the maximumparticlesize
to be treatedin a cycloneshould not exceed0.06D- 0.07D for sphericalparticlesanc
0.053Dfor elongatedparticles. See lable 7 for the maximumparticlesize for a given
cyclonediameter.

Table 7: Cyclone Diameter Versus Particle Top Size

Cyclonediameter(mm) M i n i m u mh e a d( m ) Maximumparticlesize(mm)
750 6.7 50
A'7
660
560 5 40
450 4 32
350 3.2 25

4.1.10. Feed Preparation

Feed preparationrefers to the removalof the finest fractionsfrom the crushed DMS
feed by wet screeningusing high-pressure water sprays. Factorsinfluencingeffective
feed preparationare volume of spray water, ore bed depth and residencetime o"
screen. Average recommendedspray water volume is 40m'ih per meter width o{
screen. This figure is an averageand will vary accordingto the size distributionof the

7 -20
 ore. Ineffectivefeed preparationwill resultin the contamination of the correctmedium.
The screen must also ensure adequate drainageas to prevent excessivesurface
moistureon the ore particlesfrom significantly alteringthe circulatingmediumdensity.
The acceptableamount of fines in the feed preparationscreen oversize may not
exceed 7oh.

4.1.11. Residence Time of particles in Dense Medium Cyclones

The residencetime of a particlewithin a dense mediumcyclonewill vary accordingto

snape,size and density. Studieshave shown that near densitymaterialexhibitlonger
residencetimes. Furthertests haveshown:

. Largerparticleshave longerresidencetimesthan smallerparticles.

. Cubicalparticleshave longerresidencetimesthan flat particles.
. A particlesize equal to 0.07 x cyclone diameterand having a relative density
approximately 1.23 x the separationdensityis likelyto hang up withina dense
mediumcyclone.

4.2. FerrosiliconRecovery Efficiency

4.2.1- Product Screen Adhesion Losses

After separationhas taken place insidethe cyclone,the sink and float productreports
to the sink and float washingscreensrespectively. These screensare usuallydivided
into a drain and washing section. The ferrosilicon recoveredvia the drain section
usually reports to the correct medium circuit. Ferrosiliconrecoveredon the wash
sectionusually reports to the dilutemedium circuit.
Ferrosilicon is lost by way of adhesionon the rinsedscreenproduct.

Factorsinfluencingadhesionlosses are:

4.2.1.1. ParticleSizeof the Ore

Ferrosiliconlossesincreasewith a decreasein particlesize, becauseof the

increasedsurface area per unit mass of the particles. The losses can be
minimisedby increasingthe wash water, increasingthe screen width or by
reducingthe particle bed depth. The followingwater to ore ratios are
recommended:

. Ore particlesgreaterthan 6 mm - between0.8 and 1:1

'1
. Ore particlessmallerthan 6 mm - between and 1.5:1

The followingtable shows the effect of particlesize on screen width and

rinsingrequirements:

7-21
 Table 8: Influence of Particle size on screen width and Rinsing watx
Requirements (relative requirement I mm = 1.0)

Particlesize (mm) Rinsingwater Drainand rinse

requirements(m'/Vh) screenwidth (m/Uh)
8 t-u 1.0
7 1.2 1.15
1.4 1.3
5 1.7 1.5
? 2.8 2.1
2 4 2.7

Primarily,it is thus very importantto ensurethat screeningarea is sufficiea

for proper ferrosiliconrecovery.overfeeding of screens will result in sever"a
ferrosiliconlosses. Drain panels and wash panels should be in gocd
condition.These panelsmust be inspectedregularlyfor excessiveblindingr
wear. A rinsingwater pressureof 1 to 2 bar will sufficeprovidedthe volu
of water is sufficient. Uniform distributionof the spray water across
screenis essential.

Flood boxes are preferredover sprays for washing with dirty water becau
they are less prone to wear and blockage. This is usually achieved
restrictingthe flow of materialover the screenbv meansof weirs or L-s
panels.

The followingmaximum ore loadingfiguresare suggestedfor metal

ores:

a Coarseore - 30t/mscreenwidth
a Fineore - 26tlmscreenwidth

These ore load levels will ensure adequate washing and

drainageof washedmedium.

4.2.1.2. Porosity

Adheringlosses increasewith an increasewith porosity. Extremecases

Ferrosiliconlossesoccur in the recoveryof diamondsfrom marine depos
whereferrosiliconcan at times be trappedinsidethe volutesof seashells.

