Classical Theory of Radiation

Paper: Statistical Mechanics

Lesson: Classical Theory of Radiation
Author: Dr. Maya Verma
College/Department: Dept. of Physics, Hansraj
College, University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Classical Theory of Radiation

Table of contents
Chapter: Classical Theory of Radiation

1 Chapter‘s Objectives

2 Introduction

2.1 Thermal Radiation

2.2 Properties of thermal radiation

2.3 Blackbody radiation

2.4 Common Terminology

3 Kirchhoff‘s Law

4 Radiation Pressure

4.1 Normal incidence

4.2 Diffuse incidence

5 Stefan – Boltzmann Law

6 Adiabatic expansion of Blackbody radiation

7 Spectral distribution of radiant energy

7.1 Wien‘s Distribution Law

7.2 Rayleigh –Jeans Law

8 Summary

9 Exercises

9.1 Multiple Choice Questions

9.2 Subjective Questions

10 References

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

1. Chapter’s Objectives

 To Understand the term ‗Radiation‘ and learning the properties of thermal radiation
 To study the characteristics of blackbody radiation
 To derive Kirchhoff‘s law and discuss its various applications
 To derive Radiation Pressure for Normal and Diffuse incidence
 To derive Stefan-Boltzmann law on the basis of thermodynamic theory
 To study in detail, the spectral distribution of radiant energy on the basis of classical
theories:- Wien‘s Distribution law and Rayleigh-Jeans Law
 To understand the term ‗Ultraviolet Catastrophe‘ and approaching from classical
theory to quantum theory.

2. Introduction

The emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through a material
medium is called radiation. According to Maxwell, radiation is the transfer of heat from a
hot body to a colder body, without significant heating of intervening medium. It includes the
complete electromagnetic spectrum as shown in fig.1. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum
contains an array of electromagnetic waves increasing in frequency from Extremely Low
Frequency and Very Low Frequency (ELF/VLF), through Radio Frequency (RF) and
Microwaves, to Infrared (IR) light, Visible Light, Ultraviolet (UV) light, X-rays, and Gamma
rays. Of these, radio waves have the longest wavelengths and gamma rays have the
shortest. A small window of frequencies, called visible spectrum or light, is sensed by the
eye of various organisms including human beings.

Fig.1 : The electromagnetic spectrum

[Source:-https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EM_Spectrum3-new.jpg]

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of radiant energy released by certain electromagnetic

processes (synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that travel with the
speed of light). When originated, Electromagnetic waves carry energy, momentum and
angular momentum and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact.

Depending on the way they interact with the matter and the energy of radiated
particles, two types of radiation are commonly distinguished: ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation. If the energy exceeds 10eV, then atoms and molecules get ionized, resulting in
ionizing radiation. High frequency radiations such as Ultraviolet rays, gamma rays, x-rays
form ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Lower frequency radiations such as
visible rays, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves form non-ionizing part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

2.1 Thermal Radiation:-- It is the non- ionizing electromagnetic radiation

generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter. Thermal radiations lie in
Infra-red region of EM spectra and produce sensation of hotness. All matter with
temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. This is because when
temperature of the body is greater than absolute zero, interatomic collisions result in
change of kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules.

During the emission of thermal radiation from the sun, heat from the sun passes through air
around the earth without heating the intervening medium (air, in this case). However, in
presence of any material medium, it is not necessary that it should get itself heated (as in
the case of conduction and convection) before it could assist the propagation of thermal
radiation.

Uses of Radiation

 Medical uses:- Radiations are used for diagnosis, monitoring, treatment and research.
X rays are used to detect the broken bones and to locate cancer that may be growing in
the body.
 Academic and scientific applications:- Scientific institutions make use of nuclear
materials for learning and research purposes. The age of materials can be estimated by
using radioactive substances.
 Industrial uses:- Radiations (for example, x-rays) are used to kill germs without
destroying the substance (food, medical equipments etc.) that is being disinfected.
Some smoke detectors used in industries use radioactive materials.
 At homes:- Some household products also make use of radiations. The smoke
detector, which contains a small amount of radioactive substance, emits constant
stream of alpha particles. Some watches and clocks have dials painted with radiation
emitting compounds, making them visible in the dark.

