2019

LUMIGEA

IZVORI SVJETLA (ENG)

EDUKATIVNI MATERIJALI
RANKO SKANSI
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LIGHT SOURCES
LIGHT SOURCE TYPES
The transformation of electrical energy into visible radiation (light generation) takes place in light
sources. Basically, there are three different types of such energy transformation, namely light
generation
 by temperature increase (thermal radiator),
 by gas discharge (discharge lamps) and
 by electronic procedures in solid state bodies, electroluminescence (LED).

Traditional light sources such as thermal radiators and discharge lamps were always provided in
the form of lamps with sockets for replaceable operation. For the most part, this no longer applies
to LED light sources. Especially nowadays, luminaires with permanently integrated LED light
sources are used for many applications.
In industrial nations, the quantity percentage of incandescent and halogen lamps was about 3/4
of all utilised lamps in the past, especially due to their wide distribution in residential lighting. Gas
discharge lamps with a quantity percentage of about 1/4 were used predominantly for technical
indoor and outdoor lighting in order to cover the great light requirements in this sector. Their main
advantage is their luminous efficacy, which is 6 to 8 times that of general-use incandescent lamps.

Figure 2.98: Overview of the most common light sources

Currently, both types are increasingly replaced by LED light sources. Regarding residential lighting,
this happens mainly due to the incremental prohibition of incandescent lamps. Regarding
technical lighting, the reason is also the increased energy efficiency, high light quality and long
service life of LED products compared to discharge lamps. Altogether, LED lamps represent the
most economic lighting solution for almost any application.
In the following, different types of light sources and their typical applications will be explained. In
addition to these light source types, there are specific light sources for medical, therapeutic and
other purposes as well as for projector technology and photographic technology.

INCANDESCENT LAMPS
Incandescent lamps (general-use lamps) were favoured in residential lighting. With 12 lm/W and
an average service life of 1,000 hours, they were less appropriate for commercial and industrial
installations.
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High-voltage halogen lamps for mains voltage operation and low-voltage halogen lamps with12 V
or 24 V were traditionally used in sales spaces and representative installations. Their service life is
at least double that of incandescent lamps and their luminous efficacy is 50% higher.
Due to their instant luminous flux emission (no ignition time is needed as with discharge lamps),
they were also applied for object surveillance, for example in combination with motion detectors.
Mostly, they have been replaced by LED lamps or LED luminaires.

Figure 2.95: Luminous efficacy of several thermal radiators in comparison to heated tungsten W
(benchmarks, curve shows maximum luminous efficacy of tungsten)
1. incandescent lamp 15 W, 90 lm, 6 lm/W
2. incandescent lamp 100 W, 1 360 lm, 13,6 lm/W
3. halogen lamp12 V, 20 W, 320 lm, 16 lm/W
4. halogen lamp12 V, 100 W, 2 200 lm, 22 lm/W
5. halogen projector lamp 24 V, 250 W, 10 000 lm, 40 lm/W

HIGH-PRESSURE DISCHARGE LAMPS

LED luminaires and luminaires for discharge lamps – the usage however is decreasing – are
predominantly used for technical lighting due to energy reasons. High-pressure discharge lamps
are either high-pressure mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps or high-pressure sodium
vapour lamps.
High-pressure mercury vapour lamps have not been used indoors due to their low colour
rendering quality (colour rendering index ≤ 70). Since April 2015, putting these lamps into
circulation has been prohibited in Europe according to Commission Regulation (EC)
no. 245/2009 [177] of 18 March 2009 (ecodesign directive – see also chapter
1.3.5.10 “Environmentally sound product design”). They have been almost completely replaced
by the more efficient metal halide lamps.
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High-pressure sodium vapour lamps are characterised by their high luminous efficacy. Therefore,
they were traditionally used for outdoor lighting and in high halls, for example in the steel industry
where their suboptimal colour rendering can be tolerated. By using LED luminaires, the
disadvantage of poor colour rendering can be avoided.
In general, high-pressure lamps need an ignitor, which generates the high ignition voltage, in
addition to the control gear unit. In some cases, it is also generated by the electronic control gear
unit.