4.2.1.3. Mechanicaland OperationalDetails

correct process design and equipment sizing are basic prerequisites

adhesion losses are to be minimised. The following factors must
consideredwhen attemptingto minimiseferrosiliconlosses:

7-22
 of feed - adheringlossesincreaseexponentially
Uniformdistribution with
bed depth and localisedthicker areas are very detrimentalto good
medium recovery. For good washing a bed depth no greater than 3
timesthe averageparticlediameteris required.

Rinsingacrossthe full width of the screen- where polyurethanepanels

are us-edthe screen panets should be fitted with deflectors thereby
ensuringthat the materialflows over the screen sectionsof the Screen
deck.

Drip angles - these prevent ferrosiliconfrom running along the

undersidesof the screensand intothe dischargechutes.

Polyurethanedecks - becauseof the inherentflexibilityof these decks

they are less prone to blinding,hence allowingfor better drainageand
lowermediumlosses.

Weirs - are installedwith the aim of increasingparticleresidencetime

and aidingin the rollingof the ore particles.

screen acceleration- forces generated by the screen are used to

overcomethe hydrostaticforces,which hold the particlestogetherand
"lock-in" the moisture adhering to the particle surfaces. Effective
drainagecan be achievedwith a minimumverticalaccelerationof 3.5
g's. li is recommendedthat the eccentricweights used to vibratethe
screenrotateat between500 and 900 revolutionsper minute.

Sieve bends or static drain panels generallyprecededrain and rinse

screensin an attemptto increasemediumdrainage.

Dense medium separationfloat screen ferrosiliconadhesion losses

shouldnot exceed30 git.

4.2.2. Magnetic Drum SeParafors

In dense mediumcircuitsthe magneticseparatoris responsiblefor medium recovery,

mediumcleaningand mediumdensification. The circuitmediumeventuallybecomes
contaminated due
material
with fine non-magnetic to:

. feed preparation.
Inefficient
. Abrasionof ore particlesin the circuit.
r of agglomeratesnot brokendown on the feed preparationscreen.
Disintegration

Thereare two main areasfor increasedmagneticseparatorperformance:

4.2.2.1. lmprovedMagneticSeparatorDesign

. lmprovedtank designs- the use of full width overflowsresults in the

magneticseparatorbeingless vulnerableto circuitupsets. The full width
arrJngementresults in 50% or more of the tailingsdischargingto the
overflowtherebypreventingpossibleloss of submergenceor flooding.

. lmprovedmagnetdesignsproducinghigh intensityfieldstrengths.

7 -23
 o Availabilityof largercapacitymachines.

4'2'2'2' CircuitDesign and OperationalFactorslnfluencingMagnetic Separation

Correctsizing of magneticseparators

a) Volumetricloading- excessiveflow rates will cause increasedlosses

rr
a wet drum separator. The vorumetricroadingon the primarymagne:E
separatoris defined mainry by rinsing requirementson tne screens
Volumetric,magneticand non-magnetiiloadingshould not exceeo
r-re
followingvalues(applicableto doubledrum separation):

Table g: Magnetic separator Diameter versus vorumetric, Magnetb

and Non-Magnetic Loading

Diameter Volumetric Magnetic Non-magnetic

(mm) loading1m3hfm; loading(Vhlm) loading(Vhlm)
610 75 12 1.6
760 95 16 2
915 120 22 2.6

b) Magneticloading- the amountof magneticsolids,which are recoverec-

de-wateredand returnedto the circuit. lf a high purity concentrate
s
requiredfrom a wet drum magneticseparator
1tboz"'coniaminationbeir3
normal)feed solidsshouldbe less than 20% by weightin the feed slurr5

' Pulp height (overfrowrevel)- the spigotsshould be set as to ailor

the drum to be partiallysubmergeo.lr a bath is not created,it n.il
affectefficiencyadverselyresultingin very high short{erm magne:e
lossesand insufficienily
creanedconcentrate.-
too higha prrp i"
reducesconcentratespecificgravity by reducingwailr drainage
-pulp n
the squeeze pan thereby causing to overflow into re
concentrate. The overflow volume should be from 40% to sovo
d
the totaltailingflow.

