Influence of Indian Esoterism on Sculptures of Arākān

Vinay Kumar Rao

Assistant Professor Assam University,
Silchar, Assam, INDIA
vinaysrijan@gmail.com

Myanmar known as Burma is comprised of four distinct physiographic units. Arākān

region is situated in its western mountainous region and stretches for about 560 Kilometres
along the eastern shoreline of the Bay of Bengal, known as Vaṅga and Samatatat in Indian
epigraphical records to the south of the Chittagong division of present Bangladesh. It is
separated from Myanmar mainland by a long, deep range of mountains, the Arākān Yomā and
by the River Naaf from Bangladesh. Arākān is a region comprised mainly with hilly tract and
edged with number of small islands . 1 The Arākān was easily accessible to eastern and north
eastern part of India through centuries. The most popular land route in the region lies in the
north east with the western provinces of Myanmar and the south western provinces of China
through Hukawang Valley. In the southern side, the important migration route is through the
plains of the Barak River and Manipur to the south-east Asian nations. 2 The geographical
isolation from Myanmar mainland is also reflected on ethnicity and cultural life of Arākāni
people. The region is presently inhabited by Rakhines who are in majority but has number of
other ethnic groups like Chins, Daingnet, Mro, Khumi, and Chakmās. Geographically Arākān
appears moreover a part of India then of Myanmar. It is believed that the existing Mongoloid
race residing in the region is mainly related with Indo-Aryan, who migrated to the region
through its western borders and ruled the native population. The majority of people in Arākān
now follow the Buddhism which is believed to reach this region not much antedate 5 th century
CE. Presently Arākān is a large rice growing area which has still easy communication with
Bangladesh and India. In early times it provided a natural hub for trade on the easterly shore
of the Bay of Bengal.3
Arākān received Indian culture by land and sea route from eastern and north east
India. Vesālī, in Arākān from where large numbers of Buddhist images are found has clear
evidence of Pyu influence who had well established cultural relations with monastic
establishments of Bengal. The number of Hindu deity images like Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva,
Sūrya and goddesses are equal in number in Arākān and Śrikśetra. Arākān which is situated at
the western part of Myanmar was in direct touch with India and received cultural influence
from the west, not only from Bengal but also from the Buddhist centres like Bodha Gayā and
Nālandā. From the beginning of first millennium CE Arākān adapted and reinterpreted Indian
beliefs and art forms in a new environment shaped by its trade and for religious interchange .4
The region extended mixed followers of Theravāda and the Mahāyāna, and made alive the
Mahāyāna traditions and doctrines in a time and space when Mahāyāna has no survivors in
Myanmar. The Arākān region was always a secure region to practice vāmāc tāra practises.
This is confirmed by the writings of Tibetan scholar Taranath who mentions that in early
times the Mahāyāna Buddhism spread over the Kokī land which was extended to Pagān,
Arākān and Haṁsvatī.5 Earlier the region was religiously inhabited by Ari, a sect with
admixture of Nāga worship who lived in monasteries like monks and practices the votaries of
vāmācāra. The sect was amazing combination of Hinduism and Buddhism. Its followers had
great faith in Hindu god Viṣṇu but simultaneously had great inclination for Mahāyān
Buddhism too. The cult of Ari’s was very different with Hīnayāna which prevails most of the
Myanmar and was strongly influenced by mixture of many cults like nāga worship, Tāntrism
and Śaivism .6 They keep four finger-breadths long hair, lived in large monasteries, addicted
too much in drinking and were not observant of monastic celibacy. The use of meat and drink
was very much in prevalence among them like the pañc ta-makāras of Tāntrism.7 But the cult
not lasted for long in region and was overthrown by Mahāyāna; which are more evident in
sculptural art in more mystic form. The sculptures in Arākān have evident reflection of both
Hindu and Buddhist esoterism elements which flourished in its western neighbourhood of
eastern and north eastern India after 5th century CE onwards. Moreover the both Hindu and
Buddhist sculptures found in central and western Myanmar has great resemblance with the
sculptures found at Ānanda Vihāra, Rupaban Murā (Maināmatī, Commilla), Pahārpur, Halud
Vihāra, Mahāsthangarh (Nagaon, Bangladesh), Pilāk (Tripura) in eastern and north-eastern
India.
