Aut Asourt Picene Most instrument pigs do not have the ability to traverse dual size pipelines and remain functional in both sizes of the pipeline However, most instrument pigs will traverse pipes with different wall thicknesses and perform their function effectively, Pipeline Design for Pigging Tn some cases with substantial differences. in wall thickness such as the splash area on the risers of sub-sea pipelines, special consideration must be made by the pig supplier or the pigaing contractor to be able to traverse the heaviest wall thickness and still be effective in the rest of the pipeline. 3.2 PIPELINE MATERIALS 3.2.1 BASE MATERIALS Most pipelines are of steel, however they are also made of cast iron, wrought iron, asbestos cement, reinforced concrete, plastic, and other materials selected specifically for their compatibility with the product to be carried For example, some products may require the pipeline material to be of stainless steel and the ‘operating conditions of another may need the physical properties of a chromium-molybdenum steel. Sometimes the optimum solution is to ‘combine different materials so that the pipeline ig made of one material, generally for cost ot strength reasons, and then coated or lined with another. Many existing cross country pipelines are of carbon steel with yield strengths of 40,000 to 50,000 Ibs/sq.in.. As pipelines got larger in diameter and pressures increased, pipeline companies changed the material to steels of higher yield strengths in order to minimize the wall thickness and therefore the tons of steel required for the pipe. As the yield strength increased it became desirable to use other alloying elements, resulting in steels having ‘carbon equivalents’ instead of the high carbon content. This was to achieve certain desirable physical properties that are not available with high carbon steels of equal yield strength. This is especially necessary for pipelines operating ‘under low temperature conditions, 33 3.2.2, LININGS Pipelines are lined to help protect them from the effects of the product and often to provide an intemal surface that will create less flow resistance. Natural gas pipelines are usually intemally lined with paint like materials, These linings are often epoxy based, but they may be of other materials. The linings are usually applied at the factory or at a special site that is a long distance from the pipeline right-of-way. In these cases the lining may be damaged slightly at the weld joint during construction but this is a small percentage of the overall intemal area of the pipeline, There are companies that will intemally coat the pipeline after it has been laid but the line must be taken out of service for this operation to be carried out Metal cleaning elements should not be used in intemally lined pipelines. Intemally lined pipe is normally cleaned by pigs equipped with elastomer blades or in some cases just the discs or sealing elements of the pig will be sufficient. 3.2.3 COATINGS Pipelines are externally coated to protect them from corrosion caused by the soil and other materials of the back fill. For many years the prime coating material was hot-applied tar. Various materials were used with the tar to retain it in position while it tar hardened. This was usually covered with a paper wrap to