LOW-PRESSURE DISCHARGE LAMPS

Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps. They have been used for many
decades due to their high luminous efficacy and service life and cover a high percentage of our
light requirement (ca. 70%) in existing installations. Regarding newer-generation tri-phosphor
fluorescent lamps, the drop in luminous flux is about 8% after 10,000 operating hours, and about
12% after 20,000 operating hours when using an electronic control gear unit ECG (see chapter
“Discharge lamp luminaire operation”). Since the late 1990s, more efficient tri-phosphor
fluorescent lamps with a diameter of 16 mm (T5 lamps) have also been used besides main-series
18 W, 36 W and 58 W fluorescent lamps with a diameter of 26 mm (T8 lamps) in many applications.
Their advantages are higher luminous efficacy, a smaller drop in luminous flux during the operating
period, their smaller diameter and ideal luminous flux at ambient temperatures between 35°C and
38°C as they usually occur in indoor luminaires. These lamps can only be operated with ECG.
Fluorescent substances convert the UV radiation generated through low-pressure mercury vapour
discharge into visible light. These substances consist of “rare-earth” group elements.
The fluorescent lamps’ luminous flux is highly dependent on the ambient temperature (see figure).
The maximum luminous flux of T5 lamps is achieved between 34°C to 38°C, meaning the
temperature range inside luminaires. Due to international standards, however, the (lower) lamp
luminous flux for 25°C is specified. Therefore, light output ratios turn out higher. Examples for
differences in luminous flux are shown in table for T5 lamps with light colour 840.
Compact fluorescent lamps are smaller-construction tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps. Lamps in
lower wattage ranges from 5 W to e.g. 23 W with integrated electronic control gear unit and base
E14 or compact fluorescent lamps with plug-in bases require a separate magnetic or electronic
control gear unit which is integrated in the luminaire.
Instead of tubular fluorescent lamps, more powerful compact fluorescent lamps, e.g. 18 W, 24 W,
36 W, 40 W and 55 W, are operated in compact round, square or rectangular luminaires which
provide additional opportunities in terms of the lighting installation’s architectural design due to
their design.
Low-pressure sodium lamps lamps create a monochromatic yellow light colour at very high
luminous efficacies (up to about 180 lm/W) at which colours are virtually no longer perceived.
Therefore, it is not permitted to use them for indoor lighting according to EN 12464-1 [48]. They
were used e.g. for illumination of locks, harbour installations, object protection and places where
colour recognition is not important.
Induction lamps are low-pressure mercury vapour lamps, similar to fluorescent lamps but without
electrodes. The UV radiation generated through the discharge is also converted into visible
radiation by fluorescent substances. Gas discharge is triggered by coupled-in high-frequency
electric or magnetic fields. Due to high frequencies, special protective measures are required
regarding electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) which are defined in international standards.
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LED (LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES)

(a) Schematic construction of an LED

(b) Materials for generating coloured LED light

Figure 2.96: The LED
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Light generation in an LED (light-emitting diode) takes place in a very small range of the p-n-
junction of the crystalline, semi-conductive material where a part of the released energy is
converted into light (electroluminescence) during recombination of positive and negative charge
carriers. This generates monochromatic light of a specific colour (yellow, orange, red, green, blue)
or wavelength. The generated light is narrow-bandwidth and material-specific (see table in figure
2.96 b). A reflector and lens with different visual properties (gathering, scattering etc.) improve
light emission.
White light is generated either by mixing red, yellow and blue LED (RGB) or by coating a blue LED
with a fluorescent substance which partially converts the LED’s blue light into light of the green or
red spectral range.
RGB mixing is currently hardly used in general lighting applications. On one hand, neither colour
rendering, expressed by the colour rendering index Ra, nor luminous efficacy of the white light
generated by RGB mixing is satisfactory. On the other hand, its chromaticity coordinates change
over time due to the different degradation of the individual colour LEDs (see chapter 1.2.10).
However, RGB colour mixing has a broad use spectrum in decorative and well-being applications
(see also chapter 3.3.1), signalling equipment (e.g. in motor vehicles, traffic light installations) and
for guidance systems (in buildings or outdoor spaces).
In contrast, the conversion of blue LED light through fluorescent coating is a procedure used
wherever great amounts of high-quality white light are required. For example in for residential
lighting, work place lighting and road lighting. High colour stability, good to excellent colour
rendering properties as well as very high luminous efficacies are characteristics of this method.
Regarding luminous efficacy, values exceeding 200 lm/W are measured in the laboratory.
However, these lamp luminous flux figures cannot be used as technical data since the luminous
efficacy is highly dependent on specific luminaire operating conditions. LED power supply as well
as thermal management (see chapter 2.1.9.1) are important factors here which are closely related
to the expected service life of the luminaire.
Regarding residential lighting, so-called “retrofit” lamps with LED technology are widely used
today. These are integrated systems consisting of LEDs and electronic components (see chapter
5.8.4) required for their operation (see chapter 2.1.9.4), often featuring E27 or E14 sockets for
replacing the former general-use incandescent lamp.
Retrofit lamps are rarely used in work place lighting. The reason is that luminaires in work places,
in contrast to individual household luminaires, are generally operated in larger groups as lighting
installations with long operating times. This leads to higher economic and safety-related
requirements (see also chapter 5.6.1 “Luminaire labelling, type plate”) regarding:
 energy efficiency of the luminaire,
 service life of the lamp/luminaire
 photometric characteristics of the lamp/luminaire for photometric planning,
 electromagnetic compatibility
 power factor (avoiding blind current), and
 avoidance of flicker.

