DAJANI, American Univmitv o( Rctiut/ BlHOOM T » < *»»•.*.

V L-MRr
n- IMSCO
• T'nimity,
Bogota,Colombia/ Tltouul inKoM'" . lUttd Milk Unl%« . «itv | tijnn< U»mg/
HelideSAGASTI,Catholic llnivrtiiiv linu Priu I* s>« !>«•• H .1, . 1 imc-mtv/
ALExEDELSTElN.Univrtvilv of WaduiigtiHi lw »»rn I ..| llotdraux/
RICHARD 7AGm, Stanford Unlwnilf/ CiOMA FfliCIAMO. l)|>l>n >.t > ol the Philippines/ Intercom
STEUANAFUMAREL,Inaiiulcol Rducaiiuiul Rf 4i<B RMIUO N va (.ash*. JR.,
University of California, San Dirfo/ lliaaia. ) I.*M t ..l.MII.u 1 mtnutv FJUINC
Articles
G OFFMAN, University of Pentmlvania/ RMI C^NMIS II li.o.iuiv MIMUMIR
G OLDSTEIN, Radnor. Pennsylvania/ I ARRV P !.»• *1 iiivr.ttiv «-i P ...wlv JIII*/ Mt ART Probing Subjective Culture / Part 1: Cross-linguistic Tool-makiug
HALL, University of Birmingham England/ )*uivlt IUti<>a«s* 1 ,, >.iv of I n« Met/
by Charles E. Osgood
RANDALLP. HARRISON. Michigan Stair I no. tally KI NNI IM II ARMOH. I . n.plr I imntitv
Philadelphia/ HILDIHIMMILMIIT, Vh.« 1 11.KM.AH iliin al V tetter/ Archie Bunker's Bigotry: A Study in Selective Perception and Ex­
DELL HYMES, University of PrniHvlvania/ VIRGINIA IM MM I * I ntmaliy <•! P«nimb,.mi posure by Neil Vidmar and Milton Rokeach
JIRSCAUIA JimI NRJ, RadiMrlrvitkm T i|»anola/
IVAR IVRE, Swedish Bioadcasting/
HIDETOSHI KATO,East-Wet Centet Hawaii and C ••I I H I I .I H .I at.. . I > „• lit.tut. At the moment of Sputnik the planet became a global theater in
Kyoto,japan/ EmmKATC,HebrewUnhpenliy jmndm » Cnum KMM. Univenity which there are no spectators but only actors by Marshall
0 Michigan/ Jiuv KUBIN, Polhh AcadcayOF ScfoKM hi «I>K l AM., Ratr Unircnitf4
McLuhan
N.Y., Stony Brook/ Ono I.ARSES. Am. .nan ,o|og„ .d \\ .<<>(.ugtun.!).(
AROLDD.LASSWELL, Polks Sciences Cent.. PA . . I I The Media in Allende's Chile: Some Contradictions by Patricia
^UMBU University/ WINFRIED B I ERG, Wilhrlmt I'nlvcnhv M Oua Lwrt. Fagen
MA,LJ?JaSt;nR/ JACK 1 vu'(:o,P '°r Pol.in Bfoadattiag. Washington. DX
Toronto/ n AC U 1 IOM/ MARNIAU MCLDHAR. I nivtnity <•( Structuring Communication in a Working Group by Peter Mears
Stanford I'N"ENIS l A" ' lm' 1M|% s<-'""-..,,ton. El«Und/ Na.i.A S MACOCMY.*
Singapore/ "A I!!7' ^E*HAW> Mai ' "M Mian \lr -i ..mmimn AI.nn IIKI.I.IU
The TV Violence Report: What's Next? by F.li A. Rubinstein
oiN"«r»lHi,, AN„™ U |'; "',r"m A""' x" "• M,""m
0,y k C *«•"" Cultural Exchange—or Invasion? A Symposium
EDGAR MORTNSNRL , °™CL,V N'A,KO M» 1. U ..'-.A MAOMN
I\VA0 N'AKAJIMA NHR Tt I® M"Wl ASA- I n IS r, »,t \ \\ jAliington. n.C./ • Film as International Business by Thomas H. Guback
University of Main/-All ^0U'lta' Swatch (.nun . I okvo/ EUA A R I hi Not 11 • N FtMAM*,
U AVID R. O LSON The CuHl ^ .*AAWr ^°«WAsi« I S T . * lni\rt».t\ ..I I am|>nr. Finland/ 1 • Global Traffic in Television by Tapio Varis
OscooD.Univeriitvoflllin1'0/ n S t ' l l , U F , | ,
" 4 l , " n 1 1 " A R i r s E
'^SuZC'rw U"'*M !• PAUUv, H.anfo.d t nivrtti.v/ E».,» B. '
• Freedom from the "Free Flow" by Herbert I. Schiller

" Book Reviews

Cracow/ ITHIEL DE S OLA Poo. WALIRV PUARI, C , » R, .h (MLIC.
Harvard University/ Waited"^WHINEUS Institute |r«hnologs/ DASIO RIISMAN.
118 Approaches to Communication edited by R. W. Budd and B. D. Ruben /
HM"ER1KROSENGREN,Universitv" t M In tllutr of I r. luioloKV
reviewed by Albert Silverstein
? -Y- Stony Brook/ M ANFRED re "SWC<len/ '"V *«*P«triN. state Univmitv
1 The Study of Human Communication by Nan Lin / reviewed by Judith
Coll C 0NS SLLBFRMANN I'n- • ANN"'» J S|( INAK1. POIIAII \< ...!F ON <>f Beinstein
A W?,DIA' HR^BAD/ ILZZTOT MN/ . SINI.M, Administrative Staff

SiVmity'°f •T-as. AuX" ROMA CA"A • »'« — ; ALWD

The Electric Humanities by Don Allen / reviewed by Richard YVasson
Belgium/ Tl^-^^^katchcr'" R"'" ' , ,nC°ln/
New Techniques of Persuasion by Gerald R. Miller and Michael Burgoon /
Hungarian ! * ZECSK0-' ComntunirV. ^ S'"-MAN, . Unive.sitv of 1 irgc,

Percy H Tann CMV°F SCIENCES/ YASUM CSCarch Budapest/ Gvttacv SrtPE, reviewed by Stephen E. Rada
ol M^ZTTT'Univ'4 O CT* TANAKA' Gakl"h»i» Un-crsits. Tokvo/ A Primer of Visual Literacy by Donis A. Dondis / reviewed by John M.
JAMEA R. TAYLOR, University
Penrose
"un^rian Academy 0fSand/ YosH,
Vasl UNO'R
B"mabv-tanad^ JEMMY Ti NSTAU,
C»ARmyVLNICK T, SCIENCES/ Frederick U, n'veisiiy. Japan/ KAROLY \ ARGA. 127 Kinesics and Context: Essays on Iiody Motion Communication by Ray L.
ASSEN x. ZASSOPRSK.. xltyCo,le8eofNewVori '"AMs-# University of Southern California/ Birdwhistell / reviewed by Mary Catherine Bateson
KY'Moscow University/ K/ S°LWo«TH.' University of Pennsylvania/
*ME,NT)ER EDILOR.ai^ AZIMIERZ ZYCLLSKI, Polish Academy of Science* Media, Messages and Men: New Perspectives in Communication by J. C.
Merrill and R. L. Lowenstein / reviewed by Gaye Tuchman

Speech Communication Instruction edited by Deems M. Brooks / reviewed

by Patricia Cunningham

75U34G
 Archie Bunker's Bigotry

Archie Bunker's Bigotry: Following the Hobson-Lear exchange, others have entered the fray with
sharply contrasting opinions. (12, 17) Sanders, for example, charged that the
A Study in Selective Perception and Exposure show appeals to racism and may be teaching impressionable children racial
slurs, as evidenced by the fact that fan mail applauds Archie for his preju­
by Neil Vidmar and Milton Rokcach dice. (14) In sharp contrast, critic Arnold Hano contended that "fifty million
Americans are being told, week after week, that it does you no good to be
a bigot" and that criticism of the program comes from the "ethnic profes­
A US. Canadian study fmds that All in the Family may
sionals" and the "so-called intellectual leaders of the community." (3) Actor
reinforce rather than redttce racial and ethnic prejudice
Carroll O'Connor, who portrays Archie, asserted in a Playboy interview that
"a lot of people write that we're making them understand their own feelings
The enormously popular CBS television show All in the Family centa and their own prejudices." (13) And the Los Angeles chapter of the NAACP,
around Archie Bunker, a conservative, supcrpatriotic working-class Ame* in apparent agreement with the views expressed by Lear, Hano, and O'Con­
can who browbeats his kind but "dingbat" wife Edith and who is esperii nor, presented its 1972 Image Award to All in the Family for its contribution
adept in ,he employment of ethnic tlun. Wis main antagonists are to race relations.
aughter Gloria and, especially, his son-in-law Mike. Mike and GloriaUti For whatever reason, social scientists have thus far not brought their
wit i tie iunkcis while Mike is finishing (ollege. and the basit theme of tk theories and methods to bear on the controversy about the beneficial or
™ ! J conflict between "lovable l»ig<u" An hie and 1 ilxrral-mind« harmful effects of All in the Family. To date the arguments and counter­
e. rc ie rails at Mike for his long hair. Polish ancestry, prolonged suit arguments that have been made about the show have come from persons in
of the^ay °^mCnt' ,m<' '*'>< ra' 1,01 ^^"nnic") position on sundry issue the realms of literature and entertainment rather than in social science.
The only exception is an opinion survey conceived and financed by the
witlf!!,'. n'!.'' F?mtly' f,rsl aired '» January 1971. broke rather drastically CBS organization itself, which was conducted during the early weeks follow­
broke an t\; V,S,on traditions of skirting racial and ethnic issues; italst ing the program's debut. (7) In that study a sample of viewers were inter­
Times a- 'V " ^ ,c<<>,t'v Writing nine months later in the NewVoti viewed by telephone about their reactions to the program. The results
able bipot m. if . ^°',swn charged that portraying Archie as a lot showed that the majority of respondents, including minority group mem­
bers, enjoyed the program and reported that they were not offended by it.
Lr'o,;cs an" b*° *>• <*> •";
COUntcred Although CBS was careful to point out that conclusions about attitude
Times \elevi i • ' by agreeing with the Neu) Yd
change could not be drawn from a single or "one-shot" survey, the report
ground that In" '?hn '' OConnor' who
had lauded the show on*
3 rCmarkably effeclive nonetheless implied that most viewers perceived All in the Family's satirical
Moreover, weapon against prejudice
intent—and therefore that its impact would, if anything, be to reduce
Mike is "alwave\v ' * ',,OVu,cs a" effective rebuttal to Archie hecaus
prejudice.
by the television Jr^'10 'S makmK sense' while Archie is always see
voluted logic"; since dm! ^ °,,e wbose Io8ic is a» ,>est a kind of "cot
Some viewers applaud Archie for his racist viexvpoint,
people talking about it " rhnT '"1 . ngS W8°lry "out in thc "I*" an<lha
while others applaud the shoiv for making fun of bigotry
and^parents will have'to answer."^)' qUC8ti°ns aboUt the big°try"

There is, however, an alternative hypothesis which might explain why

with bigot^releases erf"1 lhU8 ^>Qdrs to twofold; (a) mixing hm* the program was enjoyed by the great majority of viewers. Perhaps preju­
ing fun at bigotry and brin"' th'S catbarsis reduces prejudice; (b) P°j
diced and unprejudiced persons ascribe different meanings to the intent
into his own prejudice i ? 1 °Ul tbe °l,en 8ivcs lhe viewer insi?
and outcomes of All in the Family episodes: nonprejudiced viewers and
former argument is oTc l ° tbem eve» further- T*
minority group viewers may perceive and enjoy the show as satire, whereas
>llr
of violence on TV is ra ^ ^ * e s,m, lar to the contention that the portray
prejudiced viewers may perceive and enjoy the show as episodes telling it
cathartic antl ,hus reduces aggressive behavior. (6. M
like it is." Such an hypothesis seems to be supported by the fact that some
Neil Vidmar. Associate Prnf
« on leave as a Russell Sage Resident °f fSycholoS> at the University of Western OnUii viewers write letters (to newspaper editors, to CBS officials, and to people
?TnJfW". MUt0n Rokcach is Profc !T
3"d S°dal Scicnce at Valc University's Sd*° associated with the program) which applaud Archie for his racist viewpoint,
University and author ot open an7r, a '0gy a"d ^ologv a. Washington » while others applaud the show for effectively making fun of bigotry. (12)
earher version of ,his pape^f!Mi"« «d The N..u7of Hun.au Values-f Our purpose was to provide an empirical basis for determining the rela­
ociation in Washington, D.C., May 1973 " the n"*linP ot 'ho Eastern PsychoW tive merits of the opposing contentions about the positive or negative effects
Communication, Winter 1974

Archie Bunker's Bigotry

of All in the Family. The study addressee! itself to two hypotheses whirl,
identify with Archie? In such an event the selective exposure hypothesis
can be identified as the selective perception hypothesis and the selective
exposure hypothesis. 1 would predict that high prejudiced rather than low prejudiced persons
would be the more likely to watch the program, because the main character
The selective perception hypothesis would suggest that viewers differing
has personal qualities and attitudes which appeal to their own self-image
°J |,r,CiUdi" °r raci"" would have diB«n« for findi! and world outlook.
All m the Famdy entertaining. would identify wilh different characters J
It is not possible to say in advance which of these competing selective ex-
would interpret the outcomes of the weekly episodes differently. A numbe
posuie hypotheses is the more tenable, because we cannot say in advance how
of studies (I. 4, 9) have shown that a persons attitudes and values will afa
many viewers will and will not perceive All in the Family as satire. But they
,lrrS ,lerCI;P"0" or '""rprctation of social stimuli. Cooper and can be put to an empirical test. Working on the assumption that most view­
Jahoda, for example, presented subject, with cartoon, that made fun oft ers will indeed perceive the program as satire, we could predict that All in
Charac,er narat<1 Mr »»' They found tha, whereas „oa the Family viewers will more likely be persons low in prejudice, identify
Drein V I '*L,ri°nS a,u' aPPrrcta'ed the humor in the cartoons with Mike over Archie, and disapprove of Archie's use of ethnic and racial
Z Mr t !eZtT{^ ",Cir mcanin8 tiling or deprecat- slurs. Conversely, working on the assumption that the selective perception
AUin the F t' i ? ,xr"'l""ln ca" sintilarlv come into play with hypothesis is correct and therefore that many viewers see Archie as "telling
Wanted •t Ti''' ',hC "nPreiudiced viewer Archie mav he seen a, a duok it like it is, we could predict that frequent viewers will more likely be per­
adversary i' W 10 a Preiudiced P"»» Archie-s chief ideologic! sons high in prejudice, identify with Archie over Mike, and approve (or at
kk L™ T""'' may * ™ a' tghaired, lazy "meald least condone) Archie's use of ethnic and racial slurs.
Two gioups of respondents were employed—American adolescents and
hT~tLT,V7,1: r" s,ogam-M,,re »•<• «'« ** i^i
l7l* " J"S '° ,h;" l-cjudiced viewers' would h Canadian adults from an area where the program is seen weekly. Both
whne s °rry?and f'ni,>y A" w 'A - a »«i« ^ groups were asked about their reactions to All in the Family and were, in
All in the la Sr .V,ewers be more likely to |x-i«eive and enjoy addition, presented with attitude questions designed to measure their eth-
nocentrism or prejudice.1
'.'gh and low U hke " »•- r'tus. £ can be predicted,!,..
The U.S. adolescent sample consisted of 237 students, ranging in age
mately equal extent"but ^ fo^Tr fr"01'l<! ,,r0gfam lo a"
reaion!,: hi«h
from 14 to 18 years. I hey attended a senior community high school in a
would be more likely to eniov • prejudiced persons
small town in the midwestern United States. Volunteers were solicited dur­
see Archie as making better I jCau*' ^ admirc Archie* bccause llie)
ing study hours, and virtually all of those solicited agreed to participate.
as winning in the end In • N MlkC.* Untl ,>ecausc ,hey xe Arclue
1 wo-thirds of this group were male, and all were white. The survey was
offended by Archie' ^.i a<t l,lon' bi8b prejudiced persons should be less
administered as an anonymous written questionnaire.
P-son who is ,*lng r^culed"" ^ l° ^ "1
T he initial Canadian sample consisted of 168 adults who were randomly
selected from voting lists in London, Ontario. Seventy-seven percent of
prejudiced and high r>rJu ^7'x|tbes's leads us to yet another prediction: lotf
His sample, 130, agreed to be interviewed; 65 percent were female and 35
Family to the same extern 'T pfrsons W'H not necessarily watch All in lb
tbat, at least in natural fill
percent were male. Half of these respondents were contacted through face-
?lanliaI body °* literature has indicated
to acc interviews and the other half by telephone. Statistical analyses of
expose themselves to social V Se!!ings' there is a tendency for persons to
i erences between the telephone and face-to-face groups showed no dif-
their prior attitudinal duJ • ^ "Nations which are congruent with
eiences regarding refusal rate, basic attitudes toward All in the Family,
^ the assumption that AnTTl (2'-'°? The CBS surveV report, working
l,lated that it would be low n ls widely viewed as satire, has spec-
°» amount of prejudice. Accordingly, we ignored this variable in all further
"r
analyses of the Canadian sample.
to the program more 'J Cd P *005 wbo would expose themselves
61
I he survey was basically the same for both the U.S. and Canadian
Thus, Klapper stated that ' V than high prejudiced persons. (')
samples, although the ethnocentrism questions were tailored for each cul­
People who view this broo ture. Eleven items designed to elicit reactions to All in the Family are
topics involved than those T presumably feel differently about tht
Tbis research
vers. was supported, in part, by a Faculty of Social Science Grant, Uni-
for example, that voluntarv ° <l" ' ' ' 1 woul(l venture to
more involved in other a J, W°Uld bc likely to be ™in™U Natio^ ^estern ®ntar'°> a"d a Canada Council Grant to the first author and by a
in I!"1'1 ^t'ence foundation Grant to the second author. We are indebted to students
° me<Ha choices. (7, l udice activities, even if only in thei1
p, j ^ autho! s Current Social Problems course (Summer, 1972) for helping to collect
the C
adian d3ta an<* l° Wr' Emi' Borg'ni, Principal of Gillespie Community Unit High
Sch00r
00 > Gillespie, Illinois, for generously allowing us access to the U.S. adolescents.
St AU W ^ F<lmily Viewers do not see it as satire and in ft*
 Table 1: Percent responses to All in the Family item alternatives
shown in Table 1. A few additional question., including a question about
U.S. Canadian frequency of television viewing in general, were also asked
adolescents adults
(N = 237) (N = 133)
The measure of ethnoccntrisn, or prejudice for the U.S. adolescents
1. How often d o you watch "All in t h e Family"? connsted of stx quesuons, each of which had two alternative response
every week
13% 24% (I) Do you think white student, and Negro students should go 7 he
almost every week
35 29 same schools or to separate schools? (2) In your opinion, which is more to
only occasionally
32 36
almost never
14 10
never beyond his rontrol? (^Do'yoVdunrN^r^, "m T"' "[/im'mslances
6 1
2. Is there any reason you don't watch it more often? p e o p le-that is, can the, learn tilings as well if they are'gi,he lame

