Srednicki qft2 PDF

NOTES AND SOLUTIONS FOR QUANTUM FIELD THEORY BY MARK SREDNICKI.
ERNEST YEUNG AND ERNEST YEUNG
Solutions for Quantum Field Theory. Mark Srednicki. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN-13 978-0-527-
86449-7 hardback
Contents
Part I Spin Zero 3
1. Attempts at relativistic quantum mechanics 3
Problems 3
2. Lorentz invariance 6
Problems 6
3. Canonical quantization of scalar fields 9
Problems 9
4. The spin-statistics theorem 15
5. The LSZ reduction formula 15
6. Path integrals in quantum mechanics 17
7. The path integral for the harmonic oscillator 19
8. The path integral for free-field theory 21
9. The path integral for interacting field theory 28
10. Scattering amplitudes and the Feynman rules 34
11. Cross sections and decay rates 42
12. Dimensional analysis with ~ = c = 1 48
13. The Lehmann-Källén form of the exact propagator 48
14. Loop corrections to the propagator 49
15. The one-loop correction in Lehmann-Källén form 54
16. Loop corrections to the vertex 54
17. Other 1PI vertices 58
18. Higher-order corrections and renormalizability 59
19. Perturbation theory to all orders 60
20. Two-particle elastic scattering at one loop 60
Problems 60
21. The quantum action 61
Problems 61
22. Continuous symmetries and conserved currents 62
23. Discrete symmetries: P , T , C and Z 64
24. Nonabelian symmetries 64
25. Unstable particles and resonnaces 66
26. Infrared divergences 66
27. Other renormalization schemes 66
28. The renormalization group 66
29. Effective field theory 72
30. Spontaneous symmetry breaking 72
31. Broken symmetry and loop corrections 72
Date: 14 avril 2015.

1991 Mathematics Subject Classification. Quantum Field Theory.
Key words and phrases. Quantum Field Theory, QFT.
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32. Spontaneous breaking of continuous symmetries 72
Part II Spin One Half 72
33. Representations of the Lorentz group 72
Problems 72
34. Left- and right-handed spinor fields 73
Problems 73
35. Manipulating spinor indices 74
Problems 74
36. Lagrangians for spinor fields 75
Problems 75
37. Canonical quantization of spinor fields I 83
38. Spinor technology 83
39. Canonical quantization of spinor fields II 86
40. Parity, time reversal, and charge conjugation 89
Problems 89
41. LSZ reduction for spin-one-half particles 90
42. The free fermion propagator 90
43. The path integral for fermion fields 90
44. Formal development of fermionic path integrals 90
45. The Feynman rules for Dirac fields 90
46. Spin Sums 90
47. Gamma matrix technology 90
48. Spin-averaged cross sections 90
49. The Feynman rules for Majorana fields 90
50. Massless particles and spinor helicity 90
Problems 90
51. Loop corrections in Yukawa theory 91
52. Beta functions in Yukawa theory 91
53. Functional determinants 91
Part III - Spin One 91
54. Maxwell’s equations 91
55. Electrodynamics in Coulomb gauge 91
Problems 91
56. LSZ reduction for photons 95
57. The path integral for photons 96
58. Spinor electrodynamics 96
59. Scattering in spinor electrodynamics 97
60. Spinor helicity for spinor electrodynamics 97
61. Scalar electrodynamics 97
62. Loop corrections in spinor electrodynamics 97
63. The vertex function in spinor electrodynamics 98
64. The magnetic moment of the electron 99
65. Loop corrections in scalar electrodynamics 99
66. Beta functions in quantum electrodynamics 99
67. Ward identities in quantum electrodynamics I 100
68. Ward identities in quantum electrodynamics II 101
69. Nonabelian gauge theory 101
Notes on the material in section 69 101
70. Group representations 102
71. The path integral for nonabelian gauge theory 103
72. The Feynman rules for nonabelian gauge theory 103
73. The beta function in nonabelian gauge theory 104
74. BRST symmetry 104
75. Chiral gauge theories and anomalies 104
76. Anomalies in global symmetries 104
77. Anomalies and the path integral for fermions 104
2
78. Background field gauge 104
79. Gervais-Neveu gauge 104
80. The Feynman rules for N × N matrix fields 104
81. Scattering in quantum chromodynamics 104
82. Wilson loops, lattice theory, and confinement 104
83. Chiral symmetry breaking 104
84. Spontaneous breaking of gauge symmetries 104
85. Spontaneously broken abelian gauge theory 106
86. Spontaneously broken nonabelian gauge theory 106
87. The Standard Model: gauge and Higgs sector 106
88. The Standard Model: lepton sector 106
89. The Standard Model: quark sector 106
90. Electroweak interactions of hadrons 106
91. Neutrino masses 106
92. Solitons and monopoles 106
93. Instantons and theta vacua 106
94. Quarks and theta vacua 106
95. Supersymmetry 106
Part I Spin Zero

1. Attempts at relativistic quantum mechanics
Problems. Solution 1.1. Recall

{αj , αk }ab = 2δ jk δab , {αj , β}ab = 0 (β 2 )ab = δab (1.27)
Suppose β|ψi = λ|ψi
β 2 |ψi = λ2 |ψi = 1|ψi = |ψi λ2 = 1 or λ = ±1
Use hint. T rα12 β = −T rα1 βα1 = −T rα12 β =⇒ T rα12 β = 0
{α1 , α1 }ab = 2(α1 )2ab = 2δab

so (α1 )2 = 1 =⇒ T rβ = 0 P
Since T rβ = 0 and λβ = ±1 and T rβ = λβ , then β must be even-dimensional for a set of ±1’s to sum up
and cancel each other.
Likewise,
αi |ψi = λ|ψi
αi2 |ψi = λαi |ψi = λ2 |ψi = |ψi =⇒ λ = ±1

T rα12 αj = −T rα1 αj α1 = −T rα12 αj =⇒ T rα12 αj = 0 so T r(αj ) = 0
j
So then α even dimensional as well.
Solution 1.2. Recall the position basis Schrödinger equation for n particles.
 
n 2
X n Xj−1
∂ X −~
i~ ψ =  ∇2j + U (xj ) + V (xj − xk ) ψ (1.30)
∂t j=1
2m j=1 k=1
Recall
−~2 2
Z Z
† 1
H= 3
d xa (x) ∇ + U (x) a(x) + d3 xd3 yV (x − y)a† x)a† (y)a(y)a(x) (1.32)
2m 2
Z
|ψ, ti = d3 x1 , . . . , d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . xn , t)a† (x1 ) . . . a† (xn )|0i (1.33)
and
∂
i~ |ψ, ti = H|ψ, ti (1.1)
∂t
3
Also recall the commutation and anticommutation rules:
[a(x), a(x0 )] = 0 {a(x), a(x0 )} = 0
[a† (x), a† (x0 )] = 0 (1.31) {a† (x), a† (x0 )} = 0 (1.38)
† 0 3 † 0 3 0
[a(x), a (x )] = δ (x − x) {a(x), a (x )} = δ (x − x )
Using some shorthand notation,
Z 2 Z
−~ 2
Z
1
H|ψ, ti = d3 xa†x ∇ + Ux ax + d3 xd3 yVx−y a†x a†y ay ax · d3 x1 . . . d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . , xn , t)a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i
2m 2
Now
ax a†x1 . . . a†xn = ((±1)a†x1 ax + δx−x1 )a†x2 . . . a†xn = (±1)a†x1 ((±1)a†x2 ax + δx−x2 )a†x3 . . . a†xn + δx−x1 a†x2 . . . a†xn
If this term is applied to |0i, note ax |0i = 0.
n
X n
Y
ax a†x1 . . . a†xn |0i = (±1)j−1 δx−xj a†xk |0i
j=1 k6=j
For the kinetic and self-potential terms of H|ψ, ti,

2 Z n n
−~ 2
Z X Y
†
3
d xax ∇ + Ux d3 x1 . . . d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . , xn , t) (±1)j−1 δx−xj a†xk |0i
2m j=1 k6=j
R 3
Evaluate d x, in particular, with δx−xj ,
n 2 Z n
X
† −~ 2 Y
axj ∇j + Uxj 3 3
d x1 , . . . , d xn ψ(x1 , . . . , xn , t)(±1) j−1
a†xk |0i
j=1
2m
k6=j
Qn
To (anti)commmute a†xj over to its ordered place in †
k6=j axk (±1)
j−1
, j − 1 (anti)commutations must take
place.
n
~2 2
X Z
=⇒ − ∇j + Uxj d3 x1 , . . . , d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . , xn , t)a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i
j=1
2m
Now, on ax a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i.

Z n
X Z n
Y
d 3
xVx−y a†x a†y ay ax a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i = (±1) j−1 3 † †
d xVx−y ax ay ay δx−xj a†xk |0i =
j=1 k6=j
n
X n
Y
= (±1)j−1 Vxj −y a†xj a†y ay a†xk |0i
j=1 k6=j
Now
n
Y n
X n
Y
ay a†xk |0i = δxk −y (−1)m a†xl |0i
k6=j k6=j l6=j,k
So then
Z Z n
X n
X n
Y
d3 xd3 yVx−y a†x a†y ay ax a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i = d3 y (±1)j−1 Vxj −y a†xj a†y δxk −y (−1)m a†xl |0i =
j=1 k6=j l6=j,k
n X
X n n
Y
= Vxj −xk (±1)j−1+m a†xj a†xk a†xl |0i
j=1 k6=j l6=j,k
Qn
To bring a†xk back in its ordered place with l6=j,k a†xl , then m (anti)commutations must occur (we really are
repeating what we did before, exactly, again). So there’s another factor of (−1)m . Likewise for a†xj , to be back in
its ordered place, another factor of (−1)j−1 results.
n X
X n
=⇒ V (xj − xk )a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i
j=1 k6=j
4
Pn Pn
Now j=1 k6=j counts each unique pair twice so
n X
X n j−1
n X
X
V (xj − xk )a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i = 2 V (xj − xk )a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i
j=1 k6=j j=1 k=1
Z Z
1
d3 xd3 yV (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax d3 x1 , . . . , d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . , xn , t)a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i =
2
=⇒ j−1
n X
X Z
= V (xj − xk ) d3 x1 , . . . , d3 xn ψ(x1 , . . . xn , t)a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i
j=1 k=1
∂
=⇒ i~ |ψ, ti = H|ψ, ti is satisfied.
∂t
Problem 1.3. Show explicitly that [N, H] = 0, where H is given by eq. (1.32) and N by eq. (1.35).
Solution 1.3.