Hinduism played an important role in Myanmar both in performing ceremonial
procession and royal succession ceremonies. The dominance of Hindu elements can be
noticed significantly at Vesālī, where Hindu remains outnumber Buddhists. The large number
of images of Hindu deities indicates that the early kingdoms of Arākān have great influence
of Hinduism. The royal line, however, claimed descent from the lineage of Śiva, which may
explain the Bull, Śiva’s mount. As in the case of Bengal, the worship of Viṣṇu in his form of
Vasudeva, heredity of the Bhagavata cult espoused by the Gupta emperors, gained ready
acceptance by the CCandras of Arākān anxious to emulate the glorious imperial tradition. 8
Meanwhile the strengthened Hindu elements got setback when the Buddhism was announced
state religion and with the inspiration from the Buddhist monks the kings urged for religious
purifications. The Arākān region was a well strengthen fort of Mahāyāna school of Buddhism
which due to geographical and cultural reasons always looks eagerly towards its Indian
neighbourhood in west which is very evidently present in existing sculptural art of region.
The Hindu and Buddhist secret and mystic practices ended into Indian esoterism and are well
reflected in sculptural art of Arākān. Before going into the details of sculptural findings of
Arākān it is important to discuss the origin and rise of esoteric practices in eastern and north-
eastern India.
Around 5th century CE with efforts of a group of people the worship of Buddha was
started in secret form and entry to its bhairavī c takra was restricted to very limited number of
people. Five other Buddha’s along with their respective śaktis are conceptualised. This was
very much in accordance to secret worship of Śākta’s in Hinduism with Śaiva and Sahajiyā
movement of Vaiṣṇavism, Surya and Gaṇapati.9 These small numbers of people worship
Buddha in isolation and are admirer of Buddha’s extraterrestrial (alaukika) character. These
secret practices in form of Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna and Vajrayāna all are evolved from
Mahāyāna. They are more interested to adopt the path of Bodhisattvas then of Buddha which
encouraged them to conceptualize many new Bodhisattvas. With the advent of new cult and
practices in Buddhism now the deliberation (nirvāṇa) was not a tough achievement through
continuous effort of a follower. To give legitimacy to the newly emerged cult it was
pronounced that Buddha himself delivered the original tantra’s in form of saṁgiti’s in an
assembly of his faithful. The period after 8th century CE onwards in history of Buddhism was
almost dominated by Vajrayāna based on Mahāyāna. From this region the Mahāyāna entered
the borderland of Myanmar. Vajrayāna insists on a sacred union of male and female. The two
polar aspect of reality are represented in Hinduism between Śiva and Śakti, in Buddhism
between upāya and prajña. Every man has in him a feminine element, just as every woman
has in her a masculine element. The aim is to join in union the two polar aspects in the human
body. In other words the Tāntrism aims to achieve the goal of deliberation through short cut
method of magical and psychological aids by realization of identity of the worshipper and
worshipped. These include mantras (incantations), yantras (mystic diagrams), maṇḍalas
(circles), kāvākc tas (amulates) and mudrās (gesture).10 In Tāntrism the sexual union is
converted into ritual but was not to be performed with any riotous motive. It is not an
amorous but a scared act and is performed under controlled conditions. 11 This stray Buddhism
from simplicity and easy teachings of Buddha and believed on many superstitious (lokottara)
stories. The new cult simplified the process of attaining the deliberation through various
dharaṇis and panegyrics, worship of Bodhisattvas and many other newly derived gods and
goddesses, and tantric practices which are supplemented with extensive and unrestricted use
of wine, women and chants (mantras). It was very similar to pañc Camakāra concept of Hindu
tāntrism, which have great inclination for matsya (fish), meenā (woman), māṅsa (flesh),
madirā (wine) and maithuna (sexual intercourse.12
The systematic organization and development of Tantric form of practise in Buddhism
and Hinduism took place around 5th century CE. But the cult received wide popularity and
acceptability in eastern India during 8-12th century CE. According to Sadhanamala, Vajrayāna
based on Mahāyāna was flourished at four centres named Kāmakhyā, Śrihatāṭa, Purṇagiri and
Uḍḍiyāna; among these four the first two’s are identified as a region of Kāmrūpa, in present
Assam and others with Sylhet in modern Bangladesh un-doubtfully. Uḍḍiyāna is supposed to
be in Assam most probably in the western part of it which was also part of modern
Bangladesh. It was Uḍḍiyāna where the Tāntrism first developed and was probably travelled
to other pīthas.13 From this region the cult emerged from Mahāyāna reached Sukśmadeśa or
Kirātabhūmī (Tripura) and western and central parts of Myanmar.

