Outline

• Solar radiation
9 Electromagnetic wave
9 Solar spectrum
MAE 493R/593V- Renewable Energy Devices 9 Solar global radiation

• Solar thermal energy

Solar Energy 9 Solar thermal collectors

9 Solar thermal power plants

• Photovoltaics (Solar cells)

9 P-n junction solar cells
9 Dye-sensitized solar cells
9 Organic solar cells

• CO2 capture and photoelectrochemical cells

http://www.flickr.com/photos/royal65/3167556443/

What are Photovoltaics (Solar Cells)? What are Photovoltaics (Solar Cells)?
Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at Photovoltaic Cell Type:
the atomic level
Heterojunction thin-film solar cell
• Silicon Si) and other thin-film silicon)
• Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
• Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS or CIGS)

• Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)

• Organic solar cells

Photo + voltaic = convert light to electricity

Image source: http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/photovoltaic/photovoltaic.html

Fermi level and energy band structure of solids

The inner core electronic configuration of Pd is : Energy
valence
Core electrons electrons

4d105s Conduction band

Valence band 5s
4d
1s 3d
2s Core level
p-n Junction Thin 3p
3s

Film Solar Cells Energy band structure of solid

Viewpoint of electronic structure Viewpoint of energy

Image source: Wikipedia

1
Energy band structure of solids Fermi level & energy band structure of solids
Organic molecules: "Fermi level" is the term used to describe the
top of the collection of electron energy levels at
• The HOMO level is to organic absolute zero temperature.
semiconductors and quantum
dots what the valence band is to
inorganic semiconductors. The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at
absolute zero where no electrons will have
• The same analogy exists enough energy to rise above the surface.
between the LUMO level and the
conduction band.

Band gap, Egap, is the energy difference

between the valence band and the
conduction band

HOMO: highest occupied molecular orbital

LUMO: Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
Band gap: energy difference between HOMO and LUMO http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/fermi.html1

Energy band structure of solids Energy band structure of solids

Current: long-distance electron transport in solids:

Only the electrons in the conduction

band are delocalized, able to transport
for long distance

Only the electrons in the valence

band can jump to the conductions upon
a bias

The electrons in the core level are

localized, do not get involved in the
Conductance of electrons in solid current flow

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/band.html

Energy band structure of solids Energy band structure of solids

Conductivity of solid materials: Photo-excitation of semiconductor (Ephoton = hc/λ)
When hv > Eg, electron-hole pair are generated

hv → h + + e −
Eg
photon hole electron

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/band.html
Under light irradiation, the electrons jump from the valence band to the
conduction band
The photo-generated electrons in the conduction band are delocalized, able
to transport for a long distance, forming electric current
Positive-charge holes are generated in the valence band when the electrons
leave
The photo-generated holes in the valence band are delocalized, able to
transport for long distance, forming electric current

2
Energy band structure of solids Energy band structure of solids
Photo-current in solid materials: (Ephoton = hc/λ)

ZnO nanowire

light 3.2 eV
Au electrode

Photo-excitation of semiconductor

UV-Visible absorption spectra of

TiO2 nanoparticles, Nick Wu

Transmittance

Current response to light irradiation Absorpbance:

Energy band structure of solids Energy band structure of solids

Silicon Extrinsic Semiconductor, n-type Doping

• Silicon is group IV element – with 4 electrons in their valence shell.
• When silicon atoms are brought together, each atom forms covalent
bond with 4 silicon atoms in a tetrahedron geometry.
By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan
• Doping silicon lattice with group V elements can creates extra electrons
in the conduction band — negative charge carriers (n-type), As- donor.
• In n-type semiconductors, the electrons are considered to be the majority
charge carrier
• Doping concentration /cm3 (1016/cm3 ~ 1/million).
By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan

Energy band structure of solids Energy band structure of solids

Extrinsic Semiconductor, p-type doping p-n Junction

Source: google image

• A p-n junction is a junction

formed by combining p-type
and n-type semiconductors
together in very close
contact.
• Doping silicon with group III elements can creates empty holes in the • In p-n junction, the current
conduction band — positive charge carriers (p-type), B-(acceptor). is only allowed to flow
• In p-type semiconductors, the holes are considered to be the majority along one direction from p-
charge carrier type to n-type materials.
http://www.tf.uni-
By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan kiel.de/matwis/amat/semi_en/kap_2/backbone/r2_2_4.html