2.2 Properties of Thermal radiations:--

1. Thermal radiation, being electromagnetic radiation, travels through empty space with
the speed of light.
2. Like light, thermal radiation travels in straight line.
3. Thermal radiation obeys the inverse law of distance.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

4. Thermal radiation obeys laws of reflection and refraction.

5. Thermal radiations exhibit the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and
polarization.

2.3 Black Body Radiation:-- It is the type of electromagnetic radiation emitted by

a black body held at constant, uniform temperature. A black body at room temperature
appears black, as most of the energy radiated is infrared that cannot be perceived by
human eye. It is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of radiation that hits it. Practically,
no material is there to absorb all incoming radiation. A black body also behaves as an ideal
radiator. It means that if the black body is maintained at a particular temperature, it emits
the maximum amount of energy possible for that temperature. These emitted radiations
have a well defined, continuous energy distribution. Hence, a perfectly black body is one
which absorbs all the radiations of any wavelength which fall on it.

Costruction of a black body

It can be constructed using a hollow cavity having a small hole on its surface.
Radiations entered through the hole, get successively reflected on the inner surface of
the cavity and hence get completely absorbed (fig.2). Materials like lamp black and
platinum black are found to behave like ideal black bodies, which absorb
approximately 96% and 98% of radiations incident on them.

Fig.2: A Black Body

[Source:-https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hole_in_Cavity_as_Blackbody.png]

2.4 Common Terminology

Total Energy Density (u):-- It is defined as the total radiant energy per unit volume. Its
unit is Jm-3.

Spectral Energy Density (uλ):-- It is defined as the radiant energy per unit volume per
unit wavelength. It is related to the total energy density through the relation:-
∞

𝑢= uλdλ
0

Total Emissive Power (e):- It is defined as the total radiant energy (of all wavelength)
emitted per second per unit area of the body. Its unit is J m -2s-1.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Spectral Emmisive Power (eλ) :- It is defined as the radiant energy emitted by the body
per second per unit area per unit wavelength. It is related to the total emissive power
through the relation:-
∞

𝑒= eλdλ
0

Absorptive power (a) :- It is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by the
body to the total radiant energy incident on it . The absorptive power of a perfectly black
body is found to be maximum and is equal to unity, it absorbs all radiations incident on it.

Spectral absorptive power (aλ): It is the ratio of radiant energy absorbed by a surface to
the radiant energy incident on it for a particular wavelength λ. It may have different values
for different wavelengths for a given surface.

3. Kirchhoff’s Law

It states that the ratio of the spectral emissive power eλ to the spectral absorptive power aλ
for a particular wavelength λ is the same for all bodies at the same temperature and is
equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature.
eλ
= 𝐸λ
aλ

where Eλ is the emissive power of a perfectly black body. The

Proof:--

Let dQ be the total radiant energy between wavelengths λ and λ+dλ incident on unit area of
a body per second. The amount of energy absorbed by the body will be aλ dQ, where aλ is
the spectral absorptive power of the body. The remaining incident energy will either be
reflected or transmitted.

As we know, sum of absorption, reflection and transmission coefficient is unity i.e.

aλ +rλ+ tλ =1  rλ+ tλ =1- aλ

So the amount of radiant energy not absorbed= (1- aλ)dQ

If eλ is the spectral emissive power of the body, then amount of energy emitted per second
per unit area between the wavelengths λ and λ+dλ is eλdλ. In equilibrium, energy given out
must be equal to energy incident on the body, i.e.

dQ = (1- aλ)dQ + eλdλ

aλdQ = eλdλ

eλ dQ
= (1)
aλ dλ

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

For a perfectly black body, aλ=1; and eλ = Eλ (maximum emmisive power) ; so for such a
body in equilibrium

dQ = Eλdλ
dQ
𝐸 = (2)
dλ

On comparing (1) and (2), we get

eλ
= 𝐸λ
aλ
Hence, it is concluded that a good absorbers of radiation are good emitter also and vice
versa.

Applications:-

 A piece of decorated china dish, heated to high temperature 1000C to make it

absorb thermal radiations. When it is taken to the dark room, it start emitting
radiations making its appearance bright.
 Greenhouses also make use of Kirchhoff‘s law. The radiations emitted by the glass
surfaces at room temperature falls in the infrared region (  > 3  m). So, it is also a
good absorber of these radiations. Glass absorbs the infrared radiations received
from the sun, resulting in the rise in the interior temperature.
 Kirchhoff‘s law is also used to explain emission and absorption spectra of sodium
light. On heating the sodium vapours to high temperature, two yellow D 1 and D2 are
observed in the emission spectra. In absorption spectra, when white light light is
passed through cooled sodium vapours, then two darks lines are obtained at the
same position as D1 , D2 lines in the emission spectra.