Today, LED luminaires as optimised complete systems with built-in LED light sources and
electronics fulfil these requirements much better.
LED light sources are dimmed using different methods. A common method is pulse-width
modulation (PWM) where, according to an adjustable ON/OFF ratio, direct current generated by
the control gear unit is turned on and off, thereby regulating the energy input. In contrast to
dimming via trailing-edge phase cutting in incandescent lamps, where the light of the slowly
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cooling filament is not extinguished, the LED follows the pulse-width-modulation practically
without delay. For applications where stroboscopic effects would be disturbing, PWM dimming
should be avoided. There are no physiological effects on persons at PWM frequencies above 400
Hz. Switching with smaller PWM frequencies should not be applied. To this end, appropriate
control gear units (see chapter 2.1.9.4) are required, e.g. with DALI interface (see chapter 2.4.4.5).
Further developments regarding the usage of electroluminescence concern organic LEDs, so-
called OLED, where light is generated in an organic substance. While crystalline LED are very small
single elements with a diameter of just a few millimetres, OLED can be used in particular to
produce planar light emitters. Currently, they are used predominantly in display technology. An
economic usage of OLED in general lighting is not expected to become reality for now.

Figure 2.97: White LED

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT SOURCESThe most important characteristics of light

sources are
 power consumption
 generated luminous flux
 luminous efficacy
 light colour and colour rendering
 service life and
 shape as well as dimensions.
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(a) retrofit lamp with E14 or G9 base

(b) retrofit lamp (tube) with G13 base

Figure 2.106: Examples for retrofit lamps

LUMINOUS EFFICACY
LUMINOUS EFFICACY OF LAMPS
Light sources convert electrical power into visible radiation (light). A large portion of the electrical
power consumed by a light source is converted into heat. Incandescent lamps emit only 5% of
their electrical power as light; in fluorescent lamps the number ranges between 20% and 40%.
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Luminous efficacy is a measure for the efficiency of light generation. It is measured in lumens per
watt (lm/W).
Lamp luminous efficacy is the emitted amount of light in proportion to the electrical power
consumption of open-distribution lamps under standardised environmental conditions. Among
traditional light sources, the energy efficiency of gas discharge lamps and particularly fluorescent
lamps with a diameter of 16 mm (so-called T5 lamps) is especially high.
Additionally, control gear units which also consume power are required to operate LEDs and
discharge lamps. The system luminous efficacy of a lamp circuit is defined as lamp luminous flux
in proportion to lamp and control gear unit power consumption. Thus, system luminous efficacy
is determined by the luminous efficacy of the lamp and the dissipation power of the required
control gear units. This often has a great impact, particularly on the cost efficiency of a planned
refurbishment project (see chapter 1.3.4 “Light and economic efficiency”).
An overview of the different luminous efficacies of light sources is provided in figure 9.6 (control
gear unit losses are not considered here).
Regarding LED light sources, information about lamp or system luminous efficacy is only available
for retrofit lamps. Only these can be operated with open distribution under defined conditions.
In addition, optical losses occur in the luminaire due to reflexion and absorption of optical
materials as well as thermal losses due to heating of the luminaire (see chapter 2.1.3.4 “Light
output ratio”).

