I

ntr
oduct
iont
oSol
arPower

Al
mostev
eryaspectofmoder
nli
fei
sdependentonel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ast
echnol
ogy
i
mpr
oves,al
mostev
ery
thi
ngweuse,f
rom cooki
ngandcl
eani
ngappl
i
ancest
ospor
ts
andent
ert
ainmentequi
pment
,hasbeenupdat
edt
oincl
udeel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
tr
y.Howev
er,
soci
ety
’sdependenceonel
ect
ri
cit
yisi
ncr
easi
ngl
ypr
obl
emat
ic:
asconv
ent
ionalf
ossi
l
f
uelr
eser
vesdi
mini
shandt
hedangerofcl
i
mat
echangemat
eri
ali
zes,t
heneedf
or
al
ter
nat
iveener
gysour
cesi
sincr
eased.Sol
arpower
,thati
sel
ect
ri
cit
ygener
atedusi
ng
ener
gyf
rom t
hesun,i
sanat
tract
ivewayt
oof
fsetourr
eli
anceonel
ect
ri
cit
ygener
ated
bybur
ningf
ossi
lfuel
s.

Thebeaut
yofsol
arpoweri
sthati
thasv
eryf
ew r
unni
ngcost
s:oncet
hecapi
tal
i
nvest
menthasbeenmadet
heener
gyi
sef
fect
ivel
yfr
ee,whi
l
efossi
lfuel
smustbe
pur
chasedcont
inuousl
yandal
li
ndi
cat
ionsar
ethatpr
iceswi
l
lcont
inuet
ori
se.

Renewabl
eener
gyt
echnol
ogi
est
hatmakeuseofwi
ndandsol
arpowerwi
l
lther
efor
e
pl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nreduci
nggl
obalGHGemi
ssi
onsandar
eli
kel
ytor
epr
esenta
l
argepor
ti
onoft
hewor
ld’
sener
gypr
oduct
ioni
nthef
utur
e.

Sol
arel
ect
ri
csy
stem
Sol
arener
gyi
shar
nessedbyusi
ngsol
arel
ect
ri
csy
stems,al
soknownasphot
ovol
tai
c
(
PV)sy
stems.Thewor
dphot
ovol
tai
cisder
ivedf
rom t
heLat
i dsphot
nwor o(l
i
ght
)and
v
olt
aic(
ener
gy)
.Sol
arel
ect
ri
c and sol
art
her
malsy
stems ar
ever
y di
ff
erenti
n
appear
anceandoper
ati
on.

Of
f-
gri
dsy
stems

Anof
f-
gri
dorst
and-
alonesol
arel
ect
ri
csy
stem i
sdesi
gnedt
orepl
aceorsuppl
ement

convent
ionalmai
nspowersuppl
y.Theyar
emostcommonl
yusedi
nrural
or
remoteareaswheremai
nspowerisnotavai
l
abl
eduetot
hehi
ghcostofgri
dext
ensi
on.
Of
f-
gri
dsy
stemsusesol
arpowert
ochar
gebat
ter
iest
hatst
oret
hepowerunt
ili
tis
neededf
oruse.Thebat
ter
ypoweri
sthenusedt
ooper
ateappl
i
ances(
e.g.l
i
ght
ing,
pumps,r
efr
iger
ati
onet
c.)ei
therdi
rect
lyf
rom t
hebat
ter
iesasl
ow-
vol
tageequi
pment
(
e.g.12VDCl
i
ght
s)orf
rom apoweri
nver
ter
,whi
chi
sconnect
edt
othebat
ter
iesand
conv
ert
sthebat
ter
yvol
taget
omai
nsequi
val
entf
orusei
nregul
arACequi
pment(
e.g.
comput
er,
tel
evi
sion,
radi
oet
c.)
.

Fi
gur
e1.
4Lay
outofanof
f-
gri
dsy
stem
Fi
ger1.5Smalloff
-gr
idsolarel
ectr
icsystemsareoftenthemostconv
eni
entand
cost
-ef
fect
iveopti
onforthoseli
vi
nginr ural
areasofthedev
elopi
ngworl
dsuchast
he
WestSahara,wher
ethissystem i
slocated

Gr
id-
connect
edsy
stems

Gr
id-
connect
edsy
stemsar
enor
mal
l
yfoundi
nur
banar
east
hathav
ereadi
l
y
av
ail
abl
emai
nssuppl
yandi
nst
eadofst
ori
ngt
heel
ect
ri
cit
ygener
atedbyt
hePVsy
stem
i
nbat
ter
ies,t
hepoweri
sfedbacki
ntot
hegr
id.I
nthi
swayt
hegr
idact
sasaki
ndof
st
oragemedi
um andwhenpoweri
sneededi
nthebui
l
dingi
tcanbei
mpor
tedf
rom t
he
gr
id.Oneoft
hekeybenef
it
soft
hisi
sthatt
hesy
stem doesnothav
etosuppl
yenough
el
ect
ri
cit
ytocov
ert
hepr
oper
ty’
spowerdemandasi
nanof
f-
gri
dsy
stem.Thepr
oper
ty
canbepower
edbyt
hePVsy
stem,t
heel
ect
ri
cit
ygr
idoracombi
nat
ionoft
het
wo,
meani
ngt
hatt
hesy
stem canbeassmal
lorl
argeast
heownerdesi
res.Excesspower
gener
atedbyt
hePVsy
stem wi
l
lbeexpor
tedt
othepowergr
idandi
nmanyar
east
he
sy
stem owneri
spai
dfort
heexpor
tedpower
.

Themaj
orcomponent
sofagr
id-
connect
edPV sy
stem i
ncl
udet
hePV ar
ray
,
i
nver
terandt
hemet
eri
ngsy
stem.I
naddi
ti
ont
othesemaj
orcomponent
sar
ethe
necessar
ycabl
es,combi
nerboxes,pr
otect
iondev
ices,swi
tches,l
i
ght
ningpr
otect
ion
andsi
gnage.

Fi
gur
e1.
8Ty
pical
smal
lgr
idconnect
edPVsy
stem

Di
str
ibut
edgr
id-
connect
edPVsy
stems

Ther
ear
ety
pical
l
ytwot
ypesofsy
stem:
commer
cial
andr
esi
dent
ial
.

Commer
cialsy
stemsar
e gener
all
ygr
eat
ert
han 10kWp and ar
elocat
ed on
bui
l
dingssuchasf
act
ori
es,
commer
cial
busi
nesses,
off
icebl
ocksandshoppi
ngcent
res.
Thepowergener
atedbyt
hesesy
stemsi
sty
pical
l
yconsumedbyt
hel
oadswi
thi
nthe
bui
l
ding,
sonoexcesspoweri
sexpor
tedt
otheel
ect
ri
cit
ygr
id.
Resi
dent
ialsy
stemsr
efert
othosei
nst
all
edonhomesandar
egener
all
ysmal
l
er
t
hancommer
cialsy
stems,t
ypi
cal
l
ybet
ween1and5kWp.Thepowergener
atedby
t
hesesy
stemsi
sfi
rstconsumedbyanyl
oadsoper
ati
ngi
nthehousedur
ingt
heday
;
excesspoweri
sfedi
ntot
hegr
idpr
ovi
dingel
ect
ri
cit
ytonear
bybui
l
dings.

