Chapter 2

Design of a Grid tied Solar Chapter 2: Theoretical Consideration |14
Electric System At Batangas State University

Gov. Pablo Borbon Main Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City
Bolia, M.A., Hermosa, J.C., Julongbayan, J.D.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the conceptual literature, research literature and synthesis
which would guide the researchers in the completion of the study.
Conceptual Literature
The conceptual literature reviewed and evaluated includes: Solar Energy and
Technology History and Development, Grid tied Solar Electric System Components and
Problem or issues related to Grid tied Solar Electric System.
Solar Energy and Technology History and Development. The radiant heat and
light energy from the sun is called as solar energy. This is the most readily and abundantly
available source of energy. Since ancient times this energy has been harnessed by
humans using a range of innovations and ever-evolving technologies. The earth receives
more energy in just one hour from the sun than what is consumed in the whole world for
one year. The energy comes from within the sun itself through process called nuclear
fusion reaction. In this reaction four atoms of hydrogen combine to form helium atom with
loss of matter. This matter is emitted as radiant energy.
The ultimate source of much of the world’s energy is the sun, which provides the
earth with light, heat and radiation. While many technologies derive fuels from one form
of solar energy or another, there are also technologies that directly transform the sun’s
energy into electricity. The earth receives 174 pet watts (PW) of incoming solar radiation
(insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while
the rest is absorbed by oceans, clouds, and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at
the Earth’s surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a
small part in the near-ultraviolet. The amount of light that reaches any particular point
depends on the time of the day, the day of the year, the amount of cloud cover and the
latitude at that point. The solar intensity varies with the time of the day, peaking at solar
noon and declining to a minimum at sunset. The total radiation power (1.4 kW per square
meter, called the solar constant) varies only slightly, about 0.2 percent every 30 years.
Any substantial change would alter or end life on Earth. [14]
The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in
one year it is about twice as much as will ever obtained from all of the Earth’s non-
renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
The possible uses of solar energy fall into three categories: thermal, photochemical
and photoelectric processes. In thermal process, the receiver or receiving substance,
which undergoes an increase in temperature, vaporization or other process, absorbs the
radiant energy as heat. Photochemical process is when light energy causes a chemical
process. Photoelectric process involves a direct conversion of radiation to electrical
energy. The most commonly considered use of solar energy are those which are
classified as thermal process. It includes house heating, distillation of sea water to
produce potable water, refrigeration and air conditioning, power production by solar-
generated steam, cooking, water heating and the use of solar furnaces to produce high
temperatures for experimental studies.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending
on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use
photovoltaic panels, pumps and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing
spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the sun.
Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side
technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources
and generally considered demand side technologies.
Solar power technology is not a recent development; in fact, it dates back to the
mid-1800s to the industrial revolution when solar energy plants were developed to heat
water that created steam to drive machinery. In 1839 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
discovered the photovoltaic effect which explains how electricity can be generated from
sunlight. He claimed that “shining light on an electrode submerged in a conductive
solution would create an electric current.” However, even after much research and
development subsequent to the discovery, photovoltaic power continued to be very
inefficient and solar cells were used mainly for the purposes of measuring light. Over 100
years later, in 1941, Russell Ohl invented the solar cell, shortly after the invention of the
transistor. [14]
Solar power's popularity continues to grow every year, and along with that
popularity, the number of solar technologies has grown. Three of the most popular solar
technologies are Photovoltaic solar panels, Thin Film solar panels and solar thermal
panels.
Photovoltaic literally stands for ‘electricity from light’. A photovoltaic cell, also called
PV cell, is a special semiconductor diode that converts visible light into DC (direct current).
Certain PV cells are able to transform infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) rays into DC power.
Solar powered toys, calculators, telephone call boxes are some common application of
solar electricity. Photovoltaic cell forms an integral part of solar-electric energy systems,
which presently are finding increasingly important place as an alternative utility power
source.
The Photovoltaic technology in use today is not very complex. Photovoltaic cell
comprises of thin layers (two or more) of semi-conducting material, usually silicon. When
the silicon is exposed to light it generates electrical charges and with the use of metal
contacts this can be conducted away as direct current (DC). A single cell has small
electrical output, so multiple cells are combined together and encapsulated to form a
Photovoltaic module (also call “panel”). This module is the principle and basic building
block of entire PV system and numerous modules can be put together to give the desired
electrical output. Contemporary Photovoltaic cells are able to convert 10 to 20 percent of
radiant energy into electrical energy. In years to come, this efficiency will be improved to
produce even better results.
The major advantages of using solar photovoltaic systems are as follows: (1) PV
systems can supply electricity in locations where electricity distribution systems do not
exist, and they can also supply electricity to an electric power grid; (2) SPV systems are
modular in nature. Hence, they can be expanded as desired and used for small and large
applications; (3) There are no running costs with SPV systems, as solar radiation is free;
(4) Electricity is generated by solar cells without noise; (5) PV systems have no moving
parts. Therefore, they suffer no wear and tear; (6) as most of the components of SPV
systems are pre-fabricated, these systems can be installed quickly. Hence, PV projects
have short gestation periods; and (7) the environmental impact of PV systems is minimal.
The simplest photovoltaic systems are solar-powered calculators and wrist
watches. Larger systems can provide electricity to pump water, to power communications
equipment, to supply electricity for a single home or business, or to form large arrays that
supply electricity to thousands of electricity consumers.
Figure 2.1 Photovoltaic (PV) solar panel
Thin film solar panels convert sunlight to electricity like conventional PV panels,
but they are typically thinner and more flexible. Generally, the semiconductor layers on
thin film solar panels are only a few millionths of a meter thick, although the name "thin
film" comes from their production process and not from thickness. Figure 2.2 shows an
example of a thin film solar panel. [14]