3.
It is offensive
Which of t h e following statements best describes
your feelings about t h e program?
very enyoyable
enjoyable
13%

53%
10%

38%
•ha. is their own bos L^ y Whi h factor I " "'"L? *
for the failure of „ n
r,ld1 ^*
.'^tor (l" you believe most accounts
34 55
not enjoyable
8 5
Americans to achieve equ" lhyTth'whUe worT' 'h'1""5, a"d Spanish
very unenjoyable white society or lack of , 7. ' P'C' restnc,10n' imPosed by
4. 5 2
How funny is t h e show? (C) Whidl °f ">e follow"
inSs,a«7ents best <le ' ,b ' ' T,
extremely funny
24% 15% forced to get a bath at' '° Wari1 h,PPics: lhey sho"ld be
very funny
39 44 hve their h^a^t ev cb''"''/^ . 3 j b:
.° °f ,he >' *»>** «* ""owed to
somewhat funny
24 28
only mildly funny *«e replaced with m ""7 7 Canadian group questions 1 and 5
not funny 7 9
5. 6 4 opinion do yon think r ' ' 7'""" <'> In >'"1"
Which of t h e two main characters (Archie or
never be trusted to take ^"ana la" ln(l'an' «> unreliable that they can
Mike) do you like or admire more?
admire Archie »f managing their own a/f"C °> Cm l,,Cy are
Perfcclly capable
6.
Archie and Mike often disagree with o n e a n o t h e r
about various issues. In your opinion which of
62% 66%
Indians in Qucbec sh ,7'(
English, „r ,7 ,7
T"
aboul
0pinion' do>'°" lhink the
French
French culture and learn
these two men usually makes better s e n s e ?
^French language? Th- ' "" " '' Frcnch r",,llre, including speaking
Archie makes better s e n s e
summedto form a " . rcsP°nses to the six items in each sample were
13% 11%
7' ta-IT"' spefkingi at the end of pr°sram
Archiewin or lose? respondents as hieh J7 ' a"d * me'lian split was used to categorize

Archie wins Tabic I show h Prcjudice or "hnocentrism.

42% 40%
8. Which of the main characters in t h e show is m o s t 50
'o the various item t,?' P"" "' in each sample who responded
often made fun of? 1

Archie ^•Thetwo sa m :, 7 a „ r S < i . c , i * n . f d .'° c l i c i ' reactions to All in the

Mike 10% 32% A,most everyone In l'' V U " °" l,1C W,1°,C <Jl,ilC similar in their responses,
Edith 46 10
found it fUnnv/, I"°K,am: most of them enjoyed it (Jtem 3)
Gloria
Lionel
36
2
58
0 ! em 2). Table 1 alL T
a"d °nly a Sma11 PercentaEe found it offensive

6 'n samples liked ? ^ °VCr 60 ^TCCm o{ the television viewers

'' Xhns0af'en'ferSrt,° memb6rS °' uarlous minority 0 ^cent or m!red Archic more than Mike (Item 5) and that
groups a s coloreds, coons, Chinks," etc. Do you more ,i°'
e Program (Item 7\ " " U;,s Archie w,1° usually won at the end of
minoXoup"76 " USinB *heSe "ames cent- thought Archie m smaI1 percentage, between 11 and 13 per-
nothing wrong
/'I
wrong 43% hich one of ,| 1 r *nie lhajl Mike (Item 6).
35% f
very wrong 33 33 °lof 8)? „ z °rn ,harat,m in the sh- was most often made
10. 32 24
.rc 'e should be the S 'S ^e,,eraIly viewed as a satire on bigotry, then
rso
°r. Table l £nrfi P° " seen most often as the butt of the show's
escents lowever,
similar to Archie cen°. named Arrh- ^ that only 10 percent of the U.S.
23% Americans r.1'0 ? ^ 'x?rson m°st often made fun of; 46 per-
, amc M'ke an«' 36 percent named Edith.2 Similarly,
2f

wko Lionel was or <! | ' S"nc^ rrn,ar** by respondents indicated they did not
not consider him to be a main character in the program.
only 32 percent of the Canadian viewers named Archie as the character
Generally, then, the quantitative data shown in Table 2 tend to
most often made fun of, while a majority (58 percent) thought Edith was
support the selective perception hypothesis—namely, that prejudiced per­
the most ridiculed. Finally, 35 percent of the American sample and 43
sons identify more with Archie, perceive Archie as making better sense
percent of the Canadian sample saw nothing wrong in Archie's use of
than Mike, perceive Archie as winning. We also asked the respondents
ethnic and racial slurs (Item 9).
what they particularly liked or disliked about Archie or Mike. High
prejudiced persons spontaneously indicated that they disliked things about
All too many viewers saw nothing wrong
Mike significantly more often than about Archie; low prejudiced persons
with Archie's use of racial and ethnic slurs
spontaneously indicated that they disliked things about Archie significantly
Some of these findings are, of course, quite consistent with the findings more often than about Mike. But even more interesting are their explana­
obtained by the CBS survey: most viewers enjoyed the program and tions of why they liked or disliked these characters. People who disliked
found it funny, and only a small percentage found it offensive. Other Archie indicated that he is a bigot, domineering, rigid, loud, and that
n mgs, however, indicate a wide range of affective reactions to the he mistreats his wife. Persons who liked Archie reported he is down-to-
show's characters, their behavior, and the outcomes. Considered all to­
gether, the) suggest, contrary to the CBS report, that all too many viewers Tab'e 2: Differences between high and low prejudice viewers in their reactions to
i not see t'ie piogram as a satire on bigotry, had identified with Archie All in t h e Family
rat er than Mike, saw Archie as winning, did not perceive Archie as the . U.S. adolescents Canadian adults
c aractei who was the most ridiculed, and, perhaps most disturbing, saw variable High prej. Low prej. p High prej. Low prej. p
nothing wrong with Archie's use of racial and ethnic slurs. 3. How enjoyable is
it?
The selective perception hypothesis proposes that the prior attitudes
very enjoyable 27% 26% 18% 20%
of the viewers would be related to or would predict reactions to the char­
en!0yable 19 15 n.s. 29 26
acters and outcomes of All in the Family episodes. To test this hypothesis, n.s.
not enjoyable
3 1 4
we split the distribution of attitudinal scores at the median so viewers very unenjoyable
1 2 0
could be categorized as high or low in prejudice. Then, we compared 4. How funny is it?
extremely funny 12% \2% 8% 7%
i erences in the reactions of the high and low prejudiced viewers to
very funny 17 * J*
in the Family by means of the chi-square statistic. Table 2 shows that
somewhat funny 12 12
t ie high and low prejudiced viewers did not differ in the extent to which n.s. 14 14 n.s.
mildly funny 2 5
4 5
they regarded All in the Family as enjoyable or funny (Items 3 and 4). not funny o .
5' Who d°
2 2
1 hey did however, differ in their other reactions to the program. High you like
or admire?
prejudiced persons in both the U.S. and Canadian samples were signifi-
llkCly than
l0W Prejuc,iced persons to admire Archie over 3?% 24% 26%
Mike"
5) a"d t0 2° °5 13 21 '05
wkm Perceive Archie as winning in the end (Item 7). Who mikes better '
n e most respondents did indicate that they saw Mike as making better sense?

sense than Archie, we must also note that the high prejudiced American 3* 8% 3%
Mike* y*
adolescents were significantly more likely than low prejudiced adolescents 44 43
'•<*>«Archie win> '01 43 46 '10
sarrlTI6''6 3S makinS better sense (Item 6). Findings were in the Wins
same chrecncm for the Canadian adult sample, although these fall short Loses 29% 13% 26% 14%

made fun 33 ' 01 26 34 'M

DreiudirpH13! t « at*ePted level of Statistical significance. Moreover, high
Dreiud! H s \ad°'eSCents indicated significantly more often than low Archie
Bunker on CC,mS that thdr Values would ^ similar to Archie Others 4% 6% H% 21%
n

Etbnislurs? 40 n,s- 40 28 .05

pre^dled a (I'em 10)'3 TaWe 2 als° indicates that high c
n°t wrong
r Canadian adults condoned Archie's slurs significantly more
wrong 22% 13% 29% 14%
Finally hioh . T'8' sh°Wed a trend in the same direction,
very ron
wrnn„ J8 15 .10 14 19 .01
a Archi ? C a n a d i a " viewers saw the show as poking fun iO. C» *
°Se va|UPC
lirm
15 17 7 17
stgntficantly less often than did low prejudiced viewers (item 8).
3 This question was not asked in the Canadian sample. Archie
Others 16% 7%
39% 38 .05
 earth, honest, hard-working, predictable, and kind enough to allow his
might argue that high prejudiced persons watch television generally more
son-in-law and daughter to live with him. Persons who liked Mike reported
often than low prejudiced persons, and are therefore more likely than
he is tolerant and stands up for his beliefs; those who disliked him re
low prejudiced persons to watch All in the Family also. In such an event
ported he is stupid, narrow-minded, prejudiced against the older genera­
tion, rebellious, lazy, and a "banner waver." the significant relationship between prejudice and frequency of watching
All in the Family would be spurious. To find out, we asked subjects to
Both the quantitative and qualitative analyses supported the selective
estimate how many hours of television they watched each day and on the
perception hypothesis. Reactions to the program were varied, and these
basis of these responses classified them as "frequent" or "infrequent"
leactions were related to or a function of prior attitudes. This conclusion
viewers of television in general. We found 110 significant relationship be­
is clearly at variance with those who have assumed and have argued that
tween frequency of watching television in general and prejudice (x~ =
Itiricarimer'5 °' "le P"*™* 0.89, df = 1). We thus seem justified in concluding that high prejudiced
adolescents are more prone than less prejudiced adolescents to watch All
The second hypothesis, the selective exposure hypothesis, goes further
in the Family in particular.
to propose that underlying attitudinal predispositions will cause viewers
Table 3 also shows that frequent All in the Family viewers admired
hd n u 'V FamUy t0 differem extents-
The CBS report, assuming Archie more often than Mike (Item 5)—significantly more often in the
1 1 at 1 le Program was more or less uniformly perceived as a satire
U.S. sample and more often, but not significantly so, in the Canadian
'^° rY> Proceec ed to speculate that the more frequent viewers would
nl Z rJU
3 Satire
pers°ns- HoWCVer' if we ass»™ that many viewers do
sample. It further shows that frequent watchers in both samples con­
doned Archie s ethnic slurs significantly more often than infrequent viewers
that rea . ' n is reasonable to predict just the opposite—namely,
(Item 9). Thus, the data support the selective exposure hypothesis in a
or ud?"f V,eWerS °f AU in th* Famity are more likely to (a) be high
direction that seems opposite to that suggested by the CBS report: All in
anl (\ P , CrSOnS ' (b) ldentlfy with or admire Archie more than Mike,
the Family seems to be appealing more to the racially and ethnically
hvLhlr 'S me °f ethnic and
raciaI slurs- To test these
prejudiced members ol society than to the less prejudiced members.
Cat"8°rize d those viewers indicated they watched the
i

who watche y.'Wee or alm°st every week as "frequent viewers" and those
We have attempted to bring social psychological theory and empirical
viewers" (see ' j'" y ouas,ona|ly. almost never, or never as "infrequent
dttf1 °'S l° '3tar °n l'1C controversy. In general, the
these two PT, *' F • ' f°r ltCm alternatives)- We then compared a a seem to support those who have argued that the program is not
wi rhH PS J- V,eW ? °r ethnocentrism or prejudice, identification
f
uni ormly seen as satire and those who have argued that it exploits or
Alfhoul L ' „ C°ndonement of ethnic and racial slurs, ' Ppea s to bigotry. I here are, however, some methodological aspects of
found for Cam r (l
! i C( relationsbiP concerning prejudice was not
the data that need to be discussed,
f°Und f°r the American adolescents:
jnd w'lat about the generalizability of the results? The two studies
likely to b^hith °f the Family significantly more resP°ndents
prejuc iced rather than low prejudiced (Table 3). Skeptics from if r the U.S. and Canada; is it valid to generalize
Ideali n 'ngS dlUS obtained to over 50 million All in the Family viewers?
been d C°Urse' more extensive and representative samples would have

Table 3: Frequency of viewing A.I i„ the Fami.y and differences in prejudice, and program wfrh two BlU tIlC basic findin&s reP°rted here have been replicated

reactions National" d '^ erem samples, differing in age (adolescents versus adults),
Variable Fr#>n wio,., - adolescents
Fren -scents Canadian
oanaaian adults
aauus
(anonym'' ^Amer>cans versus Canadians), and method of interviewing
rreq. view Infreq. v ew n ,
A. Prejudice w P Freq.
rreq. view Infreq.
nfreq. view P views) Tj^S Wr*tten cll,estionnaire versus face-to-face and telephone inter-
High differen ^Ct lbat tbe Endings were on the whole similar despite such
26% 19%
Low 26% 25% Second 'naeases confidence in our findings.
24 31
5. Who do you like .05 25 24 n.s. 's also a ' U sb°ldd ^ n°ted that our study, like the earlier CBS survey,
or admire?
Archie
the effects"1^6 SUrvey and thus not designed to draw conclusions about
39% 23% on attitude change. As Klapper (7) has
Mike 36% 30% P°'nted ou° f" ™ ^
11 27
9- Ethnic slurs? .01 14 n.s. mental de "' 1 'C .°n^ lrue test for attitude change would be an experi-
20
not wrong 21% Can be com^n W'dcb bas (a) a matched control sample of nonviewers who
wrong 14%
17 29% 14% mea^ureme P aredt° the "^mental" or viewing group and (b) attitude
16 .05 n f
very wrong 17 16 .01
11 21
6 18
the fact th-'V5, C^°re and aher viewing a series of the programs. Despite
t e present study is not an experimental study, the findings
surely argue against the contention that All in the Family has positive
John O'Connor's contention that by mixing humor with bigotry the show
effects, as has been claimed by its supporters and admirers. We found that
leads to a cathartic reduction of bigotry. If high prejudiced persons do not
many persons did not see the program as a satire on bigotry and that these
perceive the program as a satire on bigotry, they will not experience a
persons were more likely to be viewers who stored high on measures of
cathartic reduction in prejudice.
prejudice Even more important is the finding that high prejudiced persons
On balance the study seems to support more the critics who have argued
were likely to watch All in the Family more often than low prejudiced
that All in the Family has harmful effects. Some serious questions have
persons, to identify more often with Archie Bunker, and to see him winning
been raised by those critics. Both Hobson (5) and Slawson (16) have as­
m the end.4 All such findings seem to suggest that the program is more
serted that by making Archie a lovable bigot'' the program encourages
i y reinforcing prejudice and racism than combating it.8
bigots to excuse and rationalize their own prejudices. Sanders (14) has
The present findings also seem to cast doubt on Norman Lear's and
charged that "already there is evidence that impressionable white children
evidence that
have picked up, and are using, many of the old racial slurs which Archie
reeardim^nth psychological dynamics may come into play
^ a f " A, Pr0g,amS " Wdl' Sa"f0rd *»»> • situation col!
has resurrected, popularized and made 'acceptable' all over again." Our
whites On rh h" \ ^ " 3,>°Ut 3 ',latk jU"k dca,er who is prejudiced against empirical research suggests that at the very least those charges have a
Sano^a , ,eK,aS,l0f findingS fr°m the prttt"1 research we speculated that while valid psychological base.
common stereor* * c a*"actcr in nian>' w»ys. he also exhibits behavior consistent with the
out the front n he ,s lazy' ,ives a junkyard, and throws his beer cans