Modul
e-1(
Chapt
er-
1)
Sol
arResour
ceandRadi
ati
on
Sol
arr
esour
ces
 Thesuni
sthesour
ceofal
mostal
lener
gyonourpl
anet
,ei
therdi
rect
lyas
sunl
i
ghtori
ndi
rect
lyaswi
ndandwav
es.Ev
ent
hecoalr
eser
veswemi
net
odaywer
e
oncel
i
vingpl
ant
sthatgai
nedt
hei
rener
gyf
rom phot
osy
nthesi
s:t
hepr
ocessbywhi
ch
sunl
i
ght
,car
bondi
oxi
deandwat
erar
econv
ert
edt
ocar
bohy
drat
es.Thesun’
sseemi
ngl
y
endl
essener
gysuppl
yisdr
ivenbyapr
ocessknownasnucl
earf
usi
on,wher
eat
omsof
hy
drogencombi
net
ofor
m anat
om ofhel
i
um r
eleasi
ngal
argeamountofener
gyi
nthe
pr
ocess.Thehel
i
um at
om mayt
hencombi
newi
thot
herhel
i
um orhy
drogenat
omst
o
r
eleaseev
enmor
eener
gy.Theener
gypr
oducedi
nthehear
toft
hesuni
semi
tt
edas
el
ect
romagnet
icr
adi
ati
on.El
ect
romagnet
icr
adi
ati
oni
semi
tt
edi
nmanyusef
ulf
orms
i
ncl
udi
ng mi
crowav
es (
as used i
n mi
crowav
e cooki
ng)
,radi
o wav
es (
used i
n
t
elecommuni
cat
ions)and v
isi
blel
i
ght
.Sol
arcel
ldesi
gner
sfocusoncapt
uri
ng t
he
ener
gycar
ri
edi
nvi
sibl
eli
ght
.
Whi
tev
isi
blel
i
ghtcanbedi
vi
dedi
ntomanycol
our
s;eachr
ayofcol
ourhasa
di
ff
erentwav
elengt
h/f
requencyandener
gycont
ent
.Vi
oletl
i
ghthast
hemostener
gy
whi
l
eredhast
hel
east
.

Quant
if
yingsol
arr
adi
ati
on

Al
thoughr
adi
ati
onemi
tt
edf
rom t
hesuni
sfai
rl
yconsi
stentt
her
eissi
gni
fi
cant
v
ari
ati
oni
nther
adi
ati
onr
ecei
vedatt
heEar
th’
ssur
face.Thi
siscausedbyt
heEar
th’
s
or
bit(
responsi
blef
ort
heseasons)
,rot
ati
ononi
tsownaxi
s(r
esponsi
blef
orni
ghtand
day
)andt
heal
bedo(
cov
eredl
ater
)ofcer
tai
nar
eas.Sol
arar
raydesi
gner
sneedt
obe
abl
etoquant
if
yhowmuchsol
arr
adi
ati
onagi
vensi
tewi
l
lrecei
vet
hroughoutt
hey
ear
.
Theamountofsol
arener
gyr
ecei
vedbyanar
eaov
eradayi
sref
err
edt
oasi
nsol
ati
on
andcanbemeasur
edi
nkWh/
m2/
dayorpeaksunhour
s(PSH)
.Iti
simpor
tantt
onot
e
t
hatmostPVar
ray
sar
eti
l
tedatacer
tai
nangl
eabov
ethehor
izont
alandt
hei
nsol
ati
on
ont
hehor
izont
alpl
anewi
l
ldi
ff
erf
rom t
hei
nsol
ati
onont
het
il
tedpl
aneoft
hear
ray
;
dat
aisof
tenav
ail
abl
eforbot
hthehor
izont
alandv
ari
oust
il
tangl
es.
Peaksunhour
sar
ever
yusef
uli
nsy
stem y
iel
dcal
cul
ati
ons

I
rradi
ati
on:Thetotal
quanti
tyofradi
antsol
arener
gyperuni
tar
ear
ecei
vedov
eragi
ven
peri
od,e.
g.dai
ly
, monthl
yorannuall
y.

Insolati
on:Anot
hert
ermfori
rr
adiat
ion.Theamountofsol
arradiat
ioni
nci
dentona
surfaceoveraperi
odoft
ime.Peaksunhours(kWh/m2/day)areameasurementof
dail
yi nsol
ati
on.

Figur
e2.5Dai
l
yirr
adi
ancef
orLondon,UK,onahori
zontalplanemeasur
edinW/m2and
varyi
ngwit
hti
meofdayandmonth.Solarener
gyv
ariesthroughoutt
hedayandpeaksi
n
themiddl
eoftheday
.

Exampl
e

I
fsunl
i
ghti
srecei
vedatani
rr
adi m2f
anceof1000W/ or2hour
s, m2f
600W/ or1.
5hour
s
m2f
and200W/ or1hour
,thet
otal
radi
ati
onr
ecei
vedt
hatdayi
s3.
1PSH:
 m2*
1000W/ 2hour m2*1.
s+600W/ 5hour m2*1hour
s+200W/ m2/
=3100W/ day
m2/
3100W/ day m2/
%1000W/ day 3.
1PSH

Theef
fectoft
heEar
th’
sat
mospher
eonsol
arr
adi
ati
on

TheEar
th’
sat
mospher
eref
lect
sal
argeamountoft
her
adi
ati
onr
ecei
vedf
rom
t
hesun–wi
thoutt
hispr
otect
ionl
i
fecoul
dnotbesust
ainedont
hepl
anet
.Whensol
ar
r
adi
ati
onar
ri
vesatt
het
opoft
heEar
th’
sat
mospher
eithasapeaki
rr
adi
ancev
alueof
1367W/
m2(
thi
sisknownast
hesol
arconst
ant
).Byt
het
imesol
arr
adi
ati
onr
eachest
he
Ear
th’
s sur
face i
thas a peak i
rr
adi
ance v
alue ofappr
oxi
mat
ely1000W/
m2.The
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hesol
arconst
antandt
hepeaki
rr
adi
ancev
alueatt
heEar
th’
s
sur
facei
sduet
otheEar
th’
sal
bedo– t
heamountofsol
arener
gyr
efl
ect
edf
rom a
sur
faceont
heEar
thatt
hatspeci
fi
clocat
ion.
Li
ghti
sref
lect
edf
rom Ear
thi
nav
ari
etyofway
s:
 Radi
ati
oni
sref
lect
edof
ftheat
mospher
ebacki
ntospace.
 Radi
ati
oni
sref
lect
edof
fcl
oudsi
nthest
rat
ospher
e.
 TheEar
th’
ssur
facei
tsel
fref
lect
ssunl
i
ght
.
Theav
eragepor
ti
onofsunl
i
ghtr
efl
ect
edf
rom t
heEar
th(
theEar
th’
sal
bedo)i
s30
percent
.Pol
arr
egi
onshav
ever
yhi
ghal
bedoast
hei
ceandsnowr
efl
ectmostsunl
i
ght
,
whi
l
eoceanar
eashav
eal
owal
bedobecausedar
kseawat
erabsor
bsal
otofsunl
i
ght
.
I
rr
adi
ancei
sacombi
nat
ionofdi
rectanddi
ff
user
adi
ati
onandwi
l
ldependont
heal
bedo
(
ref
lect
edsol
arr
adi
ati
on)oft
hatpar
ti
cul
arl
ocat
ion.Thatpr
opor
ti
onofsol
arr
adi
ati
on
whi
chi
sscat
ter
ed,absor
bed orr
e-emi
tt
ed i
ntheat
mospher
eisdi
ff
user
adi
ati
on.
Under
standabl
yonasunnyday
,thi
sscat
ter
eddi
ff
user
adi
ati
onwi
l
lcont
ri
but
eonl
yto10
percentofv
isi
blel
i
ght
,butonacl
oudydayt
her
ewi
l
lbemuchmor
escat
ter
ingoft
he
sol
arr
adi
ati
on r
eachi
ng t
he Ear
th’
s sur
face whi
ch means t
he amountofdi
ff
use
r
adi
ati
onwi
l
lbemuchgr
eat
er.
Fi
gur
e2.
7Sol
arr
adi
ati
oncompr
isesdi
rectanddi
ff
user
adi
ati
on