4. Radiation Pressure

The pressure exerted by electromagnetic radiations on any surface is known as radiation

pressure. It arises due to interaction between the radiation and the surface upon which it
falls. In day-today life, the forces generated by radiation pressure are too small to be
detected. However, they do play an important role in astronomy and astrodynamics.
Radiation pressure can be considered as interaction by either electromagnetic waves or
particles (photons). As both of them carry momentum, so it is possible to interchange them
under classical conditions. As the momentum is absorbed by the surfaces on which radiation
falls, pressure is exerted on the surfaces. In the present case, the expression of radiation
pressure will be derived for normal and diffusive radiation, assuming the surface under
consideration to be perfect absorber of radiation.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

4.1 Radiation pressure for normal incidence

On the basis of electromagnetic theory, Maxwell proved that for the

normal incidence of radiation, the radiation pressure is equal to the
energy density.

However, in the present case, the expression is derived using the

photon description of radiation i.e. the radiation comes in discrete
particles, called photons moving at the speed of light c, as shown in
fig.3. As they carry energy and momentum, then momentum
incident on the surface per unit area per second may be written as:

Fig.3:Normal incidence
𝐸
𝑝= (3)
𝑐

where E is the total energy incident per unit area per second. If u denotes the energy
density, then we may write:

𝐸 = 𝑢𝑐 (4)

From (3) and (4)

𝑝=𝑢

If the momentum per unit area per second incident on the surface is completely absorbed,
then according to Newton‘s law, the rate of change of momentum (i.e. force) per unit area
will be equal to the pressure, P

i.e. 𝑃=𝑢

Therefore, for normal incidence, the radiation pressure is equal to the energy density.

4.2 Radiation pressure for diffuse incidence

If the radiations travel in all possible directions, then
radiation is said to be diffused. In fig.4 , the diffuse radiation
gets incident on the surface AB at a particular angle  with the
normal to the surface. If energy density of radiation be u, then
energy incident on surface BC per unit area per second is uc
(from 4). If surface area of BC is s, then energy incident on BC
per second is ucs.

If surface area of AB is s’ then

𝑠 = 𝑠′𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Fig.4: Diffuse incidence

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Hence, energy incident on BC per second is ucs’cos.

As total energy incident per second on surface BC is equal to the energy incident per second
on surface AB, therefore, the energy incident per unit area per second on surface AB=
𝑢𝑐𝑠’𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠′ = 𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠

The momentum incident on AB per unit area per second = 𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠/𝑐 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠

To derive an expression for pressure, we must consider the component of momentum in the
direction normal to AB = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠)𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 

As the radiations get incident from all the directions, we should take the average value of
cos2.

So, the expression of radiation pressure becomes

𝑃 = 𝑢 < 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ >

To calculate < 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ >, consider a hemisphere of radius r, as shown in fig.5. Now divide the
hemisphere into ring elements. Imagine one such ring element lying between θ and θ+dθ.

The area of this ring element= 2𝜋𝑟 2 sind

If N beams fall on the surface, then no. of beams

passing through the ring element is given as

2𝜋𝑟 2 sin d

𝑑𝑁 = N = 𝑁sind
2𝜋𝑟 2

So, the radiation pressure for this ring element is

given as

Fig.5:Diffuse radiation in spherical cavity

𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑃 =
𝑁
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠2 θ = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θsind

For all possible rings within the hemisphere,  may vary from 0 to /2, i.e.
/2
𝑃= 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θsind
0

𝑢
On solving the integral, 𝑃= 3
(5)

Therefore, for diffuse incidence, the radiation pressure is equal to one-third of its energy
density.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

5. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
It states that energy radiated by an object per second per unit area is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature.

𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4

Where  is known as Stefan‘s constant and its value is 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4.

Proof:-

Consider a cylindrical enclosure with perfectly reflecting walls. Let it be filled with diffuse
radiation of energy density u and maintained at temperature T. If V is the volume of
enclosure, then internal energy of radiation inside the chamber is

𝑈 = 𝑢𝑉 (6)

Now using Maxwell‘s thermodynamical relation:

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑉 𝑇
= 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
(7)

𝑑𝑈 +𝑃𝑑𝑉
Also, 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
(8)

From (7) and (8)

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃
+𝑃= 𝑇 (9)
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

Using (5) and (6) in eqn. (9)

𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢
𝑢+ = 𝑇
3 3 𝜕𝑇

4 1 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑇
3
𝑢 = 3T 𝜕𝑇
 𝑢
=4 𝑇

On integrating, we get

log 𝑢 = 4 log 𝑇 + log 𝐴, where A is constant of integration

𝑢 = 𝐴𝑇 4 (10a)

For diffuse radiation, the energy emitted per second per unit area is given as

1
𝐸 = 𝑢𝑐
4
Substituting for u from eqn. (10) , we get

𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4 (10b)
1
where, 𝜎 = 𝐴𝑐 is Stefan‘s constant and its value is 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4.
4

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

From equations (10a) and (10b), we note that the energy density as well as
the total emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power
of absolute temperature. This is the statement of Stefan-Boltzmann law.