In an exDlorat '! ' " ot'lor ',and» llis so» Lamont is ambitious and hard working, REFERENCES
and his son I amr» I " 9Ji?nadtan adul'» were asked the following question: Sanford
these J m n ^ (,iff?rent aIti'ud« an<l life styles; in your opinion which one of 1. Cooper, E., and M. Jahoda. "The Evasion of Propaganda." Journal of Psychology,
the respondent ' *.'p,ca ' thal is' Sl,ndar to Negroes in general? Fifty-six percent of 1947,23, 15-25.
Sotr m ^
rrSanf0rd '26 PCrCCnt "amcd
o nMegrounds ,ha*
f
u
»»*»•• was «,yPe
'he remaining 8 percent

more likely (fr < on tha8'^ As .< Xpected' hiSh prejudiced persons were significantly
2. Freedman, J. L., and I). O. Scars. "Selective Exposure." In Berkowitz, L. (Ed.). Ad-
varices in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, 1965.
^ ano, A. "Why Wc Laugh at That Bigot Archie." Detroit Free Press, March 19, 1972.
or refuse to a J Prejudiced persons to name Sanford than to name Lainont astorf, A. H., and H. Cantril. "They Saw a Game: A Case Study." Journal of Abnor-
trigutg!" ^ detailed rCSCarch » obviously needed, but the finding is in- ma I and Social Psychology, 1954, 49, 129-134.
Z' As 1 Listened to Archie Say 'Hebe' . . ." New York Times, September 12,
lot of people" haw ndll,gs' '' question arises about O'Connor's observation that "a
Who are these ^rsonil'and h ^ ^ them ^ «»*" own prejudice, R" Aggression in Man and Animals. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, Co.,

1)!
which hints at t oossihl
(Item ^percent o^7 °W

of some of their own prejudice T™

3U ''ICy'

^ ^ ' <hal
mdlCated
1 ',e Ca"adian

that
in

the show
survey asked a question

had
to a direct probe
made them awaie
7

g
1972, pp. 152-62.
^PPer, J. r. Untitled paper delivered at meeting of The Society for the Study of
Lear
C'3 Problems. Denver, Colorado, August 29, 1971.

gained insight or that n it " ' 3 resP°nse of course does not mean that they really 9- ManiaL I L T 1 R E A D H O W L A U R A S A W A R C H I E
• • • " New York Times, October 10, 1971.
-ke of specula don txea t the ' !?"" —bating that insight, but for the s, Interpretation of Opinion Statements as a Function of Recipient Attitudes
is whether thesl pe^ V™. ^ ^ that ca» bC
'I- MCG . °URT' Pres,'8e- Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, 63, 82-86.
or infrequent viewers of the n prejudice and whether they were frequent
£ "'rc' J' ' 1 ',e Nature of Attitudes and Attitude Change." In G. Lindzey and
Porting insight 55 percent JJ™8™"1" °f those 27 viewers (20 percent of the sample) re- • ronson. rhe Handbook of Social Psychology, 2nd ed., Vol. 3. Reading, Mass:
watchers 0f8th; P jrvru?:rj"di-d •- «> percent were infrequent Addison-Wesley, 1969.
nificant (x2 = 0 64 df — 1\ tf reatlonsb'P between prejudice and insight was not sig- "• Murray T p <-r i • •
sea hp television and Violence: Implications of the Surgeon General's Re-
(x2 = 8.4, df = 1 ' p 70' " <lata between frequency of viewing and insight were
I2- Newl t?3™'" Amer>can Psychologist, 1973, 28, 472-478.
insight. Thus, in both samnW 'o! 'S'. less fre9uent 'he viewing the more the reported sPeaking About the Unspeakable." November 29, 1971, 52-60.
'3- Playbo^ -r
O'Connor: the majority of n. 'C 313 3 direction opposite to that suggested
arro" O'Connor: A Candid Conversation with Archbigot Archie Bunker's
infrequent watchers of' the pJam"eP°rting insight were low in prejudice and were
finding: (a) the more frequently ner
come about prejudice d y tb • r
lerc

W
are lhl"ce
possible interpretations of the
the pro8ram' the less insightful they
* ^Hcalf;jTa7im
186-192
-
Archie Bunker the Real White America?" Ebony, June 1972,

prejudiced persons who bccaml" '°W preiudiced viewers were formerly high Skornia H T T0\ • •
l6- Dawson •• Sl0n and Society. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
Family, or (c) infrequent and low ^ • P^ejlK,1Ced as a result of watching All the

P^Jud,ced v,ewers
1972 ^°W FUnny ^an Bi8°try Be7" Educational Broadcasting Review, April
look for and/or report self-insight are more likely to be persons who
plausible. Because of the very sm V"'0 Preiud>ce- I he last interpretation seems the W°SL '7- TIME. "THP T
learn Behind Archie Bunker & Co." September 25, 1972, 48-58.
must, however, be cautious in J .num er °I respondents involved in this analysis, one
persons who have written that T/!"8 COnc,uslons- Nonetheless, it can be suggested that
Prejudices were on the whole low Fam,7y gavc ,hem insigh' into their own
whole low m ractsm or prejudice at the outset.
 Global Theater / McLuhan

In 1901 a message was read to a group at the

gate of Windsor Castle:

'Her majesty the Queen

breathed her last at 6:30 p.m.,
surrounded by her children
and grandchildren.'

Pandemonium broke loose. A yelling stam­

pede of journalists on bicycles hurtled doum
the hill to Cowes to be first with the tele­
phones, bawling as they went, "Queen dead!"
"Queen dead!" The famous 'hush' which had
always surrounded 'The Widow of Windsor'
was shattered at a blow. A new age had be­
gun. (3)

At the moment of Sputnik

the planet became a global theater
in which there are no spectators
but only actors
by Marshall McLuhan
itb°e ^U^en' 'nslanl> burning with the fervor of soul which made
It rill ^°rl^' " be the reign of the human soul in all its plentitude.
Declining to write for the Revue Europdenne in 1831, Lamartine said arrive 0 t
I* ** ' W< riPen to accumulate in a book; the book will
to its editor:
°o ate. I he only book possible from today is a newspaper. (5)
Peril
Do not perceive in these words a superb disdain for what is termed October fy ur-' St tontc'vable revolution in information occurred on

journa ism. Far from it; I have too intimate a knowledge of my epoch P°r the first ' U',en ^Pu,n'k created a new environment for the planet.

to repeat this absurd nonsense, this impertinent inanity against the c°ntainer a1'^ ''U nall,ra' wor,(l was completely enclosed in a man-made

erio tea Piess. I know too well the work Providence has committed
o it. efoie this century shall run out journalism will be the whole
press—the whole human thought. Since that prodigious multiplication
which art has given to speech-multiplication to be multiplied a thous­
and-fold yet-mankind will write their books day by day, hour by
Nature ended ' ° In?mcm t'lat l',e earth went inside this new artifact,
citable as "Ui Ecology wa$ born. "Ecological" thinking became in-
Erologica^j'1 ,,S.t'le Planct moved up into the status of a work of art.
man, since he l'"1 3n<' P'ann*ng have always been native to preliterate
g0als and ob' n°l v'sua,'y ,)ul acoustically. Instead of having external

th '• 6 thought will be spread abroad in the world with c°niponents souS'11 to maintain an equilibrium among the

unJ *' ! * ' instantly conceived, instantly written, instantly

lf ht e'ectroni m°
c ' S Cnv ' ronrneru ,n order to ensure survival. Paradoxically,
understood at the extremities of the earth-it wiU spread from pole
"Ves in a \tQT\A 2reS muc^ °* lhe outlook of preliterate man, because he
resonance \ ^ v s'mu'taneous '"formation, which is to say, a world
UnivS o! T»™!T "'I"01 the Centre tor C"U™ >"1 Technology at the
!aie°us
man ^ 1'c'1 a^ data influence other data. Electronic and simul-
being Take Todav- Th" F r* °f SeVeral books on communications media, the latest
on
•V°rld a°d has recovered the primordial attitudes of the preliterate

nv'tes confli 1SC°vere(' 'bat to have a specialized goal or program merely

ct
Copyright © 1973 by McLuhan Associates Ltd.
l° tlle conditioVV,tf a" °l,ier specialized enterprises. "All the arts aspire

° 0111sic, said Walter Pater, and under conditions of

as it takes the private world of the home outside into the forum. The
bounding line between the old and the new journalism seems to have
been the popular line: "A funny thing happened to me on the way to
the forum."
If the telegraph and the telephone revolutionized the patterns of in­
formation and speech in poetry and journalism, the advent of TV may
carry us beyond speech altogether. One plausible projection by Gattegno
(2) goes:
Sight, even though used by all of us so naturally, has not yet produced
its civilization. Sight is swift, comprehensive, simultaneously analytic
and synthetic. It requires so little energy to function, as it does, at the
speed of light, that it permits our minds to receive and hold an infinite
number of items of information in a fraction of a second. With sight,
infinities are given at once; wealth is its description. In contrast to the
speed of light, we need time to talk and to express what we want to
say. The inertia of photons is nil compared to the inertia of our muscles
and chains of bones.
Man has functioned as a seer and embraced vastnesses for millenia.
But only recently, through television, has he been able to shift from
the clumsiness of speech (however miraculous and far reaching) as means
of expression and therefore of communication, to the powers of the
dynamic, infinite visual expression, thus enabling him to share with
everybody immense dynamic wholes in no time.
Even if foi some time speech will remain the most common way of
etting others know what we know, we can foresee the coming of an
era where the processing of visual material will be as easy as our com­
prehension of talk but swifter because of the former's lack of inertia;
an t rough its spatialization by electrons, we shall be able to share vast
conscious experiences at once. Today large novels are needed for this.
Xerox comes as a reverse flip as the end of the Gutenberg cycle;
whereas Gutenberg made everybody a reader,
Xerox makes everybody a publisher
nnp^'1'101? "V"? t0 l0°k ahead one hundred years—without looking even
nature ^M lea<' ' WC merely Take Today (6) for a look at the changing
"s O^sihL fUman °rganization as refle«ed in things and in newspapers-it
Stnking new
papers and 'thpVn ^ Pa"erns. The release of the Pentagon
directlv rpl i S er*> lnvesUgation point to one of these patterns, one
nection "fth A'" °f Xer°X; X«™. a* a new service in con-
)lmtC( an( wr
"t:s
and inexn J 'tten materials, is so decentralized, accessible,
"rcsults in making the °rdinary p— -
reKulU"oe„asPxLfr0T itS threat '° the Publish;ng business and to copyright
gulations, Xerox has two other features. On the one hand, it has created
the large committee as a new means of decision-making, because it permits
uniform briefing and position pafrers for all. On the other hand, it has
created, also on a large scale, the underground press. [In passing, it might
be helpful to mention apropos the underground press that its relation
to the public, or above-ground press, is somewhat similar to the old and
new journalism. Speaking in gestalt psychology terms, the press can be
seen in relation to figure and giound. and in psychology as well as in
journalism, the ground is usually subliminal, relative to the figure. Under
conditions of electric simultaneity the giound of any figure tends to be­
come more and more noticeable. Perhaps it all began with cubism and
the discovery that by eliminating the merely visual or rational relations
between services, by presenting the inside and the underside at the same
time as the outside, the public became totalis involved and aware in a
multisensuous way. As new media continue to proliferate, the nature of
news will naturally change too, along with the perpetually renewed
revolution in information speeds and patterns
Position papers are secret or confidential documents for the attention
of committees, and any office boy can publish these, no matter how
lop secret they may be. The Pentagon Papers were position papers
W may or may n°t have I wen studied or discussed by a Congressional
committee. They are "the news behind the news." which used to be con-
ore muckraking but lias now become an ordinaiy dimension of jour-
, Such as nourishes the tmeleigiound pRB and which, in turn, affects
old ^5 an<' Pl,k'i<s ,,l<' 'egnlat press. What has bap|wned since the
JO^ ^aking l'ays °* l^c IKO'l in that espionage, whether political or
tfar ' '13S ^ecome l',e 'arRCsl business in the world, and we take
rthal t,ie ni(*,n" ne**p*pe* dcpcadf «" "bugging" the whole
'engeand^ W<? cx',cu ,,R' Prcss to ihc world and to chal-
Amon ^ netrate a " privacy and identity, whether private or corporate.
ext"aordbar C ^ea,urcs °' l'lc information revolution are the
aresult of^ .liminut'on private identity and egotistic conviction, as
ordinary enT F 'nvo'vement 1,1 l',c l'v<s of other people, and the extra-
in which ev3^^10"1 °f l',e scc,°r. We have moved into an age
wll0'e S acl'v'l'es
matte^ effect everybody else, and therefore the
even as it is impractical. One result
®Ve®ess") anJ
3Xing Pr'vate morals (sometimes referred to as "permis-
m°rals. l'1e *ame time an extraordinary new intensity in public
%°n, as elsewh0^ 'S reflected in the Watergate affair. In Wash-
standard ^ 'aX'1^ Pr'Va,e standards is expected, but the same
e'ectric condiJ1 S n° '°nger exlcnd to the image of the President. Under
1110 public°niS " 'S n°l P°ss'ble lo extend the laxity of private life
* kit to kg m °ma'n: rather, a new absolutism in the public domain
Theus
h?ndatory-
ac* taenallowed611!51° country 'n which the private and specialized
6 u
^ Sging" 0f 1 e utmosl development. Quite dramatically, therefore,
Pr>vate lives, long taken for granted in the commercial,
 the political, and the military establishments, has suddenly become the my sallies, if I had had someone to talk to. I needed what I once had a
means of revealing the bankruptcy of public morals. certain relationship to lead me on, sustain me, and raise me up /
A spectacular paradigm of the information revolution has been de would have been more attentive and confident, with a strong friend to
veloped or the world a, large by the Watergate atlair. While address, than I am now, when 1 consider the various tastes of a whole
o specialize ,n matters of political espionage and image-building, it also public. And if 1 am not mistaken, / would have been more success­
ful. . . . Amusing notion: many things that I would not want to tell
""I!" l"a' ",C e"tire »" commerdal
anyone, I tell the public; and for my most secret knowledge and thoughts
Tetnd ™ dat 7 7 P0"""1 and miiha*y
"'^lishmenis,
depend on data banks of total information concerning both producers I send my most faithful friends t o a bookseller's shop. (1)

makeTh rr' 7 7 7"™°" a"d thC g°Vemel1' The Watergate affair Montaigne here draws attention to the book as a kind of message in a
whh a LT P " f 'he emire 1>lanct has become a whispering gallery, bottle: secretly dispatched. an unknown public of potential acquaint­
the rest of P°7>nl mankind engaged in making its living by keeping ances His thoughts on this subject help to reveal an aspect of the newspaper
pfnsfb h, T Under S""eillan«- The FBI includes among into
as wel, because there is a special meaning in publication as a form of "put
We thus I P ' ng U er SUrveilIance individual members of the CIA.
on ; the writer, whether of a diary or a newspaper column, is engaged in a
6 C
chaperone! f \ ° mplete scheme °' baby-sitters for the baby-sitters-
very special way in putting on his public as a mask.
etabhZLr, Chaper0"eS~and " iS the busil™ o£ every commercial
lance as a m" ° , °ther commerdal establishments under surveil­ ERSILIA: Why wasn't it true? I wanted to kill myself!
lance as a minimal condition of survival. LUDOVICO: Yes! But in doing so you created an entire novel—
creates manv^^^11^ °f tJcccntralizecl service which dissolves privacy and IUA (fearfully): What do you mean, created? Do you think I made
it all up?
nZleZLZ ,°f hUman aSS°dation' Aether in the classroom or
PreSS- W"ereas Gutenberg had created a service • n o > I meant, in me. You created it in me, without know­
tLfexST T
hardware that f 7 ° f natl°ns' be 'lad at the same time invented a form of ing it, by telling your stoiy.

system and the f M f°™S °f CCntral "Ration. including a price ERSILIA: When they found me in that park-
discerned as •Vrh7arietS -7 ^ Wi,h '«• Wb" Arnold Toynbee had J es, ami then later, in the hospital. Forgive me, but how
l™e d° mOTe _ you imply you were nobody7 For one thing, you existed in the
more with less anZe^sZZaZofT^ '° ^
Of "software" which h-., <i electronic information revolution You e V e ) ?° n e ^ y° u when they read your story in the paper,
ware requL c °PP0Ute effect of ^centralizing. While hard- thp "1 l T n a &' n e t^e impression it made when it was published,
the electronic form ^'fnfo - Pr°duCt to W for a centralized operation, ERSIHA / y°U aroU5e(l o v cr the city.
ing of organization l °lma,lon service permits not only decentraliz-
Z2Tus!y)-Doy^stilih^'tr
expenditure. S *' C (llversity of products without additional
ERSILIA- f ,7- so- 1 must have saved it.

publishing by wZ ^ ** larSe '° defray expenses, electronic s h o u l d > 0 , / K r ' "U upset again?
ERSILIA; Let °'
almost entirely Fvon " ' 1Spfnse VVIt'1 large-scale publics and markets mC SCt
thev , , 't' P^ease' I want to read it, I want to read what
a few copies of his work for hZviJnds'h^ a writer can PubUsh ^ > w°te about me. (7)
In fact, Xerox completes the work of SLT1 T1'*1*11* the tyPescnPL
remai unbrokC' CVen ®',at
the typewriter is "publishing" hi, n i ^Pewnter. A poet composing at ned Samuel Pepys, written in a code which
oravortex of tn '°' <cn,unes—eve" such a diary is for the writer a mask
gives to this fact a new meaning. ^ ' 3S " WCre' While comP°sinS- Xer0X en
lnot^er tongue iT'8' 'ncrcasL's his power over the language; for our
Je act of writin "^ ^ 3 corP°rate mas^ of energy which is stepped up by
Electric speed may already have violated human scale, tending a-s °f printing V."1' °n<< a^a,n' ®',e acl °E publication. In the early
as it does to transport man instantly everywhere 3n^e taking 0'ff j1°nta.'^ne saw l'lls acl'on as both putting on the public

of flip from thl confessional uTthe °f printinS as a k'nC' , 0vje a complete *

071 is ivhoii aU myself to the public. The wisdom of my

a n ^ C e r emon\ y m , r t l f h> in freedom, in reality . . . of which propriety