3
Energy band structure of solids p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Principles - How p-n thin film solar cells work
p-n diode I-V characteristics

⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤
I = I 0 ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ¾ Consider p-n junction with
⎣ ⎝ nk BT ⎠ ⎦ very narrow n-region.

where I0 is the reverse ¾ The illumination is through

saturation current, n is the the thin n-side.
ideality factor which depends
on semiconductor material ¾The SCR (space-charge
region) extend mainly in p-
and fabrication
region with built-in field E0.
characteristics (n = 1 – 2).

By courtesy of Ken Durose http://www.specmat.com

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Principles - How p-n thin film solar cells work Principles - How p-n thin film solar cells work
n-type junction p-type n-type junction p-type
Stage 3: charge separation upon light
Stage 1: before light illumination illumination
¾ The bands are aligned ¾ Electrons flow to the lower energy
conduction band
level
¾ Holes flow to the opposite direction
Eg ¾ Electron-hole pairs continue to be
generated
Valence band Valence band

Stage 4: build an open-voltage

Stage 2: upon light illumination ¾ Electrons flow to the lower energy
¾ electrons and holes are level and build up on the n-side
generated on both p and n sides ¾ Holes build up on the p-side
upon light illumination ¾ The p-n junction separate the
electrons and holes. The built-up
charge generate the open voltage

http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/tech6.htm http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/tech6.htm

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Principles - How p-n thin film solar cells work Principles - How p-n thin film solar cells work
n-type junction p-type
Stage 5: current output
¾ current lows through the external
circuit a p-n junction solar cell is
connected to an external circuit

• No material is consumed.
• The process has no any moving components, which enables high reliability
and silent operation.

http://www.soton.ac.uk/~solar/intro/tech6.htm Source: Images SI Inc.

4
p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
• Therefore the existence of built-in field E0 is important to create • Only those EHPs photogenerated within Le to the SCR can contribute to
accumulated electrons in the n-side and holes in the p-side. the photovoltaic effect.
• For long wavelength photons Æ absorbed in the neutral p-side Æ no E • Those photogenerated EHPs further away from SCR than Le are lost by
field Æ diffusion. recombination.
EHPs EHPs
„ Minority carrier diffusion Thus, it is important to have
exp(−αx) exp(−αx)
length Le. the minority carrier
x diffusion length Le as long x
Le = 2 Deτ e
as possible. Æ By
choosing Si p-n junction
τe- recombination lifetime of to be p-type which makes
electron. electrons to be minority
De- diffusion coefficient on Lh carriers; the electron Lh
W Le W Le
the p-side. diffuse length in Si is
greater the hole diffusion
EHP: electron-hole pair Iph length. Iph
Source: University of South Alabama Source: University of South Alabama

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
• For long wavelengths, 1–1.2 μm, α is small Æ absorption depth 1/α • For EHPs photogenerated by short-wavelength photons absorbed in the
is typically greater than 100 μm. Æ Need a thick p-side and long n-side, within diffusion length Lh, can reach SCL and swept across to
the p-side.
minority carrier diffusion length Le.
• The photogenerated of EHPs that contribute to the photovoltaic effect
occurs in a region of
EHPs EHPs
absorption
coefficient
Lh + W + Le absorption
exp(−αx)
„ Thus, p-side is 200-500 If the terminals are shorted exp(−αx) coefficient
μm and Le is shorter than x then the excess electrons on x
that. the n-side can flow through
the external circuit to
„ Photons are absorbed and neutralize the excess holes in
recombined near the the p-side Æ this current is
crystal surface Æ losses. Lh W Le called photocurrent. Lh W Le

Iph Iph
Source: University of South Alabama Source: University of South Alabama

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics: Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics:
• Consider an ideal p-n junction photovoltaic device connected to a • If I is the light intensity, then the short circuit current is
resistive load R.
I sc = − I ph = − KI K is constant that depends on particular device
• I and V define the convention for the direction of positive current and
positive voltage.
• The photocurrent does not depend on the voltage across the p-n junction,
because it always some internal field to drift the photogenerated EHP.
Light
I Isc = –Iph
• If R is not short circuit Æ the positive voltage V appears across the p-n
junction as a result of the current passing through.
V Iph V=0

R
• If the load is short circuit Æ the only current in the circuit is due to
photogenerated (photocurrent),Iph.