It is to be noted that if a blackbody is placed in an enclosure at temperature

To, then equation (10b) gets modified as:

𝐸 = 𝜎(𝑇 4 − To4 )

Joseph Stefan Ludwig Boltzmann

Joseph Stefan (March 24, 1835-January 7, 1893) was an Austrian experimentalist
(electromagnetism, thermodynamics). Stefan‘s inquiries into the laws of radiation arose from a
troubling inconsistency in the laws of cooling derived by Sir Isaac Newton. According to Newton, the rate
of cooling of a hot body is proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and its
surroundings; however, researchers had found that Newton‘s formulation greatly underestimated the
amount of heat bodies give out at very high temperatures. By measuring the heat energy radiated by a
blackbody, that is, a body that absorbs all the radiant energy that falls on it, Stefan determined that the
power emitted per unit area was proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature in degrees
Kelvin. Boltzmann, one of his students, derived this same law from thermodynamic after five years. It
became known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. By treating the Sun as an approximate blackbody, Stefan
was able to use his equation to determine its surface temperature to be about 6000°C. Stefan provided
the first measurements of the thermal conductivity of gases, treated evaporation, and among others
studied diffusion, heat conduction in fluids.
Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist and
philosopher whose greatest achievement was in the development of statistical mechanics. He explained
the second law of thermodynamics in the early 1870s on the basis of the atomic theory of matter. He
demonstrated that the second law could be interpreted by blending the laws of mechanics, applied to the
motions of the atoms, with the theory of probability. He clarified that the second law is an essentially
statistical law. He formulated most of the structure of statistical mechanics, which was later researched
by the mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs. In addition to his contributions to statistical
mechanics, Boltzmann made detailed calculations in the kinetic theory of gases. He was probably the first
person to understand the significance of James Clerk Maxwell‗s theory of electromagnetism, on which he
wrote a two-volume treatise.

https://www.famousscientists.org/ludwig-boltzmann/
http://what-when-how.com/physicists/stefan-josef-physicist/

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Value Addition

Most objects aren‘t perfect emitters, so we need to multiply by another quantity, called emissivity, e,
which is a pure number between 0 and 1. In such cases,
𝐸 = 𝑒𝜎𝑇 4

Example A metal ball of radius 3 cm is heated in a furnace to 600C. At what rate does it radiate
energy, if its emissivity is 0.5 ?

Soln. The surface area of ball = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0.0113 m2

Temperature= 600+273= 873K

∴ Power radiated = 𝑒𝜎𝑇 4 A = 0.5 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 873 4 × 0.0113

= 186.08 W

Do You Know?

The experimental evidence for the Stefan Boltzmann law was not convincing in 1884 when it was
formulated. In 1897, Lummer and Pringsheim performed and analyzed very careful experiments which
showed that the law was indeed correct to high precision

6. Adiabatic expansion of Black body radiation

When the radiations in an enclosure are adiabatically expanded, TV 1/3 remains constant

To prove the above statement, imagine an enclosure having perfectly reflecting walls and
filled with diffuse radiations of energy density u, maintained at temperature T. If the
radiations undergo adiabatic expansion, then the work done on the surrounding is
accomplished at the expense of internal energy of radiation. So, the energy density starts
decreasing. Let the initial and final energy density be u i and uf, resulting decrease in
temperature. If dV is the change in volume of the enclosure, then work done by the
radiation on the enclosure is PdV.

For such an adiabatic expansion, according to first law of thermodynamics,

𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝛿𝑄 = 0

𝑑 𝑢𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
1
𝑢𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑑𝑉 = 0
3
4
𝑢𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉𝑑𝑢
3
4 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑢
=−
3 𝑉 𝑢
On integration, we get

𝑙𝑛𝑉 4/3 𝑢⁡= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

But, 𝑢 = 𝐴T 4 (from eqn. 10)

∴ 𝑉 4/3 𝑇 4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉 1/3 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉𝑇 3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

7. Spectral distribution of radiant energy

The experimental studies on spectral distribution of blackbody radiation were made
by Lummer and Pringsheim in 1899. Figure 6 shows the variation of spectral energy density
with wavelength for a blackbody.