Letter writing . . . i s a i , , .
some ability.'And I WOu1d i * ch friends think I have , " • Whoeve ^ ' " U ^" c r s ' hut bastard daughters
y would have preferred to adopt this form to publish Q ' Su P e rstin U w e a n m an of the folly of such a scrupulous ver-
0tl
11 o u d do the world no great harm. Our life is part folly,
 part wisdom. Whoever writes about it only reverently and accordim i„
tion to the fact that we live in the age of the fake antique, which is itself a
the rules leaves out more than half of it.
form of the replay. Js not "news ' itself a replay in the newspaper medium
Montaigne had discovered the paradox that the larger the public the of events that have occurred in some other medium, and does not this
greater the premium on the self-confessional. replay quality in reporting urge us to narrow the margin between the event
There is something rather mysterious about the process of the "put on" and the replay? Does not this make us define news as "the latest"?
which is inseparable from communication. Baudelaire's famous phrase However, in the new age of the instant replay, news takes on a totally
yP0Crite lecteur mon semblable, mon frere" captures the entire process, new dimension that is almost metaphysical. A ball game or a horse race can
e leader is hypocrite in the very act of putting on the author's poem as now be replayed for its meaning, as it were, minus the experience. During
his mask, for in reading the poem he is perceiving the world in a very the actual experience the issue may have been in doubt, but, as the poet
special way, using what another poet, S. T. Coleridge, called "a willing explains, "we can have the experience and miss the meaning." In fact, such
suspension of disbelief for the moment." When we put on any man-made is the nature of experience that it is almost inevitable that we do miss the
mask such as painting, poem, or music, or when we read a book or a news­ meaning. The meaning, or the relation to ourselves of a particular event,
paper, we are looking at the world in a very special way, altering our o*m may not come home to us until much later. However, with the instant
rreptions y an artistic act oi faith in the process in which we are engaged, replay of our own or others' experiences, it is now possible to have the
e second part of Baudelaire's phrase, "mon semblable, mon frere," meaning without the experience. Referees and judges may wait for the
,JWS att^ntlon to the reciprocal part of the action. Whereas the reader or replay in oider to render a decision. 1 hey have had the experience and are
usei o any orm puts it on as his mask, as an extension of his own percep- merely waiting for the meaning oi the relation of the experience to them­
Dotem?al ener.Sy' the author or maker has also to put on his public, the selves and to others.
Droiert ,/e or user of whatever he has made. The maker tends to
The quality 0f the instantaneous in the replay of experience is somewhat
to "ni ^ ! mage as die mask °' the user or reader which he endeavors 1 e the difference between cognition and recognition. Recognition may
0n 1S com Plex Pro<*ss of communication, by which the medium
is "nnt »i - "roe somewhat after the event and is a fonn of awareness in which we say:
0n
and PYfp - ^ lts users in order that they may experience some alteration Rec ' reid'ze it was you" or "Oh, now I see what it's all about."
of the ° "^ ^rcePtiom or Powers, includes the "puttingon­ ^cognition is an altogether higher order of awareness from cognition, and
to as "mvin V 1C T, Commercially. this latter operation is referred
ejec^i
1S now laken <or
granted .is ,i normal feature of daily life in the
The comnlPY f16 fUi W'13t wants' or "the customer is always right."
ence 'C Y Newspapers have long used this instant dimension in experi-
paired of e\e Y ° 1 ^ Process >s such that even literary critics have des-
teen wi iY S'nCC l'1C l'mC lb<? lc'c8raph and
the telephone, which have
aocustomed tar Zr 7 * ^ °f the Press> <>" the other hand, are speed-uU 1 fUS f°r raany dccades-
1 he mysterious thing about this kind of
did with his own profusion ^aing^ " ^ and the^ ° informal'on' whereby the gap is closed between the experience
which • "!ea"lnS' 's that the public begins to participate directly in actions
of the sense^/mnnCCdS ^ ^ n°ted b°th connections is the great increase
Want's eed preV*0US'y heard about at a distance in place or time. At
process in question" °n
u *** °f the maker and the user" Since
^ lic'pants
o S l'le aud'ence becomes actor, and the spectators become par-
certain to remain ren^Y ^ hCait °f the communication activity, it >s
^ become SpaCCsb*P harth or in the global theater the audience and the
merely robots Since "Y l° 1 6 1SSUC S° l0ng 3S readers are human and not
events ratheY'0'S' Producers rather than consumers. They seek to program
the future of the ZZ™ " '"dispensable for human satisfactions,
"effects" a 1Cr dlan 10 wal<h them. As in so many other instances, these
electric sld mavTeld T retain this dim™ At present,
at leasf'563' 'Xlore d,e'r "causes." At instant speeds the cause and effect
transport man instantly Lerylhere"t"!,human SCale' tending as il d°CS* 10 thoseSIIhU'tane°US' 3nd 'l 'S tb's d'mens'on which naturally suggests,
simultaneously here and in L ) y°U are "°n the air" Y°U
fully rather 1 ° "e accustomecf to it. the need to anticipate events hope-
camate and angelic, to say the 1eYst 3 manner th3t * ^ PabliepartjJ l° Parl*c*Pate them fatalistically. The possibility of
^"called oj^ ' 31 011 becomes a sort of technological imperative which has
nt speeds ... the public begins to participate directlyiff ofsiren w ;i
a /^P s *'avv : "If it can be done, it's got to be done"—a kind
Wa" of the evolutionary appetite.
actions which it had previously heard about at"

T„ . . distance in place or tiff*

It is time to ask ourselves- "Who, •
an antique store, he asked- "wv • *S "e When a visitor stepped into

asked. What s new?" His jocular query drawl atten­

REFERENCES

1. Frame, Donald M. Biography of Montaigne. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World
} The Media in Allende's Chile
1965, p. 83.
2. Gattegno, Caleb. Towards a Visual Culture. New York: Outerbridge and Dienstsfrev
1969, p. 4. 1

3. Longford, Elizabeth. Victoria R.l. London: YVeidenfcld 8c N'icolson, 1964, p. 562.
4. Mailer, Norman, Miami and the Siege of Chicago. New York: New American Librarv
1968.
5. McLuhan, Marshall. "Joyce, Mallarme, and the Press." In Interior Lxindscape: Tht
Literary Criticism of Marshall McLuhan, edited by Eugene McNamara. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1969, p. 5.
6. McLuhan, Marshall, and Barrington Nevitt. Take Today: The Executive as Dropout.
New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich Inc., 1972.
7. Pirandello, Luigi. "To Clothe the Naked." In To Clothe the Naked and Two Other
Plays, translated by William Murray. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1962.
8. Snyder, Louis L., and Richard B. Morris (Eds.). A Treasury of Great Reporting. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1962.
rrc^« m0M Sim worn f
t 11 P'J yrmoTMEmmiAPPUMUSI
by Patricia Fagen
Constitutional liberties undercut the attempt
at social change—and the country lost both
For the three years between Salvador Allende's election as Chile's presi­
dent and the day of his violent death, Chile was one of the most politically
dynamic countries in the world. As the government moved to wrest the
economy from the control of internal and external capitalism, political
parties, workers committees, peasant councils, and neighborhood organiza­
tions devoted their efforts to consciousness raising and to mass mobiliza­
tion. Artists, intellectuals, journalists, and politicians continually stressed
teir concern that the ongoing socialist transformation at the state level
e accompanied by ideological commitment and a greater participation
at the base, and by new forms of cultural expression:

lllERfZADE t°5 COPULA'SIP AWP/TOS HECWICO^ i The primacy of the political arena implies, on the one hand, that the
1 0 °S'cal druggie be oriented tozeard the problem of power: to obtain

hand ^ Un<l conservc '' OTIcr « acquired. On the other

• • . since the socialist revolution involves the elimination of
apitaist means of production, it requires a consciousness not only of
Soc°i^<Ct*VeS ^eman^e^> t,ut olso of the means of obtaining them,
wtsm is not reached casually or behind your back. (2)

dtamathfa1^00— ra'S'n^ loo,c a wi('c

variety of forms. Perhaps the most
?"•,he frT,cm and ^irited mass demonstrations.
si(k with0" jn?at,es of V°unS people painted the walls of city and country-

co®posed ^f UlCal- S'°^ans an<l messi«ges; amateur theater groups—often

relev'ant to h ^ mdudinS wmkers and peasants—dramatized material

to tX )er
places^ , ' ' cnce Chile's poor, and brought their productions
art and comS ^ 1Crt I>eol^e worked and lived; dance groups revived folk

'H'^ationai™",'1103'^ P°.lll'cal messages; musicians and singers attracted

I
^'•imperial; at-ent'°n Wlt'1 3 new ^'mol of protest songs, popular and
SUcceeded i , m content- Qoimantu, the government's publishing house,
n

^ five millio^il^e °'d Pattern of small editions at high prices, and

Ientat Wpri" )00^.s ln two years- (3, p. 99) Offering educational con-
'''t0ry politickS' ^uimantu made available to Chilean workers books on
But lhe dedic-CWn°miCS; fiction- c,assics- a"t> poetry.

•cated leftists who participated in all these activities did not

j Fsg
i F°r|8 nion,hs1S1A&S'S,ant Profcssor at New College. California State University, San
' n,'« the end of July 1973. she lived and worked in Chile.
significantly influence the presentation of day-to-day political and eca
nomic events in the newspapers, on radio, or on television. It has been
readily acknowledged by Chileans and by sympathetic v isitors that the mass
media changed little in either form or content during the three years of
Allendes rule; many felt that the prog<>\ eminent h it even lost ground in
the mass media struggle over the years. The failure of the media to support
the socialist transition was due neither to lack of talent and imagination on
the part of the left nor to an underestimation of the media's importance.lt
stemmed, rather, from the fundamentally unresolved issue of power in
Allende's Popular Unity government, and from the inevitable contradiction
between the process of social change and the preservation of individual
leecom. The problems faced by the Allende government are no different
rom t IOSC which would he faced by any regime trying to break traditional
patterns of social and economic relations without destroying the institu­
tional foundations of liberal democracy.
The government neither owned nor censored the media, and its political
opposition had a decisive advantage in terms of its access to and ownership
virtua y all media forms: newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and
• °J i e S ". ^ l'1C d a i ' y n e w s papers with national circulation (all published
tut S '* W C r e 'dent'^ed 'he opposition and sold 011 the average
p ' , t
T °i
,ies daily. The five papers identified with the parties of the Members of the Central Unica de I'lubaiadores (CI I") march in support of the govern­
ment on May 1,1972.
pu ar Unity sold about 312,000 copies daily. (7. p. 19) The regional
ewspapers were overwhelmingly controlled by press services of the right;
e^rfnnUmen"1 daU °n the weeklY magazines are unreliable or non- c ange during the three years of Popular Unity government. (6, p. 36)
favnrin Uent appears to h a v e been even more dramatic. No magazine While radio stations and newspapers maintained and reinforced their
uuh 2 .grmment Came close to the sal« of the major opposition poitical commitments eithei to the government or to the opposition,
VanidadesP* Ernlla' and the womens' journals Eva, Paula, and t|| l C a c o n 'hct within the three television channels was constant. Channel
• fe national broadcasting outlet, was intensely progovernment in its news
for » country its size (10 million Pan t m e n t b U t a n t i S o v e r n m e n t hi its administrative and programming de-
the protrovt ' 1 . 10 statlons' of these, only 40 were identified with '^ n t s " Channel 13, the broadcasting arm of the Catholic University,
of the o o l h i r 7 e n t •' Whi'e the rCmaindei 0 P e n ly identified with sectors incrf m°St ds sympathizers early in the Allende period, and was
were oreani7ed°^ O S I t l °"' S'X °f the broadcasting outlets of the opposition techn - S "^ '. dle object °f political controversy and scandal. Receiving
Vitalicia of the 7 ° , n a , U ° n a I Chains; eiSht belonged to the Cooperative F, t J C a n a ' d a n d assistance from the U.S.,1 the director of Channel 13,
C h . l l e n a d e c °mmunicaciones,
catner Ran) u . 1
the PanAmerira ° n ^ S.A., affiliated with ment "asDun, carried on an aggressive campaign against govern-
of the rightist m e d i a l 7 1 7 C ° m p a n y " D e s pite the frequent complai n I S a° e f t t e I e v 'sion. Channel 9, the outlet of the University of Chile,
Was s t

economically, balance of T™1 W M * t t e m P t i n * to bitterly 11 n C ^ de^ended by fhe left as the channel of the workers and was
- < nee of radio power between left and right did not 3ttac^ed by t b e
able to rector of the University, Edgardo Boeninger. Un-
analtern'"" COnt,°' Channel 9, Boeninger finally succeeded in creating
chain; those of thl wmh^rh^7 "°r'h Wcre almost 3,1 owned the El MerCU"°

controlled by the National P . C,eded Periodistica del Stir. El Mercurio in turn by t h e 7 ' V e cbannel for the University, Channel 6. At first declared illegal
L°

El Mercurio chain^was es by the Christian Democrats. (7, p. 19)^ ^ gove 6 " 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 , ^ b a n n e ' b was eventually given broadcasting rights. 3
it also had extensive investments 'T™' ab°Ut ha,f °f Chile's newspaper circulation- e x e rcised e n i m e i U ^ o p e r a t e d studio and importing agent, Chile Films,
(fi. P- 38) ,n rad,(> stations, maga7ines, and industrial enterp"^
Many fii^ m e P° b hcal and cultural criteria in its choice of imported films.
3 Th came from socialist countries, but most imported films con-
for youth. The Cuacl^lo^r,,^-*hc *odaIist magazine Posicidn and Onda, a magaz>ne
published by Quimantu, also sold very ^c^"/ar"~halfway between books and magazines- Boen'iger, by V1S, fllrious with the agreement made between the government and
W|
PUrchased ,hc University was to operate Channel 6 and Channel 9 would be
as, „ "
asa government station. (5)

SU MADRE ESTA
HACIENDO COLA...
IE5IE NINO NO PUEDE EJPERAR HAJIA1976! His mother is in a line. . . This child
cannot wait until 1976! Chilean chil­
I* Kite Chilenos NxnHn wm Solwita AHORA dren need a solution now.
Advertisement for a candidate of the
rightist National Party. The implica­
iJARPA tion is that Chileans should not wait
until Allende's term of office ended.
thr°Ugh PriVaiC Channe,s -cording to commerc
Films couM nonT6" T f°r Chi,ea"
filmmaking, and Ch
films relevant to the °" Y * ^ y°Ung filmmakers who sought to ma
private, and most of ,°ng01"g process- Theater ownership remained £u
socialism. Yet the communications media were largely in the hands of
those who opposed the direction of change. Furthermore, even the minority
of newspapers, radio stations, and television channels identified with the
left were unable to escape from the patterns and style of conventional
capitalist communications systems.
Why did the Popular Unity government fail to develop a more innova­
tive and aggressive policy in this all-important realm? First, and most
obvious, the Chilean government lacked the political power to change any
of the basic institutions of the country. Ruling strictly according to con­
stitutional law, the government respected the right of Congress (which was
controlled by the opposition) to oppose governmental initiatives the right
of the judiciary (which in the main was openly hostile) to overrule govern­
mental decisions, and the right of the opposition-owned mass media to
campaign against the Popular Unity on the ideological level. In fact, before
being allowed to assume the presidency, Allende had to sign legislation
guaranteeing "freedom of expression" to the opposition (whose voice was
a ready dominant in the media) and limiting the government s use of and
access to the communications networks. Thus, the Popular Unity was
ga y cemed the right to move toward media ownership and control,
tie second place, Allende came to power at a time of increasing cul-
tirn]ar-^eifetrati<^n dl,ouK',oul Latin America, via the mass media, par-
Inf y.rom United States. While the influence of the United States
tween 19701 aikTW^CC!'net' as a source ol material in all the media be-
televisio there was no real decline in imported music and
services n,J)Ioglanis' n01 was there a rejection of the United States wire
Chilean 1C S,an<'ar^ N,ort'1 ^'nerican comic books far outsold the
tastes f flPU 31 P nity altei natives." In short, the long-cultivated popular
or
let alone revT^" CU'll,re of l,ie United States made it difficult to change—
c°ntrolled th° Utl°n'Ze l'lC ^'li'ean media- Not surprisingly, those who
'heir ties with ot l'ie media facilities were anxious to increase
^ciations'n afiU' access to l^e North American press and broadcasting
trolled by (heI 1 ^!,-65) Yet even in the communications outlets con-

tastes of the middle class;Pr° eSS10nal Productions reflected the cosmopolit ®ediacontend V c"orts to break away from dependence on imported
^he third a° .st^es were on'y limitedly successful.
H'hich the p0 ^ar mos' important factor was the basic model on
Popular days x^re^apT^to^°Udiences who in Pre-Unid fitted to prefe" ^ n'1'' based its rule. Since the government was com-
they have a revoluti , SOCml Protest Plays- But noW 1 state>
the social?*1"*' ^ democra,ic institutions of the previous Chilean
tained and "forget." doorsteP> they just wish to be ent
^ttiddle. an(j St trans''i°n was limited both by the continued dominance
°^caPitalist co
Upper"c'ass opposition in these institutions and by the laws

pattern is obvious- The poli

^rters about th^V}11'011 .Respite the plans and visions of Allende's sup-
cal and economic proems'undt^ ^ COnie to
pen ed on a mobilization of t terms ' e°l°Rical role of the media, few of them were ready to
Chilean people at the . » * ^"
r the grass roots Ieve, fa suppor( q£ ^ ^ yalues 111 the fundamental contradiction I am describing here:
5"Cabr
1 Although films were sent frnm wr
tate, because of „etIled finanda, sent from the Unit
"La Firme"0 altCmpt to >nstill new values via comic book figures, failed
tl0nalproblem*' f P°P"larized comic book form of explaining government actions
S" d,d suhstantially better.
the supporters of the government sought to employ the forms and even the
substance of the mass communication system of the old order in their
efforts to create new values.6
i ASI SE DESTRUYE
Five problems resulted almost inevitably from these factors: winning LA CLASE MEDIA!
and holding audiences, learning to defend as well as to attack, furthering
political education in popular form, redefining news and news sources, and,
finally, dealing with the consequences of the unbridled freedom of the
opposition.
Competition for audiences. Because the competitive form of the capital­
ist media was preserved, both left and right considered selling to be their first
priority. The salesmanship of the left differed only in degree and symbol,
but not in kind, from that of the right. On radio and television, in movies,
and especially in the press, sensationalism, scandal, sports, and sex con­
stituted the four foundations of client appeal. The formula did sell, as can
lui ill-troll" matrimonial,
be seen from the circulation figures of two of the formula's staunchest
This is how the middle class is de­ la iinicn jo.v" iKH tsai ia...
supporters, the right-wing daily La Tercera de la Hora. and the left paper
stroyed! The wedding band, the only
Clarin. (7, p. 19) These two, each with circulation approaching 250,000, jewelry that is necessary, has gone up Ila muI>I<Io 13 vecw on don inV»:
outstripped all competition in both sales and scandal.7 times in price in two years!
OCTUDAC .#70 OCTU»« l»?I
Clarin, for its part, showed no inclination to change its style or to engage U* »•' am m-qo m% am (i rr ,mo DC 0«
Advertisement for the Christian Demo­ 0 •>Qo (wdlli
more often in serious political analyses which might have served an edu­ cratic opposition party. The prices of E° 390,. E° 17.600..
cational function for the left. In one interview printed in the weekly luxury
< t•.•do .!» 1 •.•'to,
&oods like gold jewelry did
magazine Chile Hoy, the director of Clarin, Alberto Gamboa Sota, denied jse faster than wage readjustments

that there was a serious contradiction between political education and the dunng Chile's inflation, although the CON EL PUEBLO NOSE JUEGA
pnees of necessities did not. Thus mid
need to sell. In answer to the implied criticism that crime and sex did not
* and upper-class Chileans felt (hem- Dm™
constitute the best material for consciousness raising, he testily replied: Selves target of the inflation.