Source: University of South Alabama Source: University of South Alabama

5
p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics: Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics:

• The voltage across the load R (with opposite polarity) reduces the • The total current (solar cell current), I = Id − Iph
built in potential V0 of the p-n junction and hence leads to ⎡ ⎛ eV ⎞ ⎤
minority carrier injection and diffusion. I = − I ph + I 0 ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Id

• Besides Iph, there is also a forward diode current Id in the circuit

⎣ ⎝ nk BT ⎠ ⎦ V
Iph
which arises from the voltage developed across R. „ The I-V characteristics of a
typical Si solar cell in Figure.
• Since Id is due to the normal p-n junction behavior Æ diode I (mA) R
characteristics, „ Normal dark characteristics
I = Id − Iph being shifted down by 20

⎡ ⎛ eV photocurrent Iph (short Dark

⎞ ⎤
I d = I 0 ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Id circuit), which depend on Voc
⎣⎢ ⎝ nk BT ⎠ ⎦⎥ V light intensity, I. 0
0.6
V
Iph 0.2 0.4
Iph „ The open circuit voltage, Voc, Light
is given by the point where
the I-V curve cuts the V-axis
R –20 Twice the light
Source: University of South Alabama (I = 0), typically 0.4-0.6 V. Source: University of South Alabama

Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics (load line analysis)

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics: Photovoltaic I-V Characteristics:

• When a solar cell drives a load R, R has the same voltage as the solar • Or they can be found easily from load line construction.
cell but the current through it is in the opposite direction to the • The load line cuts the solar cell characteristics at P. Point P
convention that current flows from high to low potential. satisfies both equations Æ represent the operating point of the
• The current I’ and voltage V’ can be found by solving two previous circuit.
equations simultaneously Æ not trivial analytical procedure. I (mA)
Voc
I (mA) V′
Voc 0 V
V′ 0.2 0.4 0.6
Light 0 V
I 0.2 0.4 0.6
I-V for a solar cell under an
I-V for a solar cell under an illumination of 600 Wm-2.
V illumination of 600 Wm-2. –10 Slope = – 1/R
–10 Slope = – 1/R Operating Point
Operating Point
I′
R I′ Isc= –Iph The Load Line for R = 30 ž
I Isc= –Iph The Load Line for R = 30 ž P
P (I-V for the load) (I-V for the load)
–20 Source: University of South Alabama
–20 Source: University of South Alabama

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells Solar Cells

Fill Factor:
Metrics of the performance of solar cells
• The maximum power delivered to the load is Pout = I’V’ Æthe area bound
by I- and V-axes and the dashed lines. Photo-responsivity
defined as the photocurrent extracted from the
• Maximum power delivered Æ by changing R Æ max area when I’ = Im solar cell divided by the incident power of the light
and V’ = Vm. at a certain wavelength.
I mVm
• The fill factor (FF), FF =
FF range is 70 – 80% I scVoc
FF is a measure of the closeness of the
External Quantum Efficiency
I (mA) solar cell I-V curve to the rectangular shape defined as the number of charges Ne
Voc extracted at the electrodes divided by the
V′ number of photons Nph of a certain wavelength
0 V
0.6 incident on the solar cell
0.2 0.4

I-V for a solar cell under an Power Conversion Efficiency

illumination of 600 Wm-2.
–10 Slope = – 1/R
Operating Point defined as the ratio of the electric power
I′ output of the cell at the maximum power
Isc= –Iph The Load Line for R = 30 ž
P (I-V for the load) point to the incident optical power.
–20 Source: University of South Alabama