−1 2
Z Z
† 1
3
H = d xa (x) ∇ + U (x) a(x) + d3 xd3 yV (x − y)a† (x)a† (y)a(y)a(x) = (1.32)
2m 2

−1
Z Z
† 1
= d~xax ∇x + Ux ax + d~xd~y V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax (notation)
2m 2
Z Z
†
N= 3
d xa (x)a(x) = d~xa†x ax (notation) (1.33)

−1
Z Z Z Z
1
NH = d~za†z az d~xa†x ∇x + Ux ax + d~za†z az d~xd~y V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax
2m 2
Z
−1
Z Z Z
1
HN = d~xa†x ∇x + Ux ax d~za†z az + d~xd~y V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax d~za†z az
2m 2
Recall
†
[a(x), a(x0 )]± = 0 ax a+ 3
z = ±az ax + δ (x − z)
[a† (x), a† (x0 )]± = 0 [a†x , az ]± = −[az , a†x ]± = −δ 3 (z − x) =⇒ a†x az = ±az a†x − δ 3 (z − x)
−1
[a(x), a† (x0 )]± = δ 3 (x − x0 ) [ ∇x + Ux , a†z ] = [H0x , a†z ] = 0
2m
Now
[H0x , az ] = 0
Treat x, y, z as independent coordinates.
Z Z Z Z Z
d~zd~xa†x H0x ax a†z az = d~zd~x a†z az a†x H0x ax + d~za†z H0z az − d~za†z 0‡az = d~zd~x a†z az a†x H0x ax

Notice even if the anticommutator rules applies, a†z switched with a†x and ax , for a factor of (−1)2 = 1 overall.
Likewise for az with ax and a†x .
V (x − y), a†z = 0
Note that .
[V (x − y), az ] = 0
V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax a†z az = V (x − y)a†x a†y ay (±1)a†z ax + δ(x − z) az =

= V (x − y)a†x a†y (a†z ay + δ(z − y))ax az + V (x − y)a†x a†y ay az δ(x − z)

R Z
d~
z
−−−→ d~za†z V (x − y)a†x a†y az ay ax + V (−xy)a†x a†y ax ay + V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax =
Z
= d~za†z V (x − y)a†x ((±1)az a†y − δ(z − y))ay ax + V (x − y)a†x a†y {ax , ay } =
5
Z Z Z
= d~za†z V (x − y)az a†x a†y ay ax + d~za†z V (x − y)(−δ(z − x))a†y ay ax + d~za†z V (x − y)a†x (−δ(z − y))ay ax )+
+V (x − y)a†x a†y {ax , ay } =

Z
= d~za†z az V (x − y)a†x a†y ay ax + −V (x − y){a†x , a†y }ay ax + V (x − y)a†x a†y {ax , ay }
Z Z
= d~za†z az V (−xy)a†x a†y ay ax + V (x − y)(a†x a†y ax ay − a†y a†x ay ax ) = d~za†z az V (−xy)a†x a†y ay ax
(for both commutation and anticommutator rules)

Then indeed [N, H] = 0.
2. Lorentz invariance
Problems. Problem 2.1. Verify that eq. (2.8) follows from eq. (2.3).
gµν Λµρ Λνσ = gρσ (2.3)
Solution 2.1. Recall µ µ µ .
Λν = δν + δων (2.8)
Then
gµν (δρµ + δρµ )(δσν + δωσν ) = gρσ = gµν (δρµ δσν + δσν δωρµ + δρµ δωσν + δωρµ δωσν )
Neglect 2nd. order infinitesimals: δωρµ δωσν → 0
gρσ = gρσ + gµσδωρµ + gρν δωσν =⇒ gµσ δωρµ = −gρν δωσν
Recall Aik = g il Alk ; gik g kl = δil , and gµσ symmetric.
gµσ g µl δωlρ = −gρν g νm δωmσ = −δρm δωmσ = −δωρσ

gσµ gµl δωlρ = δρl δlρ = δωσρ =⇒ δωσρ = −δωρσ (antisymmetric tensor)
Problem 2.2. Verify that eq. (2.14) follows from U (Λ)−1 U (Λ0 )U (Λ) = U (Λ−1 Λ0 Λ).
Solution 2.2. Λ−1 Λ0 Λ = Λ−1 (1 + δω 0 )Λ = 1 + Λ−1 δω 0 Λ
i i
U (Λ−1 Λ0 Λ) = 1 + (Λ−1 δω 0 Λ)ρσ M ρσ = 1 + (Λ−1 )aρ (δω 0 )ab (Λ)bσ M ρσ
2 2
i
U (Λ0 ) = U (1 + δω 0 ) = 1 + δωµν M µν
2
i
U (Λ)−1 U (Λ0 )U (Λ) = U (Λ)−1 U (Λ) + U (Λ)−1 δωµν M µν U (Λ)
2
Using U (Λ)−1 U (Λ0 )U (Λ) = U (Λ−1 Λ0 Λ),
=⇒ U (Λ−1 )δωµν M µν U (Λ) = δωµν U (Λ−1 )M µν U (Λ) = δωµν (Λ−1 )µρ (Λ)νσ M ρσ
Note that δωµν is just an entry in a rank-2 tensor, a number, and for arbitrary Lorentz transformation, each a
uniquelly determined quantity δωµν . (6 of them for antisymmetric δωµν ).
=⇒ U (Λ−1 )M µν U (Λ) = (Λ−1 )µρ (Λ)νσ M ρσ
Problem 2.3. Verify that eq. (2.16) follows from eq. (2.14).
Solution 2.3. Recall that U (Λ)−1 M µν U (Λ) = Λµρ Λνσ M ρσ (2.14).
i i i i
U (Λ)−1 M µν U (Λ) = (1 − δωab M ab )M µν (1 + δωcd M cd ) = (M µν − δωab M ab M µν )(1 + δωcd M cd ) =
2 2 2 2
i i i
= M µν − δωab M ab M µν + M µν δωcd M cd = M µν + (δωcd M µν M cd − δωab M ab M µν )
2 2 2
We’re only concerned with terms in first order of δω.
Now
[M µν , M ρσ ] = M µν M ρσ − M ρσ M µν
So then running through all the indices and picking out indices we’re interested in (particularly ρ, σ),
δωcd M µν M cd − δωab M ab M µν =⇒ δωρσ M µν M ρσ − δωρσ M ρσ M µν + δωσρ M µν M σρ − δωσρ M σrho M µν =
= 2δωρσ [M µν , M ρσ ]
6
δωρσ = −δωσρ
where we used (antisymmetry).
M ρσ = −M σρ
Now
Λµρ Λνσ M ρσ = Λµa Λνb M ab = (1 + δωaµ )(1 + δωbν )M ab = (1 + δωaµ )(M ab + δωbν M ab ) = M ab + δωlb g νl M ab + δωma g µm M ab
Considering only the first order infinitesimal, (and note that for M ax , M yb , a, b run from 0 to 3),
δωlb g νl M ab + δωma g µm M ab = δωρσ g νρ M aσ + δωσρ g νσ M aρ + δωρσ g µρ M σb + δωσρ g µσ M ρb =
= δωρσ {g µρ M σb − g νρ M aσ + −(g µσ M ρb + g νσ M aρ )}
For a → µ and b → ν,
[M µν , M ρσ ] = i{g µρ M bσ − g νρ M aσ − (g µσ M bρ − g νσ M aρ )} =
=⇒
= i{g µρ M νσ − g νρ M µσ − (g µσ M νρ − g νσ M µρ )}
Note that if a = b, we get 0. If b = µ, a = ν, then
g µρ M µσ − g νρ M νσ − (g µσ M µρ − g νσ M νρ ) = M ρσ − M ρσ − M σρ + M σρ = 0 (modulo a (−1) factor)
If b = ρ, a = σ,
g µρ M ρσ − g νρ M σσ − (g µσ M ρρ − g νσ M σρ ) = g µρ M ρσ − g νσ M ρσ = (g µρ − g νσ )M ρσ
If vice-versa,
g µρ M σσ − g νρ M ρσ − (g µσ M σρ − g νσ M ρρ ) = −g νρ M ρσ − g µσ M σρ = (g µσ − g νρ )M ρσ
Solution 2.4. Recall
[Mµν , M ρσ ] = i{g µρ M νσ − g νρ M µσ − (g µσ M νρ − g νσ M µρ )} (2.16)
[Ji , Jj ] = iijk Jk
[Ji , Kj ] = iijk Kk
[Ki , Kj ] = −iijk Jk (2.17)
Recall Ji ≡ 12 ijk M jk . Then

1 i i
iijk Jk = ikij klm M lm = (δil δjm − δim δjl )M lm = (M ij − M ji ) = iM ij
2 2 2
Recall Ki = M i0 .
[Ki , Kj ] = [M i0 , M j0 ] = i(g ij M 00 − g 0j M i0 − g i0 M 0j + g 00 M ij ) = iM ij
iijk Kk = iijk M k0 .
1 ikl iikl kj l0
[Ji , Kj ] = [ ikl M kl , M j0 ] = [M kl , M j0 ] = g M − g lj M k0 − g k0 M lj + g l0 M kj =

2 2 2
iikl k0 k0 k0
= (M − M ) = iijk M = iijk Kk
2
g k0 = g l0 = 0 for k, l 6= 0.
Solution 2.5. Recall U (Λ)−1 P µ U (Λ) = Λµν P ν (2.15).
Let Λ = 1 + δω.
Keep first order infinitesimals.
i i i i
U (Λ)−1 P µ U (Λ) = (1 − δωab M ab )P µ (1 − δωcd M cd ) = P µ − δωab M ab P µ + P µ δωcd M cd
2 2 2 2
a, b, c, d run from 0 to 3. We sought obtaining term δωρσ
7
i i i i
δωρσ P µ M ρσ + δωσρ P µ M σρ − δωρσ M ρσ P µ − δωσρ M σρ P µ = δωρσ i[P µ , M ρσ ]
2 2 2 2
For the right hand side of (2.15),
Λµν P ν = (1 + δωνµ )P ν = P ν + g µk δωkν P ν
=⇒ δωkν g µk P ν
ν, k run from 0 to 3. Extract terms involving ρ, σ from the sum.
=⇒ g µρ δωρσ P σ + g µσ δωσρ P ρ = δωρσ (g µρ P σ − g µσ P ρ )

So then
[P µ , M µν ] = i(g µσ P ρ − g µρ P σ )
Solution 2.6. Using (2.18): [P µ , M ρσ ] = i(g µσ P ρ − g µρ P σ ),
1 −1
ijk M jk , H = ijk i(g 0k P j − g 0j P k ) = 0 j, k 6= 0

[Ji , H] =
2 2
−1 −1 1
ijk gjl P l , M jk = (assume l = 1, 2, 3) ijk gjl (g lk P j − g lj P k ) = − ijk (−P k − P k ) = iijk P k

[Ji , Pj ] =
2 2 2
[Ki , H] = M i0 , H = − H, M i0 = −i(g 00 P i − G0i P 0 ) = −iP i

[Ki , Pj ] = M i0 , Pj = gjk M i0 , P k = −gjk [P k , M i0 ] = −gjk i(g k0 P i − g ki P 0 ) = iδij H

 
1
 −1 
Note, I use the metric, g µν =  .
 −1 
−1
Problem 2.8.
(a) Let Λ = 1 + δω in eq. (2.26), and show that
[ϕ(x), M µν ] = Lµν ϕ(x), (2.29)
where
~ µν
Lµν ≡(x − xνµ ), (2.30)
i
µν ρσ µν ρσ
(b) Show that [[ϕ(x), M ] , M ] = L L ϕ(x).
(c) Prove the Jacobi identity. [[A, B] , C] + [[B, C], A] + [[C, A], B] = 0. Hint: write out all the commutators.
(d) Use your results from parts (b) and (c) to show that
[ϕ(x), [M µν , M ρσ ]] = (Lµν ρσ − Lρσ Lµν )ϕ(x). (2.31)
(e) Simplify the right-hand side of eq. (2.31) as much as possible.
(f) Use your results from part (e) to verify eq. (2.16), up to the possibility of a term on the right-hand side
that commutes with ϕ(x) and its derivatives. (Such a term, called a central charge, in fact does not arise
for the Lorentz algebra.)
Solution 2.8.
(a) Given U (Λ)−1 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ϕ(Λ−1 x),
Λ = 1 + δω,