Fig.6: Variation of energy density with wavelength for a blackbody

[Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wien_Displacement.png]

The following conclusions may be drawn from the experimental results obtained:
 At a particular temperature, spectral energy density first increases with wavelength,
achieves a maxima, then decreases thereafter.
 Spectral energy density for each wavelength increases with increase in temperature.
 As temperature increases, maxima shift towards lower wavelength region.
 Area under the curve at a particular temperature is found to be proportional to T 4
and increases with increase in temperature.

Although the spectrum of black-body radiation was not known experimentally till 1895, but
the theoretical work was carried out much earlier by Wilhelm Wein on the basis of radiation
laws and is discussed in following section.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

7.1 Wien’s Distribution Law

Wien tried to analyze how the properties of radiation change when it undergoes a
reversible adiabatic expansion. As discussed in earlier section that the temperature T of
radiation is related to volume V of the enclosure as:

𝑉 1/3 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (11)

The next step is to work out the change in the

wavelength of radiation on reflection from an
enclosure moving due to adiabatic expansion.

Let OX be the radiation of wavelength 

incident on the enclosure in position S at point
O (fig.7). On reflection, it travels in direction
OL. When the next radiation reaches at the
surface at O, the wall has moved to new
position S‘. The reflected ray now moves in
direction YM. If the wavelength of radiation, on
being reflected from the new position is ‘, then
from the geometry of the enclosure as shown
in fig.7, we may calculate change in
wavelength of radiation between two successive reflections:
Fig. 7: Change in wavelength
of radiation due to expanding
enclosure
𝑑0 = ′ − 
= (OY+YM)-OL = OY+ NY
But as OY=O‘Y ⇒ 𝑑0 = O′ Y + NY = O‘N = OO‘ cos = 2𝑣𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠

Where v is the velocity with which the enclosure expands.


∴ 𝑑0 = 2𝑣 c cos (12)

Next step is to calculate no. of reflections per second

Let the radiation enters into the enclosure from A and

suffers reflection at B making an angle  with the normal
(fig.8).

The distance travelled by radiation between two

successive reflections at B and C = BC = 2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠
2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The time between these two reflections =
𝑐
𝑐
∴ Number of reflections per second =
2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Fig.8: Reflection of radiation inside an

enclosure

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

If radius gets increased by dr, due to adiabatic expansion, in time dt then number of
𝑐 𝑐 𝑑𝑟
reflections during that time =
2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑣
(13)

So, using (12) and (13), the change in wavelength in time dt can be written as
 𝑐 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑 = 2𝑣 c cos × 2𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑣
=
𝑟

𝑑 𝑑𝑟
∴ = (14)
 𝑟


On integrating, we get
𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (15)

If the change in volume of the enclosure is dV, then considering it to be spherical, it may be
proved that
𝑑𝑟 1 𝑑𝑉
𝑟
= 3 𝑉
(16)

Then using equations (14) and (16),

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑉

= 3 𝑉
(17)

On integrating both sides,


 = 𝑘𝑉 1/3  𝑉 1/3 = 𝑘

where k is a constant of integration. Using eqn. (11), the above equation may be written as

𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (18)

i.e. if the radiation at a certain temperature undergoes adiabatic expansion, then

wavelength of radiation gets changed such that the temperature changes in inverse ratio.

In particular, if the maximum of the wavelength is considered, the above equation

becomes:

𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑏

i.e. the radiations for different temperatures have peak at a wavelength inversely
proportional to the temperature. This is Wien’s displacement law. The constant ‗b‘ is
known as wien‘s constant and its value is 0.2898cmK. This law was found to be in
agreement to the experimentally observed spectra as shown in fig. 6

Example The wavelength of maximum energy released during an atomic explosion

was 2.89 × 10–10m. What will be the maximum temperature attained ?

2.898×10 −3
Soln. Use 𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑏  T= = 107 K
2.89 × 10 −10

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Now, to obtain spectral distribution of energy, consider only the radiations lying between
wavelength  and +d, be subjected to adiabatic expansion. Let the energy density of
these radiations be 𝑢 𝑑

∴ Total energy (internal energy) of the radiation, U = 𝑢 𝑑V

1
Work done during adiabatic expansion = PdV = 𝑢 𝑑𝑑V
3

From first law of thermodynamics,

𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0

On substitution, we get
1
𝑑(𝑢 𝑑V) + 3
𝑢 𝑑𝑑V =0

1
𝑑𝑢 𝑑V + 𝑢 𝑑 𝑑 V + 𝑢 𝑑dV + 𝑢 𝑑𝑑V = 0
3 
4
𝑑𝑢 𝑑V + 𝑢 𝑑 𝑑 V + 𝑢 𝑑𝑑V = 0
3 
Dividing throughout by 𝑢 𝑑V, above equation reduces to:

𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑 4 𝑑𝑉
+ + =0
𝑢 𝑑 3 𝑉
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Using the fact that = , i.e. 𝑑 changes in the same manner as  does, equation
𝑑 
becomes
𝑑𝑢  𝑑 4 𝑑𝑉
𝑢
+ 
+3 𝑉 =0

Now, using eqn. (17), above equation becomes

𝑑𝑢 𝑑
+ 5 =0
𝑢 

On integration,

𝑢 5 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Or using (18)
𝑢 T −5 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (19)

The constant is chosen such that it remains same during adiabatic expansion.

From equation (18), the constant would be a function of (T), giving the following form of
spectral distribution

𝑢 5 = 𝐶′𝐹(T)

∴ 𝑢 𝑑 = 𝐶 ′ −5 𝐹(T)𝑑

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Since, emissive power is proportional to energy density,

Therefore, 𝐸 𝑑 = 𝐶−5 𝐹(T)𝑑 (20)

This equation is known as Wien’s Distribution Law.

The alternative form of Wien‘s Distribution Law may be written using equation (18)

𝐸 𝑑 = 𝐶T 5 𝐹(T)𝑑

Later on, based on the mechanism of absorption and emission of thermal radiation, Wien
concluded that the function 𝐹(T) should have the form A‘ exp(-B/T), where A‘ and B are
constants.

So, Wien‘s Distribution Law can be written as

𝐸 𝑑 = 𝐴−5 exp(−B/T)𝑑

The experimental measurements done by Lummer and Pringsheim were found to be in

agreement with Wien‘s results in the lower wavelength region but show the deviation in the
longer wavelength region at high temperatures.

In the attempt to explain the black body spectrum, Lord Rayleigh in 1900 made use of
Maxwell-Boltzmann principle of equipartition of energy in his theory which was further
corrected by Jeans.

Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien (13 January 1864 – 30 August 1928) was a
German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's
displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody at any temperature from the emission at
any one reference temperature. In 1896, Wien empirically determined a distribution law of blackbody
radiation, later named after him: Wien's law. Max Planck, who was a colleague of Wien's, did not believe
in empirical laws, so using electromagnetism and thermodynamics, he proposed a theoretical basis for
Wien's law, which became the Wien-Planck law. However, Wien's law was only valid at high frequencies,
and underestimated the radiancy at low frequencies. Planck corrected the theory and proposed what is
now called Planck's law, which led to the development of quantum theory. However, Wien's other
empirical formulation , called Wien's displacement law, is still very useful, as it relates the peak
wavelength emitted by a body (λmax), to the temperature of the body.
While studying streams of ionized gas, Wien, in 1898, identified a positive particle equal in mass to
the hydrogen atom. Wien laid the foundation of mass spectrometry. J. J. Thomson refined Wien's
apparatus and conducted further experiments in 1913 then, after work by Ernest Rutherford in 1919,
Wien's particle was accepted and named the proton. In 1911, Wien was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics "for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat.‖

[Source:-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien]
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 Classical Theory of Radiation

7.2 Rayleigh- Jeans Law

In this theory, the main focus was to understand nature of thermal radiations enclosed in an
enclosure having perfectly reflecting walls. According to electromagnetic theory, the
radiations in the form of waves travel in all possible directions in the enclosure and form
standing waves having nodes at the wall of the enclosure. For the node to occur at the
walls, the pathlength in any direction must be an integral multiple of half-wavelengths. If
the enclosure under consideration is a cube of dimension L, then the conditions for standing
waves in x, y and z directions become

2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝐿
𝑛𝑥 = , 𝑛𝑦 = , 𝑛𝑧 =
  

where (𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) are integers and  is the wavelength of standing wave in the enclosure.

For a standing wave in arbitrary direction, the following condition holds

𝑛𝑥
2𝐿 2
𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 = 𝑛𝑦 = 0, 1, 2, 3,…. (21)

𝑛𝑧

It should be noted that only one or two n‘s can be equal to zero at a same time. However,
all of them can‘t be zero at the same time as that would correspond to the situation where
there is no wave. Each of the possible (𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) set corresponds to a mode of vibration.