6
p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Band gap effect on energy efficiency: Band gap effect on energy efficiency:
„ Si has Eg = 1.1 eV Æ correspond to a threshold wavelength of
1.1 μm Æ The incident energy with wavelength > 1.1 μm is • Efficiency:
then wasted (~ 25%). η = (VocIscFF)/Pin
2.5 Voc ∝Eg,
Black body radiation at 6000 K Isc ∝ number of
Spectral 2.0 AM0
absorbed photons
Intensity 1.5
dW cm-2 (μm)-1 AM1.5
• Decrease Eg, absorb
or 1.0 more of the spectrum hv > Eg
kW m-2 (μm)-1
0.5
• But not without
0 sacrificing output
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
voltage
Wavelength (μm)
Source: University of South Alabama By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Energy efficiency - Single crystalline versus polycrystalline :
Effects of electron-hole recombination on energy efficiency:

• Photons are absorbed and recombined near the crystal surface Æ

losses Æ severely reduce efficiency.
Small Grain
Large Grain Efficiency ∝ τ1/2
• Crystal defects, crystal surface and interface contain high and/or
Single Crystals
concentration of recombination-center. The loss is ~ 40% due to the Polycrystalline
e-h recombination. Solids

• These combined effect bring the efficiency down to about 45%.

d d
Long d Long d
High τ Low τ
High Cost Lower Cost
τ is recombination lifetime of electron
Source: University of South Alabama It decreases as grain size (and the cost) decreases

p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Energy Efficiency: 100% Incident radiation First Generation– Single Junction Silicon Cells:
• For a given solar spectrum, 89.6% of 2007 Production
× 0.74 Insufficient photon energy
conversion efficiency depends on hυ < Eg
45.2% Single Crystal Si
the semiconductor material 42.2% Multi-crystal SI
properties and the device structure. • Limit efficiency 31%
Excessive photon energy
Near surface EHP recombination • Single crystal silicon - 16-19%
• Considering all losses, the × 0.59 hυ > Eg efficiency
maximum electrical output power is • Multi-crystal silicon - 14-15%
~21 % for a high efficiency Si solar efficiency
cell. × 0.95 Collection efficiency of photons

• Si-based solar cell efficiencies 18% × 0.6 Voc ≈ (0.6Eg)/(ekB)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell
for polycrystalline and 22 – 24% for
× 0.85 FF ≈ 0.85
single crystal devices.
Overall efficiency
η ≈ 21%

Silicon cell average efficiency

Source: University of South Alabama By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan

7
p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells p-n Junction Thin Film Solar Cells
Second Generation –Thin Film Cells: Third Generation – Multi-junction Cells
CdTe 4.7% & copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) 0.5% of 2007 Production

• Thin film cells use about 1% of the expensive semiconductors compared to

First Generation cells.

• CdTe : 8 – 11% efficiency (18% demonstrated)

• CIGS: 7-11% efficiency (20% demonstrated)

• Enhance poor electrical performance while maintaining low production costs.

• Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while
retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.
Source: wikipedia • Multi-junction cells: 30% efficiency (40-43% demonstrated)
By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan By courtesy of Xiangfeng Duan

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

¾ DSSC is an electrochemical cell operated by sunlight.
¾Photoelectrochemical cells (PECs) are solar cells which generate electrical
energy from light.
¾ DSSC is a photoelectrochemical system based on a semiconductor formed
between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte
¾ DSSC is also known as Grätzel cells

Each DSSC cell consists of:

ƒ electrolyte
ƒ metal cathode
ƒ semiconducting photo-anode

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Photoanode is composed

of titanium dioxide
(DSSC) nanoparticles, covered with
a molecular dye that
absorbs sunlight, like the
chlorophyll in green leaves
Image source: Wikipedia http://www.thefullwiki.org/Dye-sensitized_solar_cells

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Operating principle of DSSC:
Operating principle of DSSC:

• Absorption of light occurs in a

dye absorbed on a nonporous Cathode (Pt) Photo-anode
TiO2 layer.
• Charge separation occurs at the oxidation
interface between the dye and the
electron conducting TiO2.
• Electron transport: electrons electrolyte
transport from TiO2 to the dye
transparent conducting oxide
electrode.
• Hole transport: diffusion of reduction
iodide to the dye, which extract TiO2
electrons from the iodide and
oxidizes it to triiodide.
• Reduction of triiodide at the Pt-
electrode, when the generated
electron is transferred through an
outer circuit. http://www.thefullwiki.org/Dye-sensitized_solar_cells By courtesy of Michael Graetzel