−1 i µν iϕ(x) ab
U (Λ) ϕ(x)U (Λ) = (I − δωµν M ) ϕ(x) + δab M =
2~ 2~
=⇒
i iδωµν 1
= ϕ(x) − δωµν M µν ϕ(x) + ϕ(x)M µν + δωµν δωab M µν ϕ(x)M ab
2~ 2~ (2~)2
Keep up to 1st. order terms:
i
= ϕ(x) − δωµν [M µν , ϕ(x)]
~
(µ, ν run through 0, . . . 3 in the summation. There’ll be a term δωνµ M νµ = −δωµν (−M µν ) = δωµν M µν
to be included. Hence, a factor of 2).
Now,
Λ−1 x → (Λ−1 )ρν xν = Λρν xν = (δνρ + δωνρ )xν
8
ϕ(Λ−1 x) = ϕ(xρ + δωνρ xν ' ϕ(xρ ) + δωνρ xν ∂ρ ϕ =
= ϕ(x) + g ρα δωνα xν gρβ ∂ β ϕ = ϕ(x) + gρβ g ρα δωνα xν ∂ β ϕ =
= ϕ(x) + δωνα xν ∂ α ϕ
Let ν, α run through 0 . . . 3, picking out terms involving µ, ν
=⇒ δωµν xµ ∂ ν + δωνµ xν ∂ µ = δωµν (xµ ∂ν − xν ∂ µ )
=⇒ [M µν , ϕ(x)] = i~(xµ ∂ ν − xν ∂ µ )ϕ = −Lµν ϕ(x)
(b)
[[ϕ(x), M µν ] , M ρσ ] = [Lµν ϕ(x), M ρσ ] = Lµν Lρσ ϕ(x) + [Lµν , M ρσ ] ϕ(x) = Lµν Lρσ ϕ(x)
Since M ρσ doesn’t depend on x. (Recall M µν is a hermitian operator that’s a generator of the Lorentz
group.
(c)
[[A, B] , C] + [[B, C] , A] + [[C, A] , B] = [A, B] C − C[A, B] + [B, C]A − A[B, C] + [C, A]B − B[C, A] =
= (AB − BA)C − C(AB − BA) + (BC − CB)A − A(BC − CB) + (CA − AC)B − B(CA − AC) =
ABC − BAC − CAB + CBA + BCA − CBA − ABC + ACB + CAB − ACB − BCA + BAC = 0
(d)
(e)
3. Canonical quantization of scalar fields
Problems. Problem 3.1. Derive eq. (3.29) from eqs. (3.21), (3.24).
Solution 3.1. Using Z
a(k) = d3 xe−ikx [i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x)] =
←→
Z
= i d3 xe−ikx ∂0 ϕ(x) (3.21)
Π(x) = ϕ̇(x) (3.24)
Then we want
[a(k), a(k 0 )] = 0
[a† (k), a† (k 0 )] = 0
[a(k), a† (k 0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 ) (3.29)
I will also use
[ϕ(x, t), ϕ(x0 , t)] = 0
[Π(x, t), Π(x0 , t)] = 0
[ϕ(x, t), Π(x0 , t)] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
Z
0 0
[a(k), a(k 0 )] = d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx+k x ) [i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x), i∂0 ϕ(x0 ) + ωϕ(x0 )]
=⇒ [i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x), i∂0 ϕ(x0 ) + ωϕ(x0 )] = [i∂0 ϕx , i∂0 ϕx0 ] + [ωϕx , i∂0 ϕx0 ] + [i∂0 ϕx , ωϕx0 ] + ω 2 [ϕx , ϕx0 ]
Now [ϕx , ϕx0 ] = 0, and
∂0 ϕ = ∂ϕ/∂t = ϕ̇ = Π, for this particular Lagrangian. We also have
[∂0 ϕx , ∂0 ϕx0 ] = [ϕ̇x , ϕ̇x0 ] = 0

[ϕx , ϕ̇x0 ] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
[ϕ0 ϕx , ϕx0 ] = [ϕ̇x , ϕx0 ] = i − δ 3 (x0 − x) = −iδ 3 (x − x0 )
=⇒ [a(k), a(k 0 )] = 0
†
a (k), a† (k 0 ) =? a† (k) = d3 xeikx [−i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x)] (recall we had imposed the condition, ϕ = ϕ∗ ).
R
Z
0 0
a (k), a† (k 0 ) = [a†k , a†k0 ] = d3 xd3 x0 ei(kx+k x ) [−i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x), −i∂0 ϕ(x0 ) + ωϕ(x0 )] =
†
Z
0 0
= d3 xd3 x0 ei(kx+k x ) [−i∂0 ϕx , −i∂0 ϕx1 ] + [ωϕx , −i∂0 ϕx0 ] + [−i∂0 ϕx , ωϕx0 ] + ω 2 [ϕx , ϕx0 ]

9
Again [ϕx , ϕx0 ] = [ϕ̇x , ϕ̇x0 ] = 0.
[ϕx , ϕ̇x0 ] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
[ϕ̇x , ϕx0 ] = −iδ 3 (x0 − x) = −iδ 3 (x − x0 )
†
a (k), a† (k 0 ) = 0

=⇒
Z
0 0
a(k), a† (k 0 ) = d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx−k x ) (i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x), −i∂0 ϕ(x0 ) + ωϕ(x0 ))

Now
[i∂0 ϕx + ωϕx , −i∂0 ϕx0 + ωϕx0 ] = [∂0 ϕx , ∂0 ϕx0 ] − iω[ϕx , ∂0 ϕx0 ] + iω[∂0 ϕx , ϕx0 ] + ω 2 [ϕx , ϕx0 ] =
= −iω(iδ 3 (x − x0 )) + iω(−iδ 3 (x0 − x)) = 2ωδ 3 (x − x0 )
Z Z
0 0 0
=⇒ a(k), a† (k 0 ) = d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx−k x ) (2ωδ 3 (x − x0 )) = d3 x(2ω)e−i(k−k )x = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 )

Problem 3.2. Use the commutation relations, eq. (3.29), to show explicitly that a state of the form
|k1 . . . kn i ≡ a† (k1 ) . . . a† (kn ) |0i
is an eigenstate of the hamiltonian, eq. (3.30), with eigenvalue ω1 + · · · + ωn . The vacuum |0i is annihilated by
a(k), a(k) |0i , and we take Ω0 = E0 in eq. (3.30).
Solution 3.2. Recall that
[a(k), a(k 0 )] = 0
[a† (k), a† (k 0 )] = 0
[a(k), a† (k 0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 ) (3.29)
Z Z
E0 =Ω0
˜ † (k)a(k) + (E0 − Ω0 )V − ˜ † (k)a(k)
H= dkωa −−−→ dkωa
Letting A0 = (2π)3 2ω, δ 3 (k − k1 ) = δk1 ,

Z
H|k1 . . . kn i = ˜ † (k)a(k)a† (k1 ) . . . a† (kn )|0
dkωa
Consider
a† (k)a(k)a† (k1 ) . . . a† (kn ) = a†k ak a†1 . . . a†n = a†k (a†1 ak + A0 δk1
3
)a†2 . . . a†n = A0 δk1 a†k a†2 . . . a†n + a†k a†1 (a†2 ak + A0 δk2 )a†3 . . . a†n =
= A0 δk1 a†k a†2 . . . a†n + A0 δk2 a†k a†1 a†3 . . . a†n + a†k a†1 a†2 (a†3 ak + A0 δk3 )a†4 . . . a†n = . . .
By induction,
 
n
δkj a†k a†k + a†k a†1 . . . a†n ak  |0i
X Y
=⇒ A0
j=1 l6=k
Note that ak |0i.

So note ω = ω(k) = (k 2 − m2 )1/2 and letting ω(kj ) = ωj ,
 
n n
ωj a†1 . . . a†n |0i = 
X X
H|k1 . . . kn i = ωj  |k1 . . . kn i
j=1 j=1
˜ = d3 k
Note that A0 factor, A0 = (2π)3 2ω canceled by our Lorentz invariant differential, dk (2π)3 2ω in the integration.
−1 −1
Problem 3.3. Use U (Λ) ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ϕ(Λ x) to show that
U (Λ)−1 a(k)U (Λ) = a(Λ−1 k),
U (Λ)−1 a† (k)U (Λ) = a† (Λ−1 k) (3.34)
and hence that
U (Λ)|k1 . . . kn i = |Λk1 . . . Λk2 i, (3.35)
† †
where |k1 . . . kn i = a (k1 . . . a (kn )|0i is a state of n particles with momenta k1 , . . . , kn .
10
Solution 3.3. (Incomplete, 20090205) Given U (Λ)−1 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ϕ(Λ−1 x),
Z Z
−1 −1 −ikx
3
[i∂0 ϕ(x) + ωϕ(x)]U (Λ) = d~xe−ikx iU (Λ)−1 ∂0 ϕ(x)U (Λ) + ωU (Λ)−1 ϕ(x)U (Λ) =

U (Λ) a(k)U (Λ) = U (Λ) d xe
Z
= d~xe−ikx iU (Λ)−1 ∂0 ϕ(x)U (Λ) + ωϕ(Λ−1 x)

Now
U (Λ)−1 ∂0 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ∂0 U (Λ)−1 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ∂0 ϕ(Λ−1 x)
So then for the expression before,
Z Z
−1 −1
=⇒= d~xe−ikx i∂0 ϕ(Λ−1 x) + ωϕ(Λ−1 x) = d~xe−i(Λ k)(Λ x) i∂0 ϕ(Λ−1 x) + ωϕ(Λ−1 x) = a(Λ−1 k)