2𝐿
Let

=𝑛 , then equation (21) becomes

𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 = 𝑛2 (22)

Next step is to count number of standing waves Nd in the enclosure whose wavelengths
lie between  and +d. That can be done by counting the number of permissible sets
(𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) that yield wavelengths in this interval. Let us imagine a n- space with radius n
and coordinate axes as 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑧 as shown in fig. 9. The various possible (𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) are
plotted in the form of small cubes and it can be concluded that as only positive integral
values are meaningful, so only octant of the sphere will contribute to the allowed number of
modes of vibration.

∴ Total number of allowed modes of vibration= Volume of octant

1 4𝜋
i.e. 𝑁= 8 3
𝑛3

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

From equation (21) and (22)

1 4𝜋 2𝐿 3 4𝜋𝐿3
𝑁= × = (23)
8 3  3 3

Now, differentiating equation (23), to obtain number of

modes in wavelength range  and +d,

4𝜋𝑉
𝑁 𝑑 = 𝑑
4

where V = L3 , denotes the volume of the enclosure.

Fig.9: Modes of vibration in n-space

[Source:https://vvvv.org/blog/polar-
spherical-and-geographic-coordinates]

It may be recalled that the thermal radiations under consideration are electromagnetic
waves. So, being transverse in nature, there exist two independent states of polarization.
Hence, the above equation is modified to

8𝜋𝑉
𝑁 𝑑 = 𝑑 (24)
4

*As it is earlier discussed that Rayleigh-Jeans law is based on principle of equipartition of

energy, so the average energy for each vibrational mode = kBT

∴ Using equation (24), energy density within the wavelength range  and +d is given by

𝑢 𝑑 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑁 𝑑

8𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑢 𝑑 = 𝑑
4

This expression is known as Rayleigh-Jeans Law.

𝑐
Using the relation  = , the above relation may be written in terms of frequency as


8𝜋 2 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇
𝑢 𝑑 = 𝑐3
𝑑

This theoretical law was found to be in well agreement to the experimental results for longer
wavelengths. However, at shorter wavelengths or higher frequencies, this law deviates from
experimental results.

According to this law, energy density of blackbody radiation increases as 2 infinitely, which
is impossible. Hence, this law is also known as ultraviolet catastrophe.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

From the above discussion, it may be concluded that either of the classical theory is not
sufficient to describe the spectral distribution of blackbody in the complete wavelength or
frequency. While Wien‘s theory was applicable for high frequency range, Rayleigh-Jeans
theory was applicable for low frequency range. So, there was need to develop a new theory
which describes the complete spectrum of blackbody. In attempt to develop new theory,
Max Planck in 1900 suggested the idea of energy quantization. This attempt, later on,
became the foundation of a new branch of physics, Quantum Mechanics.

For more details regarding Planck‘s theory, refer to e-lesson on ―Planck‘s explanation of
black body radiation‖ by Dr. Seema Vats, already available on the website of ILLL.

Lord Rayleigh Sir James Hopwood Jeans

John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was
a physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the phenomenon now called Rayleigh
scattering, which can be used to explain why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of
the surface waves now known as Rayleigh waves.

Sir James Hopwood Jeans (Sept. 11, 1877— Sept. 16, 1946), English physicist and
mathematician was the first to propose that matter is continuously created throughout
the universe. He made other innovations in astronomical theory but is perhaps best known as a
writer of popular books about astronomy. Jeans applied mathematics to problems in
thermodynamics and radiant heat and wrote on other aspects of radiation.

In an 1889 paper on the character of the complete radiation at the given temperature, Rayleigh
defines complete radiation (black-body radiation) as radiation that, in a steady state, exists in a
sealed enclosure whose walls is impervious to radiation and is maintained at a given temperature.
Previously, in 1862, Gustav R. Kirchoff first gave a similar definition of black-body radiation.
Rayleigh derived his law of black-body radiation by assuming that standing waves in a cavity all
have the same energy; he then divided the spectrum into small frequency regions and determined
the number of waves with their periods in a given interval. James Jeans corrected the missing
proportionality constant and published the results as the Rayleigh-Jeans law. Experimentally it was
valid for long wavelengths—in contrast to Wien‘s law that was valid for short wavelengths. In
1901, Planck published his law based on the quantum of energy; this assumption provided a law
that was experimentally verified for black-body radiation as both long and short wavelengths.

[Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh
http://www.osaopn.org/home/articles/volume_20/issue_6/features/lord_rayleigh_a_scientific_life/
https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Jeans]
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 Classical Theory of Radiation

8. Summary

 The emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles is called

radiation. Depending upon the interaction of radiation with matter, they may be
ionizing or non- ionizing.

 Thermal radiation is the non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation and produces

sensation of hotness. Being an electromagnetic wave, it follows the law of reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.