Ai
rmasswi
l
lal
soaf
fectt
hei
rr
adi
anceatal
ocat
ion.Thegr
eat
ert
heai
rmass,
the
hi
ghert
hechanceofl
i
ghtbei
ngr
efl
ect
edorscat
ter
ed,
meani
ngt
her
ewi
l
lbel
esssol
ar
r
adi
ati
onr
eachi
ngt
heEar
th’
ssur
face.Ai
rmassof1.
5ist
hest
andar
dcondi
ti
onat
whi
chsol
armodul
esar
erat
ed.Ai
rmasszer
oref
erst
oai
rmassi
nspace;ai
rmassone
cor
respondst
ocondi
ti
onswhent
hesuni
sdi
rect
lyov
erhead.Regi
onsout
sidet
he
t
ropi
cswi
l
lnev
erexper
ienceai
rmassone,
ast
hesuni
snev
erdi
rect
lyov
erhead.
Fi
gure2.
9Fr
om t
hesur
faceoft
heEar
th,
airmassi
sdi
rect
lyr
elat
edt
otheal
ti
tudeoft
he
sun

Fi
gur
e2.
10Atsunsett
hesuni
slowi
ntheskyandt
her
efor
eai
rmassi
sver
yhi
gh.Li
ght
i
sscat
ter
edsomucht
hatt
hewhi
tel
i
ghti
ssepar
atedi
ntoi
tsdi
ff
erentcol
our
s.Mostof
t
hecol
our
sscat
tersot
hatt
heyar
enotv
isi
blebutr
edl
i
ghtscat
ter
sthel
east
,whi
chi
s
whyweseer
edsunset
soncl
oudyday
s.Bl
uel
i
ghti
sscat
ter
edt
hemost
,whi
chi
swhy
t
heskyi
sbl
uewhensunl
i
ghtpassest
hrought
hel
eastamountofat
mospher
e(dur
ing
t
heday
)
 I
nsol
ati
onv
ari
eswi
del
ydependi
ngonl
ocat
ion(
andt
imeofy
ear
)andwhen
desi
gni
ngasy
stem i
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantt
oconsi
dert
hesol
arr
adi
ati
onchar
act
eri
sti
csf
or
t
hespeci
fi
clocat
ionwher
ethesol
arar
raywi
l
lbei
nst
all
ed.Fori
nst
ance,asol
arar
ray
power
ingahousehol
dinaGer
manci
tywoul
dhav
etobesi
gni
fi
cant
lyl
argert
hanasol
ar
ar
raypower
ingahousehol
dwi
tht
hesameener
gyconsumpt
ioni
ntheAust
ral
i
andeser
t.

 Di
rectr
adi
ati
on:
Sol
arr
adi
ati
ont
hatpassesdi
rect
lyt
otheEar
th’
ssur
face.

 Dif
fuseradiat
ion:Solarradi
ati
ont
hatisscat
ter
edorabsorbedbycloudsand
gaseswithi
nt heat mosphereandthenr
e-emit
ted– di
ff
useradi
ati
oni sl
ess
powerf
ulthandirectr
adiati
on.

 Airmass:Thedi
stancethatr adi
ati
onmustt
ravelthr
oughtheatmospher
eto
reachapoi
ntont
hesurface.Thisval
uev
ari
est
hroughoutt
hedayforal
ocati
on.

Sungeomet
ry

Becauseoft
heEar
th’
sor
bitandr
otat
ion,t
heposi
ti
onoft
hesunr
elat
ivet
oa
sol
arar
rayi
sconst
ant
lychangi
ng.Desi
gner
susesev
eralgeomet
ri
calt
echni
quest
o
desi
gnanar
rayt
hatwi
l
lcapt
uret
hemostsol
arener
gypossi
ble.Thel
ocat
ionoft
hesun
i
sspeci
fi
edbyt
woangl
eswhi
chv
arybot
hdai
l
yandannual
l
y.
Sunangles
Sol
aralt
itude:
Theangl
ebet
weent
hesunandt
hehor
izon;
theal
ti
tudei
sal
way
s
bet
ween0°and90° .

Azimuth:Theanglebetweennor
t handthepointont
hecompasswher ethesunis
posit
ioned.Theazi
muthanglevariesasthesunmovesf r
om easttowestacr
ossthe
skythroughtheday.I
ngeneral
,theazimuthi
smeasur edclockwi
segoi
ngfrom 0°(
true
nort
h)t o359°.
 Fi
gur
e2.
16Thesun’
sal
ti
tude

Thesun’
spat
hint
heskyf
oranypar
ti
cul
arl
ocat
ioncanbedepi
ctedonat
wo-
di
mensi
onalsur
facei
nasunpat
hdi
agr
am.Thi
sdi
agr
am canbeusedt
odet
ermi
net
he
posi
ti
onoft
hesuni
ntheskyatanyt
imeoft
heday
,foranydayoft
hey
ear
.
Thesunpat
hdi
agr
am i
scomposedof
:
 azi
mut
hangl
es,
repr
esent
edont
heci
rcumf
erenceoft
hedi
agr
am;
 al
ti
tudeangl
es,
repr
esent
edbyconcent
ri
cci
rcl
es;
 sunpat
hli
nesf
rom eastt
owestf
ordi
ff
erentdat
esi
nthey
ear
;
 t
imeofdayl
i
nescr
ossi
ngt
hesunpat
hli
nes;
  l
ocat
ioni
nfor
mat
iont
hatr
efer
stol
ati
tude.

Geomet
ryf
ori
nst
all
i
ngsol
arar
ray
s

Theposi
ti
onofasol
armodul
eisr
efer
redt
oasi
tsor
ient
ati
on.Thi
sor
ient
ati
onof
t
hesol
arar
rayi
sver
yimpor
tantasi
taf
fect
stheamountofsunl
i
ghthi
tt
ingt
hear
rayand
hencet
heamountofpowerpr
oduced.Theor
ient
ati
ongener
all
yincl
udest
hedi
rect
ion
t
hesol
armodul
eisf
aci
ng(
i.
e.duesout
h)andt
het
il
tangl
e,whi
chi
stheangl
ebet
ween
t
hebaseoft
hesol
armodul
eandt
hehor
izont
al.Theamountofsunl
i
ghthi
tt
ingt
hear
ray
al
sov
ari
eswi
tht
het
imeofdaybecauseoft
hesun’
smov
ementacr
osst
hesky
.Itt
hen
becomesappar
entt
hati
fthesuni
sov
erheadandt
hesol
arpaneli
slai
dfl
atont
he
gr
ound,
itwi
l
lcapt
ureal
lthesun’
sray
s,asshowni
nthei
magebel
ow.
 Chapt
er-
2
PVI
NDUSTRYandTECHNOLOGY
Sol
arcel
l
s,al
soknownasphot
ovol
tai
c(PV)cel
l
s,ar
edev
icest
hatpr
oduce
el
ect
ri
cit
ywhenexposedt
osunl
i
ght
.In1921Al
ber
tEi
nst
einwont
heNobelPr
izei
n
Phy
sicsf
orhi
sdi
scov
eryoft
hephot
oel
ect
ri
cef
fectt
hati
sthesci
ent
if
icbasi
sforsol
ar
cel
l
s.Sol
arcel
l
swer
efi
rstdev
elopedi
nthe1950sf
orusei
nspaceexpl
orat
ion.Theyar
e
i
dealf
ort
hisappl
i
cat
ionbecauset
heyar
erel
i
abl
e,needl
i
ttl
emai
ntenance(
hav
ingno
mov
ingpar
ts)andr
equi
reonl
ysunl
i
ght
,whi
chf
ort
hisusei
sinal
mostl
i
mit
lesssuppl
y.
I
nthe21stcent
urysol
arcel
l
sar
eani
ncr
easi
ngl
yat
tract
iveener
gysour
ceconsi
der
ing
t
hepr
obl
emsposedbygr
eenhousegasemi
ssi
onsanddwi
ndl
i
ngf
ossi
lfuelener
gy
r
eser
ves.Theyar
eal
sopopul
arbecauset
heyar
ever
yver
sat
il
eandcanbeusedona
smal
lscal
e,i
.e.on homes or t
o power a si
ngl
e dev
ice such as a r
emot
e
t
elecommuni
cat
ions r
epeat
erst
ati
on,as wel
las f
orl
arge-
scal
e poweruse.The
pot
ent
ialf
orphot
ovol
tai
cshasat
tract
edsi
gni
fi
canti
nvest
mentf
rom gov
ernment
sand
busi
nessesal
lov
ert
hewor
ld.Gl
obal
l
ylabor
ator
iesar
ewor
kingt
oimpr
ovesol
arcel
l
ef
fi
cienci
es and t
o cr
eat
e mor
e power
fulcel
l
s by f
urt
her dev
elopi
ng exi
sti
ng
t
echnol
ogi
esandbyusi
ngnewmat
eri
alsandmanuf
act
uri
ngmet
hods.