8
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
Operating principle of DSSC: The operating cycle of redox reaction Operating principle of DSSC:

light

light

Matthews et al. 1996 Left image courtesy of R. Chang

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Configuration of DSSC: Components of DSSC:
Sandwich-type: Working and counter electrode pressed together using a Substrate: glass with transparent conducting oxide (TCO) such as fluoride-
polymer separator doped tin oxide (FTO) or indium-doped tin oxide (ITO) deposited on the
back of a (typically glass) plate as the contact electrode

• Transparent
• Electrically conductive
• Connections to load

By courtesy of Aldo DI CARLO

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Components of DSSC: Components of DSSC:
Dye: organic semiconductor Dye: organic semiconductor- Artificial leaf
- Artificial leaf

Structure of the ruthenium sensitizers RuL3 (yellow) cis-RuL2(NCS)2 (red) and

Artificial Plant with Leaves exhibited at EXPO 2005 RuL’(NCS)3 (green)
Gratzel,Inorg. Chem. 2005, 44, 6841-6851

9
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
Components of DSSC: Components of DSSC:
Dye: (also called molecular sensitizers), organic semiconductor, usually Dye: organic semiconductor
Ruthenium complex molecules
• Band gap is small enough to adsorb visible light or infrared light
(Ephoton = hc/λ).
• Good match in band structure between dye and metal oxide
• Stable during light irradiation
• Must have carboxylate or phosphonategroups, Ligands are
chemisorbed to metal oxide semiconductor surface

UV-Visible absorption spectra of dye molecules

dye TiO2

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Components of DSSC: Components of DSSC:
Photoanode: metal oxide film
Photoanode: new material architecture
• Porosity >50%, allow the dye molecules to be infiltrated into the whole
photoanode
• Nanoparticles (~ 20nm diameter), high surface area to allow attach more
dye molecules
• TiO2: easy to synthesize, abundant, inexpensive
• Other semiconductor materials (ZnO)

3.2 eV

UV-Visible absorption spectra of TiO2 nanorod array, Nick Wu & Z.

TiO2 nanoparticles, Nick Wu TiO2 nanobelts, Nick Wu Hong
TiO2 nanoparticles, Nick Wu

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Components of DSSC: The electron transport must be faster than recombination to ascertain
Photoanode: Aligned nanowire as photo-anode quantitative collection of charge carriers

¾ Nanowires provide a direct

path to the substrate for fast
charge transport.

¾ Faster transport can tolerate

faster recombination-other
redox couples can increase Voc
by ~300 mV.

¾ Aligned pores for facile pore

filling and direct path for hole
transport.

Jason B. Baxter By courtesy of Michael Graetzel

10
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
The electron diffusion length in photoanode: Components of DSSC:
Electrolyte: redox couple to reduce dye
• Usually iodide/tri-iodide couple
• Reduces dye after electron injection to TiO2
• Oxidized by contact with second electrode

I 3− + 2e ⇔ 3I −

™ The electron diffusion length exceeds

largely the film thickness

™ The film thickness is less than 30

micrometer

By courtesy of Michael Graetzel

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Components of DSSC: Typical performance of DSSC
Counter electrode: glass with TCO,
maximum-power efficiency (ηmp) :
catalyzed with platinum or carbon as catalyst

isc - the integral short circuit

photocurrent density
Voc - the open-circuit photovoltage
ηfill - the fill factor
Es - the incident solar irradiance
Photovoltaic performance of a state-of-
the-art DSSC : the I–V curve
measured under AM 1.5 standard test
condition

MICHAEL GRÄTZEL, http://www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/p217/p217_chap08.pdf

By courtesy of Gerko Oskam

Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)

Why DSSC?
Challenges of DSSCs:
Current Solar Cells: Silicon (p-n junction)
¾ expensive Lab efficiencies <12% and stagnating
¾ difficult to produce ™ Low red and near-IR absorption
¾ framing/substrate –heavy, fragile ™ Low extinction coefficient requires high surface area
™ Only I-/I3-redox couple has slow recombination kinetics, but it has
unnecessarily large overpotential