LUMINOUS EFFICACY OF LED LUMINAIRES

LED components built into luminaires must be considered separately. Lamp luminous flux and
consequently lamp luminous efficacy cannot be defined for them. Standardised operation of the
components is not possible since luminaire and lamp can not be separated from each other. A
luminaire’s construction characteristics in particular have a significant impact on thermal
management (see chapter 2.1.9.1 “Thermal management”). The choice of control gear unit used
in the luminaire and electrical operating conditions can also vary widely. Therefore, rated
luminous flux ΦB, rated output PB and resulting luminous efficacy ΦB/PB are defined for such LED
luminaires.
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Figure 2.99: Luminous efficacy (approx. peak values without control gear units) and service life
(related to the applicable definition) of different lamp types.
Rated luminous flux:
ΦB = initial luminaire luminous flux, undimmed
Rated output:
PB = power consumption to generate ΦB
Luminous efficacy:
ΦB/PB = (initial luminaire luminous flux, undimmed) / (power consumption to generate ΦB)
Luminaire luminous efficacy refers to the luminaire luminous flux which emitted by the LED
luminaire in proportion to the electrical power consumed by the luminaire.
From this perspective, light output ratio is not applicable or it is represented by the value 1 in
order to ensure error-free operation of software programs for light calculation (see chapter
2.1.3.4 “Light output ratio”).
The maximum achievable theoretical luminous efficacy at monochromatic radiation is 683 lm/W;
for white light in the visible spectral range between 380 nm and 780 nm, it is only 199 lm/W.
Today, technically sophisticated LED luminaires reach a rated luminous efficacy of over 160 lm/W.
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LIGHT COLOUR
The light colour of a light source is expressed by the closest colour temperature Tcp (température
de couleur proximale). The closest colour temperature is the temperature of heated platinum
where its colour is perceived to be the same as the respective light source (see figure 2.100). Low
closest colour temperatures express warm, yellow-red-white appearing light colours such as e.g.
candles, incandescent lamps and other thermal radiators. High temperatures express cool, rather
white-blue light colours such as e.g. daylight with ca. 6,500 K (overcast sky).
The European lighting standards give no recommendations on light colours of the used light source
since their preferential choice amongst other things highly depends on what people from different
regions in Europe perceive as natural light. Therefore, the choice of a suitable light colour strongly
depends on regional adaption, especially in terms of how daylight appears in indoor spaces. In
general, high colour temperatures, for example daylight white, are preferred in warm climate
zones, even at low levels of illuminance. In cold climate zones, low colour temperatures and
therefore warm white light colours are preferred.

Figure 2.100: Extract from the standard colour table according to CIE 1931 with Planckian curve
representing the light colour of the heated platinum. The closest colour temperatures of e.g.
fluorescent lamps are marked. E is the white point.
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Table 2.36: Light colour and closest colour temperature according to EN 12464-[48]
The choice of the light colour also depends on the application – meaning the visual task – and
factors concerning aesthetics and psychology, room and furniture colours as well as the spatial
effect of the environment. Based on recent findings, the daytime utilisation of a room also should
not be neglected. Especially for rooms with extended operating times compared to the common
rhythm of work, the circadian function of light is of utmost importance. Not only the light colour
but also the detailed spectral composition of light has an impact. Regarding areas with night shift
operation, the biological clock should not be excessively affected. In areas with early starts of work
and minimal daylight supply, artificial lighting should actively support the circadian rhythm (see
chapter 3.3.1 “Human Centric Lighting (HCL)” ff). Table 9.4 shows the international labelling of
light colours independent of manufacturers. In addition, it provides the colour rendering of the
light source, which will be explained in the subsequent paragraph.

COLOUR RENDERING
For visual performance, comfort and well-being, it is important that the colours of the
surroundings, objects and human skin are rendered naturally and realistically. This makes people
appear attractive and healthy. Dependent on location and visual task, artificial light sources should
ensure correct colour rendering comparable to natural daylight (see also figure and figure).