Semi
conduct
ordev
ices
Sol
arcel
l
s ar
e made f
rom semi
conduct
ing mat
eri
als.Semi
conduct
ors ar
e
mat
eri
alst
hatconductel
ect
ri
cit
yundercer
tai
ncondi
ti
ons,
sot
heyar
enei
theri
nsul
ator
s
norconduct
ors.Themostcommonsemi
conduct
ormat
eri
ali
ssi
l
icon.Toi
mpr
ovei
ts
conduct
ivi
ty,i
tisof
tencombi
nedwi
thot
herel
ement
sinapr
ocessknownasdopi
ng.
Semi
conduct
orsar
eusedf
requent
lyi
nel
ect
roni
cs,i
ncl
udi
ngPV cel
l
s,l
i
ght
-emi
tt
ing
di
odes(
LEDs)andmi
crochi
pssuchast
hoseusedi
ncomput
ers.

Mai
nst
ream t
echnol
ogi
es
Si
l
icon i
sthe mostwi
del
y used mat
eri
ali
n sol
arcel
lpr
oduct
ion;most
commer
cialsol
arcel
l
sar
emadeofsi
l
icon.Si
l
iconi
sext
ract
edf
rom si
l
icondi
oxi
de
(
alsoknownasquar
tzi
te)
;quar
tzi
tecr
yst
alsar
equar
ri
edandr
efi
nedt
oext
ractsi
l
icon
f
orsol
arcel
lmanuf
act
ure.Quar
tzi
tecr
yst
alsar
eal
soamaj
orcomponentofsand;
howev
er,r
egul
arsandi
stooi
mpur
etobeusedi
nthi
spr
ocess.Si
l
iconi
sav
ersat
il
e
mat
eri
al:amet
all
oid,i
texhi
bit
smanyoft
hepr
oper
ti
esofmet
als(
i.
e.i
tisl
ust
rousand
sol
i
datr
oom t
emper
atur
e)butal
soexhi
bit
ssomepr
oper
ti
esofnon-
met
als.Ther
ear
e
sev
eraldi
ff
erentt
ypes ofsi
l
icon sol
arcel
l
:monocr
yst
all
i
ne,pol
ycr
yst
all
i
ne and
amor
phoussi
l
icon.

Monocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
icon
Thesesol
arcel
l
sar
epr
oducedf
rom asi
ngl
esi
l
iconseedcr
yst
alpl
acedi
na
cr
uci
bleofmol
tensi
l
iconanddr
awnoutsl
owl
ywhi
l
erot
ati
ng.I
nthi
smanneri
tis
possi
blet
opr
oduceal
argerpur
ecr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconi
ngot
,whi
chi
sthensl
i
cedi
nto
t
hinnerwaf
ers.Monocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
sar
ethemostef
fi
cientandgener
all
y
t
hemostexpensi
ve,al
thought
hehi
gheri
nit
ialcostmaybej
ust
if
iedbyt
hei
rincr
eased
powerout
putast
heyar
ehi
ghl
yef
fi
cientcompar
edt
oot
hersi
l
icont
echnol
ogi
es.The
hi
ghestr
ecor
ded ef
fi
ciencyf
ormonocr
yst
all
i
ne si
l
icon sol
arcel
l
sis 25 percent
;
commer
cial
l
yav
ail
abl
esol
arcel
l
sar
enowbei
ngpr
oducedwi
thef
fi
cienci
esof22.
5per
centandf
ini
shedmodul
eswi
thef
fi
cienci
esof19percent
.

Mul
ti
cry
stal
l
ine/
pol
ycr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
icon
Mul
ti
cry
stal
l
ineorpol
ycr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
sar
emanuf
act
uredbybl
ock
cast
ingmol
tensi
l
icon,
sot
heyar
enotmadef
rom asi
ngl
ecr
yst
ali
ngotbutr
atherf
rom
onecomposedofmanysmal
lcr
yst
als,whi
chgr
ow i
nrandom or
ient
ati
onsast
he
mol
tenmat
eri
alsol
i
dif
ies.Thi
spr
oducesl
oweref
fi
cienci
est
hanmonocr
yst
all
i
necel
l
s;
howev
er,i
tisst
il
lav
erypopul
art
echni
quebecausei
tiseasi
erandl
essexpensi
ve.
Mul
ti
cry
stal
l
ineandmonocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
sar
ethosemostcommonl
yused
i
nPV ar
ray
s,andcommer
cial
l
yav
ail
abl
emul
ti
cry
stal
l
inesol
arcel
l
scannow r
each
l
abor
ator
yef
fi
cienci
esov
er18percent
,wi
tht
her
ecor
dformodul
eef
fi
ciencybei
ng
17.
84percent
.
Fi
g:Mul
ti
cryst
all
i
necell
sareeasi
l
yident
if
iabl
ebyt
hei
rdi
sti
nctgr
ainst
ruct
urewhi
ch
gi
vesagl
it
teri
ngeff
ectinsunl
i
ght

Thi
nfi
l
m sol
arcel
l
s
Thi
nfi
l
m sol
arcel
l
sar
emadef
rom mat
eri
alssui
tabl
efordeposi
ti
onov
erl
arge
ar
eas.Theyneedonl
ybeaboutonemi
cront
hick,hencet
henamet
hinf
il
m(adotsuch
as‘
.
’cov
ers615mi
cronsandmul
ti
cry
stal
l
ineandmonocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
sar
e
nor
mal
l
yabout300 mi
cronst
hick)
.Incr
easi
ng mat
eri
alpr
icesand hi
ghwor
ldwi
de
demandf
oraf
for
dabl
ephot
ovol
tai
cshav
eledt
oincr
easi
ngi
nter
esti
nthi
nfi
l
m sol
ar
cel
l
s.Theyar
elessexpensi
vet
omanuf
act
uret
hancr
yst
all
i
nesol
arcel
l
sandal
otof
r
esear
ch hasbeen di
rect
ed t
owar
dsi
ncr
easi
ng ef
fi
cienci
es,t
hecur
rentl
abor
ator
y
r
ecor
dfort
hinf
il
m sol
arcel
lef
fi
ciencybei
ng20.
1percent
.Howev
er,commer
cial
l
y
av
ail
abl
ethi
nfi
l
m modul
esar
ebet
ween6and12percentef
fi
cient
.Thi
nfi
l
m cel
l
sar
e
bei
ngusedmor
eandmor
efr
equent
lyi
nbui
l
dingsandar
eof
tenusedf
orgadget
ssuch
assol
ar-
power
edwat
chesandcal
cul
ator
s.
Amorphoussi
li
conmodulesareeasi
l
ydist
ingui
shedfrom cr
yst
all
inemodul
esbyt
hei
r
dar
kandunif
orm col
ourbutt
heyal
solookl
i
kenon-si
li
conethi
nfil
m modul
es