Figure 2.2 Thin Film solar panel
Solar thermal panels transfer the sun's heat, as opposed to generating electricity.
Their most popular application is to heat water. Subsequently, solar thermal is a great
technology to offset energy usage for your water heater or for heating an outdoor pool.
Solar thermal power can also be used to heat or cool a home, depending on the specific
solar thermal technology. Since most residential heating systems use gas, this solar
technology primarily offsets gas usage.
Today the grid connect Photovoltaic systems are the main area of interest. As
these systems are connected to local electricity network, the electricity produced during
the day time can either be used immediately or can be sold to the utility. Also as the sun
goes down, power can be bought back from the network. Thus the grid is acting as
systems for energy storage, i.e. the battery storage need not to be included in PV
systems. Stand- alone photovoltaic systems are used where grid power supplies are
difficult to connect or unavailable. Applications are in monitoring stations, radio repeater
stations and street lighting.
A solar electric panel, often called a Photovoltaic panel is basically a set of treated
silicon cells arranged in a series string that produces electric power when exposed to
light. There are three common types of solar panels manufactured. Briefly, these are:
Monocrystalline –made from a single large crystal, cut from ingots. Most efficient,
but also the most expensive. Somewhat better in low light conditions.
Polycrystalline – basically, cast blocks of silicon which may contain many small
crystalline. This is probably the most common type right now. Slightly less efficient than
single crystal, but once set into a frame with 35 or so other cells, the actual difference in
watts per square foot is not much.
Amorphous – “thin film”, the silicon is spread directly on large plates usually made
of something like stainless steel. Cheaper to produce, but often much less efficient, which
means larger panels for the same power.
Photovoltaic technology is most widely used in developing world. The system finds
itself the best place where the problem of remote locations and fact of unreliable or non-
existent electricity grids are dominant.
There are three main types of solar electric power systems these are: grid inter-
tied; grid inter-tied with battery backup; and off-grid. These three broad types vary in how
closely connected they are to the traditional power utility infrastructure, known as the grid.
Each type has strengths that determine how suited they are to your needs.
Off Grid Solar Power Systems. An off-grid residential system is completely
disconnected from the traditional electric power grid. Without a connection to the utility
grid, batteries are essential to balance periods of excess production and excess demand.
To protect against shortfalls of power when the solar system is under-producing and the
batteries are discharged, an electric generator is usually added to the system. The
generator is used as a power source during periods of prolonged excess production or
unusual demand. To ensure access to electricity at all times, off-grid solar systems
require battery storage and a backup generator (if you live off-the-grid). On top of this, a
battery bank typically needs to be replaced after 10 years. Batteries are complicated,
expensive and decrease overall system efficiency.
Figure. 2.3 Off Grid solar electric system