Clarfn . . . since its founding has been essentially an informational paper,

devoted to crimes, sports and popular entertainment. . . Would you Phil
ean me('la were
waste this journalistic battering ram which has penetrated the masses tar;a identified with one or another political group. Sec-
in order to try some other path, or are you just posing questions? I P^tiesT d3(1 n°l ^rovet* a cr'l'ca' problem for the left so long as all its
think that a movement is proven in action, and for 18 years, as far as the 'tapaV3 ' een °PPos'l'on to the government and thus were attacking
people are concerned, Clarin has done pretty well. (7, p. 14) [act j[0'eS°^ l'le Once the Popular Unity coalition became an official
vantage' of^h' ^ com'nuet' sectarianism worked to the strong disad-
Other newspaper directors on the left, interviewed at the same time,
m° e with 1 C AS l'ie Part'cs w'thin the coalition at times competed
r
tecognized that a sensationalist format was a dangerous concession to the
develop ol ^ l'ian with the opposition, they made it impossible to
er
need to compete in a capitalist market. They generally agreed that they
their foil 3 mean ' K^ul and organic ideology of socialist transition. Often
n
rea y a no idea if those who read their newspapers for its sugar coating
take. WCrS Were 'e^t confused as to what to believe or what action to
ot sex, sports, and scandal ever got to the editorials or reflected on the
p° meal analyses which were also included in the pages of their papers. The
Id models of oppositional attack and sectarianism. Nearly all the %e 0Ut ^j'a Pr°fessionals of the left were used to speaking for those who
Seized inc ^°r Tears before Allende came to power, they had
Centro °fJ'11^ contrad>ctions owes much to the work carried out at the Ending the*"1 ^ovemrnenls relentlessly and effectively. The role of
S c M e P ,P e a " d a d N a d 0 n a l < C E R E N > - particularly that o f Anoantla " r 0Vxn
°nly at government after 1970 proved somewhat more difficult.
cultura was found , - and Patnao Biedma. A new periodical, Comunicacion .
y[* publicized,hi relatively easy to take the ideological offensive. The
aImZh !" J 7 1973 SpedfiCa,,y t0 deal with »»ch issues, iVariety { f ^ l^e new initiatives of the Allende government, encouraged
0
on the S I, » ,K ° 'he ,rf'' ,he nc" h'S"> ">• fodon at only 5M*
P'Pular ene .riTls mass mobilization, and capitalized on the fact that

^ 'hat the l^e'rpcaL, that economic conditions were positive,

g was politically divided. After the first 18 months, how-
ever, material conditions began to deteriorate, the parties of the right
moved closer together, and the government discouraged what it considered
to be an excess of spontaneous popular energy. The progovernrnent media
were put in the difficult position of having to defend the government against
the increasingly shrill charges of the right, while at the same time having
to explain to the people why popular actions against the right and in sup­
port of socialism were being discouraged or repressed, and why economic
problems had arisen.
The problem of political education. So long as the media sold on the
basis of sex, scandal, and sports, and so long as they remained narrowly
defensive and sectarian without an organic left ideology, they were of little
use in providing general political education. It was precisely in this realm
that public criticism and self criticism were most frequent. For example,
interviews with militantly left campesinos yielded the following opinions:
The left press does not interpret us in the form we wish. It reflects
neither the sense nor the nature of the peasants' struggle. They do not
seem to realize that the mentality of the peasant has already changed,
hoiu we want to educate ourselves. We are not interested in crimes."
The few papers on which we rely do not take the trouble to send us the
ind of material which serves to educate us better politically, in order
to be able to defend ourselves." (1)
There was a considerable amount of political education in written form
m 1 ean journals. But these journals, in the main, were published by
or university audiences and not for the masses. The mass media rarely
.at^ complex ideas or explained the sophisticated economic and
'tlCa e^atescontinually taking place at a high level in language the
inJiS! Tu C1, r°Uld graSp' The P°Pular Press agreed that it was in the
of the left that the people understand the relationship between the
thev°!I S econonJ1^ problems and the mechanisms of imperialism, and that
from, , ^ the seeminS slowness of government action on some
vas a consequence of the institutional strength of the bourgeoisie.
The mass media were not well suited to speak either
for or about what was happening at the grass roots
pa J codv'p^v T' h?WCVer' th3t SUch ^nations were not good front
reprinted'.ne ^ 3naIyses usuallV appeared on back pages in the font)
ITT scand^ tthS K ' leader- °nly at times of crisis, as during the
Chile) or at the t'C "t u beadIines in the United States before it did >"
use a theme hke Kennecott coPP« boycott, could the left media
During the '° "S fuU PoIitical and ideological advantage-
May and the fm T I ° °Ct°ber 1972' the *"Te the following
the right and ;!c *** °f July and AuSust <973- the P0"" °
6 us commitment to topple the Allende government were mote
than evident. On these occasions there were serious efforts on the part of
virtually all political groups to analyze and to explain in popular language
the political and economic fac tors at issue in these crises. Beyond urging
the people to continue the struggle against their enemies, however, the
press and television contributed little to the dialogue.8
All the media served the interests of the middle and
upper classes far better than those of the
progovernrnent working class
A redefinition of news and news sources. Traditionally, political news
has been defined in terms of the activities of important people: presidents,
congressmen, officials of major institutions, and figures of national impact.
The Kennecott boycott was sufficiently newsworthy in Chile to be covered
day-to-day, because it involved high-level meetings, international repercus­
sions, and an area of vital national concern—copper. When the Chuquica-
mata miners, the truckers, the doctors, the bus drivers, or store owners went
out on strike, they made front-page news. But when a delegation of cam-
pcsinos declared its support for the government or denounced landowners
in their regions, they made the back pages at best. When the pobladores of
acampamento inaugurated their first health clinic, the event was no news
a|a l, only when the same pobladores stormed the offices of the Ministry of
ea th demanding better service did they receive publicity.
ere is, of course, nothing surprising about all this. The narrow
nition of what is newsworthy limits people's access to the media in the
was^ SUteS 3S mucl1 as or morc lh;«n in Chile. But Chile's commitment
the ° i SOC'a"st Process based on worker and peasant participation, and
•jl^'or ers an(' peasants, in turn, claimed the right to be heard and seen.
PoliticaM1^11"16111 bureaucrats, intellectuals, journalists, and middle-class
represC^ ef('CIS l'le o^en spoke eloquently, but they did not really
a worker d'C ^°°r ^ W'lom l^ey PurP°rted to speak. Yet when occasionally
PUson's*" K Speak' write, or appear in the mass media, the impact of that
lackmfessa^e as "news'' was often impeded by his or her inexperience
media we° pr°^css'onai know-how in the use of the media. In sum, the mass
Washan„ e.not Particularly well suited to speak either for or about what
of the mo"
ne)
at the grass roots.8
" ^ °^ free^am °f expression. Most of the media and most
^eie in the hands of the political opposition, and there was
"Jl'°nal cj,ajn a^°
f national emergency, all radio stations were frequently linked into a
°r their lack of inf Wcrc limitcd to government reports. These reports were remarkable
°h'latwashappenm"13''0"' rat^cr 'ban for their contribution to popular understanding
^ ra(jjo <
Sty Workers'3k0/1; '10Wcver- try to serve as a popular forum. For several hours
jj. '''es of Radio r a,iores' comnmnity organizers, and other people made use of the
nunciati orP0,aci6n of the Socialist party to air their complaints, opinions,
0ns anH
'^accomplishment,.
 little prospect that in the short run they could be changed, controlled or in gaged in an active and aggressive campaign to topple the Allende govern­
any way modified. Therefore to a large degree freedom of expression (or ment. The Democratic Guarantees and other legislation passed shortly be­
the mass media in Chile implied a license for the enemies of the govern fore Allende took office not only assured freedom of expression; they assured
ment to work against it at all levels.
that practically nobody could be called to account, no matter how untruth­
As we have noted, the primacy of competition and sales limited the ful or libelous their reporting. Protesting constantly that the government
capacity of the left media to fill a serious educational function for its was about to destroy freedom of the press and radio, the opposition media
readers, but the competitive norms did enhance the effectiveness of the transmitted information which was totally false, fear-provoking, and de­
denunciations and accusations of the right. The anti-Marxist opposition signed to bring angry crowds to the streets When 011 a few occasions radio
no need to defend the government—even though its members con- stations were closed down for short periods for clear violations of existing
•muted the majority of congress and the judiciary and had the dominant law, the outcry was tremendous. When all radio stations were required, as
influence in most basic national institutions. The difficulties created by the
provided for by pre-Allende regulations, to tie into a national chain—during
IpbTfi0 k U"der Way in Chi,e were
^adequately discussed on the the October strike, for example—the stations of the right flagrantly broke
- the dai,y conveniences, shortages, and bureaucratic slip-ups pro-
the national chain and then accused the government of censorship when
thpir C°nStant ^Tlst ^or tbe media-mills of the right. By their very form and they were subsquently shut down for a short time.
nnnprCUiSt°maf^ ^ the med'a servecl the interests of the middle and The smallest sign of government regulation in the media caused the
c asses ar etter than those of the progovernment working class.
supporters of the opposition to cry out against the destruction of civil liber­
ties. And indeed, if the supporters of the Popular Unity government had
The media professionals of the left were used to thought they possessed the power, they almost certainly would have done a
speaking for those who were out of office. Defense great deal more to restrain the opposition. In the eyes of the left, the media
of their ozvn government proved more difficult of the right were seditious; in the eyes of the right, the objectives of the left
predesigned to destroy the "Chilean way of life." Clearly, the usual model
as wel^JTiT of Revision is illustrative. Reaching the homes of the poor10 0 critical media in a democratic society had little relevance in Chile. In any
dren Chilp & W Wa ed most frequently by women at home or by chil- j°aety it is difficult to guarantee full liberty of expression while avoiding
pirations and C•^,1,S1°1? W3S an *deal vehicle for spreading consumerist as- •cense, in Chile, the dynamic which followed the Popular Unity attempt to
nerable Ph ^ exPectations among those who were most vul- cct profound social and economic changes, made that task impossible.
imnorted frn""6] J ^ Partlcular' its program hours with material
soap opera — ^ nUed States~situation comedies, detective stories, and been re^ ^^ ',roblc,n of hlx-ity. license, and freedom of expression
Chileans who*"! T audiences were large.11 Studies indicate that those Cbde'
proce of!* ^ military junta has come to power and is in the
commitment tcT & & ^ deveIoPed political consciousness and a
radio sT \ ebminatinK ,ts opposition. There is no opposition press,
but there is no H h u "0t seriously"corrupted" by such material,12 music and
^notion ^ broadcast government notices, and television
tional televisi °h l' A™ traditional "apolitical" broadcasts of interna-
'betakeov^1^3^ a°d °n\y under military censorship. In the first hours of
value set whTrh ^ 3 mid^-class cultural framework and
ofpoliti^1"' broadcastinS equipment of the left was silenced. All forms
occasional nnl V "i" I )S exPloited Allende's political opposition. The no®ous 3 C.0mrnu"'cal'on not strictly controlled by the junta and all auto-
less subtle and °ffered b? other stations tended to be duller,
ani0ng those1'"1 ^aVC kCen oul'awed- Among the first arrested, and
than the pmducfoTchaJnens^11 l° "modernized" television tastes
"beers, artist ^°SSdib' dead> are large numbers of journalists, broadcasters,
ingt 3i"d metba w°rkers whose only crime, it seems, was attempt-
did^rfir? and COntrolled by the political groups of the right
SUcceed in nT'1 C.'eSa^y elected government. Will the military junta now
xerting a cultural influence on their clients. They also co­
^ Precisely3^la'n'n^ 'tS P°wer and *n winning obedience from the citi-
administration as a pop"laeasure'J'Z°d te,eVisi°n SetS were Provided under Allende s Wtl0°Ppose it; j3USe il 1S willing to repress dissidence and to murder those
tempts to ach'S ^ ^ necessary fare of any country which, like Chile,
States^e' Pr°gramming: °f thiS ****
Grantees ha *undamental change without destroying constitutional
three worked communi!Ls°f ^ ,nf,"ence of Revision in Chile, including a survey of ' asic liberties, and freedom of expression?
CEREN. The work due 10' ^ out bV M'chele Mattelart and Mabel Piccini of
September coup and the subsemPear ln October 1973- Was never published because of the
P and the subsequent military shutdown of CEREN