Cont
act
s
Forei therPVcel lsormodul est owor k, t
heyneedel ect rical connect ions.Asol arcel lhas
elect ri
cal connect ionspr ov idedbymet al conduct ingst ripst hatcol l
ectel ectrons
producedi nt hecel landal lowt hi scur rentt of lowt hr ought heci rcui
ts.Thesemet al
stripsar eknownascont act sandt her ear esev eral differ entcont acttechnol ogi es
curr ent l
yinuse.Themostcommonwayt omanuf act ur esol arcel l
sisbyscr eenpr inting,
wher et hemet al issi mpl ypr int edont ot hecel l
.Thi smet hodi sv eryreliableandi s
typical lyappl i
edt osol arcel lspr oducingef ficienci esofabout12–15percent .Sev eral
fact orsneedt obebal ancedwhenusi ngscr eenpr int i
ng: Ifther eistoomuchspace
bet weent hecont acts, thecel lwi l
lbel essef fi
ci ent.I ft hear eacov eredbyt hecont act s
i
st ool arge, t
hecel l willrecei v el esssunl ightandpr oducel esspower .Fort hecont act s
tobeef fective,thet opoft hecel loftenneedst obet reat edi nsuchawayt hati t
s
absor banceofhi gh- ener gybl uel ightisr educed.Anot hermet hodusedby
manuf acturerst oachi ev esol arcel lef fi
cienci esov er20percenti srearorback
cont act s.Thi st echnol ogyi ncr easest hewor kingcel lar ea, allowsasi mpl i
fi
ed
aut omat edpr oduct i
onandt hecel lwiringi shi ddenf rom v iew.Themostef fi
cient
commer cial
lyav ail
abl esi l
iconsol arcel lsuser ear
cont act s( 18–23percent ).Ther ei snomet alont hef rontoft hecel l,whi chmeanst he
whol ecel lispr oduci ngel ect ri
ci ty.Thehi ghestef fici encysi liconcel ls(25percent
l
abor at oryefficiency )der i
vef rom anot hermet hodknownasbur iedcont actsol arcel l
s
(BCSC) .Thismet hodusessmal l l
asergr oov eswhi char ecuti nthecel l andt hemet alis
i
nser tedi ntot hegr oov e.Bur i
edcont actandr earcont actt echnol ogiesar e
adv ant ageousbecauset heysol v emanyoft hepr obl emsassoci atedwi thscr een
print i
ng.Bur i
edcont act scov erv erylitt
lesur facear eabecausemostoft hecont acti s
i
nsi det hegr oov e.Thi smeanst heydon’ tbl ockasmuchsunl i
ghtandt hecont act scan
bev erycl oset oget herbecauset heyar esot hin.Thesi desoft hegr oov esar et reated
i
nst eadoft het op, sot hePVcel l’sabsor ptionofbl uel i
ghti snotaf f
ected.Rearcont acts
alsoel iminatemanyoft hesepr oblems, becauset heyar el ocat edatt hebackoft hecel l,
theydonotshadet hecel landsot henumberoft hesecel lcont actscanbei ncr easedt o
i
mpr ovecel lef f
iciency .
Themet
alcont
act
sont
hispol
ycr
yst
all
i
necel
lar
ecl
ear
lyv
isi
ble

Fr
ontandbackofSunPowerr
ear(
back)cont
actmonocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l

Scr
eenPr
int
edSol
arCel
l Bur
iedCont
actSol
arCel
l
Wal
es

BCSCt echnol
ogyisusedtomanufacturesolarcel
lswithmuchhighereff
ici
enciesthan
thosethatusescr
eenprint
ing.However,scr
eenpr i
nti
ngissti
ll
thedominantform of
contactmanufact
uri
ngbecauseofitstechni
cal si
mpli
cityandcostef
fect
iveness

Buy
ingsol
armodul
es
Manydi
ff
erentPVmodul
esar
eav
ail
abl
ewor
ldwi
de.I
tcan,howev
er,bedi
ff
icul
t
t
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
hepr
oduct
sandsuppl
i
ersar
erel
i
abl
e.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
obeabl
e
t
oensur
ethatt
hePV modul
esandt
heel
ect
ri
cali
nst
all
ati
onar
esaf
eandofgood
qual
i
ty.Poorpr
act
iceandsub-
qual
i
typr
oduct
sposeser
iousr
iskst
othesaf
etyand
f
inanci
alv
iabi
l
ityoft
hisi
nvest
ment
.Out
li
ned bel
ow ar
efact
orst
o consi
derwhen
pur
chasi
ngaPVsy
stem,
bear
ingi
nmi
ndt
hatagoodsy
stem shoul
dnotonl
yphy
sical
l
y
l
astf
ort
hedur
ati
onoft
hewar
rant
ybutal
sowor
kef
fect
ivel
ydur
ingt
hatt
ime.Thi
s
meanst
hatt
hemodul
es,addi
ti
onalequi
pment(
discussedi
nChapt
er5)
,mount
ing
f
rame(
discussedi
nChapt
er6)andr
oofmustal
llastasl
ongast
hemodul
esorbe
r
epl
aced dur
ing t
hatt
ime.Sol
armodul
es ar
e sol
d wi
thal
engt
hymanuf
act
urer
’s
war
rant
y,e.
g.25y
ear
sfor80percentofout
put
.Whi
l
etheguar
ant
eedout
putmustbe
i
ncl
udedi
nanysy
stem out
putest
imat
es,
thebuy
erneedst
ounder
standt
hati
ftheyar
e
i
nst
all
i
ngapr
oductwi
thsuchapot
ent
ial
l
ylongwar
rant
y,t
hest
ruct
ure(
e.g.t
hebui
l
ding
andr
oofi
tsel
f)andot
hersy
stem component
sneedt
olastasi
mil
arl
engt
hoft
ime.For
someequi
pment
,i.
e.t
hei
nver
ter
,ar
epl
acementmaybepl
annedov
ert
hel
i
feoft
hePV
sy
stem.

St
andar
ds
The PV i
ndust
ryi
s gr
owi
ng r
api
dly
,resul
ti
ng i
n many new manuf
act
urer
s
pr
oduci
ngPV modul
es.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
hatonl
yqual
i
tymodul
esar
einst
all
edand
st
andar
dsdoexi
st.Themostcommonst
andar
dsappl
i
cabl
etoPVmodul
esar
e:I
EC
61215Cr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
icont
err
est
ri
alphot
ovol
tai
c(PV)modul
es–Desi
gnqual
i
ficat
ion
andt
ypeappr
oval
.IEC61646Cr
yst
all
i
net
hin-
fi
lmt
err
est
ri
alphot
ovol
tai
c(PV)modul
es
–Desi
gnqual
i
ficat
ionandt
ypeappr
oval
.IEC61730Phot
ovol
tai
c(PV)modul
esaf
ety
qual
i
ficat
ion– Requi
rement
sforconst
ruct
ionand r
equi
rement
sfort
est
ing.These
st
andar
dsor
igi
nat
efr
om t
heI
nter
nat
ionalEl
ect
rot
echni
calCommi
ssi
on:www.
iec.
ch.I
n
manycount
ri
esaPVmodul
emustev
idencecompl
i
ancewi
thei
therI
EC61215orI
EC
61646(
dependi
ngonwhet
heri
tist
hinf
il
m orcr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
icont
echnol
ogy
)andI
EC
61730.