Problem 3.4. Recall that T (a)−1 ϕ(x)T (a) = ϕ(x − a), where T (a) ≡ exp (−iP µ aµ ) is the space-time
translation operator, and P 0 is identified as the hamiltonian H.
(a) Let aµ be infinitesimal, and derive an expression for [P µ , ϕ(x)].
(b) Show that the time component of your result is equivalent to the Heisenberg equation of motion ϕ̇ = i[H, ϕ].
(c) For a free field, use the Heisenberg equation to derive the Klein-Gordon equation.
(d) define a spatial momentum operator
Z
P ≡ − d3 xΠ(x)∇ϕ(x)
Use the canoncial commutation relations to show that P obeys the relation you derived in part (a).
(e) Express P in terms of a(k) and a† (k).
Solution 3.4. INCOMPLETE (20090218).
(a) Now T (a)−1 ϕ(x)T (a) = ϕ(x − a). T (a) ≡ exp (−iP µ aµ ).
Let aµ be infinitesimal. Then
T (a)−1 ϕ(x)T (a) = (1 + iP µ aµ )ϕ(x)(1 − iP µ aµ ) = ϕ(x) + iP µ aµ ϕ(x) − iϕ(x)P µ aµ = ϕ(x) + (∂ µ ϕ)aµ
(keep up to O(aµ ) terms)
=⇒ i[P µ , ϕ(x)] = ∂ µ ϕ
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Problem 3.5. Consider a complex (that is, nonhermitian) scalar field ϕ with lagrangian density
L = −∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ† ϕ + Ω0 . (3.37)
(a) Show that ϕ obeys the Klein-Gordon equation.
(b) Treat ϕ and ϕ† as independent fields, and find the conjugate momentum for each. Compute the hamilton-
ian density in terms of these conjugate momenta and the fields themselves (but not their time derivatives).
(c) Write the mode expansion of ϕ as
Z
˜
ϕ(x) = dk[a(k)e ikx
+ b† (k)e−ikx ]. (3.38)
(d) Assuming canonical commutation rleations for the fields and their conjugate momenta, find the commu-
tation relations obeyed by a(k) and b(k) and their hermitian conjugates.
(e) Express the hamiltonian in terms of a(k) and b(k) and their hermitian conjugates. What value must Ω0
have in order for the ground state to have zero energy?
Solution 3.5.
(a) The action is Z Z
S = d L = d4 x(−∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ† ϕ + Ω0 )
4
Z
=⇒ δS = d4 x(−∂ µ δϕ† ∂µ ϕ − ∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ δϕ − m2 δϕ† ϕ − m2 ϕ† δϕ)
11
From integration by parts,
Z Z Z
†
4 µ
d x∂ δϕ ∂µ ϕ = (dS · δϕ )∂µ ϕ − d4 xδϕ† ∂ µ ∂µ ϕ
†
∂Ω
Z Z Z
d4 x∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ δϕ = (dS · δϕ)∂ µ ϕ† − d4 xδϕ∂µ ∂ µ ϕ†
∂Ω
Z
=⇒ δS = d4 x{(∂ µ ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ)δϕ† + (∂µ ∂ µ ϕ† − m2 ϕ† )δϕ} = 0 (extremize action)
We obtain Klein-Gordon:
=⇒ (∂ µ ∂µ − m2 )ϕ = (∂µ ∂ µ − m2 )ϕ† = 0
If you wanted to make this explicit, note that δϕ + δϕ† = 2<(δϕ), or assume treat ϕ, ϕ† as independent
(which we assume in the next part).
(b) ∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ includes ϕ̇† ϕ̇ term in the sum.
In Srednicki’s notation, ∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ = −ϕ̇† ϕ̇ + ∇ϕ† · ∇ϕ.
The conjugate momenta are
∂L
Πϕ = = ϕ̇†
∂ ϕ̇
Πϕ† = ϕ̇
Recall H = Πϕ̇ − L, definition of Hamiltonian.
H = Πϕ ϕ̇ + Πϕ† ϕ˙† − −∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ† ϕ + Ω0 = +Πϕ Πϕ† + Πϕ† Πϕ + ∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ + m2 ϕ† ϕ − Ω0 =

= Πϕ Πϕ† + ∇ϕ† · ∇ϕ + m2 ϕ† ϕ − Ω0
(c) Writing the mode expansion of ϕ as

Z Z
ϕ(x) = dk[a(k)e
f ikx f k eikx + b† e−ikx )
+ b† (k)e−ikx ] = dk(a k
Then Z
ϕ† = ˜ † e−ikx + bk eikx )
dk(a k
Z
ϕ̇ = ˜ k (−iω)eikx + b† (iω)e−ikx )
dk(a k
Z
ϕ̇† = ˜ † (iω)e−ikx + bk (−iω)eikx
dk(a k
Z Z Z Z Z
−ik0 x −ik0 x 0
3
d xe †
ϕ (x) = d xe3
k̃(a†k e−ikx + bk e ikx
)= k̃a†k ei(ω+ω )t (2π)3 δ(k 0
+k )+ ˜ k (2π)3 δ(k − k 0 ) =
dkb
a† (−k) 2iωt b(k)

= e +
2π 2ω
Z Z Z Z Z
0 0 0 0
d3 xe−ik x ∂0 ϕ† (x) = d3 xe−ik x k̃(a†k (iω)e−ikx + bk (−iω)eikx ) = i k̃ω d3 x e−ix(k +k) a†k − eix(k−k ) bk =
i 2iωt † i
= e a (−k) − b(k)
2 2
Likewise,
a(k) b† (−k)e2iωt
Z
d3 xe−ikx ϕ(x) = +
2ω 2ω
†
−ia(k) ib (−k)e2iωt
Z Z
d3 xe−ikx ∂0 ϕ(x) = + a(k) = d3 xe−ikx (ωϕ(x) + i∂0 ϕ)
2 2
Z †
=⇒ Z
a (−k) 2iωt b(k)
d3 xe−ikx ϕ† (x) = e + b(k) = d3 xe−ikx (ωϕ† (x) + i∂0 ϕ† (x))
2ω 2ω
†
ia (−k) 2iωt −ib(k)
Z
d3 xe−ikx ∂0 ϕ† (x) = e +
2 2
12
(d) Assume
[ϕ(x, t), ϕ(x0 , t)] = 0

[Π(x, t), Π(x0 , t)] = 0
[ϕ(x, t), Π(x0 , t)] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
In our case ϕ, ϕ† treated as independent fields. Recall Πϕ = −ϕ̇† , Πϕ† = −ϕ̇.
Assume further, treating ϕ, ϕ† as independent,
ϕ(x, t), ϕ† (x0 , t) = 0

[Πϕ (x, t), Πϕ (x0 , t)] = Πϕ† (x, t), Πϕ† (x0 , t) = Πϕ (x, t), Πϕ† (x0 , t) = 0

[ϕ(x, t), Πϕ (x0 , t)] = iδ 3 (x − x0 ), [ϕ† (x, t), Πϕ† (x0 , t)] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
Z Z
0 0
a(k), a† (k 0 ) = d3 x d3 x0 e−ikx eik x [ωϕ(x) + i∂0 ϕ, ωk0 ϕ† (x0 ) − i∂0 ϕ† ] =

Z
0 0
= d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx−k x ) iωk0 [−Πϕ† , ϕ† ] + iω[ϕ(x), Πϕ ] =

Z Z
0 0 0
= d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx−k x ) iωk0 iδ 3 (x0 − x) + −ωδ 3 (x − x0 ) = − d3 xe−i(kx−k x) 2ωk = −(2π)3 (2ω)δ 3 (k − k 0 )

Z Z
0 0
b(k), b† (k 0 ) = 3
d3 x0 e−ikx eik x [ωϕdag (x) + i∂0 ϕ† , ωk0 ϕ(x0 ) − i∂0 ϕ(x0 )] =

d x
Z
0 0
d3 xd3 x0 e−i(kx−k x ) iω[−Πϕ , ϕ] + iω[ϕ† (x), Πϕ† ] =

=
Z Z
3 0 −i(kx−k0 x0 ) 0 0 0
3 3 3
d3 xe−i(kx−k x) 2ω = −(2π)3 (2ω)δ 3 (k − k 0 )

= d xd x e iω iδ (x − x) + iωδ (x − x ) = −
Z [ϕ(x), ϕ(x0 )] = 0
0 0
[a(k), a(k 0 )] = d3 xd3 x0 e−ikx e−ik x [ωϕ(x) + i∂0 ϕ, ωk0 ϕ(x0 ) + i∂0 ϕ(x0 )] = 0 since ∂0 ϕ(x), ∂0 ϕ† (x0 ) = 0

ϕ(x), Πϕ† (x0 ) = 0

†
ϕ (x), ϕ† (x0 ) = 0

Z
0 0
d3 xd3 x0 eikx eik x [ωϕ† (x)i∂0 ϕ† , ωk0 ϕ† (x0 ) − i∂0 ϕ† (x0 )] = 0 since ∂0 ϕ† (x), ∂0 ϕ† (x0 ) = 0
†
a (k), a† (k 0 ) =

†
ϕ (x), Πϕ (x0 ) = 0

Looking at b(k) comprised of ϕ† (x), ∂0 ϕ† (x) and b† (k) comprised of ϕ(x), ∂0 ϕ(x).
Then, likewise with a, a† ,
[b(k), b(k 0 )] = 0
†
b (k), b† (k 0 ) = 0

Z
0 0
[a(k), b(k )] = d3 xd3 x0 e−ikx e−ik x [ωϕ(x) + i∂0 ϕ(x), ωk0 ϕ(x0 ) + i∂0 ϕ(x0 )] = 0
0
since
[ϕ(x), ϕ(x0 )] = 0 [ϕ(x), ∂0 ϕ(x0 )] = ϕ(x), −Πϕ† (x0 ) = 0

[Πϕ (x), Πϕ (x0 )] = 0 [∂0 ϕ(x), ϕ(x0 )] = 0

Likewise for a (k), b† (k 0 ) = 0.
†
It can be shown that

a(k), b† (k 0 ) = 0

†
a (k), b(k 0 ) = 0

because, recall
←→
Z Z Z
a(k) = d3 xe−ikx [ωφ(x) + i∂0 φ] = −i d3 xe−ikx ∂0 φ = d3 xe−ikx [ωφ(x) + i(−Πφ† )]
3 0 ik0 x0 ←
→
Z Z Z
† 0 3 0 ik0 x0 0 0 0 0
b (k ) = d x e [ωφ(x ) − i∂0 φ(x )] = i d x e ∂0 φ(x ) = d3 xeik x [ωφ + iΠφ† ]
0
13
Πφ = −φ̇†
Πφ† = −φ̇
Z Z
0 0
=⇒ a(k), b† (k 0 ) = d3 x d3 x0 eikx eik x [ωφx − iΠφ† (x) , ωφx0 + iΠφ† (x0 ) ] =

Z
0 0
= d3 xd3 x0 eikx eik x (iω[φ(x), Πφ† (x0 )] − iω[Πφ† (x) , φ(x0 )]) = 0
(must assume treating φ, φ† independent: then [φ(x), Πφ† (x0 )] = [φ† (x), Πφ (x)] = 0)
(e)
Z Z
0
~ † · ∇ϕ
H = Πϕ Πϕ† + ∇ϕ ~ + m2 ϕ† ϕ − Ω0 = dk f ((iω 0 )a† 0 e−ik0 x + (−iω 0 )bk0 eik0 x ) dk((−iω)a(k)e
f ikx
+ (iω)b† (k)e−ikx )+
k
Z Z
+ dk{−ika
f † −ikx
e + ikb k e ikx
} · f0 {ik0 ak0 eik0 x − ik0 bk0 e−ik0 x }+
dk
k
Z Z
0
+m 2
dk dk
f f (a† 0 e−ik0 x + bk0 eik0 x )(ak eikx + b† e−ikx ) − Ω0
k k
where ∇ = ∂x ,
ikx = i(−ωt + kj xk ),
∂xj eikx = ikj eikx .
Z
0
H = dk f 0 ωa† 0 ak e−i(k0 −k)x − ω 0 ωbk0 ak ei(k0 +k)x − ω 0 ωa† 0 b† e−i(k0 +k)x + ω 0 ωbk0 b† ei(k0 −k)x }+
f dk{ω
k k k k
Z
0
+ dk f {k · k0 a† ak e−i(k−k0 )x − k · k0 bk ak0 ei(k+k0 )x − k · k0 a† b† 0 e−i(k+k0 )x + k · k0 bk b† 0 ei(k−k0 )x }+
f dk
k k k k
Z
0
+m2 dk f dkf {a† 0 ak e−i(k0 −k)x + bk0 ak ei(k0 +k)x + a† 0 b† e−i(k0 +k)x + bk0 b† ei(k0 −k)x }
k k k k
0
d3 k 0
d3 x = d3 x.
R R R R
Consider doing dk
f
2ω 0 (2π)3
0 0
d3 xe−i(k −k)x i(ω −ω)t
(2π)3 δ 3 (k0 − k) = (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 − k).
R
√=e
2 2
Note how ωk = k + m , for the last step.
Then also
Z
0 0
d3 xei(k +k)x = e−i(ω +ω)t (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 + k) = e−2iωt (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 + k)
Remember, δ 3 (k0 + k) makes k0 = −k.