DSSCs Stability and robustness

¾ cost effective –much less expensive
¾ can produce using layered coatings on glass
¾ may be able to produce on flexible substrates
¾ Can be lightweight (higher energy density)
¾ Good performance in diverse light conditions: high angle of incidence,
low intensity, partial shadowing
™ Liquid electrolyte is undesirable, but solid state hole conductors
give lower efficiency
™ 108 turnovers of dye required for 20 year lifetime
™ the electrolyte (I-/I3) is corrosive

11
 Organic Solar Cells
by courtesy of Qing-Hua Xu
Operating principle:
Four processes:
Light absorption
Exciton Diffusion
Charge Transfer/separation
Charge Collection

Active layer
Donor (p-type)
Acceptor (n-type)

cathode
anode http://www.chemphys.lu.se/res
earch/projects/teratransport/
Carbon Trust

Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells

Operating principle- charge separation process Operating principle:
Light absorption Exciton diffusion
(1) Efficiency ηA> 50% (2) Efficiency ηED ~ 10%

Charge
collection
Optical absorption length ~ 100nm

• Narrow band width

• Jsc limitation
Exciton diffusion length ~ 5 nm
• UV instability
Light • Too short
adsorption • Thickness limitation
• Jsc limitation

By courtesy of Helen Gerardi

Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells

Operating principle: Overall energy efficiency:
Charge Transfer Charge Collection
(3) Efficiency ηCT=100% (4) Efficiency ηCC = 100%
Light absorption, > 50%
Exciton diffusion, ~ 10%
Charge transfer, ~ 100%
Charge collection, ~ 100%

• Electric field dependent mobility

• Electric field dependent generation
• Voc limitation
• Dispersive transport
• Contact resistance
• Metal/organic issue
Typical current-voltage characteristics of
By courtesy of Helen Gerardi Forrest, S. R. MRS Bull. 2005, 30, 28-32 an organic solar cell (l.j.a.koster)

12
Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells
Overall energy efficiency of organic solar cells:
Overall energy efficiency:
Tobin Mark’s group: PNAS 2008; 105:2873‐2787

Actually typical efficiency

reported: 2~6%

Thomas Kietzke, Advances in OptoElectronics. doi:10.1155/2007/40285 Thomas Kietzke, Advances in OptoElectronics. doi:10.1155/2007/40285

Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells

donor & acceptor molecules:
Features of organic solar cells:
¾ Large optical band-gap (about 2 eV)
Usually absorb light from ultraviolet to blue (as the emission is in
visible region)
need the development of new material to absorb in red and near
infrared
acceptor
¾ Generally poor charge-carrier mobility donor
poly-3-hexylthiophene
As a result of the above two: almost insulator if not excited
donor
¾ Relatively strong absorption coefficients (> 105 cm-1)
Copper PhthalocyanineZinc

acceptor
3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylicbis-benzimidazole

Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells

organic donor-acceptor heterojunctions:
Thin-film organic solar cells:

ƒ Overall thickness of organic layers is usually < 200 nm

ƒ Individual layers are usually between 10-60 nm

ƒ Therefore they are very delicate, sensitive to any scratch

ƒ Need to be very clean: sensitive to dust

¾ Donor and acceptor are mixed so that the distance between any
absorbing site and the charge separation interface is less than the exciton
diffusion length.
¾ There should be percolated pathways for electron and holes to cathode
and anode respectively. Therefore organic solar cells are much more
sensitive to the nanoscale structure.
¾ These devices could be fabricated by co-deposition of donor and
acceptor pigments or solution casting donor acceptor blends
Source: Mir F. Salek
Yang, F.; Shtein, M.; Forrest, S. R., Nat. Mater. 2005, 4, 37-41

13
Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells
Thin film manufacturing techniques: Spin-coating techniques:

(1) Evaporation: Suitable for small molecules

ƒ Sputtering
ƒ E-beam evaporation
ƒ Vapor deposition

(2) Wet processing: Suitable for polymers ƒ Solution is dropped on the rotating
substrate
ƒ Spin coating
ƒ Screen printing ƒ By centrifugal force, solution spreads on
ƒ Inkjet printing the substrate
ƒ Doctor blading
ƒ Thin film properties depend on rotation
speed curve, solution, temperature, vapor
pressure of material…

Source: Mir F. Salek Source: Mir F. Salek

Organic Solar Cells Organic Solar Cells

Manufacturing techniques:
Advantages of organic solar cells

¾ Relatively cheap in production and purification.