Cultural Exchange—or Invasionl
Film as International Business
by Thomas H. Guback
When they aren't selling Hollywood movies
to the rest of the world, American conglomerates are
financing and profiting from other countries' movies
The relatively new and highly conspicuous international trade in television
programs has grown along lines already traced by the circulation of
theatrical motion pictures over the last half century. That the international
film business has provided the prototype or model for television should not
be too surprising; in the United States, at any rate, many of the same com­
panies are engaged in both fields.
Allied Artists, Avco Embassy, Columbia, Disney, MCA (Universal),
MGM, National General, Paramount, Twentieth Century-Fox, United
Artists, and Warner Brothers are important Hollywood companies whidi
also deal in television programs for domestic and foreign consumption.
Indeed, the member companies of the Motion Picture Association of
America (the above minus Disney and National General) supplied 70
percent of the prime time programming on the three national commercial
television networks during 1972—predominantly series produced directly
foi television, but also feature films made for theatrical distribution or
especially lor video. (10) The same companies, as members of the Motion
Picture Export Association, also account for about 80 percent of television
program exports from the United States. (25, pp. 194-95).
The similarity between the production and distribution of film and
that of telefilm also is apparent in the forms of financing, specifically in
the rise of coproduction in the making of television series. This method
brings together capital from at least two sources, usually in different coun­
tries, to cover production expenses. While this kind of financing is rela­
tively new to television, it is nonetheless increasing, and for a number
of teasons. The cost of making splendid, showcase series can exceed the
investment possibilities of one producer or television company, but the
project can be realized if the financial burden is shared by two. In some
cases, international financing of series can give one of the producing
partners access to a market which hitherto had been relatively closed to it-
Thomas H. Guback is Research Associate Professor at the Institute of Communica­
tions Research, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is the author of Th<
International Film Industry and of numerous articles on the cinema and other aspects
o mass communications. This article is an abridged version of a longer paper.
Copyright © 1973 by Thomas H. Guback.
This is true, for example, in the case of Anglo-American productions, which
[or the British producer open the United States, a market traditionally
difficult to crack.
In 1972 there were 153 coproduced programs on BBC television, com­
pared with 77 the previous year. The motive was not so much cultural
exchange as the sharing of the production costs. Many were bilaterally
produced, but others involved as many as 13 different organizations. (8)
Although coproduction of telefilm series is still somewhat unusual, for
theatrical motion pictures it is the dominant method in Europe and has
been for at least the last decade. Offic ial coproduc tion in the 1 urojxan film
industries takes place under terms set by treaties among nations, the first
of which was signed in 1949 by France and Italy. In the years since, prolif­
erating agreements have brought together many of the ini|>ortant filmmaking
nations of the world. France, for instance, has treaties in force covering
coproduction with eighteen countries. From 1900 to 1972, she made 1,191
coproductions as against 744 completely French films. (3, p. 2)
Similar figures confirming the importance of coproduction could be
presented for other countries in Western Europe. What they do not show,
however, are films made by two or more partners not covered by bilateral
treaties. Usually these involve American filmmakers; the United States
not party to any coproduction agreements, but American film sub-
diaries abroad which come to have legal status as "foreign" production
companies would necessarily fall under terms of treaties tying the host
ountry to others. In actuality, then, the number of pictures financed by
nulr "f016 "lternat'ona' partners is somewhat greater than just the
yjn Jf ° C0Pr°ductions. In the future, it is not totally unlikely that we
the 0Dt°VetltUreS ^tween even die United States and the Soviet Union,
dent v',Sm °f Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) Presi-
Uack Valenti is a guide. (23)
loofoiis their***1*'5elween and telefilm which cannot be over-
of the i menCan throughout much of the world. A cross-
nant; their po^ ^°W 'ma8es shows American products domi-
'"tpressive. WhoKA^ '. v deo and screens, the consumer end, is equally
'na countrv rti m?r'.can programming is not the dominant television
StartUng J' en tt ls often at least the bulk of imported material. (25)
motion3t.ma^ f®' 't has been a long-established rule in the
,heAmerica Cfi,Ure lndustIT With markets in more than 80 coun-
tl!Be:andaccounts f ' T OCCUPies more than 50 percent of world screen
!. tl,ed ay, an Ameri & °Ut- °* S^ohal film trade. (14) At every moment
fi|
Jrds°f 30 million C3n ^lcture 's heing shown someplace on earth. Up-
Vu^i* period^nf i ar°Und ?hc WOrld see the average American
J* "union pict,Jrp0| !ase outside the socialist countries. (20. p. 25)
i 1 lhe flow 0f 3S ecome a good to be manufactured and mar-
on ^_Ve8; This meansT)?11"^ ^ 8,obe is guided by simple commercial
»e C '" hat films which are available a, any moment
as a rrt.nl t .. '
commercial decisions rather than of
considerations of aesthetic quality or more detached concerns about who.
a soctety ought to be going and how it can ge, there. In the absence Z
^tS:Pany aCCOUmS an" stockholders
r,ecent lears' mUCh atten,ion has devoted to multination.1
corporations, their seemingly sudden rise, and the kinds of consequences
hey have for societies around the world. Yet the multinational corpora,
ha™ century" °f AmeriCan film industr>' {°r perhaps the last
Upwards of 30 million people around the world
see the average American film
during its period of release outside the socialist countries
American motion picture companies not only export their products over­
seas, t ley also have subsidiaries which make, distribute, and exhibit films
IT' \ese C'la'ns businesses were forged in the decades before World
ar anc strengthened in the decades after, so that American film com­
panies now have some 700 foreign offices employing 16,000 people. Perhaps
in ustry in the United States is so heavily dependent upon foreign
markets as is the film industry. (20, p. 21) By the late 1960's, foreign earnings
presented about 53 percent of total film rentals.
ule many American conglomerates have become multinational, the
m companies were multinational before some of them were absorbed
m^rr'<>"^ °™Crates' *n l'le US. House of Representatives Judiciary Com-
66 V- ic' StUdy conS'omerates, one finds among the sample com-
irTiTfifi 8
J !? Western Industries, which acquired Paramount Pictures
- i ) and Desilu Productions the following year. (17) Another con-
omerate National General, in a reversal of the pattern, began as the
"Cr 3nt °Pfrator of the Twentieth Century-Fox theater chain, which
inr1o-S^Un °r r°m t,1C Parent corporation to comply with an antitrust
hnnl-menKr ir°m l'ieie National General spread to banking, insurance,
trust rnli r?d ^ftei receiving a court order amending an anti-
W m r"10 1 m Proc'uction and distribution at home and abroad
rrmst;fSt.ein i U1i°Pe' Part'cl,larly the European Economic Community
is also thCS '16 • argCS.t ^oreign market for American motion pictures, h
overseas n W'lich American film companies have concentrated their
No.!l T ?Capacity, especially in Great Britain, Italy, and France,
10
has marty "^ ^ 1 -S ™
181 region in which American business in genet a
strenpth nf A SUbstanUaJ "vestments. Their magnitude demonstrates the
Accordi n5 C~cial movement abroad.
American nf- ^ U'S' DePartment of Commerce, the book value o
liminarv fim^T \n*estrnent abr°ad in 1950 was $19.0 billion; a p^'
sixfold Incr, ** °* i PUt the worth at over $130.0 billion, a more than
czn diT*™ ; r y tWenty years- In the sa™ way- the value of Amen-
n
I vate foreign investment (branches and subsidiaries of Ameri­
can companies) was $11.8 billion in 1950, but about $86.0 billion in 1971.
Western Europe attracts an important and growing share of American
investment, about one-third of the total. The worth of our direct private
investment there was estimated by the Department of Commerce to be
more than fifteen times greater in 1971 than it was in 1950.
Considering the European Economic Community, in 1971, the book
value of American direct investment in the Original Six plus the soon-to-be
members—Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom—was about $23.0
billion, or about twice as much as the 1950 value of American direct in­
vestment in the world. (15) The United Kingdom's Common Market entry,
moreover, is the realization of American hopes and political manipulation,
for it gives the many U.S. firms in Britain easy access to the important
continental market constituted by the other members.
The international expansion of American business has been actively
encouraged and aided by the U.S. government. The Webb-Pomerene Ex­
port Trade Act of 1918 was one of the earliest efforts to stimulate exporting
by small and medium-sized firms at a time when few companies, including
the largest, were much concerned with foreign markets. The Act permitted
domestic competitors to cooperate in trade by forming export associations
^hich might otherwise have been held illegal under the Sherman and
Clayton Antitrust Acts. In effect, this exemption allowed American com­
panies to combine and to fix prices and allocate customers in foreign
markets.
Fifty years of experience with this legislation has shown, according to
ne government study, that the major beneficiaries rarely have been firms
at needed associations to cope more effectively with the strength of
r^'gn competitor5, (16) Nor did the power of foreign cartels seem to be a
Fed^al^TrTd ^°rmat'on ass°ciations. "More often than not," the
forme ^ 6 ^ ornm ss n
' i° observed, companies "exercising the right [to
ass°ciations] were least in need of it, being capable of support-
So" (16^ PQ°^rams on their own accounts and, in fact, typically doing
blfct, le study
anjj ,. ^ ^' cited a few products—sulphur, potash, carbon
SUch association^"™^1086 eXP°rt Prices bad been effectively influenced by
The
presented ^ P°'ntet* out lbat in 1962, the only year for which data were
handled twelv^ assocaat'ons
founded under Webb-Pomerene legislation
pictures thesC P1°duct. bnes. In three—sulphur, carbon black, and motion
sports of su^associati°ns accounted for more than half the total value of
^atrical and Pr<X'ucts- Moreover, the FTC revealed that for America's
80 percente\iSi°n exP°rts' over $290 million worth (an esti-
°unded underTh0 exP°rts) was accounted for by associations
lAj if { 6 ebb-Pomerene Act. The position of film was out-
jj*1. "Pheaval in Gh in<lustry s°urces claim that despite civil war in Nigeria and
vatfies were tradine th* American fi,m earnings in west Africa in 1967—when
0 Prior years w, ' rough the Motion Picture Export Association—were triple
Cn comPan«es individually distributed pictures. (7)
 standing and unique because the other eleven products mmh • j l
than $208 million in assisted exports Th„ ,i combined, had less
SJST—• - AMSRJASSSS
American media products went forth into the umli
with the rank of ambassador
veanUofe,nhC°Ura8emem, °f eXP°" 'rade W"S n°' jUSt a feature
M n™ ^ " ™ hard'y 3 Secret ,hat durin«
World War II,h,
national C eParlment already was making plans for the postwar inter-
a spread of our print and fdm media, and of Tin Pan Alley music
ac n f f ^ Media Guaranty Program, established in 1948
• ° 1 e uon°mic Cooperation Administration, permitted the con-
ng ot certain foreign currencies into dollars at attractive rates-
th lc In^ 1 10 expoited information materials earning the money reflected
the best elements of American life.
This was a decided advantage to American media, particularly film
companies, for it allowed them to distribute products in difficult currency-
areas wit i complete assurance that a portion of the resulting revenue would
aecome available to them in dollars. American media products therefore
went forth into the world with the rank of ambassador. Film companies
a one received almost $16 million between the end of 1948 and mid-1966;
ore recent aid to overseas expansion of American business has taken
otner torms. The Revenue Act of 1971 included provisions permitting the
sa is ment by an American business of a Domestic International Sales
orporation as a subsidiary to handle foreign sales. The DISC purchases
rom t ie parent and sells abroad. If the DISC derives at least 95 percent of
its revenue from overseas sale, lease, or rental transactions, and other quali-
cations concerning incorporation are met, it can defer tax on up to half
its export income. These tax-deferred retained earnings can be used in
export development activities or can be loaned to domestic producers of
export products. However, they become taxable if they are distributed to
s oc io c ers. In essence, the program's effect is to defer taxation of 5'1
percent of export earnings, a feature which led the European Commission
a e in to declare that this is equivalent to a tax exemption on exports
and a violation of GATT.
Further aid to the international expansion of American business has
rToST1 rd by the °verseas Private Investment Corporation, authorized
>n 196J but formally organized in January 1971. OPIC is a wholly-owned
government corporation with majority private sector representation on i|s
Diees^lnH Tdia a!S° reCCiVed Considerab]e Payments (over $2 million each to Rea^5
that the ivff ""C nC" f°r lnstance)- prompting Senator Allen Ellender to comp.
"r- r FU,,d primari,y benefit a chosen few of our large publish
nouses located in New York City." (19)
board of directors, although it is an agency of the United States under
policy guidance from the Secretary of State. Its objective is the more ef­
fective investment of American private capital and know-how in friendly
developing countries and areas. It seeks to accomplish this by insuring
American companies against loss due to certain j>olitical risks of currency
inconvertibility, expropriation, war, revolution, and insurrection. It also
provides direct dollar and foreign currency loans for financially sound new
investments or expansions of existing projects.
°f ct1> The Corporation has already placed part of its expropriation insurance
liability with private underwriters. During fiscal 1972, OPIC reinsured
S289million of its then current coverage with Lloyd's of London and others,
including the USSR's Black Sea and Baltic Insurance Company. (12)
Political risk insurance has covered some two-thirds of American private
investment (excluding petroleum) in eligible developing countries, or about
$500 million annually. Considering all its programs, OPIC has helped en­
courage more than S4 billion of direct American investment abroad. (13)
"The motion picture is the only U.S. enterprise
that negotiates on its own with foreign governments"
These are just a few of the ways in which government directly aids
"ternational business. Of course, there are less dramatic and more routine
ocs on the embassy level, where foreign service officials assist American
ob^a]nieSr.!br0ad in overcoming a variety of local political and trade
sppn^^ lm comPan'es bave received this kind of help because they are
s a great asset to the U.S. foreign propaganda program.
product30!3^0115 trade terms f°r American films often have been the
c°untem° P?SUre exerle(' bY companies, and not only on their foreign
House ^ Valenti' MPAA/MPEA president (and former White
•uotion pia l° .byndon Jobnson) has observed: "To my knowledge, the
foreign eov"16 'S dle wn^ G-S. enterprise that negotiates on its own with
Natives inT^f6"^ ^ assoc'at'on bas offices or repre-
orei8n c'bes> ar|d boards composed of representatives from
member com
38' When
try's theaters American pictures keep half a coun-
revenue, the th^0 ^enerate an important share of entertainment tax
can bring f feat 3 market
orei boycott through the withholding of films
erni"entsearn m * Versaries to terms-
According to Valenti, foreign gov-
'mP°rt, admissio^ mCOme ^rom tbe showing of American films (through
n' 3nd *ncome taxes) than do the producers of those films.
^•P-24)
^ Hie virtUai montr'blU'n& t0 tbe worldwide strength of American pictures
ConiPanies. There°^° ^ 'nternat'onai distribution achieved by American
,rn°unt Xwentie , n° EuroPean company with the stature of, say, Par-
or
31 a handful f j; \ -, entuI7-*ox. In effect, this locus of power means
f 0
ernat'onally amon" Ut?FS dectdes, by and large, which pictures circulate
g major filmmaking nations. As these companies also
 are important in financmg production through distribution
guarin,t«
behind the names of producers and their addresses in Paris, Rome, or
they exert considerable influence on the kinds „f ' ,
audiences. klnds of Plctures made for gl |
obl
Madrid often stand American subsidiaries or American production loans.
One recent case is Ultimo tango a Parigi, an Italian-French picture
Ourtr.^^Zcrama^' °' ^'"7" distrib— * financed in a 60:40 ratio and coproduced under the terms of a treaty.
ma' ket' While the film fulfills the legal definition of an Italian-French copro­
francs (close <o $75m,'lionT™ dTT," ^
percent went to seven 1 • } eX'"buors 10 distributors, almost 42 duction, it is in reality an Italian-American coventure, and not simply be­
cause the male lead is Marlon Brando and one-third or so of the dialogue
among theT.^S TUis
" ™T
from other Fiirnnpan • • ' IS 1 excepnonal; data is in English. Closer inspection of the French producer reveals it to be
don. In 1970." sevL irn,r,el rSlrate substantially the same situ, Productions Artistes Associes, a subsidiary of United Artists. According to
the production contract of January 10, 1972, the "French" producer con­
Anoti™
American finanri
StTS^^r^ °f 3,1 ^rCmal ^«
to have received 84 np

r v
"'"I * 'Sl" 3l,tors in Great Britain were estimated

European cinema is the extensive

tributed 40 percent of the estimated budget of 714,000,000 lire (about $1.2
million), with United Artists receiving world distribution rights. The box
films shot on In ^ ° "'ulopean fi,ms- These are not simply American office was to be divided 60:40, except for Italian- or French-speaking areas,
Portable earning °" t0. PletC accumulations of blocked and unex- where all receipts were to be paid to the Italian or French producer, re­
these pictures ^ the yCarS after World War URather' spectively. Other terms specified that the film was to be made under the
another nation- V, 3 ?,tiena lor granted British. French, Italian, or Italian-French film agreement and that the principal role was to be given
various natioml ' vi 3"u re,J>' qualify to receive subsidy payments from
to Brando who was to be remunerated for his services by the Italian pro­
that, in the decade up7o °f Am^ican participation is such ducer, P.E.A., to which Bernardo Bertolucci had transferred his scenario
hibited on . 0 every three "British" features ex-
rights. The contract also stipulated that the production subsidies in Italy
by American • lW° ma'n circuits were partially or entirely financed and France were to be paid respectively to the Italian and French producers.
volved in almn«t G Iar!cs' In fact' American companies were financially in The Last Tango in Paris is not an isolated case. At least one-quarter of
ment's cl ntn ^ more British Alms than was the British govern- •972 Italian-French coproductions involved an American subsidiary as pro­
this respect, thTBrit^Mi'lm * rf3"0""1 F'lm Finance Corporation. (11) In per. (2) In virtually all cases its contribution to the estimated budget was
Hollywood and A industry is little more than an appendage of on) 20 percent—the legal minimum, but enough to secure "French"

happenin, "ore rmCn?n COmpanieS- II is a" «a™P'^ «f what has been nationality for the film and thereby access to the production subsidy in
their production nTT ^ °'ber mdustries: American companies export rance, about 13 percent of the picture's domestic box office receipts.

Often tax incentive if S t0 , take advantage of lower paid foreign labor and

term coTned !" m f ° reign -Runaway production"-* Through the 1960's, American-financed films abroad
to automotive, elearonk"a'nl T 'he fi'm industr>'-now is aPPHcable
rose from 35 percent to 60 percent
In Eurnnpon c;i • ' 3 1 °ther manufacturing fields.
1 ind stnes the extent of American investment is
of the total output of American producers
usually obscured be" " '
adequately between ]C'U n rata fr°m thCSC countries do not distin8ulS Britain^ T" ^ n° den^nS that lhe subsidies to production in Great
over, foreign si.h ' r°C3 y anced and American-financed pictures. More-
tan invest3 ^ France bave heen important factors in attracting Ameri-
nationalities of their-3 hos "ollywood companies usually acquire the Pay®entsmCnt t0 l^°Se hhn Industries, although the total amount of such
Precise nationality of h difficU,t l° ^2 «
h°wever tha""^ ^ determined an>' precision. It has been estimated,
not only make mVt ource of money. Further, American subsidian
are Paid inV ^ CVery doBar"equiva^ent °f subsidy American subsidiaries
funds to forel ^L °ad Under their own names; they can supply
United Kingd ra"Ce' rece've lwo 'n Italy and probably four in the
hanks. It is evidenfthlr"*" 3S -WCl1' °r Suarantee loans made fore'gn
duct'on arra ^ S°me instances> through complex international copro-
researcher for thm- ' comPames themselves are not especially helpful t° -1
Subsidies
frorn^hmemS' Ameracan producers have been able to accrue
Public scrutiny As 7* ,UCtant to release details of business practices for
its
product/ rCe COuntr*es *or one film, covering as much as 80 percent
nominally "narinmi" ^ J Amer^can investment is masked in dozens o

co ^trican-fina^0nHC°St' *S not surprising then that through the 1960's,

lished annuallv bv th Ploduced films. One can scan the list pu
lhe total ou/6 al3road rose ^rom about 35 percent to 60 percent
Unitalia or Spain's Un" "^ 6 Natlonal de ,a Cinematographic (or Ita J j
pictures and not find • lC.SPana) completely national and coprod"a( *en a slight de" °1 f A m erican producers, although the early 1970's have