Likewise, Z
0 0
d3 xei(k −k)x = ei(ω−ω )t (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 − k) = (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 − k)
Z
0 0
d3 xe−i(k +k)x = ei(ω +ω)t (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 + k) = e2iωt (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 + k)
Z Z
H= d3 xH = f ω a† ak − ω bk ak e−2iωt − ω a† b† e2iωt + ω bk b† }+
dk{
2 k 2 2 k k 2 k
2 2 −2iωt k2 a†k b†k0 e2iωt k2 bk b†k

Z
+ f k a† ak + k bk ak0 e
dk{ + + }+
2ω k 2ω 2ω 2ω
Z † † † †
+m2 f ak ak + bk ak e−2iωt + ak bk e2iωt + bk bk } + −Ω0 V
dk{
2ω 2ω 2ω 2ω
Note that
m2 = ω 2 − k2
ω 2 + k2 + m2 = ω 2 + k2 + ω 2 − k2 = 2ω 2
Z
† †
=⇒ H = dkω{a k ak + bk bk } + −Ω0 V
f
Now bk b†k = b†k bk + (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 ) = b†k bk + (2π)3 2ω.

14
Z
† †
H= dkω{ak ak + bk bk } + (0 − Ω0 )V
f
where
d3 k
Z Z Z
3
0 V =dk(2π)
f 2ω 2 = (2π)3
2ω 2
= d3 kωk
(2π)3 2ω
For h0|H|i = 0, then 0 V = Ω0 V or d3 kωk = Ω0 V .
R
V = (2π)3 δ 3 (0) interpreted as volume of space V .

Z Z
1 3 1 −3 3
0 = d kωk = 2 (2π) d kω
(2π)3 2
Twice the zero-point energy was found, due to 2 kinds of particles associated with the ϕ, ϕ† fields.
4. The spin-statistics theorem
Problem 4.1. Verify eq. (4.12). Verify its limit as m → 0.

Solution 4.1. Recall that we defined a nonhermitian field
Z
ϕ† (x, 0) ≡ f ik·x a(k)
dke (4.3)
Z
its Hermitian conjugate ϕ− (x, 0) ≡ f −ik·x a† (k)
dke (4.4)
Time-evolved with H0 :
Z
ϕ+ (x, t) = eiH0 t ϕ+ (x, 0)e−iH0 t = f ikx a(k)
dke
Z
ϕ− (x, t) = eiH0 t ϕ− (x, 0)e−iH0 t = f −ikx a† (k)
dke (4.5)
Z Z
[ϕ+ (x), ϕ− (x0 )]∓ = dk
f f0 ei(kx−k0 x0 ) [a(k), a† (k0 )]∓ =
dk
Z
= dk f0 ei(kx−k0 x0 ) (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 )
f dk (by fundamental canoncial commutation (or anticommutation) relations) =
Z
f ik(x−x0 )
= dke
INCOMPLETE (20090218) Look up how to do modified Bessel functions for functions with symmetry about
k.
5. The LSZ reduction formula
Problem 5.1. Work out the LSZ reduction formula for the complex scalar field that was introduced in problem
3.5. Note that we must specify the type (a or b) of each incoming and outgoing particle.
Solution 5.1.
Recall,
←→
Z Z
† † †
a (k) = 3
d xe ikx
[ωφ (x) − i∂0 φ ] = −i d3 xeikx ∂0 φ†
←→
Z Z
b† (k) = d3 xeikx [ωφ(x) − i∂0 φ(x)] = −i d3 xeikx ∂0 φ(x)
←→
Z Z
−ikx
a(k) = 3
d xe [ωφ(x) + i∂0 φ(x)] = i d3 xe−ikx ∂0 φ
Note there are 2 different types of particles.
Define f1 (k) ∝ exp [−(k − k1 )2 /4σ 2 ] Z
a†1 = d3 kf1 (k)a† (k)
Z
b†2 = d3 kf2 (k)b† (k)
15
Guess, for interacting theory,
|ii = lim a†1 (t)a†2 (t)|0i or

t→−∞
|ii = lim b†1 (t)b†2 (t)|0i or

t→−∞
|ii = lim a†1 (t)b†2 (t)|0i or in general

t→−∞
|ii = lim a†1 (t) . . . a†m (t)b†m+1 (t) . . . b†n (t)|0i

t→−∞
(note [a†1 , b†2 ] = d3 kf1 (k) d3 k 0 f2 (k0 )[a† (k), b† (k 0 )] = 0)

R R
Recall
Z ∞ Z Z
a†1 (+∞) − a†1 (−∞) = dt∂0 a†1 (t)
d kf1 (k) d4 x∂0 (eikx (iωφ† (x) + ∂0 φ† (x))) =
= −i 3
−∞
Z Z Z Z
= −i d kf1 (k) d xe (∂0 + ω )φ (x) = −i d kf1 (k) d4 xeikx (∂02 + k2 + m2 )φ† (x) =
3 4 ikx 2 2 † 3
Z Z
= −i d3 kf1 (k) d4 xeikx (−∂x2 + m2 )φ† (x)
So, taking the limit for f (k),
Z
a†1 (+∞) − a†1 (−∞) = −i d4 xeik1 x (−∂12 + m2 )φ† (x)
For the Hermitian conjugate,
Z ∞ Z Z
a1 (+∞) − a1 (−∞) = dt∂0 a1 (t) = −i d kf1 (k) d4 x∂0 (e−ikx [iωφ(x) − ∂0 φ(x)]) =
3
−∞
Z Z Z Z
−ikx
3
= −i d kf1 (k) d xe4
(−ω − ∂0 )φ = +i d kf1 (k) d4 xe−ikx (k2 + m2 + ∂02 )φ(x) =
2 2 3
Z
= i d4 xe−ik1 x (−∂12 + m2 )φ(x)
Likewise,
Z
b†2 (+∞) − b†2 (−∞) = −i d4 xeik2 x (−∂22 + m2 )φ(x)
Z
b2 (+∞) − b2 (−∞) = i d4 xe−ik2 x (−∂22 + m2 )φ† (x)
Now
hf | = lim h0|a10 (t)a20 (t) or

t→+∞
hf | = lim h0|b10 (t)b20 (t)
t→+∞
hf | = lim h0|a10 (t)b20 (t)
t→+∞
hf | = lim h0|a10 (t) . . . am0 (t)b10 (t) . . . bn0 (t)
t→+∞
Note that the only nontrivial commutation relations are [a(k), a† (k 0 )] = [b(k), b† (k 0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 ). a’s,
b’s commute, essentially.
16
=⇒
hf |ii = h0|T a10 (+∞) . . . am0 (+∞)bm+10 (+∞) . . . bn0 (+∞)a†1 (−∞) . . . a†m (−∞)b†m+1 (−∞) . . . b†n (−∞)|0i =
Z Z
0
= in +n d4 x10 e−ik10 x10 (−∂120 + m2a ) . . . d4 xm0 e−ikm0 xm0 (−∂m 2 2
0 + ma )∗
Z Z
∗ d4 xm+10 e−ikm+10 xm+10 (−∂m+1 2
0 + m 2
b ) . . . d4 xn0 e−ikn0 xn0 (−∂n2 0 + m2b )∗
Z Z
∗ d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2a ) . . . d4 xm eikm xm (−∂m 2
+ m2a )∗
Z Z
d4 xm+1 eikm+1 xm+1 (−∂m+12
+ m2b ) . . . d4 xn eikn xn (−∂n2 + m2b )∗
∗ h0|T φ(x10 ) . . . φ(xm0 )φ† (xm+10 ) . . . φ† (xn0 )φ† (x1 ) . . . φ† (xm )φ(xm+1 ) . . . φ(xn )|0i
e.g. A pair of a and b particles come in; a pair of a and b particles come out.
Z Z
hf |ii = i4 d4 x10 e−ik10 x10 (−∂120 + m2a ) d4 x20 e−ik20 x20 (−∂220 + m2b )∗
Z Z
∗ d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2a ) d4 x2 eik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2b )h0|T φ(x10 )φ† (x20 )φ† (x1 )φ(x2 )|0i
6. Path integrals in quantum mechanics
Problem 6.1.
(a) Find an explicit formula for Dq in eq. (6.9). Your formula should be of the form Dq = CΠN j=1 dqj , where
C is a constant that you should compute.
(b) For the case of a free particle, V (Q) = 0, evaluate the path integral of eq. (6.9) explicitly. Hint: integrate
over q1 , then q2 , etc., and look for a pattern. Express your final answer in terms of q 0 , t0 , q 00 , t00 , and m.
Restore ~ by dimensional analysis.
00 0
(c) Compute hq 00 , t00 |q 0 , t0 i = hq 00 |e−iH(t −t ) |q 0 i by inserting a complete set of momentum eigenstates, and
performing the integral over the momentum. Compare with your result in part (b).
Solution 6.1.
(a) Recall, for δt → 0, use Weyl ordering.
1
N N qj = (qj + qj+1 )
2
Z Y Y dpj ipj (qj+1 −qj ) −iH(pj ,qj )δt
hq 00 , t00 |q 0 , t0 i = dqk e e where q0 = q 0
j=0
2π
k=1
qN +1 = q 00
qj+1 −qj
Define q̇j ≡ δt
j p2
Now H(pj , q j ) only quadratic in pj , H(pj , q j ) = 2m + V (q j ).
Consider
dpj ipj (qj+1 −qj ) −iδt p2j
Z
e e 2m = ∗
2π
R∞ 2
2
using −∞ dxe−Ax +Bx = A
pπ
exp B 2A
!1/2 !
−(qj+1 − qj )2 −m(qj+1 − qj )2 δt
m 1/2
1 π
∗= iδt
exp 4iδt
= exp
2π 2m 2m
2πiδt 2i(δt)2
17
N N 2 !
Z Y m N2+1 Y
im qj+1 − qj
00 00 0 0
=⇒ hq , t |q , t i = dqk exp δt − iδtV (q j ) =
2πiδt j=0
2 δt
k=1
 
Z Y N m N2+1 N
X m
= dqk exp i{ q̇j2 − V (q j )}δt =
2πiδt j=0
2
k=1
N +1 N
" Z 00 #
Z t
m 2
Y
= dqk exp i dtL(q̇(t), q(t))
2πiδt t0
k=1
N
m N2+1 Y
T
So Dq = lim dqk ; δt = N +1 .
N →∞ 2πiδt
k=1
(b) For V = 0,
 