Advantages of an Off-Grid Solar Systems:
1. No access to the utility grid. Off-grid solar systems can be cheaper than extending
power lines in certain remote areas. Consider off-gird if you’re more than 100 yards
from the grid. The costs of overhead transmission lines range from $174,000 per
mile (for rural construction) to $11,000,000 per mile (for urban construction).
2. Become energy self-sufficient. Living off the grid and being self-sufficient feels
good. For some people, this feeling is worth more than saving money. Energy self-
sufficiency is also a form of security. Power failures on the utility grid do not affect
off-grid solar systems. On the flip side, batteries can only store a certain amount
of energy, and during cloudy times, being connected to the grid is actually where
the security is. You should install a backup generator to be prepared for these
kinds of situations.
Equipment for Off-Grid Solar Systems this typical off-grid solar systems require the
following extra components:
1. Solar Charge Controller
Solar Charge Controller. Solar charge controllers are also known as charge
regulators or just battery regulators. The last term is probably the best to describe
what this device actually does: Solar battery chargers limit the rate of current being
delivered to the battery bank and protect the batteries from overcharging.
Good charge controllers are crucial for keeping the batteries healthy, which
ensures the lifetime of a battery bank is maximized. If you have a battery-based
inverter, chances are that the charge controller is integrated.

2. Battery Bank
Battery Bank. Without a battery bank (or a generator) it’ll be lights out by sunset.
A battery bank is essentially a group of batteries wired together.
3. DC Disconnect (additional)
DC Disconnect Switch. AC and DC safety disconnects are required for all solar
systems. For off-grid solar systems, one additional DC disconnect is installed
between the battery bank and the off-grid inverter. It is used to switch off the current
flowing between these components. This is important for maintenance,
troubleshooting and protection against electrical fires.
4. Off-Grid Inverter
Off-Grid Inverter. There`s no need for an inverter if you`re only setting up solar
panels for your boat, your RV, or something else that runs on DC current. You will
need an inverter to convert DC to AC for all other electrical appliances. Off-grid
inverters do not have to match phase with the utility sine wave as opposed to grid-
tie inverters. Electrical current flows from the solar panels through the solar charge
controller and the bank battery bank before it is finally converted into AC by the
off-grid-inverter.
5. Backup Generator (optional)
Backup Generator. It takes a lot of money and big batteries to prepare for several
consecutive days without the sun shining (or access to the grid). This is where
backup generators come in. In most cases, installing a backup generator that runs
on diesel is a better choice than investing in an oversized battery bank that seldom
gets to operate at its full potential. Generators can run on propane, petroleum,
gasoline and many other fuel types. Backup generators typically output AC, which
can be sent through the inverter for direct use, or it can be converted into DC for
battery storage.
Grid tied system. A grid-connected photovoltaic power system, or grid-connected
PV power system is an electricity generating solar PV power system that is connected to
the utility grid. A grid-connected PV system consists of solar panels, one or
several inverters, a power conditioning unit and grid connection equipment. They range
from small residential and commercial rooftop systems to large utility-scale solar power
stations. Unlike stand-alone power systems,
A grid-connected system rarely includes an integrated battery solution, as they are
still very expensive. When conditions are right, the grid-connected PV system supplies
the excess power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the utility grid. [15]
Figure. 2.4 Grid tie solar electric system
Advantages of Grid-Tied Systems
1. Save more money with net metering. A grid-connection will allow you to save more
money with solar panels through better efficiency rates, net metering, plus lower
equipment and installation costs.
Batteries, and other stand-alone equipment, are required for a fully functional off-
grid solar system and add to costs as well as maintenance. Grid-tied solar systems
are therefore generally cheaper and simpler to install.
Your solar panels will often generate more electricity than what you are capable of
consuming. With net metering, homeowners can put this excess electricity onto
the utility grid instead of storing it themselves with batteries.
Net metering (or feed-in tariff schemes in some countries) play an important role
in how solar power is incentivized. Without it, residential solar systems would be
much less feasible from a financial point of view. Many utility companies are
committed to buying electricity from homeowners at the same rate as they sell it
themselves.
2. The utility grid is a virtual battery. Electricity has to be spent in real time. However,
it can be temporarily stored as there forms of energy (e.g. chemical energy in
batteries). Energy storage typically comes with significant losses.
The electric power grid is in many ways also a battery, without the need for
maintenance or replacements, and with much better efficiency rates. In other
words, more electricity (and more money) goes to waste with conventional battery
systems.
Hybrid solar systems. Hybrid solar system generates power in the same
way as a common grid-feed or grid-tie solar system but use batteries to store
energy for later use. This ability to store energy enables most hybrid systems
to also operate as a backup power supply during a blackout. Hybrid solar systems
combines the best from grid-tied and off-grid solar systems. These systems can
either be described as off-grid solar with utility backup power, or grid-tied solar with
extra battery storage.