%h America^6356 SUC'1 activity overseas. Toward the end of the

these nations have nffir3 6 ,e^erence to American investment. Nor <°

have official coproduction treaties with the United States. Vet rn'"'°n per y 1
ear j" cl'
00 P'cture interests were investing an estimated $100
ln ms made outside the United States. (4) That figure is
 quite reasonable; the Italian industry has released data revealine ,hj:
manage investment and production according to their own demands and

sssqrand to finance ,,al,an features aJi

m the decade to 1967, American companies spent a yearly average rf «t
not the economic, cultural, or artistic needs of the countries in which they
work. Some observers believe that as multinationals they will not even
exhibit any loyalty to the United States.
The position of American subsidiaries in Italy is such that thev ™
A decade or two ago, American film companies might have weighed
tribute about half the annual budget of ANICA, the Italian motion picut,
their policies in terms of motion picture economy, but it is evident today
ade association. (22) One of the recent achievements of ANICA was a
that as parts of "leisure time" divisions of conglomerate corporations (which
assodado °r t3X ref°ra- Wh'Ch beCame effecdve in 1973- According to the themselves are multinational), fields far removed from the cinema can affect
rem'em"HS,rna8Ing, eCt0r' Carmine C'anf:<™"' ">is legislative victoq
film policy. Universal marketing strategy, worldwide monetary patterns,
7™d the. eq"'valent of $15 million in additional remittances to home
speculation in Eurodollars, corporate investment in distant lands, or global
in an™ 'T'Can COmPanies in ItalV-
(23) However, through voting pot,et industrial warfare can influence the ways in which corjxrrations allocate
Trati^n ' raencan members can block certain moves which could make resources by shifting men, material, and capital to meet their own needs.
evom,V°TPan-eS m°re in
their own home market. In 1972, for The major film industries in Europe cannot escajre the shock waves from
Amencan distributors there released 24 Italian films which were
am
this; they have lost their sovereignty to huge international companies over
th* 1C °X °®ce attractions in the country. For reasons such as
which no country or any citizens can exercise power.
Am '• S°me td ians conshler their film industry has been "colonized" by
American interests. Acceptance of American investment has not solved, as some seemed to
think, the economic difficulties of European film industries. It has oilly
postponed the day of reckoning, for these problems arc endemic to a
Europeans cannot lose control of the economic end of filmmaking
private market economy, regardless of the extent of state aids and sub-
and expect to retain autonomy in the cultural or social spheres
emions, whose presence only serves to confirm the inadequacies. There is

1 he American involvement in the financing and distributing of Euro­ nmuous talk of establishing an American production subsidy or in-
pean hlms-quite apart from the large number of authentic made-in-USA canindLtrvlnCertlVeut0 lUre fiImmakinS to Hollywood. The Amen-
-°Pean screens
has wide political, social, and economic con- Vet its record "I "0t subsidi*ed—at i" the United States,
luenccs which I have examined at length elsewhere. (5) Suffice it to say availed itself 0f Tr* i1C-,aSl ^uarter"centl,ry clearly indicates that it has
marir^6 Grence |s. S'ven to those kinds of pictures whose international It is d Sm col,ntries-

eting possibilities seem most satisfactory. Consequently, films are made fflms in Eurone " CUr'.°l,s Passion of events. The deluge of American
dLT. "iaikCtS rathCr tha" local ones> and this results in the closing of ^made lorall!5?60'3 > in /'u' postwai pe riod, lestricted the market for
- S ° t ie exPress»on of indigenous cultural characteristics and the e1°n to heln iI"* UStr'CS stru8£,mg u> recover ftom the war. In an

1 f!ng,° re&t°nalisms in the mix demanded by international com-

and mandatoT""16"15 CPeatec* subsidy schemes to rejuvcnau produc­
Un 1Cr 1 C dePendence °f European film economies on American ed be available / 7^ *$?*** **Uped tbal a P°rtion of heater time
2? !r?eans that Europeans have lost effective control of their in- American suK«',i* ^ 'mS* f beneficiaries, it seems, have
oniv w-;,a" thus of their own artistic destinies. Those who are concerned produ«ion subsidies whT1" abroad' which S5"™1" important shares of
and disrra V°WS °" the screen a"d not their source are judging ends 1,1 foreign theaters ' ° SCreen (luotas assure their films a reserved place
is donp F mg mCanS' f°r h°W something is done inevitably affects what

and exnprf1^0^63115 Cannot ^ose control of the economic end of filmmaking [ftcattacked this ei"' ,ba,/ew v°ices ,n European film industries
Some h Tai"?Tn°my in the CuIturaI or social spheres, as meant a entlon' for ,n the short run American investment
new
the merhan^ 10^e.C 1 le ^ramework of the Common Market would provide
>t0 the American mJi,productlon capital, utilization of studios, and
industries nf model for increasing relations and trade among filnl
finds its wav h i Selecled fi,ms (even if Httle of the result-
integration H Cm ^ St.ates' eventually leading to commercial and economic
dustrv ran hp °VVGVer' 11 's llnrealistic to believe that a European film PiotJ^.Unions in Euronl .lo EuroPc)- Even some left-wing entertain-
a large EurnnpC°nStrUfed °n American investment. What will be built is Sinn while quietly welm • *** uttered
qttietly welrnm- onI>'
on, cries of
y muffled, symbolic crie:
Ok of^merican finanr '.ng more stable conditions, although the
f
beneficiary wilU T • Without internal trade restrictions; the principal
Sm^and^ tT ,n f.ri,ain in 1970 P-duced an employment
and emnlov I \ . m G n c a n s u b sidiaries, who will produce in the m a r k e t
Lack ng' nv m T ^ «*> 35 lo"S as they consider it profitable- Npeffi ?d °hSP° 2°^ thC 3rra>' of dangers. But the
acking any mtnnsic loyalty to their host nations, these subsidiaries will <" has n° thlS/a,Se if it can be called
Companies, some >ond the immediate policies of a dozen

themselves
ves subject
subject to
to conglomerate strategies.
 What one British producer has said about the United Kingdom could International Trade, Hearings, Multinational Corfuorations, February and March
apply equally to other nations: "We have a thriving film production i„ 1973 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973.
19 US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Hearings. U.S. Informational Media
dustry in this country which is virtually owned, lock, stock and barrel b,
Guaranty Program, March and April 1967. Washington, D.C.: U-S. Government
Hollywood. (21) When American producers went abroad, they did not
Printing Office, 1967, p. 76.
consider it 'runaway production," but just good business. When they leave 20 Valenti, Jack. "The Foreign Service' of the Motion Pidure Association of America."
England, or some other country, it will be for the same reason. The Journal of the Producers Guild of America 10:1. March 1968.
21. Variety, May 4,1966.
22. - March 7,1973.
23. March 28, 1973.
24. July 25,1973.
REFERENCES
25. Vans, Tapio. International Inventory of Television Programme Structure and the
Flow of TV Programmes Between Nations. Tampere, Finland: Institute of Journal­
1. Associadon of Cinematograph, Television and Allied Technicians. Report of the
ism and Mass Communication, University of Tampere, 1973.
a.l.i .1 . Nationalisation Forum, May 6, 1973, p. 15.
2' Ce"£e, Nati° a de la
0" !, Cinematographic, Bulletin d'Information No. 139, February,
1973, pp. 29-30.
Vsat'0l.ia' deCinematographic, L'Activity Cinematographique Francaise en
4 r-iK ' ®Uppement to
B""etin d'Information 140-141. April-June 1973.

Fore'Sn Fhm Subsidies as an Aspect of Financing." The Journcl

5 r h v Ucers Guild °f America 10:3, September 1968, pp. 6, 8.

u ac , Thomas H. "American Interests in the British Film Industry." The Quarterly

evieui of Economics and Business, 7:2, Summer, 1967, pp. 7-21. "Les Investisse-
ments Am^ricains dans le Cinema Europden." Cinethique, January-February 1970,
a'5 •. ,c Film and Cultural Pluralism." Journal of Aesthetic Education, 5:2,
April 1971, pp. 35-51.
uback, Thomas H. The International Film Industry. Bloomington: Indiana Uni­
versity Press, 1969.
7' "I1?,"*,1"00"16 fr°m Abroad." The Journal of the Producers Guild of America,
10:1, March 1968, p. 30.
8. International Secretariat of Entertainment Trade Unions. Newsletter 9:1, January
February 1973, p. 5.
9. Monao, Eitel, president of Associazione Nazionale Industrie Cinematografiche ed
Attini quoted in Centre Nationa, de ,a cinematographic, Bulletin d'Information
No. 108, December 1967, p. 233.
10. Motion Picture Association of America and Motion Picture Export Association of
11 K r*1?*-,972'' A RCVieW °f the World °f Movies. New York, January 1973.
' TT ? Fina"Ce CorPoratl°n. Annual Report and Statement of Accounts, fo'
^ e ear Ended 3lst March 1972. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 197-

13 oZ"5 rnVate Investment Corporation. Annual Report Fiscal 1972, p. 4.

14' us? 316 InVestment Corporation, An Introduction to OPIC, July 1971, p. «•

ePartment Commerce. 1973 U.S. Industrial Outlook. Washington, P-c

._ C.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. p. 433.
24- WW??6? ofinCommerce- Survey of Current Business 49:10, October 1969, P
16. u s FJ ' ??0b!r ,9?2> P 21: 52:11' November 1972, p. 28.
A in v613 n Commission. Economic Report on Webb-Pomerene Association
17 US H Washin8ton- D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967-

of rh, TV? cPresentatives. Committee on the Judiciary. Report by the Sta

ColtrT r Subc°mmittee (Subcommittee No. 5), Investigation of Conglo

Wb p !r 197K WaShin^ton' D.C, US. Government Printing Office.

^ CIO ^f"ltinatio"a,s~the Dimming of America," a report prepared for the AFL*

as renrinVn C- ?* Department
Executive Board Meeting, February 15-1®. 1
ef in nited States Senate Committee on Finance, Subcommittee
 Cultural Exchange—or Inmti^ A broad summary of the survey results is presented in Table 1. The
results can best be discussed in terms of the production, distribution, and
consumption of TV programs on a worldwide scale.
Global Traffic in Television
In international TV program production
by Tapio Varis the United States led markets in the mid-60's try exporting
more than twice as many programs as all other countries combined

They Love Lucy and get high on Gunsmoke in Mexico The U.S. is still the leading originator of programs, but changing pro­
City, Belgrade, and Kuala Lumpur. A benchmark duction conditions and the outflow of production capital from the United
survey of the buying and selling of TV programs in States make it difficult to estimate the aggregate total of American programs
50 countries sold or produced abroad and distributed to various countries.
Other major originators of I V programs for international distribution
are the United Kingdom, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany.
eiy ew attempts have been made to compare the television program strut-
Certain countries are major producers of programs for limited international
ures o ci erent nations, or to measure or study the flow of information
distribution: for example, programs produced in Mexico are widely dis­
among nations via the television screen. A prevalent view emphasizes the
tributed throughout Latin America and in Spanish-speaking areas of the
ree oh o information an ideal system in which sovereign national net­
works distribute the best programs from all over the world, balanced by United States. Lebanon and the United Arab Republic are major producers
tieir own productions. I his system, however, has never been shown to or the Middle East. Programs produced in socialist countries are used
D21Z T SOu,,aliSt Count
ri
e s
' although the U.S.S.R. and the German
exist; in fact, evidence tends to show a quite different effect.
nternational broadcasting research has mainly dealt with radio broad­ which aJC j^U 'C or'8'nate a large number of television programs
casting. The content, reception, and jamming of external radio services countries °UtSlde the soclallst world—for example, in some Arab
ia\e been studied, although much of this research could be called "Cold
ar sc lolarship. World television has until recent years been largely un­ (unlik- °f television programs for international distribution
explored. ' pr°grams' wl,ich
poses) is primarily 1° are often used for propaganda pur-
I he term international broadcasting" as used here includes both direct w°rld market hall a f 31 makln& money- Commercial competition in the
roadcasts from one country to another and the use of foreign material in ^heremore than l rn t0 concfmratlon- I" the United States, for example,
omestic radio and television services. International broadcasting is one of TV programs the COmpames are act,ve in the producing and exporting
orm of transaction among nations—not only a social and cultural trans P°rlAssociation of A COmpanies which form the Motion Picture Ex-

action, but also an economic one: television programs are produced, sold al«abroad. merica account for about 80 percent of the total U.S.
anc purchased as one commercial commodity among others.
»r, i? lmem01y 'nternational program structure was begun in 1971 by
TTvccr/!'S'1' °* ^ amPere a°d the Finnish Broadcasting Company "it
support. The original objective was to obtain a global view o y
in the m, , • ° SMtSfy the tastes °f audiem
ie composition of television programs, based on information from c°l" n n€S wflere th*y
^ were produced and first market
l ies representing various political and cultural systems and at various stage
Ot economic development. The television stations of nearly 50 countne
v7alia'JaPan,Ind\veT f°r viewers in the U.S., Canac
were surveyed about their program schedules, the sources of their prop"* U r pe Late
^commercial distributi ^ f ° ' r, they were adapted for wor
conductedC°ndUit5 'hrOUgh international Pro8ram I™"5""0"' JUr anaI>sis of dt ? 7°r for "cultural distribution."
toS* corP°rations often ? °f televislon Programs indicates that t

ThUs ln^Country, in or. aim at enhancing the national image of t

Uo„^ Y"U iS.a researd,« at Institute of Journalism and Mass
^ple \ part of the foreian° financial suPPort from that sta
« . ST'y f Tampere' TmP™. Knland This article is a brief V**?*
be found i tiistveo a" ongoing research project. A more extensive presenta"
CalturalCrfSSifieda^ommerciaLH? °" °f French °RTF' for e
vision T„» I IC°'S ReP°r,S a"d PaP«s "•» Communication, No. 71, lslribution" 6 rCSt IS Cal,ed
vision Traffic: A One-way Street?" Nf0r mean "cu,tural distribution
^'ther by the French f ^ the nghts for the programs a
ch foreign ministry or by the recipient natio
 NORTH
AMERICA
AFRICA

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IDS " D O S

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the distribution itself is on a nonprofit basis. This noncommercial di*. third of total output or less, some countries IJJWI I 1IIUIV I II II II

tribution is aimed mainly at developing nations. Exporters in other Western their programming.
countries report similar practices. Many of the developing countries use much imported material, but—

Governmental subsidies to program exports explain the low cost of with the exception of a number of Latin Ametiian tommies and a lew
imported programs in some countries. The prices of American films on TV Middle East countries—television is still of minor impoitaiue in most parts
vary considerably from area to area, and it is difficult to give a meaningful of the developing world; when it is available, it is for the most pan meiely
range of prices charged for U.S. feature films around the world. Some of the a privilege of the urban rich.
"blockbuster" films have been sold for as much as 550,000. But the effective The United States and the People's Republic of China arc examples of
distribution systems in the Western countries—particularly of the U.S. film countries which currently use little foreign material at least i ompated
industry—makes it easy for poor countries to purchase cheap programs. The with the total amount of their own programming. Japan and the Soviet
lack of a similar distribution system in socialist countries makes it more Union also produce most of their own programs. Most other nations, how
difficult for the poor countries to buy programs from them. ever, are heavy purchasers of foreign material. Even in an area as rich as
Agencies which act as middlemen between program buyers and sellers Western Europe, imported programs account for about one-third ol total
are often located in third countries. In Finland, for example, more than transmission time.
one-third of the feature films imported in 1971 for television showing were Most nonsocialist countries purchase programs mainly from the United
purchased somewhere other than the producing country. London has been States and the United Kingdom. In Western Europe, for example, Ameri­
a center of traffic in American films, and similar local centers for dis­ can-produced programs account for about half of all imported ptogtams
tribution are found elsewhere. Direct travel by program purchasers to andfrom 15 to 20 percent of total transmission time. The socialist countries
the producing countries is an important method of acquiring programs but
a use American and British material, but only I V Belgrade uses as huge
is too expensive for the small countries. Viewing sessions and film festivals
~°f A^ncan programs as the Western European countries.
serve as meeting places for producers and purchasers.
peateMhan an^ Political impact of imported programs ma\ l><
Conditions for effective program exchange through broadcasting union*
cause o f a u d i e n r p ' e .,nferred , r o m ,,u ' volume " I unpolled manual. IK-
do not yet exist in most parts of the world. Even in Europe, where the
systems of program exchange are most developed, the total amount of ex- liable studies ^atternS^^ PlatinK of foreign progiamming.
10 show that the nro"1 ,?ime"lime ProKran>ming in various (ountiies tend
changed entertainment and news programs is not very large. In 197'»
Eurovision (originating in Western Europe) produced about 1,200 hours 1T,"T °l f°reig" ''"ring the* h*» i, en-
For e h l'mes.
and Intervision (originating in Eastern Europe) about 1,400 hours of pro­
gramming. The total outgoing exchange (multilateral, bilateral, a"( |wted Programs WC look< l1 ;M ,lu' <;"cgorics «»«<> Which im-
unilateral) of the BBC to Europe in 1970 was only 15 percent of its direr' and *>*», long feature film"1 ,mPorts are heavily concentrated on aerials
sales to Europe. ^programs enlerta'"n»cnt
ym programs and in il
,i>„ , • progtams. In importing
impo.ting
The origination of news items by Eurovision is heavily concentrated in most
Jjw considerations d ,1' l'0" °f m °S' entertainment
emCT""nmeni programs,
programs.
London; almost half of all news items originate in the United Kingdom n"c,x Peater
greater selectivity ° Tjt
" 0t F V- ""I*
Y m
. " ch °'
° f 3 rolc
3 r°lc' bm
b,u many countries
This is partly because London is the newsfilm distribution center < Swisons
Jjyab* of types anH
of
V PUr g info rmation-iype programs.
American and British agencies. Worldwide distribution of newsfilm «« g
Ncl'1 'nteresti"g in countr1"101"",1 u' lmi>"r,ci1 programming were
organized that U.S. and Central European subscribers may often receive commcrcial a"<'
Yemeni,! TV Stations fnotahl "'i, , public or
newsfilm of an event on the same day it occurs, while subscribers out*"1
ibef, | °St C01»mercial stations w nU* S" U K" Aus,ral'a. .Japan). Be-
Europe receive the film four days after the event.
doited » pr°Srams.
they could "°' sources ol re'C3Se dala on ,he
The distribution of Western news material to the socialist countn'
^JVheTVaudJre . "ot be systematically studied. In the
and of those countries' news material to the West, is done through Austn
television. ''btse stations 'he nonc°mmercial public ""roduced to 'oreign programs

•flol th Use a minimal amount of eIevls,on system, although even

SU**- the U'S- public br '"l'POr'ed mate»al. During the test

Because the production of television programs is e*Pen ^
television stations in most countries of the *'el'317' the British nr ""S SU,ions were showing a

are heavily dependent on imported 'na S*II1™' eonimeicial stay'0" °l 3nd a

><Und7 U K - Australia ,h T1 ' fra,"rc fila"

Although the average share of imported material in many areas is °n' ^C d 3Via' ^ Repub,ic of Germany.