N +1 N N 2
m qj+1 − qj
Z
m 2
Y X
hq 00 , t00 |q 0 , t0 i = dqk exp i δt =
2πiδt j=0
2 δt
k=1
s  
N +1 Y N N
−µ
Z X
= dqk exp  µ(qj+1 − qj )2 
π j=0
k=1
im
where µ = 2δt .
∞ 1/2
−π
Z
α(x−y)2 +β(z−y)2 αβ
Now this will be useful: dye = exp (x − z)2
−∞ α+β α+β
exp (α(x − y)2 + β(z − y) ) = exp (α(x2 − 2xy + y 2 ) + β(z 2 − 2yz + y 2 )) =
2
since
exp (αx2 + βz 2 ) exp ((α + β)y 2 )
−4(xα + βz)2
R∞ r
−∞
dy −π
−−−−−→ exp exp (αx2 + βz 2 ) =
α+β 4(α + β)
−(x2 α2 + β 2 z 2 + 2xαβz) + α2 + x2 + βαx2 + αβz 2 + β 2 z 2
r
−π
= exp =
α+β α+β
βαx2 − 2xαβz + αβz 2
r r
−π −π αβ
= exp = exp (x − z)2
α+β α+β α+β α+β
R∞ 2
2
where my formula, −∞ dxe−Ax +Bx = A
pπ
exp B 4A was used.
Consider the following:
1/2
−π
Z hµ i
2 2
exp (q2 − q0 )2

dq1 exp µ(q2 − q1 ) + µ(q1 − q0 ) =
2µ 2
!1/2
1/2 1/2 2
−π −π −π
Z µ
2 2
µ /2 2
dq2 exp (µ(q3 − q2 ) ) exp (q2 − q0 ) = exp (q3 − q0 ) =
2µ 2 2µ − 3µ
2
3µ/2
2 !1/2
−π 1 hµ i
= exp (q3 − q0 )2
µ 3 3
R Qn−1 P r n−1
n−1 2 −π 1
µ 2

Suppose j=1 dq j exp j=0 µ(q n+1 − qj ) = µ n exp n (qn − q0 ) .
  s
n n n+1
−π
Z Y Z
X
2 µ(qn+1 −qn ) 2 1 hµ i
dqj exp  µ(qj+1 − qj ) = dqn e exp (qn − q0 )2 =
j=1 j=0
µ n n
s n−1 s s n
−π 1 −π µ1/n 2 −π 1 µ 2
= exp n+1 (qn+1 − q0 ) = exp (qn+1 − q0 )
n µ n+1

µ n n
µ n+1 n+1
18
Then by induction,
s   s s
N +1 Z YN N N +1 N
−µ X −µ −π 1 µ
dqk exp  µ(qj+1 − qj )2  = exp (qN +1 − q0 )2 =
π j=0
π µ N +1 N +1
k=1
s s
−π 1 µ 2 −im 1 −im 1 2
= exp (qN +1 − q0 ) = exp (qN +1 − q0 )
π N +1 N +1 2πδt N + 1 2δtπ N + 1
r
00 00 0 0 −im −im 2
hq , t |q , t i = exp (qN +1 − q0 )
2T 2T
im T
where µ = 2δt , δt = N +1 . q h i
T = t00 − t ; qN +1 = q , q0 = q 0 . hq 00 , t00 |q 0 , t0 i = 2(t−im
0 00
00 −t0 )π exp
−im
00 0
2(t −t ) (q 00
− q 0 2
)
By dimensional analysis,
s
−im (q 00 − q 0 )2

00 00 0 0 −im
hq , t |q , t i = exp
2~(t00 − t0 )π 2~ t00 − t0
(c) Z Z
00
−t0 ) 00
−t0 )
hq 00 , t00 |q 0 , t0 i = hq 00 |e−iH(t |q 0 i = hq 00 | dp|pihp|e−iH(t dp0 |p0 ihp0 |q 0 i =
00 0 0
eipq e−ip q
Z
00 0 1
dpdp0 √ hp|e−iH(t −t ) |p0 i √
= where hq|pi = √ eipq
2π 2π 2π
ipq 00 −ip0 q 0 0
dpdp ipq00 −ip0 q0 −i (p0 2 (t00 −t0 ))
Z R
e e 00 0
=⇒= dpdp0 hp|e−iH(t −t ) |p0 i = e e e 2m δ(p − p0 )
2π 2π
p2
with H = 2m for the free particle Hamiltonian.
Z Z
1 1
ipq 00 −ipq 0 −i(p2 (t00 −t0 ))/2m00 0 2 00 0
=
dpe e e = dpeip(q −q ) e−ip (t −t )/2m =
2π 2π
=⇒ 00 0 2
s
−im (q 00 − q 0 )2

1 π m(q − q ) −im
r
= i
exp = exp
2π 2m (t00 − t0 ) 2i(t00 − t0 ) 2(t00 − t0 )π 2 t00 − t0
7. The path integral for the harmonic oscillator
Problem 7.1. Starting with eq. (7.12), do the contour integral to verify eq. (7.14).
∞
e−iE(t−t)
Z
dE
(7.12)
−∞ 2π −E 2 + ω 2 − i
Now p p
ω 2 − i − E 2 = ( ω 2 − i − E)( ω 2 − i + E)
On the semicircle C, E = Reiθ . −iE(t − t0 ) = −iR(cos θ + i sin θ)∆t = −iRcθ∆t + Rs(θ)δt.
We see for ∆t > 0, we sought the lower half semicircle,

∆t < 0, we sought the upper half semicircle.
→ 0, due to e−Rs(θ)∆t factor in integrand.

R
For R → ∞, C
 √
(i) e−i(√ ω2 −i)∆t
( −iω∆t
for ∆t > 0 →0 ie
2 ω 2 −i 2ω for ∆t > 0
(7.12) = √
i ω 2 −i∆t
−−−→ ieiω∆t
i e √ for ∆t < 0 2ω for ∆t < 0
2 ω 2 −i
i −iω|t−t0 |
= e
2ω
Problem 7.2. Starting with eq. (7.14), verify eq. (7.13).
Solution 7.2. 20090225 INCOMPLETE
19
Recall
i
G(t − t0 ) = exp (−iω|t − t0 |) (7.14)
2ω
If t 6= t0 , (
−iω −iω(t−t0 )
2 0 2 e if t > t0
∂tt G(t − t ) = −iω iω(t−t0 ) 0
= −ω 2 G
2 e if t < t
Problem 7.3.
(a) Use the Heisenberg equation of motion, Ȧ = i[H, A], to find explicit expressions for Q̇ and Ṗ . Solve these
to get the Heisenberg-picture operators Q(t) and P (t) in terms of the Schrödinger-picture operators Q
and P .
(b) Write the Schrödinger-picture operators Q and P in terms of the creation and annihilation operators a
and a† , where H = ~ω(a† a + 21 ). Then, using your result from part (a), write the Heisenberg-picture
operators Q(t) and P (t) in terms of a and a† .
(c) Using your result from part (b), and a|0i = h0|a† = 0, verify eqs. (7.16) and (7.17).
Solution 7.3.
1
(a) Recall H(P, Q) = 2m P 2 + 12 mω 2 Q2 (the Hamiltonian for the harmonic oscilator).
Recall [Q, P ] = i (canonical commutation relation).
1 1 i
Q̇ = i[H, Q] = i{ [P 2 , Q] + mω 2 [Q2 , Q]} = P [P, Q] + [P, Q]P =
2m 2 2m
i P
= (−iP − iP ) =
2m m
Likewise,
1 i
Ṗ = i[H, P ] = i{ mω 2 (Q[Q, P ] + [Q, P ]Q)} = mω 2 (2iQ) = −mω 2 Q
2 2
So then
Q̈ = −ω 2 Q
P̈ = −ω 2 P
So the form of Q(t).P (t) must be
Q(t) = (aq eiωt + bq e−iωt )
P (t) = (ap eiωt + bp e−iωt )
Note that Q̇ = iω(aq eiωt − bq e−iωt )
I assume the following initial conditions for the Heisenberg representation of Q, P :
Q(0) = aq + bq = Q
P P
Q̇(0) = iω(aq − bq ) = or aq − bq =
m imω
since, for the last statement, Q ought to obey the Heisenberg equation of motion.
Then, it’s easy to solve for aq , bq :
1 P

1 1 aq Q −1 −1 −1 Q 2 Q + imω = aq
= =⇒ = 1 P
1 −1 bq P/imω 2 −1 1 P/imω 2 Q − imω
bq
So
1 P 1 P
Q(t) = Q+ eiωt + Q− e−iωt
2 imω 2 imω
Similarly for P (t),
 
1 mωQ
2 P −

1 1 ap P −1 −1 −1 P i  a
= =⇒ mωQ = = p
−mω 2 Q

1 −1 bp 2 −1 1 − i 1 mωQ bp
2 P + i

1 mωQ 1 mωQ
P (t) = P− eiωt + P+ e−iωt
2 i 2 i
20
(b) Recall r
a + a†

mω0 ip
a= x+ Q= √
2 mω0 2mω0
r √
mω0

mω 0 ip
a† = x− P = √ (a − a† )
2 mω0 i 2
† †
−(a − a ) iωt 1 a + a† a − a†

1 a+a
Q(t) = √ + √ e + √ +√ e−iωt =
2 2mω0 2mω0 2 2mω0 2mω0

1 1 1
= √ a† eiωt + √ ae−iωt = √ (a† eiωt + ae−iωt )
2mω0 2mω0 2mω0
√ √ r r
1 mω0 † mω0 † 1 1 mω0 † 1 mω0
P (t) = √ (a − a ) − √ (a + a ) e + iωt
(a − a ) + (a + a ) e−iωt =
†
2 i 2 i 2 2 i 2 i 2
r
1 mω0
−a† eiωt + ae−iωt

=
i 2
(c)
1
h0|T Q(t1 )Q(t2 )|0i = h0|(a† eiωt1 + ae−iωt1 )(a† eiωt2 + ae−iωt2 )|0i =
2mω0
1 1
= e−iω(t1 −t2 ) = G(t2 − t1 )
2mω0 i
since G(t − t0 ) = 2ω
i
exp (−iω|t − t0 |) (7.14), and
i i
G(t2 − t1 ) = exp (−iω|t2 − t1 |) = exp (−iω(t1 − t2 ))
2ω 2ω
1
h0|T Q(t1 )Q(t2 )Q(t3 )Q(t4 )|0i = h0|Q(t1 )Q(t2 ) (a† eiωt3 + ae−iωt3 )eiωt4 |1i =
2mω0
h0|Q(t1 )Q(t2 ) iω(t3 +t4 ) h0|Q(t1 )
= (e |2i + e−iω(t3 −t4 ) |0i = (a† eiωt2 + ae−iωt2 )(eiω(t3 +t4 ) |2i + e−iω(t3 −t4 ) |0i) =
(2mω0 ) (2mω0 )3/2
h0|Q(t1 ) iω(t3 +t4 −t2 ) 1
= (e |1i + e−iω(t3 −t4 −t2 ) |1i) = (eiω(t3 +t4 −t2 −t1 ) + e−iω(t3 −t4 −t2 +t1 ) )
(2mω0 )3/2 (2mω0 )2
8. The path integral for free-field theory