Figure. 2.5 Hybrid Solar electric system
Advantages of Hybrid Solar Systems
1. Less expensive than off-gird solar systems. Hybrid solar systems are less
expensive than off-grid solar systems. You don`t really need a backup generator,
and the capacity of your battery bank can be downsized. Off-peak electricity from
the utility company is cheaper than diesel.
2. Smart solar holds a lot of promise. The introduction of hybrid solar systems has
opened up for many interesting innovations. New inverters let homeowners take
advantage of changes in the utility electricity rates throughout the day. Solar panels
happen to output the most electrical power at noon – not long before the price of
electricity peaks. Your home and electrical vehicle can be programmed to
consume power during off-peak hours (or from your solar panels). Consequently,
you can temporarily store whatever excess electricity your solar panels in batteries,
and put it on the utility grid when you are paid the most for every kWh. Smart solar
holds a lot of promise. The concept will become increasingly important as we
transition towards the smart grid in the coming years.
Equipment for Hybrid Solar Systems
Typical hybrid solar systems are based on the following additional components:
 Charge Controller
 Battery Bank
 DC Disconnect (additional)
 Power Meter
 Battery-Based Grid-Tie Inverter
Hybrid solar systems utilize batter-based grid-tie inverters. These devices combine
can draw electrical power to and from battery banks, as well as synchronize with
the utility grid.
Grid tied Solar Electric System Components. Equipment for Grid-Tied Solar Systems
There are a few key differences between the equipment needed for grid-tied, off-grid and
hybrid solar systems. Standard grid-tied solar systems rely on the following components:
A typical Grid Tied Electric system has these components. One or more
photovoltaic modules which are connected to an inverter, the inverter which converts the
system's direct-current (DC) electricity to alternating current (AC) and batteries to provide
energy storage or backup power in case of a power interruption or outage on the grid.
Photovoltaic cells are one of the most basic components of solar energy
production. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts sunlight into electricity
by the photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is used for devices that are
intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is
used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar
panels, solar modules or photovoltaic arrays. Figure 2.6 shows a solar photovoltaic
module. [14]
Figure. 2.6 Solar Photovoltaic module
Array mounting racks. Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel
poles set in concrete. In certain applications, they may be mounted at ground level or on
building walls. Solar modules can also be mounted to serve as part or all of a shade
structure such as a patio cover. On roof-mounted systems, the PV array is typically
mounted on fixed racks, parallel to the roof for aesthetic reasons and stood off several
inches above the roof surface to allow airflow that will keep them as cool as practical. [16]
Figure. 2.7 Array mounting racks
Solar Inverter. Solar inverter (as shown in Figure 2.8) is a type of electrical inverter
that is made to change the direct current (DC) electricity from a photovoltaic array into
alternating current (AC) for use with home appliances and possibly a utility grid. Solar
inverters may be classified into three broad types. Stand-alone Inverters, Grid-tie
Inverters and Battery backup Inverter.
Stand-alone Inverters used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC
energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays and/or other sources, such as wind
turbines, hydro turbines, or engine generators. Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut
down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide
backup power during utility outages. Battery backup Inverter these are special inverters
which are designed to draw energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an
onboard charger, and export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable
of supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are required to have
anti-islanding protection.
Grid-Tie Inverter (GTI).They regulate the voltage and current received from your
solar panels. Direct current (DC) from your solar panels is converted into alternating
current (AC), which is the type of current that is utilized by the majority of electrical
appliances.
In addition to this, grid-tie inverters, also known as grid-interactive or synchronous
inverters, synchronize the phase and frequency of the current to fit the utility grid
(nominally 60Hz). The output voltage is also adjusted slightly higher than the grid voltage
in order for excess electricity to flow outwards to the grid. In Fig 2.11 shows a grid tied
inverter.
Figure. 2.8 Grid Tied Inverter
Micro-Inverters. Micro-inverters go on the back of each solar panel, as opposed
to one central inverter that typically takes on the entire solar array. Micro-inverters are
certainly more expensive, but in many cases yield higher efficiency rates. Homeowners
who are suspect to shading issues should definitely look into if micro-inverters are better
in their situation. In Fig 2.12 shows a Micro Inverter.
Figure. 2.9 Micro Inverter
Combiner Box. Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner
box, typically located on the roof. These wires may be single conductor pigtails with
connectors that are pre-wired onto the PV modules. The output of the combiner box is
one larger two wire conductor in conduit. A combiner box typically includes a safety fuse
or breaker for each string and may include a surge protector.