Magnetposition- it has been notedthat a ten-foldincreasein losses

occurs from as little as a 5. change in magnet position. Tre
positionsof the separatingzone, tairingssrot and discharge
zones
have a major influenceon the separatoiperformance.Thidistan.e
that the magnetfield must be fertabovethe dischargerip is 20 mm

Drum to tank clearances- increasingthe gap betweenthe drum a-r5

the tank in the separationzone decreasesthe forcesactingto sweee
the fine particlesout of the magneticfield into the tailing.-Althougr
the magneticfield strength is marginallydecreased in the areas
furthest from the drum, the net effeci is still to improve t.,e
percentagemagneticsrecovery. The feed pan and squeeze pa"r
clearancesare to be optimised.The factorysettingsare that the gar
betweenthe drum shelland tank is 45 mm with the gap betweentie
dischargelip and the drum shellmeasuring40 mm. these are initd

7 -24
 settingsand optimisationof the settingsis done whilstthe magnetic
separatoris in operation.The gap settingbetweenthe drum and the
discharge lip should be set at 5 mm smaller than the distance
between the drum and tank. On maintenanceday remove the
flangeson both sides of the tank and measurethe gap betweenthe
drumand the tank by usingan insidecaliper,this measurement must
be equal on both sides. Recordthe gap on both sides betweenthe
drum and the dischargelip. These dimensionsare to be recorded
for each magneticseparator.

o Drum speed - low drum speeds will result in high concentrate

densities.

o Saturationmagnetisationof the recoverablemagneticfraction- this

is an indication of the materials propensityto attraction by a
magneticfield.

. ' Surgingof the dilute mediumpump can lead to fluctuations in the

flow rate to the magneticseparatorsand this in turn can lead to
increasedlossesof ferrosilicon.The dilutemediumsump shouldbe
fitted with a level controlvalve to ensure a constantdilute medium
tankleveland in so doingminimisecircuitvulnerability.

All magnetic separators have definite limits in terms of volumetricand

magneticsloadingwhich can be toleratedbefore recoveriesor concentrate
densitiesbecomeunacceptable.

Under normal operating conditions,the effluent magnetic concentration

shouldbe lessthan 0.10 g/1.lf it is a well-designedoperationcircuit,losses
can be as low as 0.05 g/1. Ferrosiliconrecoverytargetsfor primarymagnetic
separationis 99.9%. lt is recommendedthat 10% of the in-circuitmediumbe
continuouslycleanedin an attemptto minimiseviscosityeffects.

It is evidentthat the magneticdrum separatoris a very robustmachineand

excessivelosseswill only occur if the machineis operatedwell outsidethe
design envelope.lt is found that althoughseparatorsmay be overloaded,
overallcircuitperformanceis still good, especiallyif primaryand secondary
separatorsare incorporated.

lmportantto note is that if the bottom trough in the pick-up zone is not
concentricwith the drum, or is bowed parallelto the drum axis, performance
will be imoaired.lt is thus imoortantthat care needs to be taken to clean
ferrosiliconout of the separatorwheneverthe plantis shut down. lf this is not
done the ferrosiliconwill corrodeand form a hardscaleor accretion.This will
altergap settingsand distortthe magneticfield.

Vulnerabilityof medium recoverycircuits is reduced by maximum use of

head tanks with variableoverflowsor flows controlledby the use of orifice
plates. These minimise operator interventionand accommodatedilute
mediumcircuituosets.

7 -25
4.2.3. Medium Densification

There are two distinctlydifferentdensificationschemesin use at present. Large planls

generallyuse correctmediumdensification, whereassmallerplantsuse dilute mediurr
densification. Centrifugaldensifiersand densifyingcyclonesare used for mediurr
cleaningand densification.Centrifugaldensifiersproducea relativelysmall volume c'
cleanoverflowwhereasthe densifyingcyclonegives considerablymore overflowwith a
far higherconcentration of magnetics.This in turn influencesthe magneticsloadingi:
the recoverycircuit.

The followingfactorsmust be consideredwhen decidingon whetherto use a densifyin;

cycloneor centrifugaldensifier:

. Maintenancerequirements- centrifugaldensifierssufferfrom excessivelocalisec

wear at the inlet section. Whole units require frequent replacementto ensure
efficientmediumdensification.

r Simplicityof installation- two to three times as many centrifugaldensifiersas

becomemore complex
cyclonesare requiredfor a given duty. Hence,installations

. Blockage
. Energyrequirements

It is recommendedthat for optimum performancedensifiersoperateat a pressure,i'

meters,which is equalto 100 times the diameterof the densifier.