Hinduism believes on a concept of trimūrtī or great trinity who performs all cosmic
functions. The creation of śṛiṣti is personified by Brahmā, the maintenance of creation by
Viṣṇu and the destruction of creation for recreation by Śiva. Among them Viṣṇu is considered
most venerated and supreme god. Showing intimacy with the tāntric schools Laḳśmī Tantra
declares that surrender to the goddess Laḳśmī as well as to Viṣṇu is necessary for salvation.
The emotional and spiritual surrender is marked with a ritual in which the devotee transfers
the burden of his salvation to Laḳśmī and Viṣṇu. He is known for his aiśvarya (sovereignty),
śakti (energy), bala (strength), vīrya (vigour) and tejas (splendour). The worship of Viṣṇu
was quite popular among the Indian traders who has to frequently visit the Indian and nearby
territories in connection to their challenging and life threatening trade related itineraries. 14
The iconographical representation of Viṣṇu in India usually presents him in four armed male
form. Two hands in the front represent his physical existence while the other two at the back
affirms his spiritual presence in the world. He is shown with his consort Laḳśmī on a pedestal
or is symbolically represented with śrivatsa symbol on chest, the part where Laḳśmī resides.
He is represented with a kaustubha jewel around the neck and a crown on his head. Wearing
two earnings he is presented having pāñc tajanya śaṅkha (conch), a sharp-spinning disc like
sudarśana c takra, a mace named kaumodakī and a padma (lotus flower). He is attended by
two guardian gods standing to give his presence a significant elegance.
The images of Viṣṇu are found widely spread along the vast region of India. The
eastern part is not an exception which provides easy accessibility to Myanmar. For example
we can take an iconographical representation of Viṣṇu from Dhamorghat placed in Paharpur
Museum in Bangladesh. The image carved during 7-8 century CE shows Viṣṇu in
samabhaṅga mudrā carrying a lotus bud in upper right hand and a śaṅkha in front left hand.
The deity is wearing with an elegant kiritamukuta, kuṇḍala, hāra, skandamālā, keyuras,
hasta-valaya, kati sūtra and dressed with an ardhoruka below waist. The two back hands of
the deity is resting on the heads of two attendants, a male on his right and a female attendant
on his left side (Plate 1). An image of Viṣṇu from Wunti Taing carved almost during same
period in Myanmar seems similar to its predecessor of Bengal except some differences. The
two upper arms of the image are broken above the elbows. 15 Likewise earlier the image is in
samabhaṅga mudrā and rests both of the lower hands on the head of two attendants. The
image is dressed and an ornament similarly like one of the Dhamoirhat but is inferior in terms
of relief and sharpness (Plate 2). But the infancy of Wunti Taing images seems to be seized in
another representation of Viṣṇu found at Pharapaw monastery. The image with elegant
jewellery is very much in accordance to Indian iconographic parameters. The image’s two
upper arms broken and it is carrying sudarśana c takra in lower right hand and a ringed gadā
in his lower left hand. One could easily presume a śankha and a padma in rest of the two
broken hands (Plate 3). The facial features of the image are sharply defined, arched eyebrows
meeting in the middle, a sharp pointed nose and thin lips curved in a smile. 16 The fashion of
depicting Viṣṇu with his consort Laḳśmī is quite popular in India. Viṣṇu and Laḳśmī are
usually shown reclining on śeṣanāga or presented in standing posture in frontal pose. The
artist in Veśālī made a nice attempt to repeat the gesture. Laḳśmī is presented standing upright
on a well bloomed lotus flower carrying lotus bud in her each hand. The deity is carved
wearing impressive jewellery and a lower garment below the waist in Burmese manner. Viṣṇu
to her left is illustrated standing on a separate lotus pedestal carrying a c takra and śaṅkha in
his back arms. He has placed his front arms on the head of two sub-deities. Presented with a
śrīvatsa symbol on his chest he is presented with an elegant jatāmukuta (Plate 4). The dual
presentation of Viṣṇu and Laḳśmī indicates about the persistence of the Vaiṣṇava cult at
Veśālī. It is most significant to notice the equal size of figures which is unlike to India.17
Śiva, the other god of Hindu triad is considered important due to his powers of
destruction. In Hinduism Śiva represents the constitutive elements of the universe and is
generally represented with his vibrant strength Śakti (Pārvatī), which makes the elements to
come in the life and to act. Together Śiva and Śakti represents two important aspects of life;
first the masculinity, which represents the permanency of god, and the second feminine,
which represents its inherited energy in form of a force which acts in the manifested world.