Figure. 2.10 Combiner Box
As shown in Fig 2.10 a combiner box is an often-overlooked, yet essential part of
most solar electric systems. The combiner box is an electrical enclosure which allows
multiple of solar panels to be combined in parallel. For example, if you want to wire
together two 12 Volt panels for your 12 Volt system, you will wire each panel’s output
directly to terminals inside the combiner box. From the combiner box you can then run
just one positive and one negative wire (in appropriate conduit) to the next system
component, the charge controller. The combiner box will also house series string fuses
or circuit breakers. These boxes are usually outdoor-rated, and meant for placement right
next to the array or solar panels. [17]
Surge protectors. Helps to protect your system from power surges that may occur
if the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power surge is an
increase in voltage significantly above the design voltage.

Figure. 2.11 Surge protector
Disconnects. Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and
components from power surges and other equipment malfunctions. They also ensure the
system can be safely shut down and system components can be removed for
maintenance and repair. For grid connected systems, safety disconnects ensure that the
generating equipment is isolated from the grid, which is important for the safety of utility
personnel. In general, a disconnect is needed for each source of power or energy storage
device in the system. For each of the functions listed below, it is not always necessary to
provide a separate disconnect. For example, if an inverter is located outdoors, a single
DC disconnect can serve the function of both the array DC disconnect and the inverter
DC disconnect. Before omitting a separate disconnect, however, consider if this will ever
result in an unsafe condition when performing maintenance on any component. Also
consider the convenience of the disconnect location. An inconveniently located
disconnect may lead to the tendency to leave the power on during maintenance, resulting
in a safety hazard.
Array DC Disconnect – The array DC disconnect, also called the PV disconnect,
is used to safely interrupt the flow of electricity from the PV array for maintenance or
troubleshooting. The array DC disconnect may also have integrated circuit breakers or
fuses to protect against power surges. Inverter DC Disconnect – Along with the inverter
AC disconnect, the inverter DC disconnect is used to safely disconnect the inverter from
the rest of the system. In many cases, the inverter DC disconnect will also serve as the
array DC disconnect.
Inverter AC Disconnect – The inverter AC disconnect disconnects the PV system
from both the building’s electrical wiring and the grid. Frequently, the AC disconnect is
installed inside the building’s main electrical panel. However, if the inverter is not located
near the electrical panel, an additional AC disconnect should be installed near the
inverter.
Exterior AC Disconnect – Utilities commonly require an exterior AC disconnect that
is lockable, has visible blades and is mounted next to the utility meter so that it is
accessible to utility personnel. An AC disconnect located inside the electrical panel or
integral to the inverter would not satisfy these requirements. One alternative that is as
acceptable to some utilities as an accessible AC disconnect is the removal of the meter
itself, but this is not the norm. Prior to purchasing equipment, consult the electric utility to
determine their requirements for interconnection.