4.2.4. Corrosion

Ferrosiliconis an alloy consistingof iron (Fe) and silicon (Si); there are therefore
discrete elements of silicon in a matrix of iron. lron which is exposed to the
environment,may corrode(oxidise)accordingto the followinggeneralreaction:

Fe e F e , * + x e . . . . . . . . . . . . . =. 9 y m V

The conditionswithin the environmentdeterminewhetherthe reactionwill proceed1r

the forwarddirection. lf the Fe'* can be removedfrom the systemor stabilisedin the
system,the reactionwill proceed.

Corrosion losses are small in comparisonwith adhesion and magnetic separatcr

losses. At certainpotentialspoor oxygentransferto the surfaceof the particlescaus6
the surfacesto de-passivateand corrodeat elevatedlevels. Corrosionin-situcan leac
to the cementingof ferrosiliconparticleswhen it standsin water,which in turn can leac
to difficultyon start-up. Under plant conditionsthe passivelayer formed around the
particle is continuallybeing removed by abrasion which tends to acceleratetie
corrosionprocess.The followingfactorsinfluencethe rate of corrosion:

. Temperature- a doublingeffectwith respectto the rate of corrosionoccurs for a

5'C increasein temperaturein the rangefrom 15-30"C.

. pH - the corrosionrate declineswith an increasein pH, halvingper pH unit in the

rangefrom pH B to pH 12.

. Clay slimes - the interactionof the green oxide corrosionproductand the slime
solids producesa viscousmedium,detrimentallyeffectingthe densityseparatior.

7 -26
 The exact effectthat clays have on the rate of the corrosionprocessis not well
understoodbe it chemical(modifyingthe solubilityof the protectiveoxide layer)or
physical(abrasionor blindingof the alloysurfaceto oxygendiffusion).

. Siliconcontent- Siliconpercentagesabove 14% result in dramaticallyincreased

corrosion.

r Chlorideions (Cl-)are good complexingagentsand will readilycomplexwith Fe**to

form a stable chloro-complex.Consequently,corrosionwill occur if the following
two conditionsare met:

. High concentrations
of chlorideions in solution,and
. A suitablereductionhalf reactionmust exist i.e. H' ions to form H2 (hydrogen
gas). This occursreadilyonly if the concentration of H* ions is high (i.e.low
pH) At high pH values, the concentrationof H* ions is relativelylow and
consequentlythe H-/Hz reduction half reaction and therefore corrosion is
suppress_ed.Carbondioxideshould be added to the water reticulationsystem
should a pH modifier be required. This will prevent the introductionof a
complexingagentintothe processstreamfor stabilising free Fe'* ions.

Inhibitorsare an acceptedmeans by which corrosionis prevented. The additionof

sodiumnitritemaintainsa passivelayer aroundthe ferrosiliconparticle. lt is important
to maintainthe concentrationof the sodium nitrite ion above 300 ppm as this will
preventactive corrosionby maintainingthe medium at a sufficientlyhigh potential.
Sodium nitriteis necessaryduring periodsof extendedshut downs when the oxygen
supplyto the mediumis insufficient.lt is recommendedthat a shock dose of 500 g/t of
ferrosiliconbe administeredduringperiodsof extendedshutdowns. Furthermoreit is
recommendedthat the pH of the medium be maintainedabove 9 with a potentialof -
0.5 Volts.

The tendencyof a sampleto chemicallycorrodeis termedthe Rust Index. This value

is not to exceed1.2ohas per the ferrosiliconspecification.

The volume concentrationof hydrogenthroughoutthe dense medium plant must be

kept below 1% atall times. lt is recommendedthat compressedair is circulatedin and
around areas where work requiringa "hot works" permitis to be carriedout, this will
minimisethe possibilityof a hydrogenexplosion.

4.2.5. Medium Preparation

Lossesof ferrosiliconcan occur if new medium is added directlyto the circuitwithout

pre-wetting,as the ferrosiliconparticlesare carried out as a film on the productsof
separation.Productionplantsutilisea separatecirculatorypump and sump to pre-wet
the medium.A pre-wetting time of 10 minutesis recommended.

4.2.6. Housekeeping

Care must be taken not to overloadthe magneticseparatorwhen washing in spilt

ferrosiliconback into the dilute circuits. Spilt medium will harden and will be
irrecoverableshouldit not be recoveredquickly.