Cer
ti
fi
cat
ions
Qual
i
tymodul
esshoul
dcompl
ywi
tht
heI
ECst
andar
dsbutmayal
soadher
eto
l
ocalst
andar
ds.Cer
ti
fi
cat
ionsgener
all
yensur
ethatmodul
esadher
etoal
lrel
evant
st
andar
dsi
naddi
ti
ont
othespeci
fi
cphot
ovol
tai
csst
andar
ds;

War
rant
ies
PVmodul
esar
ety
pical
l
ysuppl
i
edwi
tht
hreel
evel
sofpr
oductwar
rant
y:1-
,2-or3
-
yearwar
rant
yon t
he phy
sicalmanuf
act
ure oft
he modul
eit
sel
f,i
.e.t
he f
rame,
encapsul
ant
,gl
ass,modul
ejunct
ionboxet
c.;10–12y
earwar
rant
ythatt
hemodul
ewi
l
l
pr
oduce90percentofi
tsr
atedout
put
;20–25y
earwar
rant
ythatt
hemodul
ewi
l
l
pr
oduce80percentofi
tsr
atedout
put
.Ifanyoft
hesecondi
ti
onsar
enotmet
,the
quest
ionofawar
rant
ycl
aim wi
l
ldependont
hemanuf
act
urer
’spubl
i
shedwar
rant
y
and/
ort
hecommer
ciall
awsoft
hecount
rywher
ethemodul
ewaspur
chased.For
exampl
e,i
fsomeonebuy
samodul
efr
om ov
erseasandi
mpor
tsi
tforsal
eort
hei
rown
use,
theni
tisassumedt
hatt
heyunder
standt
hatt
heyhav
etosendt
hemodul
ebackt
o
wher
etheypur
chasedi
ttocl
aim war
rant
y.I
fani
mpor
tedmodul
eispur
chasedf
rom a
‘
resel
l
er’
oft
hepr
oduct
,i.
e.nott
hemanuf
act
ureri
tsel
fort
hei
ragent
,ther
esel
l
ermi
ght
hav
eanar
rangementwi
tht
hemanuf
act
urert
hatal
lwar
rant
iesar
ehandl
edbyt
he
manuf
act
urerdi
rect
ly or
,in some count
ri
es,t
he i
mpor
teri
s deemed t
o be t
he
manuf
act
urer
,soal
lwar
rant
iesr
estwi
tht
hem.PVmodul
esar
eext
remel
yrel
i
abl
eand
st
abl
epr
oduct
s,buti
tisst
il
ladv
isabl
etof
indoutt
hewar
rant
ypr
ovi
sionsofany
pr
oductbei
ngconsi
der
edf
orpur
chaseandi
nst
all
ati
on.

Emer
gingt
echnol
ogi
es
Besi
deswel
l
-est
abl
i
shedmai
nst
ream t
echnol
ogi
esmanynew t
echnol
ogi
esar
e
emer
ging.Somebui
l
donexi
sti
ngknowl
edgeandr
esear
chwhi
l
eot
her
sincor
por
ate
i
nnov
ati
venewmat
eri
alsandt
echni
ques.
Dy
e-sensi
ti
zedsol
arcel
l
s
Dy
esol
arcel
l
sar
est
il
ltechnol
ogi
cal
l
yimmat
ure.Att
heat
omi
clev
elt
heyoper
ate
v
erydi
ff
erent
lyf
rom ot
hersol
arcel
l
sanddonotusesi
l
icon.Dy
esol
arcel
l
suset
it
ani
um
di
oxi
de(
alsousedi
ntoot
hpast
e)andcol
our
eddy
es;t
heycanbemanuf
act
uredata
muchl
owercostt
hanot
hersol
arcel
l
sandwor
kbet
teri
nlowl
i
ght
.Dy
esol
arcel
l
sar
e
t
ranspar
entandcanbepr
oducedi
nmanydi
ff
erentcol
our
s,maki
ngt
hem i
dealf
or
ar
chi
tect
uralappl
i
cat
ionsaswi
ndows.Dy
esol
arcel
l
sal
sohav
epot
ent
iali
nmi
l
itar
y
appl
i
cat
ionsast
heycanbemadei
ncamouf
lagepat
ter
ns.Cur
rent
lyt
hehi
ghestcel
l
ef
fi
ciencyachi
evedi
nal
abor
ator
yis12percentandcel
l
swi
thanef
fi
ciencyof7per
centar
einpr
oduct
ion.

Dyesol
arcel
l
sareavai
l
abl
einarangeofat
tract
ivecol
our
sandar
etr
anspar
entsot
hey
canbei
ntegr
atedi
ntot
hef
acadeofabuil
ding

Sl
i
vercel
l
s
Sl
i
vercel
l
swer
edev
elopedatt
heAust
ral
i
anNat
ionalUni
ver
sit
yandar
ever
ythi
n
monocr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
s.Theyar
euni
queassi
l
iconcel
l
sbecauset
heyar
e
bi
faci
al(
theycanabsor
bli
ghtf
rom bot
hdi
rect
ions)
.Sl
i
vert
echnol
ogyhasachi
evedcel
l
ef
fi
cienci
es ofov
er19 percentand modul
e ef
fi
cienci
es of13.
8 percent
.The
t
echnol
ogyi
sini
tsear
lyst
agesofcommer
cial
i
zat
ionbutshowsal
otofpot
ent
ialf
or
appl
i
cat
ionsi
nbui
l
ding-
int
egr
atedphot
ovol
tai
cs.

Sl
i
vercel
l
sar
eal
sot
ranspar
entandf
lexi
ble

Het
eroj
unct
ionwi
thi
ntr
insi
cthi
nlay
er(
HIT)phot
ovol
tai
ccel
l
s
HI
Tmodul
esusebot
hcr
yst
all
i
nesi
l
iconsol
arcel
l
sandamor
phoussi
l
icont
hin
f
il
m t
echnol
ogy and hav
e achi
eved modul
e ef
fi
cienci
es of17 percentand cel
l
ef
fi
cienci
esof22percent
.

I
II
-VSemi
conduct
ors
I
II
-Vorext
ri
nsi
csemi
conduct
orsol
arcel
l
suseanel
ementf
rom gr
oupI
IIoft
he
per
iodi
ctabl
eandanel
ementf
rom gr
oupV(
asopposedt
osi
l
iconwhi
chi
sagr
oupI
V
el
ement
),suchasgal
l
ium ar
seni
dewhi
chi
scommonl
yusedi
nspacegr
adesol
arcel
l
s.
Thesesol
arcel
l
sar
ecommonl
ymul
ti
-j
unct
ionsot
heyar
einf
actmanyl
ayer
sofsol
ar
cel
l
s,whi
ch wi
l
lcol
l
ectdi
ff
erentcol
our
sofv
isi
blel
i
ght
.Theyal
so f
requent
lyuse
adv
ancedsol
arconcent
rat
ort
echnol
ogyt
omaxi
mizei
ncomi
ngsol
arr
adi
ati
on.Ext
ri
nsi
c
semi
conduct
ormul
ti
-j
unct
ionsol
arcel
l
sar
ethemostef
fi
cientandmostexpensi
ve
t
echnol
ogyont
hemar
ket
.Thehi
ghestr
ecor
dedl
abor
ator
yef
fi
ciencyi
s41.
6percent
andi
shel
dbySpect
rol
abI
nci
ntheUS.Duet
othei
rhi
ghcost
,II
I-
Vsemi
conduct
orcel
l
s
ar
enor
mal
l
yusedf
orspaceappl
i
cat
ionssuchassat
ell
i
tesorot
herbi
g-budget
,hi
gh-
per
for
mance,
sol
arpower
eddev
icessuchassol
arpl
anesandsol
arr
aci
ngcar
s.
 Sol
arconcent
rat
ors
Sol
arconcent
rat
orsar
eusedt
oincr
easet
hei
ntensi
tyofl
i
ghthi
tt
ingt
hecel
lso
t
hati
twi
l
lgener
atemor
eel
ect
ri
cit
y(t
heout
putpowerpr
oducedbyasol
arcel
lis
dependentont
hei
ntensi
tyofl
i
ghthi
tt
ingt
hatcel
l
).Ther
ear
emanydi
ff
erentki
ndsof
sol
arconcent
rat
orsav
ail
abl
eforav
ari
etyofappl
i
cat
ions,butt
hemostcommonar
e
l
ensesorr
efl
ect
ivet
roughsusedt
ofocusl
i
ght
.Sol
arconcent
rat
orsar
eadv
ant
ageous
becauset
heyi
ncr
easet
hepowerout
putsot
hatt
hesy
stem r
equi
resf
ewersol
arcel
l
s
(
sol
arcel
l
sar
eal
way
sthel
argestcostwheni
nst
all
i
ngasy
stem)
.Manyoft
hesecel
l
s
r
equi
reacool
i
ngsy
stem t
oper
for
m wel
l
,ascel
ltemper
atur
escangetv
eryhi
gh.
Chal
l
engest
othi
stechnol
ogyi
nvol
vedev
elopi
ngconcent
rat
orst
hatar
est
urdyand
r
eli
abl
eenought
osur
viv
edecadesi
nsol
ari
nst
all
ati
ons,
somet
imesi
nhar
shcondi
ti
ons
suchasdeser
t,andt
okeepcost
sasl
owaspossi
ble.

