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A. Fabretti Linear Spaces
A. Fabretti Linear Spaces
WARNING
These slides are meant to help the teacher during the lecture, they
are not substitute of the book, they may be incorrect and
incomplete.
Linear Spaces
A. Fabretti
Mathematics 2
A.Y. 2015/2016
Table of contents
Linear Spaces
Introduction and definition
Algebra of Vectors
Linear independence
Introduction
A linear space (called also a vector space) is a set of objects called
vectors that can be added or multiplied by a scalar. They are
useful for modelling a wide variety of economic phenomena
because n-tuples of numbers may be interpreted in many ways.
Examples of vectors
Definition
A linear space over a field F is a set X whose elements are called
vectors and two operations are defined:
I addition + : X × X → X
for any pair u, v ∈ X , u + v ∈ X
I multiplication by scalar · : X × F → X
for α ∈ F and u ∈ X , αu ∈ X
these two operations satisfies some axioms
Definition
I Associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
I Commutative: u + v = v + u
I identity element: there exists an element 0 such that
u+0=u
I Inverse element of addition: for any u ∈ X there exists an
element −u ∈ X such that u + (−u) = 0, this element is
called the addivitive inverse of u or its opposite.
Definition
I Associative: α(βu) = (αβ)u
I Distribuitive 1: α(u + v) = αu + αv
I Distribuitive 2: (α + β)u = αu + βu
I if 1 is the Identity element of F, for any u ∈ X , 1u = u
I 0u = 0, for any u ∈ X .
Addition
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )
6 6 >
u + v
v v
1
1
u
-
u -
Subtraction
u − v = (u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 )
6 6
Scalar multiplication
αu = (αu1 , αu2 )
6 6
αu
u - u -
Exercises
x + 3y − z z − 2x 3(x + y) − 4z
Length
||αx|| = |α|||x||
for all α ∈ R and x ∈ Rn .
Versor
Example
It follows
1 3 2
v= √ , √ , −√
14 14 14
Inner Product
Definition
Let u = (u1 , ..., un ) and v = (v1 , ..., vn ) be two vectors in Rn . The
euclidean inner product of u and v, written u · v or < u, v > is
the number
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + ... + un vn
u · v = 2 · 1 + −2 · (−1) + 3 · 2 = 10.
Theorem
Let u, v and w be arbitrary vectors in Rn and let α be a scalar.
Then,
I u · v = v · u,
I u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w,
I u · (αv) = α(u · v) = (αu) · v,
I u · u ≥ 0,
I u · u = 0 implies u = 0,
I (u + v) · (u + v) = u · u + 2(u · v) + v · v.
we have that √
||u|| = u·u
and the distance between two vectors u and v can be written
p
||u − v|| = (u − v) · (u − v).
Orthogonality
Theorem
the angle between u and v in Rn is
I acute, if u · v > 0,
I obtuse, if u · v < 0,
I right, u · v = 0.
u·v =0
Triangular Inequality
Theorem
For any two vectors u and v in Rn ,
The theorem says that any side of a triangle is shorter than the
sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
Norm
Exercises
Lines
x(t) = x0 + tv.
Example
it is equivalent to write
x1 (t) = 3 + t
x2 (t) = 2 + 2t
Lines (2)
−u2 x + u1 y = u1 y0 − u2 x0 .
Exercises
Planes
x = p + sv + tw s, t ∈ R.
Planes (2)
x = t1 p + t2 q + t3 r; t1 + t2 + t3 = 1.
0 = (x − p) · n = (x1 − p1 , x2 − p2 , x3 − p3 ) · (a, b, c)
= a(x1 − p1 ) + b(x2 − p2 ) + c(x3 − p3 )
ax + by + cz = d.
Examples
hence
4x + 5y + 6z = 32.
Example 2 Find the point-normal equation of the plane P which
contains the points
Solution: 3x − 7y + z = 0.
Hyperplanes
ax1 + bx2 = c
Exercises
Introduction
L(v) = {r v : r ∈ R}
L(v1 , v2 ) = {r1 v1 + r2 v2 : r1 , r2 ∈ R}
Linear Dependence
Linear Dependence
Definition
Vectors v1 , v2 , ..., vk in Rn are linearly dependent if and only if
there exist scalars c1 , c2 , ..., ck not all zero such that
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + ... + ck vk = 0
Example
The vectors
1 2 0
v1 = −1 v2 = 0 v3 = −2
1 −1 3
Matrix Rank
It is equivalent to say:
the rank is the number of linear independent vectors.
Examples