 Blackbody radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body held at

constant, uniform temperature. It also completely absorbs the radiation incident on
it. It can be constructed by placing a small hole in hollow cavity.

 The ratio of the spectral emissive power to the spectral absorptive power for a
particular wavelength is the same for all bodies at the same temperature and is
equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature. This is
known as Kirchhoff‘s law. This law verifies that a good absorbers of radiation are
good emitter also.

 The pressure exerted by electromagnetic radiations on any surface is known as

radiation pressure. For normal incidence, the radiation pressure is equal to energy
density whereas, for diffuse incidence it is just one-third of energy density.

 The energy radiated by an object per second per unit area is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature. This is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law.

 During adiabatic expansion of a blackbody, the quantity 𝑉 1/3 𝑇 remains constant.

 Wien‘s distribution law was based on adiabatic expansion of radiations. Using this
thermodynamics of radiation, he calculated the change in wavelength of radiation
between two reflections and also calculated number of reflections per second.

 Wien‘s distribution law was found to be in agreement with experimental results in the
lower wavelength region but deviates in the long wavelength region at high
temperatures.

 Rayleigh-Jeans theory was based on Maxwell-Boltzmann principle of equipartition of

energy. He assumed formation of standing waves in the enclosure and calculated
allowed modes of vibration.

 This theoretical law was found to be in well agreement to the experimental results
for longer wavelengths but deviates at shorter wavelengths, also known as
ultraviolet catastrophe.
 Max Planck suggested the idea of energy quantization which explained the entire
range of blackbody spectrum.

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

9. Exercises

9.1 Multiple Choice Questions

(1) Which of the following is an example of ionizing radiation?

a. Visible rays b. X-rays
c. Microwaves d. Infra-red rays

(2) Which of the following statement is not true for thermal radiation?
a. It is the non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.
b. It can travel through empty space.
c. It does not undergo interference phenomenon.
d. It obeys laws of reflection and refraction.

(3) What is the unit of total emissive power?

a. Jm-3 b. Jm-2K-1
-2 -1
c. Jm s d. unitless

(4) Which of the following is the correct expression for pressure exerted by diffuse
radiation?
a. 𝑃=𝑢 b. 𝑃 = 𝑢2
𝑢 𝑢
c. 𝑃=2 d. 𝑃=3

(5) Who gave the theoretical law for spectral distribution of radiation based on
adiabatic expansion of blackbody radiation?
a. Kirchhoff b. Stefan- Boltzmann
c. Wein d. Rayleigh-Jeans

(6) According to Wien's displacement law, when the temperature of a blackbody

radiator increases, how does the peak of the radiation curve shift?
a. shifts to longer wavelength b. shifts to shorter wavelength
c. does not shift d. can‘t say

(7) The SI unit for Stefan‘s constant is

a. Wm-2 b. Wm2K-4
-2 -4
c. Wm K d. Wm-2 s-2K-4

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 Classical Theory of Radiation

Answers:

Answer Justification

(1) b as other type of radiations are non-ionizing one.

(2) c Thermal radiations, being em radiation, undergo
Interference.
(3) c By definition of emissive power
(4) d
(5) c
(6) b According to Wien's displacement law,
𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(7) c By definition of stefan‘s constant
(8) d

9.2 Subjective Questions

Q1 State Wien‘s Radiation Formula and the Rayleigh-Jean's formula. To what extent
they could explain the observed blackbody spectrum?

Q2 What is meant by the "Ultraviolet (UV) catastrophe"?

Q3 A spherical blackbody of radius 5 cm is kept at a temperature of 200C. Calculate

the power radiated by the blackbody. Also calculate the wavelength at which
maximum energy is radiated.

Q4 How many independent standing waves in the wavelength range 9.0 and 10.5
mm can occur in a cubical cavity having edge 1m?

Q5 Calculate the wavelength at which human body at temperature 37C radiates

maximum energy? In what part of spectrum does it lie?

Q6 The volume of a cavity, maintained at the temperature of 2000K, is increased

from 10-4 m3 to 10-3 m3 . Calculate the radiation pressure on the cavity.

10. References

 Statistical and Thermal Physics, S. Lokanathan and R.S. Gambhir, PHI

Pvt. Ltd.
 Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, Tata McGraw Hill
 Concepts in Thermal Physics, S.J. Blundell and K.M. Blundell, Oxford
 Thermal Physics, S.C. Garg, R.M. Bansal and C.K.Ghosh, McGraw Hill
 Steps to the Planck Function : A Centenary Reflection, T Richard
Carson, arXiv:astro-ph/0011219v1

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