The mystic concept of Śiva and Śakti was a factor which attracted the Tāntrism to adopt its
doctrine and practice in Śaiva Tāntrism. Linga and yoni, representing the male and female
organs encouraged them to accept them with erotic glorification. Śiva is worshipped in
prominence through śivalingas in various parts of eastern India. Varendra Research Museum
of Rajshahi in Bangladesh has good assemblage of śivalingas in different sizes and variant
shapes. The brahmapītḥa of these śivalingas are almost broken but represents the viṣṇupītḥa
in both square and circular form. The rudrapītḥa or phallus are found both in cylindrical and
oval form (Plate 5). Śivalingas with a square viṣṇupītḥa with oval protrusion is explored
from Veśālī region in Arākān (Plate 6). Śivalingas with circular viṣṇupītḥa is uncommon in
western Myanmar but its square form is found in prominence. It is significant to notice a
śivalingas with a rectangle shaped protrusion of phallus (Plate E 7). The artistic tradition of
representing the viṣṇupītḥa is further seen continued in Far East in region of Vietnam (Plate
8). An image from Wunti displayed in Mrauk U Museum shows a central female figure in
short antariya covering the portion from her waist to knees. The image is in saṁbhanga
mudrā on a horse (Plate 9). At her left side another female deity is represented and is
standing in same manner on a mystic flying figure comprising half body of a bird and a
human- being. At right side of the central figure a male deity is shown occupying a throne
over a bull. It is suggested that this is a representation of Śiva and Śakti 18 but it seems hard to
convince in wake of doubtful identification of third figure standing over flying mystic animal.
The presence of Dūrgā in art is usually represented with a lion as a vāhana. Kāli, other form
of śakti representation is usually performed with protruded tongue and scattered hairs. This
make a possibility to consider it as a presentation of some esoteric representation of male and
female together to achieve an objective.
Gaṇeśa known as Mahāpenī in Myanmar is considered as Lord of the mūlādhāra
c̣akra, which corresponds to the Earth element (prithivī). He is known as remover of
obstacles (vighnavināśaka) and is accepted gracefully in tantric practices. He is invoked for
his capability to awake the kuṇḍalini śakti. The image of lord Gaṇeśa in frontal seated posture
is found at the central temple of Pahārpur in Bangladesh. The four handed deity has carried
an ankuśa in his lower left hand and a lotus bud in upper. He has a goad in lower right hand
and placed the upper to the ground likewise varada mudrā (Plate 10). In an image from
Veśālī, Gaṇeśa has the head of an elephant and is presented with big pot belly. He holds his
tusk in his upper-left hand and a goad in lower. His upper right arm is broken but is shown
having a noose in grabbed in lower. Wearing a crown, hasta-valaya, yajñopavita and broad
udarabandha, he is shown sitting in līlāsana ( Plate 11). In comparison to Gaṇeśa image of
Veśālī, the sculptural presentation at Shittaung temple is more constricted and shows the deity
in sub ordinance where king Mong Ba Gree is standing on him (Plate 12). The king is six
armed, holds a disc, as well as a club and other weapons.