7-27
 4.2.7. General

It is commonlyobservedthat measuredlossesof mediumsolidsin well run plantsare

largely due to adhesion losses with magnetic separator effluent losses being a
relativelysmall contributorto total losses.There is usuallya trade-offbetweenlosses
via adhesionor via separators.An increasein rinse screen wash water is likely tc
reduceadhesionlosses at the expenseof magneticseparatorlosses.In most cases
the operatorwill increasethe wash water flow in order to reduce the high adhesion
losses.The wash water will be continuallyincreaseduntil the incrementalbenefitcf
reduced adhesion loss is equal to the incrementalpenalty of increasedmagnetic
separatorloss.This may resultin substantiallyoverloadingthe magneticseparatoi.The
high magneticseparatoreffluentcontentof magneticsmay simplybe the price,which is
paidfor an overallreductionin consumptionof mediumsolids.

4.3' SeparationEfficiency - Static Bath Type Separators(Static Cone Separators)

The first hydraulicdense medium separatorequipmentused was the static cone separator
The functionof a DMS cone is to separatelight materialfrom heavymaterialusingferrosilicon
or magnetiteas a dense medium. Cones generallyoperateat a specificgravity of between
2.65 and 3.0 and the recommendedgrade ferrosiliconis 65D. Ore from the feed preparation
screen enters the DMS cone at a constantfeed rate. The cone agitatorensures that the
ferrosilicondoes not settleand that materialdoes not stick to the sides of the cone. The lighter
fractionof materialwill floatwith the heavierfractionsinkinE.

Variableswhichaffectthe operationof a cone are:

> Feedsize distribution- each classof separatorhas a fixed operatingrangein terms of feec
particlesize distribution.Bathstypicallyhave been used for particlesrangingfrom 6 mm to
1 5 0m m .

The top size that could be treatedusing a cone was traditionallydeterminedby the size of
the airlift. lt has been foundthat an airliftmore than 10 inchesin diameteris uneconomicin
air consumption.The ratio betweenairliftdiameterand maximumparticlesize is generally
takenas 2.5 or 3 to 1, givinga maximumparticlesizeof betweenz5 and 100 mm.

However,airliftsare generallyno longer in operationand the productsdischargedirectly

onto floatsand sinksscreens.

Feedmediumdensity- a drop in the mediumdensitycan resultin the cone choking.The

cone requiresa considerable
weightof mediumto fill it and is thereforerelativelyunaltectec
by changesin the moisturecontentof the feed. Currentinstallations operateat densitiesin
the regionof 2.85.

Feed mediumviscosity
Feedtonnage- overfeedingor over sizedmaterialcan resultin the cone chokino.
Componentsand relatedequipmentof the cone

The occurrenceof the followingfactorscan resultin the cone choking:

. Powerdips
. Powerfailure
' Air failure- the cone has certainmajordisadvantages,
in that it requiresa largevolume
of air,thus increasingthe overallpowerconsumptionof the individualunit.

7 -28
 a Reductionin air pressure
a A blockagein the air lift (if applicable)
a Worn air jets
a Defectiveor worn cone agitator.

LIFECYCLEMANAGEMENT
the
Life cycle managementimpliesthe maximisingof the life of equipmentparts withoutaffecting
overallprocessefficiencY.

5.1. EquipmentLife

The followingequipmentin the DMS needs regularinspection.Worn parts must be exchange

as they can affect efficiencyadversely:

> All correctand dilutemediumfeed pumps (e.g. correctmediumfeed pump,dilute medium

feed pump,densifierfeed pump etc.).

> Cyclonefed pump (if pumpfeed DMS).

> Densifiercyclonevortexfinder,inletand outlet.
> Sink and float screendrainand wash panels
> Feed preparationscreenPanels.
> Magneticseparatormagnetand parts.
> DM cyclonevortexfinder,inlet,spigotand overflowhood (if present).

The life cycle managementof all pumps, screen panels and accessoriesin the DMS is
life
discussedin othersectionsof this handbook.The primaryfocus of this sectionwill be on the
cycle managementof the DMS cyclone.Criticalreplacement parts on the DM cyclone are the
vortexfinder,spigot,overflowhood (if present),barrelsectionand inlet. Note that the vortex
plateat
finderlengthls ihe minimumverticaliengthfrom the lip of the vortexfindertube to the
the top of the inletsection.

The two basicmaterialsof constructionused in an attemptto minimiseabrasioneffectswithina

densemediumplantare ceramicsand high chromecast iron'

Apartfrom all the high wear parts,it is also necessaryfor regularinspeclionof the inletsection
grooving'
and the cone section.Certainareas insidethese partsare exposedto high wear and
Instabilitygrooves at flanged ends (between inlet piece and cone and between cone and
spigot)can act as "inward steps"and can cause misplacement of diamonds'

Wear Measurementand Monitoring

Most cyclonewear takes place in a few criticalareas: The spigot,vortexfinder,feed chamber

the
opposiiethe feed inlet,and the area beneaththe feed inlet due to turbulencecaused by
materialenteringthe cyclonecolliding with medium that has completed one circuitof cyclone
periphery.