Figure 2.102: Good colour rendering Figure 2.101: Insufficient colour rendering

Despite featuring identical light colour, light sources can have different colour rendering
properties due to different spectral compositions of their radiation. In order to express colour
rendering properties of a light source objectively, the general colour rendering index Rα was
established. The colour rendering index is the measure of correspondence of the seen body colour
and its appearance under the respective reference light source. To determine the value of Rα,
colour variations from 8 standardised test colours occurring when the test colours are illuminated
using the light source to be evaluated/the reference light source are identified. The smaller the
variation, the better the colour rendering characteristic of the tested light source. A light source
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with Rα = 100 renders all colours ideally as under the reference light source. The lower the Rαvalue,
the lower the quality of the colour rendering. A categorisation of market-based light sources for
the colour rendering levels can be found in table 9.3. The reference light type for daylight white
light sources is natural daylight with a colour temperature of 6,500 K, corresponding to an overcast
sky without direct sunlight. For light sources with a colour temperature of < 5.000 K, the reference
light type is the Planckian radiator.
Lamps with a colour rendering index below 80 should not be used indoors where persons work or
linger for extended periods of time. Exceptions are permissible for particular lighting tasks
requiring high luminous efficacy and therefore lower colour rendering for economic reasons, for
example high-pressure sodium vapour lamps. This applies e.g. for the lighting in high halls.
However, appropriate measures should be taken in these cases in order to ensure a higher colour
rendering at stationary and steadily occupied workstations and at locations where safety colours
must be identified correctly. As the use of LED luminaires becomes more widespread, this issue
increasingly fades into the background. High illuminance values can also be realised with these
light sources, featuring good colour rendering and at economically reasonable expenses. This has
been already taken into account in the current efforts of photometric standardisation.
Manufacturers have committed themselves to a simple, generally comprehensive international
labelling for light colour and colour rendering of lamps and LED luminaires in addition to
manufacturer-specific labelling. It consists of three digits as depicted in table. Regarding LED light
sources, colour rendering properties are expressed by the rated colour rendering index which
refers to the colour rendering at initial commissioning.

Table 2.37: Ranges for the general colour rendering index Ra

Table 2.38: Colour labelling of lamps/luminaires with integrated light sources independent of
manufacturers.
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LAMP SERVICE LIFE
The service life of lamps depends on several factors.
With incandescent lamps, e.g. for residential areas, specifying the statistic average service life is
sufficient. It is 1,000 hours for incandescent lamps and 2,000 to 4,000 hours for halogen lamps.
After this time, only 50% of lamps are still (statistically) functional. This service life is also called
average service life.
The same service life definition used for incandescent lamps is applied to compact fluorescent
lamps with integrated (mostly electronic) control gear units which mainly serve as replacements
for incandescent lamps.

Table 2.39: Benchmarks for the useful life of some lamp types
Useful life (also referred to as economic service life) is specified for fluorescent lamps and compact
fluorescent lamps with external control gear units as well as for high-pressure lamps and low-
pressure sodium lamps. Useful life is the length of time it takes for system luminous flux (the
product of the remaining functional portion of lamps and the remaining luminous flux after
luminous flux drop) to reach 70% or 80% of the initial value (see benchmarks in table 9.5). The
useful life of fluorescent lamps is based on a switching cycle of 3 hours (165 minutes ON and 15
minutes OFF). For high-pressure lamps, the switching cycle is defined as 12 hours (11 hours ON
and 1 hour OFF).
Another distinct characteristic is nominal service life. This is the time period with a switching
frequency of 12 hours (11 hours ON, 1 hour OFF) after which 10% of lamps failed (abbreviation:
12B10). Benchmarks for this are also specified in table.
Figure shows the fundamental progress of operability A (amount lamps which are still functional)
and lamp luminous flux B dependent on operating duration. The product of both parameters is
system luminous flux. Chapter 1.3.1.6 “Lamp maintenance factor” contains realistic diagrams for
tubular fluorescent lamps and compact fluorescent lamps.
For fluorescent lamps, economic service life (useful life) relates to 80% of system luminous flux
(see also chapter 1.3.1.6“Lamp maintenance factor”).
Useful life depends on a series of influencing factors, e.g. switching frequencies, lamp wattage,
types of fluorescent substance and eventually product batch. Consequently, providing exact
information on service life can be challenging. However, exact information about service life is not
always necessary from a practical point of view since relamping usually does not occur at the end
of the useful life but at a time determined for business reasons. Relamping occurs e.g. due to new
illuminance measurements, in-company cost analysis for maintenance procedures and e.g. also
depends on access to the lighting installation.
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These and other criteria are used in many cases to make a decision for group or individual lamp
replacement.
With tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps connected to magnetic control gear units, a useful life
(average service life) of 10,000 hours (13,000 hours) can be reached under rated conditions, and
up to 18,000 hours (20,000 hours) with hot-start ECGs. These values apply to rated conditions and
a decrease of system luminous flux to 80% of the initial value. Derating and overloading can cause
service life reductions.