Figure. 2.12 PV Disconnect Switch
Meter and Instrumentations. These are essentially two types of meters are used in
PV systems:
1. Utility Kilowatt-hour Meter
2. System Meter
Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter – The utility kilowatt-hour meter measures energy
delivered to or from the grid. On homes with solar electric systems, utilities typically install
bidirectional meters with a digital display that keeps separate track of energy in both
directions. Some utilities will allow you to use a conventional meter that can spin in
reverse. In this case, the utility meter spins forward when you are drawing electricity from
the grid and backwards when your system is feeding or “pushing” electricity onto the grid.
System Meter – The system meter measures and displays system performance
and status. Monitored points may include power production by modules, electricity used,
and battery 13 charge. It is possible to operate a system without a system meter, though
meters are strongly recommended. Modern charge controllers incorporate system
monitoring functions and so a separate system meter may not be necessary.
Power Meter. Most homeowners will need to replace their current power meter
with one that is compatible with net metering. This device, often called a net meter or a
two-way meter, is capable of measuring power going in both directions, from the grid to
your house and vice versa.
You should consult with your local utility company and see what net metering
options you have. In some places, the utility company issues a power meter for free and
pay full price for the electricity you generate; however, this is not always the case. When
a solar power system generates electrical energy, it can be used to power your household
loads, the power can be fed to the grid or it can be stored in battery banks. The most
common way to measure how much electricity is produced, is to install kWh power
meters downstream of the solar panel, between the inverter and grid, or the inverter and
the load.
Regularly monitoring the amount of electricity produced by your solar panel is a
way to ensure that your solar system is working properly. Depending upon your system
configuration, you may need one or multiple meters. In Fig 2.13 shows a power meter.
Figure. 2.13 Power Meter
Currently, requirements for connecting distributed generation systems—like home
renewable energy or wind systems—to the electricity grid vary widely. But all power
providers face a common set of issues in connecting small renewable energy systems to
the grid, so regulations usually have to do with safety and power quality, contracts (which
may require liability insurance), and metering and rates.
You will need to contact your power provider directly to learn about its specific
requirements. If your power provider does not have an individual assigned to deal with
grid-connection requests, try contacting your state utilities commission, state utility
consumer advocate group (represents the interests of consumers before state and federal
regulators and in the courts), state consumer representation office, or state energy office.
Each month you will see separate line items on your bill, one is for the amount of
power you have used, the price per unit and the total cost of power used (imported
power). On the second line you will see the amount of solar power you exported back to
the grid, the price per unit the energy retailer is paying you, and the total credit amount
you received from exporting power. This credited amount will be subtracted from the total
cost of power used. If the total cost for the imported power is higher than the total price
for the exported power, then you will have money owing to the energy retailer. If the total
price for exporting power is higher than the total cost for imported power, then the credit
will flow over to the next month.
Grid-tied solar systems link directly through your meter that provides the electricity.
In other words, it’s hooked up to your utility company. This grid will store the excess power
your solar system produces, and add power when you need more electricity. So instead
of using a battery storage system, the grid-tied system produces and stores solar power.
When you’re on the grid, it’s more efficient because your utility company is the one
that stores the energy and keeps track how much electricity you use. During sunnier
periods, you can produce more energy than you’re using, and you build energy credit that
can be applied later. This kind of system works best when you’re producing enough solar
power in a year to.
During a major storm, power outage or some other safety issue, grid-tied solar PV
systems automatically shut down. Some systems include battery backups, but it’ll
increase the cost of installation while decreasing overall performance efficiency. Another
option is to invest in a generator. That said, depending on where you live, the moments
where you’d need this are few and far between. If you’re afraid this could be an issue,
look into battery or backup energy alternatives in case of an emergency.

Your total cost for the project is going to vary on a lot of factors, like its size, how
you mount it, and other installation issues. That said, between rebates, federal tax credits,
and the lowering cost of solar power overall, investing in a grid-tied solar system is the
cheapest it’s been and you’ll also see some significant savings in the long term.
The Grid Tie Solar Electric system capacity is determine in terms of power, voltage
and current of each component.
The Solar Photovoltaic array is the main component of a Grid tie electric system.
It is a combination of solar modules. The Photovoltaic modules are connected in series
to obtain the required voltage; the series connection is called PV strings which are then
connected in parallel for the system to provide the desired current.
For the Solar Panel
Total Voltage per Array
𝑉 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠
Total Current per Array
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠
Panel Connections
Number of Series Arrays
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 / 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
Number of Parallel Arrays