7 -29
 Cyclone parts should be run as close to the wear limits as possibleto ensure maximu-
'changed
efficiencyin the sectionbut shouldbe out' beforereachingthe wear limitif there is a^
obviousdefector severewear in one area that could lead to failureof the part.An example,s
the notch or bite that can develop at the bottom of the vortex finder. Cyclonesare usual-r
inspectedon a monthlybasis but where high operatingpressuresare present,the inspectior
frequencycan be increased.Cyclonesshould be inspectedimmediatelyif their performance
becomesunsatisfactorily.

It is not possibleto give exact guidelinesas to the maximum percentagedecreasein vorter

finder length before it must be replaced.This is dependent on the type of cyclone, tre
applicationand the size. The measurementmust be done at the shortestpoint.This can vaiy
between5% and 15% reductionin lengthbeforeit has to be replaced.However,it is importa-d
to establishthis minimumlengthin orderto serveas a guidelinefor plannedinspections.Worr
vortexfindersare particularlydangeroussinceeven a small hole in the vortexfindercan cause
substantial diamondlosses.

As a general rule, the spigot diametershould not increaseto more than 10o/oof its origind
diameter(spigotsmust be regularlyinspectedand changedafter 3 to 6 mm diameterwear.,
Measurethe diameterat 45" intervalsand take the averaqeas the effectivediameter.All
wear areas should be replaced at the discretionof the Metallurgist.This should be do
accordingto the rule mentionedabove:

"Cycloneparts should be run as close to their wear limits as possibleto ensure

efficiencyin the sectionwithoutaffectingthe separationefficiency".

It is recommendedto change out the entire cycloneat one time, thus minimisingdown tirre-
Cyclonescould then be disassembledand individualcomponentsmeasuredfor the degree
wear in order to assesstheir suitabilitvfor re-use.Componentssuitablefor re-usewould t
cyclones,with specialattentionbeing paid to the componentjoints
be used in "refurbished"
ensurethe internalgeometryof the cycloneis acceptable.The use of oversizespigotswou
allow this procedureto be followed,thus making full use of low-wearcyclone componen
withoutcompromisingeithercycloneefficiencyor overallperformance.

It shouldbe notedthat approximatelytwentyseven percentof total operatingcosts of a

mediumplantcould be attributedto maintenance.

6. SUMMARY

The table below is designedto act as a ready referencein identifyingproblemsand the

correctiveaction.lt is not possibleto list everythingthat can happen in the DMS sectionand wh
possiblecorrectiveactionto take. However,some of the major problemareas are listedand
solutionsto these oroblems.lt will also be evidentthat some oroblemscan be a cause to
problemsand thereforeit is necessaryto determinethe root causeof the problemand take correctri
action.lt is also very importantto note that most of the parametersare inter-dependent
and there
it would be unwise to make several adjustmentsat the same time for it could create even
problems.Investigate each optionseparately.

7-30
INEFFICIENTSEPARATION

choked water
Medium densitY Water entering the correct . Wash hopper
overflowinto drain hoPPer
remains low or mediumsumP via drain area
fluctuating. of screen. . Spray water rePorting to drain
section (sPraY water oPened
excessivelY)- adjust spray water
valve
o High percentage water entering
cyilone feed with ore - inefficient
de-watering bY feed PreParation
screen

of
Water entering the correct o Adjust underflow sPigots
to allow more
medium sumP via magnetic magnetic seParator
separatordischarge. water to effluent
e AdjustdischargegaPsetting
. Lowerthe magnet
. Underflowspigotspossiblychoked

DensitycontrolsYstemfaultY . The dilutionvalvestaysopen

. The densitometer faultY
. Reaction(lag) time of dilutionvalve
too long- erraticresponse
. Positioningof densitometertoo far
from correctmediumsumP
. Low levelin correctmediumsumP

7 -31
 SEPARATION
INEFFICIENT

No Problem Possible Causes Possible Solutions

Densifier underflow product . Level in densifier overflow box

too much or too littlewater wrong (if gravityfeed)
. Underflowvalvesettingincorrect
. Densifier vortex finder worn
Reolacevortexfinder
. Densifierblockage- unblock