Table 2.40: Benchmarks for the nominal useful life of some lamp types

Figure 2.103: Economic service life of fluorescent lamps

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SERVICE LIFE OF LED LIGHT SOURCES
The luminous flux of LED light sources also decreases with increasing operating duration. This
phenomenon is referred to as luminous flux degradation. However, total failures of LED light
sources only occur after a very long period of time when the degradation is far advanced.
Therefore, total failure plays only a minor role when considering the service life of this type of LED
products. Total failure is only recognizable for individual LEDs, e.g. as a defective pixel on an LED
display.
Following the failure rate of incandescent lamps, the time of degradation to 50% of initial luminous
flux (rated luminous flux) is a common definition for household LED retrofit lamp service life.

Figure 2.104: Examples of drops in luminous flux for different rated service life values Lx.

RATED SERVICE LIFE

For LED luminaires, there is no conventional definition of service life, be it “nominal service life”
or “economic service life”.
Instead, it is common to relate the service life specified by the manufacturer to the respective
specified level of luminous flux degradation. This procedure is suggested by the standards
regarding luminaire performance (DIN EN 62722-1; Luminaire performance – Part 1: General
Requirements [106], DIN EN 62722-2-1; Part 2-1: Particular requirements for LED luminaires [107]
and LED modules [DIN IEC/PAS 62717; LED modules for general lighting – Performance
requirements [16]).
A more general definition of rated service life based on these standards leads to an expression in
the form of LxBy (e.g. L80B10= 50,000 h). The index x describes the percentage of residual luminous
flux of a luminaire due to degradation. The index y describes the percentage of a large number of
luminaires which statistically undercut this luminous flux, meaning the portion of luminaires with
increased drop in luminous flux (“gradual failure fraction”).
The definition of “average rated service life” Lx is common on the market, without specification of
By. In this case, it is assumed that the index y of the general definition is 50. Therefore, Lx refers to
the statistic average of the residual luminous flux remaining at the end of service life for a large
number of luminaires.
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 Lx, the average rated service life
 Φ(Lx), the luminaire luminous flux at Lx,
 ΦB, the rated luminous flux (initial luminous flux), and
 x, the statistically averaged residual luminous flux of a luminaire at the end of service
life Lx, in %.

The service life specification

L80, 50,000 h for a given luminaire,
e.g. means that a large number of these luminaires in total after 50,000 operating hours still
generate at least 80% of their rated luminous flux (available initially and in total). Therefore, this
is an average value.
Until the rated service life is reached, the progress of the drop in luminous flux (degradation) can
be regarded as linear in simplification (see figure 2.104).
This means:

(see symbols above)

In practice, this approximation can often be used beyond the scope of the rated service life
specified by the manufacturer, for a period of up to 1.5 Lx (see also tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The
lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire”).
Common average rated service life specifications refer to different degrees of degradation: L90-, L85-
, L80-, L70- and L50. These values can be converted into each other to a certain extent.
The choice of rated service life index has a significant impact on the maintenance factor to be
specified in the lighting planning stage. Further information can be found in the tables in chapter
1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire”.

The LED as a semiconductor in which electrical energy is converted is temperature-sensitive,

similar to a power transistor inside an amplifier or a processor inside a computer. The extent of
the luminous flux degradation – and therefore the rated service life – depends particularly on the
operating temperature of the LED inside the luminaire. Correct service life specifications therefore
require reliable thermal management of the LED luminaire (see also chapter 2.1.9.1 “Thermal
management”) and usually relate to an ambient temperature (rated temperature) of 25°C, unless
otherwise stated by the manufacturer. Based on the aforementioned standards, it is possible to
specify an ambient temperature tq other than 25°C in the data sheet at which specified technical
quality criteria are achieved (see also chapter 2.1.8.2 “Operating conditions” and chapter
2.1.7.5 “Performance labelling of LED luminaires”).