In addition to present Hindu deities and reflecting their indirect association with
esoteric practices the artist in Arākān shows special inclination towards presenting various
elements of Mahāyān. The Bodhisattva introduced in Hīnyāna but gained popularity in
Mahāyāna, was a being having the wisdom and power sufficient to become a Buddha, but
refrained from doing so in order to help others to achieve salvation suddenly received a wide
attention of people. The artist in Arākān from very early phases carved large number of
Bodhisattva images which are still intact in surroundings of Mahāmuni temple in
Dhāñyawadī. A Bodhisattva image from Mahāmuni temple could be taken for example (Plate
13). Sitting in līlāsana the figure is dressed with hard stiffened uṣṇīṣa and a crown over it. He
has big kuṇḍalas in ear and a short but broad kaṇtḥahāra in neck. It has ornaments like
keyura and hasta-valaya. It has a wing like projections behind their shoulders which is
decorated with a coiled motif and illustrates the glowing aureole, emanating from his body. 19
Similar to Bodhisattva the lokapālas are conceptualised in both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna as
guardian deities appointed to protect the dignity of dhaṁṁa. The lokapālas known for having
their dwelling on mount Meru are carved at gates of a Buddhist monument at its four cardinal
points. In sculptural depictions a lokapāla is carved with a sword grabbed by its guard and
resting its blade over left shoulder attentively. At Mahāmuni temple a lokapāla is depicted
having his right hand in abhaya mudrā, in manner to give protective assurance to followers.
The lokapāla figures are dressed with harden uṣṇīṣa stiffened under coils and are shown with
very elegant jewellery (Plate 14).
The Arākān region likewise its western counterpart in Bangladesh has plenty of
images representing a female figure with multi snake hoods. The carving of nāgini is a well
known artistic motif in Buddhist sculptural art, where it is taken as depiction of cohorts of
nāgārāja Muc̣alinda protecting Buddha from climatic hazards. But the presentation of nāgini
in such a role is restricted with single hood. It is known that the religion of Arī with an
admixture of nāga worship held sway in the western part of Myanmar and the matter of snake
worship in central Myanmar was influenced by Manipur which under the name nāgasyanta
and nāgapura was a reputed centre of nāga worship.20 Meanwhile in eastern and north-
eastern India a female snake deity with five hoods is worshiped as Manasā, a folk goddess of
snakes, who prevent a person from death threatening snakebite (Plate 15). The deity was also
considered important because of her capability to befit fertility and prosperity. The fertility
and prosperity in form of achievement of a goal was in accordance to objective of Indian
esoterism which was prevalent in eastern, north-eastern India and western Myanmar. A such
image placed in modern Mahāmuni temple in Dhāñyawadī, shows a female deity with eleven
hood; five each on both sides of central hood. The image carved from side angle is sited in
relaxed posture and has rested left hand to ground raising the other in abhaya-mudrā. The
deity with long face, sharp body details and slender form is dressed with impressive jewellery
(Plate 16).
The advent of Mahāyāna cult encouraged the sculptors to carve images of newly
introduced deities in art. Dhāñyawadī and Veśāli representing earlier period in history of
Arākān has few number of sculptural representation of Vausundharī. But the female deity
attains a wide attention in monuments made at Mrauk U. Vasundharā or Vasundharī is
Buddhist goddess symbolically representing prosperity and wealth. Simultaneously she is
also considered as an earth goddess who assures the productiveness of crops. Identified with
six arms she is usually shown in sited posture winging her hairs (Plate 17). The gesture and
mudrā reminds about the witness given by earth goddess to affirm the dāna pāramitā of
Buddha.21 Besides above posture the goddess is also shown in varada and abhyarthanā
mudrā and in association with symbols like book, bunch of grain, water pot and jewels.