" —' - - ^
 FROM WEST TO EAST Europe and the socialist countries. In the regular newsfilm exchange via
satellite between Eurovision and four Latin American countries (Hi.ml.
Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela), the flow between March 1971 and June
1972 consisted of 2,461 news items from Europe to Latin Amkiu.i. and mils
•5 news items from Latin America to Europe. Of the 252 new s items (haling
vith the Arab world carried by Eurovision in 1971. only H> originated in
ENTERTAINMENT FILMS 50%
the .Arab nations themselves; 209 came from the Big Three newsfilm agrn
ties, and the rest came from other European ot Aiiieii<aii ,<>i rrsj>ondrnis
The situation is much the same with news from other developing n..- .>1
the world.
The flow of information through news items between Westcin and
0
Eastern Europe (through Eurovision and Intervision) is alio one-sided—
it least when measured in quantity. Although both Westcin ami
)
countries have increased their offers of material to each oihCi mikc the
SPORTS 35% beginning of regular news exchanges in 1965, only the socialist countries
have increased their reception of Western material; the Western European
wines have kept their reception of material from the aodtllM countries
afllliW. Htf total flow of television programs (inclu.ling both MM

NEWS & DOCUMENTARIES 5000 hours' "/TWeStern 10 Easlcrn turopc amounicd to touglih
15%
-Xab ilnnK "°W ,r°m E—' 10 dVcstcrn EuropI
Oil hours. (See diagram on ,, I OH.,

FROM EAST TO WEST

"Pa**-OwXtaw™ j
Vision. We did not f
ST *"* pWn ******** u'i,h *«"* quillutin
°r lo,aI understanding ..I int,t national

| M programs. ReBuiar°I .hS?

htforeign programs are "
cxaminc

ra,M1«s h
audience exposure to im-
VlrioUl Countries (UggCM
ENTERTAINMENT FILMS E 65%
,arge audi—

of the present sta^eofaIffartherejd' b°Wevcr' docs incrcaie our knowI

SPORTS B| 25%
tCleVision-
The small Id W °f inforn,a,i»" •"»<>"« ".".one
NEWS & DOCUMFNTARIES ^
Placed in" J* nations „lr
by the BBC during the test week was of U.S. origin, and all of the imported O^teriai. ^ similar positions under the pressure
material used by the commercial ITV was American. Available data sug­
in lhe markcl si,ua,'°n for TV
gest that Japanese and Australian commercial stations purchase more o
their foreign programs from the United States than do their noncom ^o(!r C°pr°duce Programs The T* °f SmaI1 and -zed pro
mercial counterparts. ,an ^ ^d they Tre In Tf Pr°d.UCCrs cannot distribute pack-
In the importation and exchange of newsfilm, distribution is concen
Auctionsh'gh pHces w^ch make^intMi ,"!£ blaCk 3"d while Prod,,<
trated in three worldwide agencies: Visnews (British), UPITN (joint Brim
and American ownership), and CBS-Newsfilm (American). The fo»rI' a„d;tt:c°!:s and
K
imPro- quality. Ulm°n d,B,CU"

important newsfilm distributor is the West German DPA-ETES, but it 1 ^

^'"poiifl>a]bUt ^ basicPp°obkmT in ,h* Pr «ent«lav
not gained a similar dominant role in world distribution. There *r
r°'e ot television " ^ a"d » be the
practically no other worldwide newsfilm distributors, and nearly all broad­
of medium Wha' * ,he «H
casters in the world have to use film from these agencies. ^
T he (low of information through television news is one-sided bot1
tween Western Europe and the developing countries and between ^'sl
 Cultural Exchange—or Inmiori
Freedom From
the 'Free Flow"
by Herbert I. Schiller
In the age of electronic communications, the "free flow of
communications" has turned into a one-way street. Some
governments and international organizations are talking about
ivays in which societies can keep their own cultures
from being homogenized
Government jx>licy to regulate the often erratic behavior of the economic
process has been a feature of advanced industrial market societies since the
Great Depression of the 1930's. Now, there is a growing feeling that the
communications-cultural sector of national existence—everything thai
touches on the shaping of human consciousness—also deserves explicit
policy-making.
At the international level, the circulation and exchange of information
have not been subject to the same scrutiny and control as have the trans
port and exchange of goods and services. Unhindered movement has been
the ideal to which most of the world has paid lip service. But in recent year
support has grown for the idea that complete freedom of exchange both m
goods and in communications—between nations unequal in econonn
strength may be harmful to the weaker societies, and that some action nn
be taken to equalize these flows. ^^
The strength of this emerging sentiment and some of the rea^"5
its appearance are simply chronicled. In a 1969 report to a UNES ^ ^
ported communications meeting, James Halloran, director of the ^ ^
for Mass Communications Research in Leicester, England, sal
usually taken for granted that inter-cultural exchange and impro\et ^
national understanding go hand in hand. What justification is <1 ^
this association? We are not entitled to assume the latter will autom.
stem from the former." (4) . , tend}
The 1969 meeting itself noted that "the need for 'cultural Priva^(Cgni
to be asserted, and it is considered necessary to protect the cultura i
of a nation against erosive influences from outside." (12)
What was stated hesitantly and tentatively a few years ago is no*
f Calif°rnij
Herbert I. Schiller, professor of communications at the University o ^5(.tuK ftf
San Diego, is currently visiting professor at the University of Amsterdam s
Science of the Press. He is author of Mass Communications and America"
the recently published The Mind Managers.
iserted The 1973 Tampere, Finland, symposium on the international flow
of television programs issued this statement at the conclusion of its meeting:
Efforts should be made to redress the imbalance of resources which pres­
ently characterize the international flow and direction of information
among nations, especially in areas unable to determine their own cul­
tural destiny, whether as nations or within nations. Those (countries)
whohavefew opportunities presently may require special assistance, sub­
sidies or protection to permit them an enlarged role in the communica­
tions process. All nations should have the possibility to produce their
own cultural-communications materials.
Each nation has the right and duty to determine its own cultural
destiny within this more balanced flow of information within and
among nations. It is the responsibility of the world community and the
obligation of media institutions to ensure that this right is respected. (9)
UNESCO itself, after years of endorsing a different perspective, has
moved to support national cultural policies. Its director-general describes
the new departure as a natural evolution of UNESCO's work. In any event,
the international organization most concerned with cultural communications
is now committed to national planning and interventionism in this area:
• • • The espousal of the idea of a national communication policy . . .
completes the process which, beginning with education planning twelve
)ean ago, has progressively geared the various parts of the programme
UNFirn'1 Systemat*caMy directing national efforts in the field of
furth ^ competence in pursuit of specific objectives—in a word, in
l>lnt!n^anCf a P°^cy which is itself an integral part of comprehensive
'''5 f°r total development . . . The present Draft Programme
prooreJ C°1^tltutes no more than a first step in this direction and
has been"! k C S °W and difficult. But the very fact that this first step
which mn-a1 6n feserves mention because it represents an innovation
may have far-reaching consequences. (6)
^in internatioUl,1° Kekkonen, has fully articulated the new out-
'r',s emergence COnirnun'cat'ons and analyzed the underlying reasons
^ed that the lak " f S^eech to the Tampere symposium, Kekkonen as-
tn,Ury
not onlv i Z T V'CVV wor^ dominant in the nineteenth
in
^ concealinaT l ° P resent 'day existence but has, in fact,
dements currently reva^56"^ °f freedom"suPPressin& institutional ar-
h
'Jodd t^e *'®n °f Human Rights was drawn up after the Second
e ldeas of Adam liberal view of the world in the spirit of
. "n °f action and entl * John Stuart Mill was the guideline. Free-
,p
'le Worlds of bu<iinlPriSe7la*ssez~fa,re—was made the supreme value
CCCSS in
^is world ,! i ldeol°gy> irrespective of at whose expense
s ac ieved. The state gave everyone the possi-
 b,l,ty to function, but did not carry the responsibility , ,l
sequences. So the freedom of the strong led io success Jrf,
went under in spile of their so-called liberty.
Kekkonen then applied this criterion to communications:
The traditional Western concept of freedom, which states that the SUM
only obi,gat,on ,s to guarantee laissez-faire, has meant that society k
allowed freedom of speech to be realized with the means at the W
of each individual. In th,s way freedom of speech has in practice k
come the freedom of the well-to-do.
In the international community, Kekkonen described a similar tat
dition:
t an international level are to be found the ideals of free communis
tion and their actual distorted execution for the rich on the one html
and the poor on the other. Globally the flow of information between
States not least the material pumped out by television—is to a vei)
great extent a one-way, unbalanced traffic, and in no way possesses the
depth and range which the principles of freedom require. (9)
As nations begin to reconsider their cultural-communications situations
it is natural that the principles and arrangement that have produced the
plant in fewer and fewer hands—are observable in the communications
sector of the society as well. National newspaper chains, broadcasting em­
pires, and conglomerate media corporations are the dominant information
producers.
The extension of this system beyond national frontiers is facilitated by
the concept of "the free flow of information." When the output of the
communications industry is substituted for the creative outputs of indi­
viduals in the "free flow" tenet, international commerce in ideas is falsely
put on an individualized basis and associated with maximizing human
personal benefits by increased contacts. Nations which do not accept this
blending of individual and corporate activity are regarded as offenders
against the liberty of the mind.
Frank Stanton, formerly vice-chairman of the Columbia Broadcasting
System, for example, attacked a 1972 UNESCO declaration which asserted
that every government has the right to claim control of its own broadcasting
space. He argued: "I do not see how our government, given our Constitu­
tion, can possibly enter into any agreement in which the rights of Americans
to speak to whomever they please, when they please, are bartered awav."
i • otethe identification, in Stanton's assertion, of individual Americans
Jrlr*TSt broadcastin& corporation in the United States. This linkage
(or 'S ProPerty ughts—the ownership of media facilities—to be substituted
n§ gUaranteed in the United States Constitution. This sub-

prevailing situation also be reevaluated. In international communications raises a question which is not new:
such a reexamination leads inevitably to the concept of "the free flow of
ing J'alUh! lke t0 bC conceived as a personal right appertain-
information. 1 his concept has its root in the democratic principle of in
dividual freedom of speech. It holds that, just as an individual must be free or isa propertvTiVA/ U^°Uhtedly the
Ending Fathers conceived it;
other publieatin aPPertam™g to the ownership of newspapers and
to say what he likes, so any listener must be free to hear the speaker s ideas
US' as we tiave come to think of it largely today? (13)
and opinions. 1 hus, there must be free traffic in speeches, pamphlets, and-
by extension to our modern age—in radio and television broadcasts, filn1 ,he UNESCO dtl" SatSentiment'.thC NCW Y°rk Times editorialized against
research findings, and computer programs. The origins of and the supp0^ Visas
for Ideas?" Th 'r"' lncjuinnS whether its provisions would require
for this rule can be appreciated best by a closer examination of the Unite
leir peoples to free1 'Conclluled t,iat "only regimes afraid to expose
States s model of information generation and exchange.
:''edat 'he meeting of UNESCO 1(1638baC.k the restrictive provision
J<la Ptoud record of bLO> a" organization which up to now has
"It is . . . necessary to protect the cultural inttp ^ 80 l°o, Robe enC°"raSing lhe free flow of ideas." (7)
•
of a nation against corrosive influences from ou 5 ldl° Chairman and chief
f()[
Corporation of"! executive officer of the
In the United States' market-based economy, it has been taken ^ l!?rateinthe world ismei lCa' ^ largCSt '"formation-electronic con-
granted that the production and circulation of information should be ,; from communications s.TTr -that the P°tential of dir«* broadcast-
erned by the same principles that oversee the production and distri u ^ ti0ria? °Ur.communicationsC ^ 001 b<? rea,ized- He complains that
of all other goods. In short, private ownership of the facilities of Pr0 dtjj^ f°llcies rooted in the g0verned by a global patchwork of na-

(printing presses, television and radio stations, record-pressing faCI' f ^t"/ift!nd that "nearly everP3SL ^ reflect,nS more improvisation than
prevails, and the circulation of the image/information output is ^ in pllZZ^Z'1™™ nati°nal concerns still come
mined by the strength of the market position of the supplier in relat' ^ ^chanTe Ct-l,ng'seeks "a commit °r ^ aPProachi"g time of direct satel-
the atomized private demand of the consumer. In this arrangement-^
^ llV*1638 and '"formation,"lent l° ^ principle of freedom for the
organizational developments that have characterized the private:A(j,< S°vernrnent
Active f does all it r
production sector of the economy—concentration of the private pr° F°rmer Secretary of a"d encourage the same
ate W illiam Rogers, before the Helsinki
 Conference on Security and Cooperation in July 197, Pm u .
film agencies and only 16 came from the TV stations of the Arab region

=rc=-«;.V~ --assse
themselves. The rest came from the correspondents of European and
American TV stations. (1)

The story is the same throughout the rest of the ex-colonial regions.
I he free flow of information is not a marginal issue Tt ;c The "African media," Dodson and Hachten report, "depend heavily on
1 selectively applied, policy originating in the highest echelons of Am™ foreign content. . . Like most movies and television programs, much radio
porate enterprise. And it is supported wholeheartedly by the state » and newspaper content is produced abroad, usually in Western Europe or
strumentahty that represents this enterprise in internadonal di^ the United States. Africans rely almost entirely on the world news agencies
-APandUPI in addition to Reuters and Agence France Presse—for news
The cultural autonomy of many nation not only about the world but also about themselves and their neighbors." (3)
is increasingly subordinated to the communications outfnii: In Mexico City, newly-installed cable TV picks up Texas signals and
and perspectives of a few powerful, market-dominated economit, brings Johnny Carson, Mary Tyler Moore, Bob Newhart, Dean Martin,
Sonny and Cher, and American movies into Mexican living rooms.
Actually, the free flow of information" as a guiding principle of inter Television, though it is the latest means of information dissemination,
nationa communications has been operative, despite some significant inter is by no means the only example of the one-way flow of communications
ruptions, for at least fifty years. There is a considerable body of evidence ran rich and industrially-powerful market societies to poor and still-to­
consequently, about its effects and impact. rn ustriahze ex-colonial (as well as weaker and smaller market) economies.
Given uneven developmental patterns, differing economic strength' T pioneered this Path> as Thomas Guback has amply
among nations, population variables, and formal systems of political-eco­ ra e . (9) (See the article by Guback beginning on Page 90.—Ed.)
nomic domination, it was inevitable that the free flow of information would sUbiec,et'niernHatI°nal .circulation of newspapers and periodicals is no less
ead to a one-way flow—from the rich and powerful xuithin one society to
«ir's I),V, ,°mmaUOn 0f a major Western publishers and producers.
t e weak and impoverished both within and without that society.
circulation of Wn™ ^ :"ternational in 12 languages with a
The most recent data on this worldwide phenomenon come from -
lions have worldwide H•out ® ' United States. Walt Disney publica-
UNESCO supported study, "International Inventory of Television Pr*
"»becoming a truly rinhT"' u"' pubhshf reP°r,s that 'he magazine
gramme Structure and the Flow of TV Programmes Between Nations," b; newsmagazine . . . circulation outside
'he U.S. was 1,4 m;m, •
Tapio Varis. (14) Varis found that the bulk of television programs art a"d annual advertising investment in (the)
"nernational editi0 ns °h
produced by a few industrially developed societies. Smaller and poor* 1312." (5, 35 gr°wn from $15.5 million in 1965 to $31.2 million

nations import a good part of their daily schedule. Major exporters of tele­
vision programs are the United States, Great Britain, West Germany, France
and Japan. The worldwide distribution of TV news programs is even m°I( The circulation of images and information is
onesided. Practically all internationally-circulated TV news material come determined by the strength of the market position
from United States and English organizations. (This study is reported ,vhjt. "f the suPplier in relation to the consumer
greater detail on pp. 102-109.—Ed.)
For the less developed areas and nations, regardless of their po1'"1 "«Persed through''>!h'he fl°0d °f commercial messages embodied in or
independence, cultural dependence remains severe. National self-imaS( ^ e^nal fr„"Tt.C0Py' TY pr0grams' movies, records, and
say nothing of international images, are determined in great measure ^ 5'0be:' A s"ggestion°of "Jr WOdd Cente " a"d sweep across much
powerful outsiders. A study recently prepared for the Arab States Br W Which m3I * occurrinS " provided in an
casting Union reported that: <W810 the international H 3 advert'singsituation in Brazil,
siiU I titcm" detogents and ro Advertising Age, "Sales of cigarets,
The TV stations of the Arab World, with a few exceptions, or- ,
almost completely dependent on foreign non-Arab agencies as ue ibtse mea nt>rnic deveIopmem" ^ COnsidered 8°°d barometers
the film coverage of each other, as for the interchange of newsfi
'ite anTp0pYlatlio,nhe.larg"t C°Untry is South America in both
tween the Arab region and other areas of the world in both ^'reC' oU^
V t"8^teponsTa °,he a'°ng the road 10 "development."
Of a total of 252 news items on the Arab world circulated t ^
V w T5 is'hat Brazil °f 5mokers is leasing Vapidly
the Eurovision network in 1971, 209 originated from the three big1'
'hat "» <he Brazilian W°rld'S fifth larS-
marketer Let
woman becomes increasingly concerned