FAILURE RATE
Total failures of LED lamps or luminaires are expressed by the Cz value (catastrophic failure) with
the numeric value of z indicating the expected failure rate in per cent at a given time.1
Luminaire classification specification
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C5 = 100,000 h at tq = 35° C
would therefore state e.g. that the LED luminaires in question feature a total failure rate of 5% at
an ambient temperature of 35°C and after 100,000 operating hours.
The value of a luminaire’s total failure rate at the end of the average rated service life Lx (B50, see
above) is referred to as AFV (“abrupt failure value”). In practice, significant failure rates in LED
products only occur with very advanced degradation. At average rated service life specifications x
≥ 80 the AFV is therefore negligible.
When determining the maintenance factor, the total failure rate expressed by LSF (“lamp survival
factor”) must be considered (see also chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED
luminaire”).

Therefore, the lamp survival factor [Symbol] only matters for the determination of the
maintenance factor after the end of the rated service life. In the tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The
lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire”, this factor is already considered.

RATED SERVICE LIFE WITH CONSTANT LIGHT OUTPUT (CLO)

With constant light output (CLO), the luminous flux of an LED product is constantly regulated to
the level corresponding to the residual luminous flux which is statistically expected at the end of
the rated service life. If luminous flux is used as the basis for lighting design, energy can be saved
until the end of the rated service life which would otherwise only lead to unnecessary excess
lighting.
For a luminaire with rated service life Lx the following applies:

and

with
 Φ(t), the luminaire luminous flux at the time of t,
 Lx, the average rated service life,
 Φ'B, the rated luminous flux (initial luminous flux) of a luminaire with the same rated
service life without CLO, and
 x, the residual luminous flux percentage of Φ'B at the end of the rated service life.
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Figure 2.105: Examples of drops in luminous flux and power control with constant light output
(CLO) over a period of 1.5 Lx.
Upon expiration of the rated service life, degradation can no longer be compensated and the
luminaire luminous flux decreases at a rate corresponding to a luminaire without constant light
output (see figure above).
Generally, the power consumption of the luminaire in initial state Pnew required to provide constant
luminous flux Φnew is specified in the data sheet of such luminaires. In addition, the required power
consumption value Px at the end of the rated service life should be specified as well.
The result for a given average rated service life Lx is derived as follows:

The power consumption is constant after the end of the rated service life, when the luminous flux
Φnew can no longer be maintained. It has reached its maximum value:
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Over the course of the rated service life, the power consumption increases continuously
(see figure):

The resulting time-dependent factor at which power consumption increases is defined as power
lifetime factor PLF:

The tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire” list the resulting
PLF values.
The energy requirement Wnew(t) of a newly installed luminaire up to a point within the rated service
life is derived as a statistic average of:

The total failure rate index C is expressed by the letter “y” in some printed volumes. “z” is chosen
as the index to provide a better distinction from the “gradual failure fraction” index By.

The maintenance factor (MF) can be determined when LMF and RMF of the application are known.

LAMP REFERENCE
The multitude of lamp types, their performance, light colours, base designs and other properties
are impossible to manage. Company-specific references for similar and compatible lamps deviate
from each other. However, practical applications demand a consistent lamp reference system
which captures the most important cross-company lamp characteristics.
The German electric lighting trade association Zentralverband der Elektrotechnik- und
Elektronikindustrie (ZVEI) has developed a lamp reference system called LBS which predominantly
lists lamps according to their luminaire-relevant properties; it was last updated in 2010. This
system has been introduced widely in the German but also in the European luminaire industry
since it enables short references sufficient to identify lamp types. The LBS system – or parts of it –
is often used as a luminaire order code component, e.g. TC (tubeform compact) for compact
fluorescent lamp luminaires.
The LBS consists of three system blocks. The first system block specifies the light generation type,
e.g. “H” for high pressure; the second system block indicates the medium used to generate light,
e.g. “M” for mercury. This leads to a classification in 7 groups:
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1. General-use incandescent lamps
2. Halogen lamps
3. High-pressure discharge lamps HM (mercury vapour)
4. High-pressure discharge lamps HI (metal halide)
5. High-pressure discharge lamps HS (sodium vapour)
6. Low-pressure discharge lamps LM (mercury vapour)
7. Low-pressure discharge lamps LS (sodium vapour)
LED lamps as retrofits for incandescent lamps, halogen lamps or fluorescent lamps are not
considered in the LBS system.
The third system block fundamentally expresses the shape of the bulb, e.g. “T” (tube) for tubular
lamps. Additional reference amendments are determined in the LBS catalogue (see
www.zvei.org/en/press-media/publications/).
Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps with reference “LM” (low pressure,
mercury), followed by the bulb shape specification.