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 𝐷𝐶 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟/ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
For the number of Solar Panels
𝑁𝑠𝑝 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
For the number of Inverter
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
Problem or issues related to Grid tied Solar Electric System. A "grid-tie" solar system
is one that ties into the power grid, pulling electricity from the grid when needed, then
pushing excess electricity back into the grid when the local customer isn't using the full
capacity being generated by PV panels (photovoltaic). As long as the grid stays up, it's a
clever solution because it reduces or even eliminates the customer's electric bills while
generating "clean" energy.
Because of the very fact that these systems are tied into the power grid, however,
they all have a safety feature that disconnects them from the grid when the grid goes
down. In other words, if the power grid goes offline, your entire grid-tie solar array
becomes instantly useless and you can't power a laptop computer even if you have many
good quality of solar panels sitting on your roof. In a grid-tie system, they all are instantly
shut off.
The other issue with the grid tied high voltage systems. First, from a safety
perspective, an electrocution is more likely to have fatal consequences. Second, future
system expansion is often a more complex task if it is not taken into consideration during
the system’s design and installation stages. Due to the safety considerations, extra steps
must be taken in order to ensure that the grid tied solar power system is completely safe
in every aspect during its functioning.
Research Literature
The related literature and studies will help the researchers understand the topic
better. They will also guide the researchers in making comparison between the
researchers’ findings with the findings of other similar studies. This section provides a
brief discussion of the solar power technology available in the country considering its
impact to the society. Relevant studies associated to solar power plant, and solar
applications are reviewed to fully understand the research to be done. The following
researches and studies related to the project design are presented and reviewed.
According to the study of Gis (2012) solar energy provides an immediate solution
to the country’s energy woes. It is the only cost-effective technology that can be installed
and commissioned in as short as a few days to a few months. And the Philippines'
average solar radiation ranges from 128-203 watts per square meter, or an average of
161.7 watts per square meter, based on sunlight duration. Moreover, solar power, as it
has zero emissions, can help displace some coal-based and oil-based generation, thus
helping mitigate the impact of climate change.
Lumby et al (2011) focuses on aspects of project developments that are specific
to solar. It covers the key building blocks to developing a successful utility-scale solar
power project of at least 5MW. In addition, the guidebook also covers the key three
themes namely optimum power plant design, project implementation and commercial and
financing aspects.
The conducted study of Hirschl (2005) regarding Acceptability of Solar Power
System examined barriers and potentials of a wider use of solar technology, and found
answers and technical solutions to overcome distribution problems. The project focused
on acceptance as an important distribution factor, with special emphasis on the role of
design.
For Frederick Epistola of Solar Pilipinas, it’s just another day of bringing light to an
energy-strapped community. Through his advocacy Solar Power Initiative or SPIN
Project, his group has installed solar panels for the Mangyans in Mindoro Oriental and
communities in Leyte and Eastern Samar devastated by Super Typhoon Yolanda.
The author of the study, Jens Marquardt of the Environmental Policy Research
Centre in Germany, studied 4 solar power aid projects in remote parts of the Philippines:
Isla Verde in Batangas, Guimaras Island in Iloilo, Palawan and Mindanao.
The projects were funded by international donors like the Australian Agency for
International Development (AusAID), UN Development Programme and US Agency for
International Development (USAID).
Three of the projects failed mainly due to technical difficulties. The solar power
equipment was not maintained properly, there was a lack of trained maintenance
personnel or funds were not provided for the purchase of batteries when the old ones
were spent.
In 2014, enough renewable energy to power 126,700 households will feed into the
National Power Grid, a first step for the Philippines in its pursuit of energy self-sufficiency
and green energy.

During a December 3 press conference, the Department of Energy (DOE)
announced it just approved various renewable energy developers to generate 633.5
megawatts (MW) of electricity which will make its way to the country's power mix
sometime in 2014.
Synthesis
The reviewed literature provided concepts and ideas which helped the researcher
in completing this project study. All the studies related to this study were synthesized to
help the readers understand that the topic is being handled differently and will be
improved in other areas.
Different studies on renewable energy, solar energy in particular, sees the system
as a channel to development and livelihood transformation in the rural areas. It has been
proved with no doubt that Photovoltaic solar energy can and has positively impacted the
rural livelihoods. There are notable transformational signs in many spheres of human
development notably in the rural areas. Education, health, employment status, electric
devises application, information and communication to mention but a few have all proved
the capacity of solar energy is the livelihood transformation process in the rural areas.
Studies shows the system to have positively impacted the socio-economic development
of the people in most of the areas where different solar projects have been implemented.
PV solar electricity’s contribution to economic growth is evident and has been given in a
number of studies. Modern energy has a direct relationship to economic growth.
Braden (2012) views the contribution of solar energy by looking on its contribution
to generating employments and allowing people to work for long hours at night in Rema,
Ethiopia.
The World Bank (2009) reveals that Solar Home Systems (SHS) increases
economic activities inside and outside households because business activities operate
long hours in the evening. The contribution of solar energy to economic growth is also
viewed in terms of the role it plays to lower the cost of energy to the rural dwellers,
resulting to the consumer surplus and the way it helps to spur the growth of home
business hence a boost to the household’s income growth IEG-WB (2008).
The study by Braden (2012) on solar energy and rural development which was
conducted in Rema, Ethiopia, proves the creation of the growth of home business which
lead to the strengthening of the households’ income in Rema.
Hussain et al (2013) in their study on the cost analysis of concentrated solar power
plant with thermal energy storage system in Bangladesh, asserts that concentrating solar
power plants with thermal storage system can lead to economic benefits for the
developing countries because of its low operating cost. This sort of power plant is not
adversely affected from fuel price fluctuation.
For Frederick Epistola of Solar Pilipinas, it’s just another day of bringing light to an
energy-strapped community. He means that all people deserves a power electricity
especially in indigenous people for the Philippines. Their solar power aid projects have
supplied everything from single solar panels to solar-powered lanterns to remote
communities.
The author of the study, Jens Marquardt of the Environmental Policy Research
Centre in Germany, studied 4 solar power aid projects in remote parts of the Philippines:
Isla Verde in Batangas, Guimaras Island in Iloilo, Palawan and Mindanao. Beyond the
study, another possible reason for the technical challenges is the incompatibility of the
technology with the environment they are installed in, said Epistola. It also means that
solar panels should be well maintained, especially in the Philippines with unpredictable
weather conditions. Systems that use high-tech solar batteries also fail without a concrete
replacement plan. There is still no steady supply of affordable solar batteries and panels
in the Philippines, said Epistola. His group uses conventional batteries that are more
accessible and more familiar to beneficiaries.
According to DOE, The approval of these RE projects is to fulfill the Renewable
Energy Act of 2008 which mandates that the government develop the country's renewable
energy resources to promote a shift to more sustainable, reliable and affordable energy.
Most of the approved projects are wind (339.5 MW) and solar (80 MW), types of
renewable energy which do not exist or are negligible in the country's current power
supply. To date, only the Bangui Bay Wind Power Project in Ilocos Norte (33 MW) and
the CEPALCO Solar Power Plant in Cagayan de Oro (1 MW) supply wind and solar
energy to the grid. The DOE studied that the Philippines need to go solar is not for just
the environment purpose but also for the country to progress and to compete with other
countries for using renewable energy.