~
∂ µ = (−∂t , ∇)
~
∂µ = (∂t , ∇)
µ ikx 0 ikx
∂ e = (ik , ik)e
ikx
∂µ e = (−ik 0 , ik)eikx
=⇒ ∂x2 eikx = ∂ µ ∂µ eikx = (k 0 2 − k2 )eikx = −k 2 eikx
2 2 0 2
for k = k − (k ) .
0 0
d4 k (k 2 + m2 )eik(x−x ) d4 k eik(x−x ) →0 4
Z Z
(−∂x2 + m2 )∇(x − x0 ) = = i
−−−→ δ (x − x0 )
(2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i (2π)4 1 − k2 +m 2
d4 k ik(x−x0 )
R
since (2π)4 e is one Dirac delta function, representation.
Solution 8.2. 0
d4 k eik(x−x )
Z
∆(x − x0 ) = (8.11)
(2π) k + m2 − i
4 2
Now
k 2 = k2 − (k 0 )2
2 p p
k 2 + m2 − i = k + m2 − i − (k 0 )2 = ( k2 + m2 − i − k 0 )( k2 + m2 − i + k 0 )
ik(x − x0 ) = i(−k 0 (t − t0 ) + k · (x − x0 )) = −ik 0 τ + ik · (x − x0 )
21
0 0
So from eik(x−x ) , consider e−ik τ .
On semicircle C, let k 0 = Reiθ ,

exp (−iReiθ τ ) = exp (−iR(cos θ + i sin θ)τ ) = exp (−iRc(θ)) exp (R sin θτ )
R
If τ > 0, then for limR→∞
R → 0, C must be in the lower half plane.
If τ < 0, then for limR→∞ → 0, C must be in the upper half plane.
By residue thm.,
√
√

k2 +m2 −iτ
Z
dk0
e −ik0 τ  ie−i
√ if τ > 0 2
ie−i k +m |t−t |
2 0
2√ k2 +m2 −i →0
= −−−→ √
2π k 2 + m2 − i  iei√ k2 +m2 −iτ if τ < 0 2 k2 + m2
2 k2 +m2 −i
2 2 2
Now ω − k = m with ω = ω(k) (by special relativity).
0 0
d3 k eik·(x−x ) e−iω|t−t |
Z Z
=⇒ ∆(x − x0 ) = i = i f ik·(x−x0 )−iω|t−t0 | =
dke
(2π) 3 2ω
Z Z
0 ik(x−x0 ) 0 f −ik(x−x0 )
= iθ(t − t ) dkef + iθ(t − t) dke
R d3 k 1 ik·(x−x0 )+iω(t−t0 )
where for the 2nd. term of the very last expression, consider τ < 0. Then ∆ = i (2π) 3 2ω e .
By symmetry about (x − x0 ), k → −k0 leaves d3 k unchanged, +1 overall factor.

R
Problem 8.3. Starting with eq. (8.13), verify eq. (8.12). Note that the time derivative in the Klein-Gordon
wave operator can act on either the field (which obeys the Klein-Gordon equation) or the time-ordering step
functions.
Z Z
f ik(x−x0 ) + iθ(t0 − t) dke
∆(x − x0 ) = iθ(t − t0 ) dke f −ik(x−x0 ) (8.13)
Now
∇2 ∆(x − x0 ) = −k2 ∆
Recall
∂x2 = ∇2 − ∂tt2
and k(x − x0 ) = k · (x − x0 ) − ωk (t − t0 ) (Srednicki)
Z Z
0
ik(x−x0 )
∂t ∆ = iδ(t − t0 ) dke
f ik(x−x ) + iθ(t − t0 ) dk(−iω)e
f +
Z Z
+ −iδ(t0 − t) dkef ik(x−x0 ) + iθ(t0 − t) dkef ik(x−x0 )
Z Z Z
∂ 2 ∆ = iδ 0 (t − t0 ) Dkef ik(x−x0 ) + 2iδ(t − t0 ) dk(−iω)e
f ik(x−x0 )
+ iθ(t − t0 ) dk(−ω
f 2 ik(x−x0 )
)e +
tt
Z Z Z
0
+ −iδ (t − t) 0 f ik(x−x0 ) − 2iδ(t0 − t)
dke dk(iω)e
f −ik(x−x0 )
+ iθ(t0 − t) f −ik(x−x0 )
dke
0 0
Note that dθ(tdt−t) = − dθ(t−t
dt
)
= −δ(t − t0 ) = −δ(t0 − t),
0 0
and by my notation, δ (t − t) = dt d
δ(t0 − t) in all cases for this particular problem.
2
Observe a −ω ∆ term.
∂x2 ∆ yields the terms (−k2 + ω 2 )∆ = m2 ∆. So −m2 ∆ will cancel these terms.
2
∂tt ∆ has other terms.
f ≡ d33k .
Note that dk (2π) 2ω
d3 k d3 k ik·(x−x0 )−iω(t−t0 )
Z Z
0 ik(x−x0 ) 0
2ωδ(t − t ) e = δ(t − t ) e
(2π)3 2ω (2π)3
d3 k d3 k −ik(x−x0 ) d3 k −ik·(x−x0 )+iω(t−t0 )

Z Z Z Z
0
2ωδ(t −t) f ik(x−x0 ) = 2ωδ(t0 −t)
dke e ik(x−x0 )
= δ(t 0
−t) e = δ(t 0
−t) e
(2π)3 2ω (2π)3 (2π)3
d3 k
Z Z
f ik(x−x0 ) = iδ(t − t0 )
iδ 0 (t − t0 ) dke
0 0
eik·(x−x )−iω(t−t )
(2π)3 2ω
22
d3 k ik(x−x0 ) d3 k −ik(x−x0 )
Z Z
(−∂x2 + m2 )∆ = δ(t − t0 ) 3
e + δ(t 0
− t) e +
(2π) (2π)3
=⇒ Z Z
f ik(x−x0 ) − iδ 0 (t0 − t) dke
+ iδ 0 (t − t0 ) dke f −ik(x−x0 ) = ∗
If t = t0 , or x = x0 , then ∗ → ∞ due to δ(t − t0 ), δ(t0 − t).

If x 6= x0 , then ∗ = 0 due to δ(t − t0 ), δ(t0 − t). Surely δ 0 (t − t0 ) = δ 0 (t0 − t) = 0 for t 6= t0 since slope is zero for δ
for t 6= t0 .
Now Z
d4 xf (x)δ(x − x0 ) = f (x0 )
R 4
d xf (x)∗ = ?
d3 k ik(x−x0 ) d3 k
Z Z Z
0
dtf (x)δ(t − t0 ) 3
e = f (x, t0 )eik·(x−x ) = f (x, t0 )δ 3 (x − x0 )
(2π) (2π)3
d3 x
R
−−−→ f (x0 )
Likewise
d3 k −ik(x−x0 )
Z Z
0
4
d xf (x)δ(t − t) e = f (x0 )
(2π)3
0 0
e−iω(t−t ) df (x) e−iω(t−t )

−i −iω(t−t0 )
Z Z
d
dtf (x) δ(t − t0 ) = 0 − δ(t − t ){ 0
+ f (x) e }=
dt 2ω dt 2ω 2

df (x) 1 i
=− 0 2ω + 2 f (x, t)
dt t=t
d3 k ik·(x−x0 )
= δ 3 (x − x0 ) so
R
(2π)3 e
f (x0 )

−i df (x)
d3 xδ 3 (x−x0 )
R
+i
−−−−−−−−−−−→ −
2ω dt
x=x0 2
0 0
eiω(t−t ) df (x) eiω(t−t )
Z Z
d f (x)(iω) iω(t−t0 )
dtf (x) δ(t0 − t) = 0 − δ(t0 − t){ + e }=
dt 2ω dt 2ω 2ω
f (x, t0 )i

df (x) 1
=− −
dt t=t0 2ω 2
d3 k −ik·(x−x0 )
= δ 3 (x − x0 ) so
R
(2π)3 e
f (x0 )

df (x)
d3 xδ 3 (x−x0 ) i
R
−i
−−−−−−−−−−−→ + −
dt x=x0 2ω 2
f (x0 ) f (x0 )
Z Z
=⇒ d3 xf (x)(−∂x2 + m2 )∆(x − x0 ) = f (x0 ) + f (x0 ) + 0 − − = f (x0 ) = d4 xf (x)δ(x − x0 )
2 2
So since ∗ = (−∂x2 + m2 )∆(x − x0 ) obeys the properties of a Dirac delta function δ 4 (x − x0 ), it is equal to the
Dirac delta function.
Problem 8.4. Use eqs. (3.19), (3.29), and (5.3) (and its hermitian conjugate) to verify the last line of eq.
(8.15).
Solution 8.4. Recall that Z
ϕ(x) = dk[a(k)e
f ikx
+ a∗ (k)e−ikx ] (3.19)
[a(k), a(k0 )] = 0
[a† (k), a† (k0 )] = 0 a(k)|0i = 0 (5.3)
† 0 3 3 0
[a(k), a (k )] = (2π) 2ωδ (k − k ) (3.29)
Recall
" Z #
i ˜ J(−k)
d4 k J(k) ˜ Z
i

4 3 0 0 0
Z0 (J) = exp = exp d xd x J(x)∆(x − x )J(x ) (8.10)
2 (2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i 2
23
0
d4 k eik(x−x )
Z
0
∆(x − x ) = (8.11)
(2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i
Then recall,
Z
1 δ 1 δ 1 δ
h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = Z0 (J)|J=0 = d4 x0 ∆(x2 − x0 )J(x0 ) Z0 (J)|J=0 =
i δJ(x1 ) i δJ(x2 ) i δJ(x1 )
Z
1 δ J=0 1
= ∆(x2 − x1 ) + d3 x0 ∆(x2 − x0 )J(x0 ) Z0 (J)|J=0 −−−→ ∆(x2 − x1 )
i δJ(x1 ) i
Now what we want is to show the same result but with the mode expansion of the field.

1 δ
Consider {0|T ϕ(x1 )|0i = i δJ(x1 ) Z0 (J) .

J=0
Z
h0|T ϕ(x1 )|0i = h0| dk[a(k)e
f ikx1
+ a∗ (k)e−ikx1 ]|0i = 0
since a(k)|0i; h0|a† (k) = 0.

Then we should get the correct result for the quadratic term:
Z
0
0 ik0 x2 0
h0|T ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x1 )|0i = h0| dk f dk(a(k
f )e + a† (k 0 )e−ik x2 )(a(k)eikx1 + a† (k)e−ikx1 )|0i =
Z
0
i(k0 x2 +−kx1 ) 0
= dk f dkh0|e
f a(k 0 )a(k) + e−i(k x2 −kx1 ) a†k0 ak +
0 0
+ei(k x2 −kx1 ) ak0 a†k + e−i(k x2 +kx1 ) a†k0 a†k |0i
Since ak0 a†k = a†k ak0 + (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 ).
Z
=⇒ f ik(x2 −x1 )
dke
By Time ordering, we require

Z
f ik(x2 −x1 ) if x0 − x0 > 0
dke 2 1
Z
f ik(x1 −x2 ) if x0 − x0 > 0
dke 1 2
So Z Z
h0|T ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x1 )|0i = θ(x02 − x01 ) f ik(x2 −x1 ) + θ(x0 − x0 )
dke f ik(x1 −x2 ) = 1 ∆(x2 − x1 )
dke
1 2
i
So we get back the same result from the mode expansion.
Problem 8.5. The retarded and advanced Green’s functions for the Klein-Gordon wave operator satisfy
∆ret (x − y) = 0 for x0 ≥ y 0 and ∆adv (x − y) = 0 for x0 ≤ y 0 . Find the pole prescriptions on the right-hand side
of eq. (8.11) that yield these Green’s functions.
0
d4 k eik(x−x )
Z
∆(x − x0 ) = (8.11)
(2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i
The rationale for adding −i was to avoid the poles. Then in doing the contour integration in complex k 0 , we can
take the integration across the real axis.
Now k 2 = k2 − (k 0 )2 (Srednicki’s convention)

q q
k 2 + m2 − i = k2 + m2 − i − (k 0 )2 = ( ωk2 − i − k 0 )( ωk2 − i + k 0 ) = (w − k 0 )(w + k 0 )
w in 4th quadrant for ωk2 . −w in 2nd. quadrant.
k(x − y) = k · (x − y) − k 0 (x0 − y 0 )
0
Consider e−ik τ ; τ = x0 − y 0 .
24
If τ > 0, for k 0 = Reiθ = R cos θ + iR sin θ, e−iR cos θτ eR sin θτ . Then close the integration in lower half-plane
(i.e. sin θ < 0).
0 Z ∞ 0
dk 0 e−ik τ
−iwτ
e−ik τ
Z Z
e πi −iwτ 0
0 0
= 2πi = e = dk 2 +
Γ (w − k )(w + k ) 2w w −∞ w − (k 02 ) CR
Z 0
Z
e−ik τ eR sin θτ