EXAMPLES:

LM T26 refers to a fluorescent luminaire with 26 mm tube diameter which is also referred to as T8
internationally. According to LBS, T5 lamps are referred to as T16. Older T12 lamps with 38 mm
diameter are referred to as T38 according to LBS. For convenience, LM is mostly omitted.
Other information such as lamp wattage, light colour and base reference can be added to this
fundamental reference.
At international level, the lamp reference system ILCOS (International Lamp Code System) was
introduced, which is described in the international specification IEC 61231:2010 + A1:2013 and
has e.g. been published as German standard in DIN EN 61231 [91]. In the catalogues of
internationally operating lamp manufacturers, ILCOS references are contrasted with company-
specific lamp references in the form of a translation list.
ILCOS captures nearly all lamp properties. This leads to reference lengths which are very difficult
to handle in practice due to description clarity alone and can therefore not be used as an ordering
component for the luminaire in question. Therefore, short (ILCOS L), extended short (ILCOS LE) or
standard references (ILCOS D) are also possible as full lamp references.
The structure of ILCOS references is defined in DIN EN 61231 [91] for the following lamp types:
1. Incandescent lamps
2. Halogen lamps
3. Fluorescent lamps
4. High-pressure sodium vapour lamps
5. Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
6. High-pressure mercury vapour lamps
7. Metal halide lamps
8. LED modules and lamps
9. Lamps/starters for specific applications
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EXAMPLE 1
According to ILCOS D, a tubular fluorescent lamp T8 58 W with light colour 840 is referenced as
follows: FD-58/40/1BE- G13-26/1500.
In which:
FD double ended fluorescent lamp
58 wattage 58 W
40 light colour 4,000 K
1B for Ra from 80 to 89
E starting behaviour: external starter, with pre-heating
G13 base reference
26 tube diameter 26 mm
1500 length 1,500 mm

EXAMPLE 2

According to ILCOS D, a drop-shaped E14 LED retrofit lamp with a power consumption of 6 W and
light colour 840 is referenced as follows: DRP-6/30/1B-E14-45.
In which:
DR retrofit LED lamp with integrated control gear unit
P drop-shaped (as the lamp requiring replacement)
6 wattage 6 W
30 light colour 3,000 K
1B for Ra from 80 to 89
E14 base reference
45 nominal diameter of the lamp’s construction (requiring replacement)
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Type (code) Common Colour rendering Colour Life
ratings (watts) temperature (K) (hours)
Compact fluorescent 5–55 good 2.700–5.000 5.000–
lamps (FS) 10.000
High-pressure mercury 80–750 fair 3.300–3.800 20.000
lamps (QE)
High-pressure sodium 50–1.000 poor to good 2.000–2.500 6.000–
lamps (S-) 24.000
Incandescent lamps (I) 5–500 good 2.700 1.000–
3.000
Induction lamps (XF) 23–85 good 3.000–4.000 10.000–
60.000
Low-pressure sodium 26–180 monochromatic 1.800 16.000
lamps (LS) yellow colour
Low-voltage tungsten 12–100 good 3.000 2.000–
halogen lamps (HS) 5.000
Metal halide lamps (M-) 35–2.000 good to excellent 3.000–5.000 6.000–
20.000
Tubular fluorescent 4–100 fair to good 2.700–6.500 10.000–
lamps (FD) 15.000
Tungsten halogen lamps 100–2.000 good 3.000 2.000–
(HS) 4.000
LED 0,1 - 500 good to excellent 2.200 – 6.500 >50.000