Highmediumviscosity . Stop ore feed and allow mediumto

be cleanedbeforeresumingfeed
. Check if ferrosilicongrade is correct
- too fine
. Check for proper ore preparation
(spraynozzlespossiblYblocked)
. Check if demagnetisationcoil is
working

Unstablemedium . Check ferrosilicongrade correct -

too coarse
. Add fine grade Ferrosilicon
. Demagnetise

2 Cyclone feed Mediumdensitvfluctuates . Referto problemnumber1

inlet pressure Correct medium sump level . lnsufficientmedium in circuit- add
remains low or low. Ferrosilicon
fluctuates
. Medium density too high - lower
density

Mixingbox levelfluctuates . Correctmediumsump level too low

- refer to above
. Cyclonefeed pump volumetoo high
- reducespeed
. Cyclonefeed pump imPellerworn
. Cyclonefeed pump restricted
. Correct medium sump pump
inefficient
. Cyclonefeed pumpimpellerblinded
. Ore feed rate erratic
. Cycloneover-or underfeeding
 INEFFICIENT
SEPARATION

No Problem PossibleCauses Possible Solutions

Poor recoveryof Cycloneworn . Checkvortexfinderlength
diamonds and
diamonddensity r Check for grooves within the inlet
tracers and cone sections

Diamondslostto effluents . Sink screenpanelsholed

Incorrect operating and . Medium densitytoo high - refer to
designvariables problemnumber1
. Operatingpressuretoo high
. Mediumviscositytoo high
. Spigot too small - Replace with
largerdiameterspigot
r Excessiveparameterfluctuations
. Cycloneoverfeeding

/, Highyields Cyclone& pumpsworn . Replaceworn spigot

. Replaceworn inletsection
. Cyclonefeed pump impellerworn -
replace
. Replaceworn or groovedsectionof
cyclone

Incorrect operating and . Medium density too low - refer to

designvariables problemnumber1
r Inlet pressure too low - refer to
problemnumber2
. Medium viscosity high - refer to
problemnumber1
. Spigot too big Replace with
smallerdiameterspigot
r Parameterfluctuations
. Cyclone overfeeding or
underfeeding

Incorrectmediumgrade . Coarsen the grade in order to

increasethe differential

Highheavymineralcontent r Increase density (monitor for

potential diamond losses - tracer
tests)
o Increaseinletpressure

7 _2."
INEFFICIENTSEPARATION
'
No Problem Possible Causes PossibleSolutions i
5 Low efficiency lnletpressuretoo high . Reducemediumfeed to mixingbox
(HighEp value) while maintaining a minimurr
ratioof 5:1
medium:ore
. Reduce ore feed-rate but not
the cyclone
underfeeding

Mediumdensitytoo high . Set mediumdensityset-pointlower

Highmediumviscosity . Referto oroblemnumber1
Incorrect configuration of . Cyclone module unbalanced
cyclone checkfeed distribution
. Incorrect angle and feed inlet
configuration

o Cyclone Float side back pressuretoo . Removeoverflowhood and allowto

inverting high dischargeintoa float box
. Checkfor restrictionin float box
. Allow for a breather pipe on the
overflowpipe l

Mediumviscosityhigh a lncorrectmediumselection
a Replaceor cleanmedium

7 Excessive Inletpressuretoo high . Referto oroblemnumber5

Cyclonewear
Wear at areas between . A slight recess is created between
cyclonesections cyclonepartswhen it is assembled
. A gasketprotrudinginto the cyclone
and not "flush" with the internal
surface
INEFFICIENTFERROSILICONRECOVERY

No Problem PossibleCauses Possible Solutions

Ferrosilicon Inefficientwashingon rinsing . Increase flow of spray water to

contenthighdue screens(float& sink screens)
to adhesion
rinsingscreen
. Allow washingover the full width of
the screen
. Increaseweir bars on rinsingscreen
as to increase the washing
residence time of the gravel on
screen

2 Ferrosilicon Volumetricflow to magnetic . Decreasewashingwater on rinsing

content high seoaratorexcessive screens
magnetic o Restrict unwanted water from
separator enteringthe dilutemediumcircuit
effluent

Excessive magnetic solids . Check drain panels for Possible

contentin magneticseParator blinding. Excessive ferrosilicon
feed reportsto the washinghoPPer
. Checkfor blindingof the sievebend
. Checkfor drainhopperblockage
. Densifier spigot blockage or
restriction
. Check for excessivespillagepoints
and the subsequentoverloadingof
the dilutemediumcircuit

lncorrect settings on . Ensureoverflowin orderfor drum to

magneticseparator be partiallysubmerged
. Checkpick-upgap for blockages
. Checkdischargegap
. Check magnet strength across full
widthof drum
 REFERENCES

1. Napier-Munn,
T. J., DRL CY 05, Researchinto the operationand performance
of a 600 mm hea.
mediumcyclone,16 June 1985.

2 . Engelbrecht,
J. A. and BosmanJ., MultotecCyclones,Designcriteriafor an improvedlargediame:
densemediumcyclone.