A square plaque discovered from Veśalī illustrates an indentation in the centre to fit
bottom of a vessel. The notch in the middle is surrounded by a circular periphery of lotus
petals. The space between lotus petal ring and outer periphery has carving of twelve
auspicious symbols viz. śrīvatsa, winged śankha (conch), matsya-yugma (double fish), a
pātra (vase), cḥatra (umbrella), pair of c̣āmara (whisk), an ankuśa (goad), a bull, an staṁbha
(pillar), a gander, a mayura (peacock) and a mṛiga (dear) (Plate 18). The plaque is considered
importantly to illustrate the symbolism derived from Hindu ritual and practices in connection
to the royal coronation (rājyābhiṣekha) or lustrous ceremonies performed to consecrate
Buddhist kings.22 But the carving of above plaque could be more conveniently considered in
connection to representation of maṇḍalas which gained popularity after advent of northern
Buddhism around 6th century CE onwards. The maṇḍalas are drawn as concentric diagrams
having spiritual and ritualistic significance in both Hindu and Buddhist esoterism.

The tantric cult and esoterism give emphasis that to create anything new a sacred
union between a virgin body and supreme power is required. They considered women with
great importance in wake of her magico-sexual powers which are performed with a view to
increase the fertility and prosperity. 23 In Buddhism the masculine form is treated active,
representing the compassion and skilful means (upāya) that have to be developed in order to
reach enlightenment. The feminine form is regarded as passive and represents wisdom
(prajñā), which is also necessary for enlightenment. United together they help an individual
to overcome from the cover of Māya, the false duality of object and subject. To assure the
achievement of enlightenment a sacred union of masculine and feminine power the act of
maithuna is encouraged. The close hug popularly known as Yab-yum is generally taken as an
action to represent the mystical union of prajñā (wisdom) and upāya (compassion). In tantric
form of Buddhism, the unrestricted maithuna acts either in form of close embrace or in
coitus, are regarded auspicious. The realization of feminine strength could be seen in a female
demon figure at Koethaung temple. Carved at the door jamb of temple the figure attributes in
exhibitionist attitude. The figure having fearsome face giving full appearance to sharp and big
teeth is dressed in a lower loose garment covering entire region below waist. The figure with
pot belly and bare chest has touched her right breast with right hand. Resting her left hand
over her side waist she is shown alluring the spectator towards her (Plate 19).
The sculptural art of Arākān, especially after Lemero period presents number of
mithuna depictions where a male and female figure is shown involved in close physical
association. The interior gallery of Shittaung temple illustrates a vibrant presence of Kinnaya
couple as joyful mithuna. Both the Kinnaya and Kinnayī are shown from side angle exposing
their body outwards. They have extended their feathers to glorify their beauty as celestial
beings and gives cheerful facial expression. The same kinnaya couple is shown at the other
half of the gallery in maithuna posture (Plate 20). Though the involvement of mithunas in
coitus is fully absent in Arākān still good number of depictions are discovered which shows
aggressive love making scenes. A scene on exterior wall of Shittaung temple shows a male
figure in bāhya puruṣopspritaka with a lady standing to his right. The male figure is
attempting to grab his companion in eagerness by her shoulder to get her in close embrace.
The male figure is carved doing hard effort to touch the breast of lady with his extended left
hand. The lower portion of the carving is badly mutilated but gives a good glimpse of
ornaments and delighted facial expressions of female (Plate 21). The same temple depicts a
mithuna involved in same manner. Likewise earlier the male figure once again seems to
dominate in love act. The close posture reminds us about tilataṇḍula, an āsana mentioned in
Kāmasūtra where a woman and man lie side by side and take other’s thigh between own
thighs and arms below arm pits. The size of the lady is comparatively small to her male
counterpart but has clear notion of sexual enjoyment on their face. The male figure is giving
smooch to his partner in excitement and is gently pressing her breasts (Plate 22). Similar kind
of close embrace is found on an image pedestal of Mahā Bodhi Śwegu. The illustration is
very similar to previous one except the more impatient participation of male figure who is
shown engaged in caressing the both breasts of his beloved in eager (Plate 23).
