6.4 The work function # the metal is heated, or light waves are incident upon it, then electrons may ‘eave the metal. A more detailed experimental study would reveal that there is *cerlain threshold energy the electrons should possess in order to be able to sscape. We call this energy (for historical reasons) the work function and denote by 6, Thus, our model is as shown in Fig. 6.2, At absolute zero temperature all the states are filled up to Ep, and there is an extemal potential barrier it must be admitted that our new model is somewhat at variance with the “i one. Not long ago, we calculated the energy levels of the electrons on she assumption that the extemal potential barvier is infinitely large, and now # go back on my word and say that the potential barrier is finite after all 5 this permissible? Strictly speaking, no. To be consistent, we should solve Schrédinger's equation subject to the boundary conditions fora finite potential sell. But since the potential well is deep enough, and the number of electrons Sscaping is relatively small, there is no need to recalculate the energy levels, So lam cheating, but not excessively. 6.5 Thermionic emission Sn this section we shall be concerned with the emission of electrons at high tem- Peratures (hence the adjective thermionic). As we agreed before, the electron Seeds at least Ep + @ energy in order to escape from the metal, and all this, ef course, should be available in the form of kinetic energy, Luckily, in the See-clectron model, all energy is kinetic energy, since the potential energy is 2sco and the electrons do not interact; so the relationship between energy and =omentum is simply 1 4 B= = (p2 +p? + p2 26) Dag Pe HPs FP (6.26) A further condition is that the electron, besides having the right amount of “esfey, must go in the right direction. Taking x as the coordinate perpendicular % the surface of the metal, the electron momentum must satisfy the inequality Pe Wet es p 7 om om E+. (6.27) However, this is stil not enough. An electron may not be able to scale the Sacvier even if it has the right energy in the right ditection. According to the Fig. 6.2 Model for thermionic emission calculation. The potential barrier that keeps the electrons in the metal is above the Fermi energy level by an energy86 ‘The free electron theory of metals rules of quantum mechanics, it may still suffer reflection. Thus, the probability of escape is | —r(p,). where r(p,) is the reflection coefficient, Ifthe number of electrons having a momentum between p, and px +dps is'N(py)dpe, then the number of electrons arriving at the surface per second per unit area is PE NGpa) des (6.28) m and the number of those escaping is = a (6.29) Adding the contributions from all electrons that have momenta in excess of yyy We can write for the emission current density = [rp inantoodes. (6330) We may obtain the number of electrons in an infinitesimal momentum range in the same way as for the infinitesimal energy range. First, it consists of two factors, the density of states and the probability of occupation, The density of states, Zp), can be easily obtained by noting from eqns (6.2) and (6.26) that at ‘ Pe = Fy. Bem FM: ‘The number of states in a cube of side one is exactly one. Therefore, the number of states in a volume of sides dit,. dny, dn. is equal to dn, dny dn., which with the aid of egn (6.31) ean be expressed as es (G) dp. dp. dp. (632) (6.31) Dividing again by 8 (because only positive integers matter) and multiplying by two (because of spin) we get 2 © Hence, the number of electrons in the momentum range ps, py + Ap ss Pys Py + Oss Pee Ps APIS Nips Pyepdps dpy dp- py dpe 4, © WS expl(/(2 mp? +73 +p) — EAVATI A Z(Pus Pye) (6.33) (6.34) To get the number of electrons in the momentum range px. Py + dps. the above equation needs to be integrated for all values of py, and p: Nipodpr a i L dps dp: Pc Jy exp /i2ann(p? + pt + pe) — Eva (6.35) ‘This integral looks rather complicated, but since we are interested only in those electrons exceeding the threshold @(>> kT), we may neglect the: unityThermionic emission term in the denominator. We are left then with some Gaussian functions, whose integrals between -:oo can be found in the better integral tables (you can derive them for yourself if you are fond of doing integrals). This leads us to N(paddps = MAT gtitt emt, (636) ‘Substituting eqn (6.36) into (6.30) and assuming that r(p,) = r is inde- pendent of py, which is not true but gives a good enough approximation, the integration can be easily performed, leading to J = Aglt =A) T2e-#47, (637) where 4remi @ The most important factor in eqn (6:37) is exp(—¢/KT), which is strongly dependent both on temperature and on the actual value of the work function. Take, for exemple, tungsten (the work functions for a number of metals are given in Table 6,2), for which'@ = 4.5eV and take T = 2500.K. Then, a 10% change in the work function or temperature changes the emission by a factor of 8. ‘The main merit of eqn (6.37) is to show the exponential dependence on tem~ perature, which is well borne out by experimental results. The actual numerical ‘values are usually below those predicted by the equation, but thisis not very sur prising in view of the many simplifications we had to introduce. Inareal crystal, 6 isa function of temperature, of the surface conditions, and of the ditections of the crystallographic axes, which our simple model did not take into account. ‘There is one more thing I would like to discuss, which is really so trivial that most textbooks do not even bother to mention it. Our analysis was one for a piece of metal in isolation. The electron current obtained ineqn (6.37) is the current that would start to flow if the sample were suddenly heated to a temperature 7, But this current would not flow for long because, as electrons leave the metal, it becomes positively charged, making it more difficult for further electrons to leave. Thus, our formulae are valid only if we have some means of replenishing the electrons lost by emission. Thatis, we nced anelectric circuit like the one in Fig. 6.3(a). As soon as an electron is emitted from our piece of metal, another electron will enter from the circuit. The current flowing. can bbe measured by an ammeter. A disadvantage of this scheme is that the electrons travelling to the electrode will be scattered by air; we should really evacuate the place between the emitter and the receiving electrode, making up the usual eathode-anode configuration ‘of a vacuum tube. This is denoted in Fig. 6.3(b) by the envelope shown. The electrons are now free to reach the anode but also free to accumulate in the vicinity of the cathode. This is bad again because by their negative charge they will compel many of their fellow electrons to interrupt their planned journey to the anode and return instead to the emitter. So again we do not measure the natural” current. In order to prevent the accumulation of electrons in front of the cathode. a dec. voltage may be applied to the anode (Fig; 6.3(c)}: this will sweep out Ao = 12 10°Am?K™, (6.38) 87 Table 6.2. Workfunctionsof metals Metal Li Na K cs cu Ag Au Mg Ca Ba Al cr Mo Ta w Co Ni Pt 248 23 Lo 445 4.46 49 36 32 42 46 42 42 45 44 49 33 ‘Work function (eV)