Themirr
orseit
hersi
deoft
hemodul
ear
eusedt
oconcent
rat
eli
ghtandi
ncr
ease
poweroutput
 Chapt
er-
3
PVCELLS,
MODULESANDARRAYS

Char
act
eri
sti
csofPVcel
l
s
Eacht
ypeofPVcel
li
suni
queandhasi
tsowni
ndi
vi
dualchar
act
eri
sti
cs;
iti
sver
y
i
mpor
rantt
obeawar
eoft
hiswhendesi
gni
nganar
rayast
hechar
act
eri
sri
csoft
hecel
l
s
i
nonet
ypeofmodul
ecanaf
fectt
hepowerout
putoft
heot
hermodul
esconnect
edt
oit
.

Gr
aphi
crepr
esent
ati
onsofPVcel
lper
for
mance
I
tisv
erycommonf
ort
hef
eat
uresofaPVcel
ltober
epr
esent
edgr
aphi
cal
l
yasa
cur
rent
-vol
tage (
orI
-V)cur
ve.An I
-V cur
vet
rackst
he PV cel
l
’sper
for
mance and
hi
ghl
i
ght
skeyf
eat
uressuchasVoc,I
scandPmax.APVcel
lwi
l
lal
way
soper
ateal
ong
t
hiscur
ve,i
.e.atagi
venv
olt
age;t
hecur
rentpr
oducedwi
l
lal
way
shav
ethesamev
alue
andv
icev
ersa.
Apowercur
vei
susedt
ofi
ndt
hemaxi
mum powerpoi
nt(
Maxi
mum powerpoi
nt:
Thet
heor
eti
calmaxi
mum powerout
putofaPVcel
l
.Themaxi
mum powerpoi
nt(
Pmax)
i
sthepr
oductoft
hemaxi
mum powerpoi
ntv
olt
age(
Vmp)andt
hemaxi
mum power
poi
ntcur
rent(
Imp)
.)
.Apowercur
vepl
otst
hev
olt
ageal
ongt
hehor
izont
alaxi
sandt
he
power(
cur
rentmul
ti
pli
edbyv
olt
age)al
ongt
hev
ert
icalaxi
s.Whent
hisi
ssuper
imposed
ont
heI
-Vcur
vef
ort
hesamecel
l
,iti
sver
ycl
earwher
ethemaxi
mum powerpoi
ntl
i
es.
The I
-V and powercur
ves ar
eimpor
tantbecause i
tis necessar
yto know t
he
char
act
eri
sti
csofeachi
ndi
vi
dualcel
lwhendesi
gni
ngamodul
e.Connect
ingcel
l
swi
th
dr
amat
ical
l
ydi
ff
erentchar
act
eri
sti
cst
oget
herwi
l
lhav
eal
arge(
gener
all
ynegat
ive)
ef
fectont
hepowerout
putoft
hePVmodul
e.

VocandIscar hexandyi
et nt
ercept
srespect
ivel
y.I
deal
l
ythePVcel
loper
atesar
ound
thekneeoft
hecurv
e,wher
ethemaximum powerpointi
slocat
ed

Pmpi sthehighestpoi
ntonthepowercurv
e; by
extr
apolat
ingbacktothex-axi
s,Vmpcanbef ound.Vmpisal
soontheI-
Vcur
veandso
thecorr
espondingcurr
entcanbefoundforthispar
ti
cul
arvol
tage(
Imp)
 PVMODULESANDARRAY

Si
ngl
ephot
ovol
tai
cmodul
e;t
hemodul
e’
s36cel
l
scanbeseenar
rangedi
na4x9gr
id

Vi
ewbeneat
haPVar
ray
PVar
raycomposedofmonocr
yst
all
i
nemodul
es

Connect
ingPVcel
l
stocr
eat
eamodul
e
PV cel
l
sofi
dent
icalchar
act
eri
sti
csar
ewi
redt
oget
heri
nser
iest
ocr
eat
ea
modul
e.I
nser
ies,t
hei
rvol
tageswi
l
laddwhi
l
ethecur
rentr
emai
nsconst
ant
,i.
e.t
he
cur
rentoft
hemodul
eisequalt
othecur
rentofonecel
l
.Powerl
ossesoccurwhenacel
l
i
sunder
per
for
ming.I
tmaybedamagedormor
ecommonl
yshadedandt
hiswi
l
lbe
di
scussed l
ateri
nthi
s chapt
er.The char
act
eri
sti
cs ofcel
l
s ar
e gi
ven on t
he
manuf
act
urer
’sdat
asheet
,fr
eel
yav
ail
abl
eont
hemanuf
act
urer
’swebsi
te;t
hesear
e
usedt
odesi
gnaPVar
ray
.Desi
gner
sshoul
dal
way
scont
actt
hemanuf
act
urert
omake
sur
ethedat
asheetont
hei
rwebsi
tei
scur
rent
.

Speci
fi
cat
ionsheet
s
PV modul
es pur
chased f
rom r
eput
abl
e manuf
act
urer
s shoul
d come wi
th
speci
fi
cat
ionsheet
s(al
soknownasdat
asheet
s).A dat
asheeti
ncl
udesi
mpor
tant
t
echni
cali
nfor
mat
ionr
equi
redt
odesi
gnandi
nst
allaPVar
ray
.Itmayal
sobeusef
ulf
or
aconsumert
olookatt
hedat
asheetwhencompar
ingdi
ff
erentmodul
esasi
tpr
ovi
des
basi
cinf
ormat
ionaboutef
fi
ciency
,rat
edpowerandphy
sical
size.
 Cr
eat
ingast
ri
ngofmodul
es
Ast
ri
ngcompr
isesanumberofPVmodul
esconnect
edi
nser
ies.Theel
ect
ri
cal
char
act
eri
sti
csofPVmodul
esconnect
edi
nser
iest
ofor
m ast
ri
ngar
ethesameasPV
cel
l
sconnect
edi
nser
iest
ofor
m amodul
e:meani
ngt
heout
putv
olt
ageoft
hest
ri
ngwi
l
l
bet
hesum oft
heout
putv
olt
agesofal
lthemodul
esandt
heout
putcur
rentoft
hest
ri
ng
wi
l
lbet
hel
owestout
putcur
rentofanymodul
e.Modul
escanal
sobeconnect
edi
n
par
all
el.I
nthi
scaset
hecur
rentout
putoft
hemodul
eswi
l
laddi
nst
eadoft
hev
olt
age.
Theout
putv
olt
agei
sthatofasi
ngl
emodul
e.