J. Napier-Munn,T.J. and Scott, 1.A.,The effect of demagnetizationand ore contaminationon t.re

viscosityofthe mediumin a densemediumcycloneplant,13 February1990

4. Napier-Munn,T.J., Dunglison,M. and Shi, F., The RheologicalPropertiesand SelectionC

Ferrosilicon
DenseMedium,1 September1994.

5 . Bosman,J., MultotecCyclones,The effectof changesin cyclonedesignvariableson dense mediu-r

separation.

o. Hutton,W., Jackson,N., Neale,J., Hutchinson,

P., Heavymediumcyclonedevelopment
at Argyle.

7 . Minutesof a meetingheld at DRL to discussthe conceptualdesignof a groupstandardDMS cyclone-

1 3 J u n e1 9 9 6 .

8. Roode,L., DMS cycloneperformanceenhancements,

31 October1995

9. Roode,L.,AK3 PlantDMS and cycloneenhancements,

5 June ig96

10. Rayner,J., and Napier-Munn,T.J.,A willinghorsebroken:Recentand historicalstudiesof the wg

drum magneticseparator,2 September1994

1 1 .Hyland,E.P.and Rodel,A., The densemediumcyclonedesignparameters,5December1gg7

1 2 .Trainingmanual,Densemediumseparation,
De Beers- FinschMine.

1 3 .Plant Procedure,Standardprocedurefor the inspectionof a 610 mm DMS cyclone, Orapa an:

LetlhakaneMines,DebswanaDiamondcompany (pty) Ltd, 1 December19g9.

- change out of cyclonepartsin the DMS,21 January'1993.

14. seabe,E., Memorandum

- cyclonechangeout dates,10 February1995.

15. Blanden,R.A.,Memorandum

16. DiamondProcessing
Handbook,Proformastructure:Volume
4.

17. JKMRC,DenseMediumWorkbook- Version1.0.

18. Minutesof a meetingheldat the DRL to:

o Ascertainthe DMS "stateof play"in the groupand beyond,and
. Shareand disseminateknowledge,24March.

19. Davis,J.D.and Lyman,G.J.,MagnetiteRecoveryUsinga wet Drumseparator.

XLiT- 100 On-LineProcessViscometer

20. Hydramotion, - UserManual.

21. Hunt,M.S.,Hansen,J.O. and Davy,A.T.,The influenceof ferrosilicon

properties
on dense medium
plantconsumption.

7-36
22. Malvern Engineering,Permanent Magnetic wet Drum Separators- Installation,operation and
maintenanceInstructions.

13. Clarke,J.E. and Reeves,T.J.,State-of{he-artDMS cycloneplantdesignfor diamondrecovery.

.J. Engelbrecht,J.A. and Bosman,J., Designcriteriafor an improvedlarge diameterdense medium

cyclone. MultotecCyclones(Pty)Ltd.

-5. Minutesof a groupDMS cyclonediscussion

meeting,28 February,1997.

-5 Minutesof a meetingheld at DSD to ascertainthe DMS "state-of-play"

in the group and beyond,1
March,1996.

-- Chaston,l.R.M.and Napier-Munn, T.J.,Designand operationof dense-medium cycloneplantsfor the

recoveryof diamondsin Africa. Journalof the South African Instituteof Miningand Metallurgy,Vol
75, December1974.

T.J. and Sciarone,M., The production

Collins,8., Napier-Munn, powders
and selectionof ferrosilicon
for heavy-medium separation.Journalof the SouthAfricanInstituteof Miningand Metallurgy,Vol 75,
December1974.

Napier-Munn,
T.J.,Densityinversionin densemediumcyclones.

IndustrialProcessMeasuring& Control,ProcessAutomation(Pty)Ltd.

Vietti,A. and Kruger,L., FeSi"corrosion"and hydrogenevolutionby the additionof HCI.

7 -37