¾ Materials can be tailored for the demand
¾ Can be used on flexible substrate.
¾ Can be shaped or tinted to suit architectural applications.

Challenges of organic solar cells:

¾ low efficiency
¾ low stability
¾ low strength compared to inorganic photovoltaic cells

P. Sommer-Larsen - Photovoltaics 16-Jan-09

Solar Cell Efficiency Photovoltaic System to Utility Grid

A photovoltaic system that operates in parallel with and may
deliver power to an electrical production and distribution network.

Lawrence Kazmerski, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) By courtesy of Jim Dunlop, NJATC Curriculum Specialist

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Photovoltaic System to Utility Grid Photovoltaic System to Utility Grid

By courtesy of Jim Dunlop, NJATC Curriculum Specialist By courtesy of Jim Dunlop, NJATC Curriculum Specialist

Photovoltaics Application Photovoltaics Application

Denver International Airport, 2 MW

Inter-Mountain Electric

Google Complex – Mountain

G24i announced first deal to fuel mobile phone growth with revolutionary
solar technology-DSSC View, CA, 1.6 MW Installed by
Cuppertino Electric

Photovoltaics Application Photovoltaics Market

Worldwide PV installed in history

Photovoltaic cells designed to resemble

wood roofing shingles, National Institute of
–Fox News
Standards and Technology

Source: Kyocera Solar, Inc 2007

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Photovoltaics Market Photovoltaics Market
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, March 17, 2010
Worldwide solar photovoltaic (PV) installations reached 6.43 GW in 2009
The PV industry generated $38 billion in global revenues in 2009, while
successfully raising more than $13.5 billion in equity and debt, up 8% on the
prior year Worldwide PV Markets are Booming!

Worldwide PV installations will reach 22.2 GW in 2011, up from 16.0 GW in

2010, 6.43 GW in 2009
North American PV market predicted to double in 2011
Source: Suzanne Deffree, -
Source: Solarbuzz Marketbuzz 2010 Report Major PV Markets by Country in 2009 The US is projected to see 2.1GW of PV installation in 2011. - EDN, 01/12/ 2011

Photovoltaics Market Photovoltaics Market

Paul Maycock, Photovoltaic Energy Systems, Inc The 2004-2009 period managed to encompass several significant events:
PV cost
•Silicon feedstock shortage and significant high prices for this raw material
•Steady price increases from 2004 through 2008 for photovoltaic cells and
modules
•~50% price decrease in 2009 over 2008 for photovoltaic cells and modules
•Significant increase in market share for thin films, and in particular, CdTe
•The rise of the multi-megawatt (utility-scale) installation
•A global recession and the crisis in the financial sector that uncovered the a
virtual shell game in the trading of derivatives that exposed significant
housing market debt
•Constrained debt and equity markets

When it comes to non-silicon-based costs, however, the top company in China can
produce a module at a cost of USD 0.90 per watt, compared with around USD
1.50 per watt for European companies.
Source: Becky Stuart, PV Magzine, 12/272010

PV Installation- Life Cycle Saving Environmental Benefits

Return on Investment (ROI):

Source: Kyocera Solar, Inc 2007 Source: Kyocera Solar, Inc 2007

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History of Photovoltaic Cells
1839 The photovoltaic effect was first recognized in by French physicist A.
E. Becquerel.
1883 The first solar cell was built, by Charles Fritts, who coated the
semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold to form
the junctions. The device was only around 1% efficient.
1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first photoelectric cell
1905 Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect.
1946 Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in
which was discovered while working on the series of advances that
would lead to the transistor.
1954 The silicon p-n junction photovoltaic cell was developed by The highly
efficient solar cell was first developed by Daryl Chapin, Calvin
Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson at Bell Laboratories
1980 First polymer based solar cells.
1986 First organic solar cell with donor and acceptor was invented by
Tang.
1991 A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) was invented by Michael Grätzel
and Brian O'Regan at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne.

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