Whenthreei
dentical
modulesareconnect
edinseri
est of
orm ast
ri
ngthei
rvolt
ages
addandthetotal
currenti
sthatofonesi
nglemodule.Thepowerout
putofthestr
ingi
s
cal
cul
atedusingP=IxV

Whennon-identi
calmodul
esareconnect
edinseri
esthevol
tageswi
ll
sti
l
ladd;
however
,
thecur
rentofthestri
ngwi
llbet
helowestcurr
entofanysi
nglemodul
e(i
nthi
scase4A).
Thepowerout putoft
hest
ringi
sthencal
culat
edusingP=IxV
Threei
denticalmodulesareconnectedinparal
l
el;
thetotal
currenti
sthesum ofeach
i
ndivi
dualcurrent
,whil
ethetotalvol
tageisthevol
tageofasinglemodule.Thepoweri
s
onceagai
ncal cul
atedusingP=IxV

Whennon-identi
cal
modulesareconnect
edinparall
elt
hecurr
entsaddwhilet
heout
put
vol
tagei
sequal tot
helowestsi
nglemodulevol
tage.Thepoweroutputoft
hemodul
es
i
sthencalculat
edusingP=IxV

Cr
eat
inganar
ray
Ar
raydesi
gner
swi
l
lconnectPV modul
esusi
ngacombi
nat
ionofser
iesand
par
all
elt
opr
oducet
heout
putcur
rentandv
olt
agesui
tabl
etoamar
ketappl
i
cat
ion.
Modul
esar
ety
pical
l
yconnect
ed i
n ser
iest
ofor
m a st
ri
ng and t
hesest
ri
ngsar
e
connect
edi
npar
all
elt
ofor
m anar
ray
.Asdi
scussedear
li
eri
nthechapt
er,PVar
ray
s
pr
oduceDCpowerwhi
l
ethemai
nsr
equi
reACpower
.Ani
nver
teri
srequi
redt
oconv
ert
t
heDCsol
arpowert
oACpowerandt
hear
rayi
swi
redi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hemaxi
mum
powerpoi
ntv
olt
ageoft
hear
rayl
i
eswi
thi
nther
angeoft
hegr
idi
nter
act
ivei
nver
ter

Theprocessofmaki
nganarray;st
art
ingf
rom cel
l
s,modulesar
ecreat
ed,
then
connect
edinseri
est
oform str
ingsandfi
nal
lystr
ingsar
econnect
edinparal
l
elt
omake
anarray

Phot
ovol
tai
car
rayper
for
mance
Theper
for
manceofaPV ar
rayi
saf
fect
edbyav
ari
etyoff
act
ors:t
hemost
si
gni
fi
cantoft
hese(
temper
atur
e,i
rr
adi
anceandshadi
ng)ar
edi
scussedher
e.

I
rr
adi
anceTheamountofsol
arr
adi
ati
on(
sunl
i
ght
)hi
tt
ingt
hecel
lwi
l
llar
gel
y
det
ermi
ne i
ts powerout
put
.The out
putofa PV ar
ray can be est
imat
ed usi
ng
per
for
mancedat
apr
ovi
dedbyt
hemanuf
act
ureront
hedat
asheet
.Al
lar
ray
shav
ea
r
atedpeakpowerout
put
,i.
e.anar
raycanbedescr
ibedasa1.
5kWpar
ray–meani
ng
t
hatPVi
sinst
all
edt
opr
ovi
dea1.
5kW peakofpower
.Thi
s
out
puthasbeendet
ermi
nedbyt
hemanuf
act
urerusi
ngst
andar
dtestcondi
ti
ons.
Usi
ngt
hisi
nfor
mat
ionandl
ocalsol
ari
nsol
ati
ondat
a(seeChapt
er2)
,iti
spossi
blet
o
est
imat
etheout
putofanar
ray
.

Tocalcul
atethepowerout
putofanar r
ay,fi
rstcalcul
atet
heoutputofeachstr
ing(
as
expl
ained
prev
iousl
y)andthentr
eatthestr
ingsasthought heyweremodulesandcalcul
atet
he
poweroutputbyaddi
ngthem inparal
l
el

Exampl
e
Onacl
earsunnydaya2kWpPVar
rayr
ecei
ved6peaksunhour
s:t
he6peaksun
hour
sequat
eto an ener
gyi
nputof6000W/
m2 perday
.Expect
ed out
putcan be
det
ermi
nedasf
oll
ows:peakpowerout
put×peaksunhour
s=expect
edout
put2kW ×
6PSH =12kWhThePV ar
raypr
oduced12kWhf
ort
hatday(
bef
oreanypowerl
oss
f
act
orsar
eaccount
edf
or)
.Ther
ewi
l
lbev
ary
ingi
nsol
ati
ondat
aav
ail
abl
eonamont
hly
basi
s,sot
hewhol
eyear
’sout
putf
rom t
hePVar
raycanbeest
imat
edf
rom t
hemont
hly
dat
a.Howev
eri
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatt
hist
echni
quei
snev
erusedi
npr
act
ice
because a PV sy
stem wi
l
lrar
ely exper
ience STC.Chapt
er9 demonst
rat
es how
desi
gner
saccountf
ort
hepowerl
ossest
hatoccurwhent
hemodul
esar
enotoper
ati
ng
atSTC.

Temper
atur
e
Notonl
ydoest
hesol
arr
adi
ati
onhi
tt
ingt
hemodul
espr
oduceel
ect
ri
cit
y,i
tal
so
heat
supt
hemodul
es.I
tisnotuncommonf
oraPVmodul
etor
each70°
Conasunny
day i
nat
emper
ate cl
i
mat
e.As t
emper
atur
eincr
eases,t
he open-
cir
cui
tvol
tage
decr
easesr
api
dlywhi
l
etheshor
t-
cir
cui
tcur
renti
ncr
easessl
owl
y.Powerout
puti
s
v
olt
agemul
ti
pli
edbycur
rentandsowi
l
ldecr
easeaswel
l
.

TheI-
Vcurvesf
oracell
operat
ingatdi
ff
erenti
rr
adi
ancev
aluesshowt
hei
ncr
easei
n
powerout
putwit
hir
radi
ance.
Aspower=cur
rentxv
olt
age(
IxV)
,asv
olt
agedecr
eases,
powerdecr
eases

Inar
easthatexperi
enceextr
emelycol
dtemper
atur
es,
thev
olt
agei
ncr
easesast
he
ambientt
emperaturedecr
eases

Shadi
ng
PV cel
l
srequi
resunl
i
ghti
nor
dert
opr
oduceel
ect
ri
cit
y.I
facel
lrecei
vesno
sunl
i
ghtduet
oshadi
ngi
twi
l
lnotpr
oduceanypower(
evenasmal
lar
eaofcel
lshadi
ng
can r
esul
tinal
arge r
educt
ion i
n powerout
put
).Cel
l
sin modul
es ar
e nor
mal
l
y
connect
edi
nser
ies,sowhenoneorsev
eralcel
l
sar
eshaded,t
hecur
rentout
putoft
he
modul
ewi
l
lber
educed.I
fthemodul
eispar
tofanar
ray
,thent
hecur
rentout
putoft
he
ar
raywi
l
lal
sober
educed.Thi
swi
l
lal
sooccuri
facel
lisdamagedandunabl
eto
pr
oducepower
.Shadi
ngoft
hear
raycanl
eadt
oir
rev
ersi
bledamage.Hotspotheat
ing
occur
swhenacel
lisshadedsucht
hati
tspowerout
puti
sreducedandmostoft
he
cur
rentbei
ngpr
oducedbyt
heot
her(
unshaded)cel
l
sisf
orcedt
hrought
hatonecel
l
causi
ngi
ttoheatup.Thi
sof
tenl
eadst
ocel
ldamage(
cracki
ng)andcanal
sodamage
t
hegl
assencapsul
ati
on.I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttopr
eventshadi
ng.Howev
er,di
odescanbeused
t
omi
ti
gat
etempor
aryshadi
ng(
i.
e.l
eav
est
hatmayhav
efal
l
enont
hear
ray
).Whena
cel
li
sshadedordamaged,
adi
odecanbeusedt
ogi
vecur
rentanot
herpat
htof
oll
ow.I
t
wi
l
lski
pthedamagedorshadedcel
lcompl
etel
yandhav
emi
nimum i
mpactont
he
powerout
putoft
hear
ray
.Thi
ski
ndofdi
odei
sref
err
edt
oasaby
passdi
odeand
manuf
act
urer
sty
pical
l
yinst
all
one,
twoort
hreeby
passdi
odespermodul
e.

Veget
ati
on,
chi
mney
s,bui
l
dings,
dir
tandsnowcanal
lshadeaPVmodul
e
Eventhi
ssmallshadowcanreducetheamountofel ect
ri
cit
yamodul
eproduces–
asmallshadedareacan,
undercer
tainci
rcumstancesreducemodul
eoutputby80–90
percentaswell
asaffect
ingt
herestofthearr
ay