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Design of a Grid tied Solar Chapter 2: Theoretical Consideration |14

Electric System At Batangas State University

which would guide the researchers in the completion of the study.

Problem or issues related to Grid tied Solar Electric System.

loss of matter. This matter is emitted as radiant energy.

Any substantial change would alter or end life on Earth. [14]

and photoelectric processes. In thermal process, the receiver or receiving substance,

which undergoes an increase in temperature, vaporization or other process, absorbs the

process. Photoelectric process involves a direct conversion of radiation to electrical

classified as thermal process. It includes house heating, distillation of sea water to

temperatures for experimental studies.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending

techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing

and generally considered demand side technologies.

sunlight. He claimed that “shining light on an electrode submerged in a conductive

development subsequent to the discovery, photovoltaic power continued to be very

electrical output. Contemporary Photovoltaic cells are able to convert 10 to 20 percent of

produce even better results.

The simplest photovoltaic systems are solar-powered calculators and wrist

supply electricity to thousands of electricity consumers.

Figure 2.1 Photovoltaic (PV) solar panel

example of a thin film solar panel. [14]

Figure 2.2 Thin Film solar panel

technology primarily offsets gas usage.

difficult to connect or unavailable. Applications are in monitoring stations, radio repeater

stations and street lighting.

watts per square foot is not much.

means larger panels for the same power.

existent electricity grids are dominant.

Off Grid Solar Power Systems. An off-grid residential system is completely

generator is used as a power source during periods of prolonged excess production or

expensive and decrease overall system efficiency.

Figure. 2.3 Off Grid solar electric system

Advantages of an Off-Grid Solar Systems:

following extra components:

1. Solar Charge Controller

ensures the lifetime of a battery bank is maximized. If you have a battery-based

inverter, chances are that the charge controller is integrated.

A battery bank is essentially a group of batteries wired together.

systems. For off-grid solar systems, one additional DC disconnect is installed

flowing between these components. This is important for maintenance,

troubleshooting and protection against electrical fires.

need an inverter to convert DC to AC for all other electrical appliances. Off-grid

5. Backup Generator (optional)

Grid tied system. A grid-connected photovoltaic power system, or grid-connected

PV power system is an electricity generating solar PV power system that is connected to

the utility grid. A grid-connected PV system consists of solar panels, one or

stations. Unlike stand-alone power systems,

A grid-connected system rarely includes an integrated battery solution, as they are

Figure. 2.4 Grid tie solar electric system

Advantages of Grid-Tied Systems

equipment and installation costs.

are therefore generally cheaper and simpler to install.

the utility grid instead of storing it themselves with batteries.

it can be temporarily stored as there forms of energy (e.g. chemical energy in

batteries). Energy storage typically comes with significant losses.

maintenance or replacements, and with much better efficiency rates. In other