The Htukkant Thein temple situated at a short distance from Shittaung shows a
mithuna involved in uddhruṣtaka.
t Here both the male and female lovers are standing close
together while clasping the other’s body with arms. Enjoying the extreme joy of love and
experiencing a very gentle feeling the female is clasping her lower portion with one hand
while the male is giving a mild touch to her breasts (Plate 24). The exterior of Shittaung
temple presents a very vibrant carving of ithyphallic male figure enjoying the joy of sex. The
male figure with erect male organ is squeezing both breasts of his companion. He has touched
her one breast from right hand and grabbed other from behind. The lady sited on her knees is
experiencing the ecstasy of love and is presented caressing the erected male organ and
enjoying the passion of close love (Plate 25).
Myanmar and eastern and north-eastern part of Indian were in close cultural contact
by sea and land routes through ages since early centuries of CE. Myanmar received both well
established religious doctrines from eastern part and many folk-elements by its western
neighbour in north eastern India. In period when most of the Myanmar was under patronage
of Theravāda, Arākāna performed its best to preserve Mahāyān in western part of Myanmar.
The Indian traders who frequently visit this region worshiped many Hindu deities and soon
these Hindu deities are adopted by the natives. It is interesting to notice that the presence of
only those Hindu deities in the region who has some significance in Hindu esoterism. Arākān
always looked to its western frontiers for inspiration and such wise adopted both Hindu and
Buddhist esoteric elements. The Mahāyāna in its vajrayāna attracted them more and its
conceptualization of Bodhisattva and combine efforts prajñā and upāya to attain vajra gained
wide support in Arākān. As a result number of images of Hindu deities like, Viṣṇu, Śiva and
Śakti and Bodhisattvas and Lokapāla from Mahāyāna pantheon were made. Besides repeating
the artist forms of its western frontiers the region could be given credit to introduce new
artistic form of Vasundharā and Nāgini (Manasā) in Arākān.

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10. Desai, D. 1985, Erotic Sculptures of India, New Delhi, P.114.
11. Desai, D. 1985, Erotic Sculptures of India, New Delhi, P. 117.
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Buddhism, ASI, New Delhi, P. 84.
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P.58
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P.59
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List of Plates

Plate 1: Visṇu, 7th-8th CE, Dhamoirhat, Paharpur Museum.

Plate 2: Visṇu, 7th CE, Vesali, Myanmar.
Plate 3: Visṇu, 8th CE, Pharapaw, Myanmar.
Plate 4: Visṇu, 6th CE, Mahamuni Museum, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 5: Śivalinga, Varendra Resaerch Museum, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
Plate 6: Śivalinga, 6th CE, Mahamuni Museum, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 7: Śivalinga, 6th CE, Archaeology Department Store, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 8: Linga-yoni, Cat Tien Sanctuary, Lam Dong province, Vietnam.
Plate 9: Dūrga, 7th CE, Wunti (Vesali), Myanmar .
Plate 10: Ganeśa, 5th -6th CE, Paharpur Museum.
Plate 11: Ganeśa, 4th CE,Vesali, Mahamuni Museum, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 12: King Mong Ba Gree on the back of the elephant, Shittaung, Mrauk U,
Myanmar.
Plate 13: Bodhisattva, Mahamuni Museum, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 14: Lokpāla, 6th CE, Mahamuni Museum, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 15: Manasā. 10th CE, Varendra Resaerch Museum, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
Plate 16: Nāgini, 4th CE, Mahamuni Temple, Dhanyawadi, Myanmar.
Plate 17: Vasundharā, 16th CE, Shittaung Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 18: Maṇḍala, Mrauk U Museum, Myanmar.
Plate 19: Exhibitionist female deity, 16th CE, Koe Thaung Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 20: Loving Kinnaya couple, 16th CE, Shittaung Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 21: Male embracing his lover, 16th CE, Shittaung Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 22: Male touching breast of his lover, 16 th CE, Shittaung Temple, Mrauk U,
Myanmar.
Plate 23: Male touching breast of his lover, 15th CE, Maha Bodhi Shwegu, Mrauk U,
Myanmar.
Plate 24: Mithuna in close embrace, Htukkant Thein Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.
Plate 25: Ithyphallic male, 16th CE, Shittaung Temple, Mrauk U, Myanmar.