0
dk ≤ Rdθ → 0 for sin θ < 0

CR w2 − k 02 2
CR R − w
2

√ 2 √
Z ∞ −ik0 τ −i ωk −i(x0 −y0 ) −i k2 +m2 (x0 −y0 )
0 e πie →0 πie
dk 2 = −−−→ √ for x0 > y0
w − k 02
p
−∞ ωk2 − i k2 + m2
If τ < 0, then close the integration in upper half plane. Then residue k 0 = −w enclosed.
0
√
∞ 2 2
e−ik τ eiwτ −πiei k +m (x0 −y0 )
Z
= 2πi = √
−∞ w2 − k 02 −2w k2 + m2
So finally,
∆ret (x − y) = 0 for x0 ≥ y 0 ,
√
2 2
−πiei k +m (x0 −y0 )
0 0
∆ret (x − y) = θ(y − x ) √ for integration closing the upper half plane
k2 + m2
∆adv (x − y) = 0 for x0 ≤ y 0 ,
√
2 2
πie−i k +m (x0 −y0 )
0 0
∆adv (x − y) = θ(x − y ) √ for integration closing the lower half plane
k2 + m2
√
Consider not appending −i. Then there are poles at w = k2 + m2 , −w.
There are a number of issues to consider:
• We must consider semicircle contour integrals about the poles of infinitesimally small radius.
• What branch are we integrating on, especially on those semicircle integrals around each of the poles?
If τ > 0, for Cδ1 , Cδ2 semicircle integrals around each of the poles enclosing the poles from the upper half,
Z −δ1 −w Z Z w−δ Z ∞
e−iwτ eiwτ
Z Z
= + + + + = (2πi){ + }
Γ CR −∞ Cδ1 −w+δ w+δ 2w 2w
iθ Z 0 iθ
δeiθ e−i(−w+δe )τ eiwτ e−iδe τ δ→0 ieiwτ (−π) eiwτ
Z
idθ = idθ −
− −
→ = −πi
Cδ1 δeiθ (2w − δeiθ ) π 2w − δeiθ 2w 2w
for k 0 = −w + δeiθ .
iθ
idθδeiθ e−i(w+δe )τ δ→0 (−iθ)e−iwτ iπe−iwτ
Z
−
− −
→ =
Cδ2 −δeiθ (2w + δeiθ ) −2w 2w
0 iθ
for k = w + δe .
∞
e−iwτ eiwτ e−iwτ eiwτ
Z
1 1
= (πi){ 1− + 1− } = πi{ + }=
−∞ w 2 w 2 2w 2w
=⇒
πi
=
cos (wτ )
w
As you can see, there are issues with which branch to choose that semicircles Cδ1 , Cδ2 lie on.
If τ > 0, for Cδ1 , Cδ2 semicircle integrals around each of the poles not enclosing the poles from the lower half,
∞
ieiωτ π −iπe−iωτ
Z
+ =0
−∞ 2ω 2ω
∞ −iωτ
eiωτ
Z
e π
= iπ − = sin (ωτ )
−∞ 2ω 2ω ω
25
If τ < 0, for Cδ1 , Cδ2 semicircle integrals around each of the poles enclosing the poles from below the poles,
semicircle in the upper half,
Z ∞
πieiωτ −iπe−iωτ e−iωτ eiωτ
+ + = (2πi){ + }
−∞ 2ω 2ω 2ω 2ω
Z ∞
πi −iωτ 1 iωτ 1 πi −iωτ 3 1
= {e 1+ +e 1− } = (e + eiωτ )
−∞ ω 2 2 ω 2 2
If τ < 0, for Cδ1 , Cδ2 semicircle integrals around each of the poles not enclosing the poles from above the poles,
semicircle in the upper half,
Z ∞
eiωτ iπe−iωτ eiωτ e−iωτ
= −{−πi + } = πi{ − }=
−∞ 2ω 2ω 2ω 2ω
−π
= sin (ωτ )
ω
Solution 8.6. Supposing Z0 (J) = exp iW0 (J), recall, after some algebraic manipulations,
Z
i 4 4 0 0 0
Z0 (J) = exp d xd x J(x)∆(x − x )J(x )
2
Z
1
=⇒ W0 (J) = d4 xd4 x0 J(x)∆(x − x0 )J(x0 )
2
Suppose J(x), a classical source, is a real function.
f ik(x−x0 ) = dk(cos (k(x − x0 )) + i sin (k(x − x0 ))).
R R
Now dke f
Likewise,
Z Z
∆(x − x0 ) = −θ(t − t0 ) dk f sin (k(x − x0 )) + θ(t0 − t) dk f sin (k(x − x0 ))+
Z Z
0 0 0 f cos (k(x − x0 )) =
+ iθ(t − t ) dk cos (k(x − x )) + iθ(t − t) dk
f
Z Z
= (−θ(t − t0 ) + θ(t0 − t)) dk f sin (k(x − x0 )) + i dk f cos (k(x − x0 ))
Z Z
1
=(W0 (J)) = d4 xd4 x0 J(x) dk
f cos (k(x − x0 ))J(x0 )
2
Z Z
1 4 4 0 0 0 f sin (k(x − x0 ))J(x0 )
<(W0 (J)) = d xd x J(x)(−θ(t − t ) + θ(t − t)) dk
2
Problem 8.7. Repeat the analysis of this section for the complex scalar field that was introduced in problem
3.5, and further studied in problem 5.1. Write your source term in the form J † ϕ + Jϕ† , and find an explicit
formula, analogous to eq. (8.10), for Z0 (J † , J). Write down the appropriate generalization of eq. (8.14), and use
it to compute h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i, h0|T ϕ† (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i, and h0|T ϕ† (x1 )ϕ† (x2 )|0i. Then verify your results by using
the method of problem 8.4. Finally, give the appropriate generalization of eq. (8.17).
Solution 8.7.
L = −∂ µ φ† ∂µ φ − m2 φ† φ + Ω0 + J † φ + Jφ†
d4 k h e†
Z Z i
S = i d4 xL = i − φ (k)(k 2
+ m 2 e
)φ(k) + Ω 0
e† (k)φ(k)
φ e + Je† (k)φ(k) + J(k)φ
e †
(k)
(2π)4
R d4 k ikx
where J(x) = (2π) 4e J(k),
e
so that
d4 k ikx e d4 k e e†
Z Z
d4 x
R
† 4 0 −ik0 x e† 0
J(x)φ (x) = e J(k)d k e φ (k ) −−−→ J(k)φ (k)
(2π)8 (2π)4
For the other terms,
d4 k ikx e
Z Z
φ(x) = e φ(k) φ(k)
e = d4 xe−ikx φ(x)
(2π)4
Z
d4 k −ikx e†
Z
φ† (x) = e φ (k) φe† (k) = d4 xeikx φ† (x)
(2π)4
0
e−ikx = e−i(k·x−k0 t) = e−i(k·x)+ik t
26
d4 k d4 k 0
Z Z
0
∂ µ φ† ∂ µ φ = (∂ µ e−ikx )φe† (k) e 0) =
(∂µ eik x )φ(k
(2π)4 (2π)4
Z Z
1 4 0 0 e 0 )e−i(k−k0 )x = 1
e† (k)φ(k e 0 )e−i(k−k0 ) =
= 8
d4
kd k (−iω, −ik)(−iω , ik) φ 8
d4 kd4 k 0 (−ωω 0 + k · k0 )φe† (k)φ(k
(2π) (2π)
Z Z
1 2 e† 1
= 4 2
d k(−ω + k )φ (k)φ(k) =
e d4 k(k 2 φe† (k)φ(k))
e
(2π)4 (2π)4
Drop tilde notation now.
Make this substitute for the integration variable:
J(k)
χ(k) = φ(k) −
k2
+ m2
†
J
χ † = φ† − 2
k + m2
So
J† J†

J J
− χ† + (k 2 + m2 ) χ + 2 + Ω 0 χ †
+ χ + +
k + m2
2 k + m2 k 2 + m2 k 2 + m2
J†

† J †
+J χ + 2 +J χ + 2 =
k + m2 k + m2
χ† J + J † χ J †J χ† J + J † χ J †J J † J + JJ †

† 2 2 † † †
=− χ χ+ 2 + (k + m ) + Ω 0 χ χ + + + (J χ + Jχ ) + =
k + m2 (k 2 + m2 ) k 2 + m2 (k 2 + m2 )2 k 2 + m2
Ω0 JJ †
= (−(k 2 + m2 ) + Ω0 )χ† χ + Ω0 (χ† J + J † χ) + J †
J +
(k 2 + m2 )2 k 2 + m2
Q
Now Dφ ∝ x dφ(x)
φ simply shifted by a constant: Dφ = Dχ.
Suppose the integration over χ simply yields Z0 (0) = h0|0iJ,J † =0 = 1, and neglect terms containing Ω0 (let
Ω0 = 0)
" Z #
e Je† (+k)
d4 k J(k)
Z
Z0 (J † , J) = exp i 4 4 0 0 † 0
= exp i d xd x J(x)∆(x − x )J (x )
(2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i
0
d4 k e−ik(x−x )
where ∆(x − x0 ) =
R
(2π)4 k2 +m2 −i .
Now

1 1 δ δ
h0|T φ† (x1 ) . . . φ(xm ) . . . |0i = δJ(x1 ) . . . δJ † (xm ) Z0 (J † , J) Z0 (J † , J)

= ... †
i J,J † =0 i δJ(x1 ) δJ (xm ) J,J † =0
Z
1 δ
d xJ(x)∆(x − x2 ) Z0 (J † , J)J † ,J=0 =
4

h0|T φ(x1 )φ(x2 )|0i = †
i δJ (x1 )
Z Z
d xJ(x)∆(x − x2 ) ( d4 x0 J(x0 )∆(x0 − x1 )) Z0 (J † , J)J † ,J=0 = 0
4

=
Likewise,
h0|T φ† (x1 )φ† (x2 )|0i = 0
Z
1 δ 1
h0|T φ† (x1 )φ(x2 )|0i = d4 xJ(x)∆(x − x2 ) Z0 (J † , J)J † ,J=0 = ∆(x1 − x2 )

i δJ(x1 ) i
ikx
+ b† (k)e−ikx ].
R
Now φ(x) = dk[a(k)e
f
Immediately,
h0|T φ(x1 )φ(x2 )|0i = h0|T φ† (x1 )φ† (x2 )|0i = 0 since
a(k2 )|0i = h0|b† (k1 )b† (k2 )|0i = h0|a(k1 )b† (k2 )|0i = b(k2 )|0i = h0|b(k1 )a† (k2 )|0i = h0|a† (k1 )a† (k2 )|0i = 0
27
Z
h0|T φ† (x1 )φ(x2 )|0i = h0| dk f 2 (a† (k1 )e−ik1 x1 + b(k1 )eik1 x1 )(a(k2 )eik2 x2 + b† (k2 )e−ik2 x2 )|0i =
f 1 dk
Z
= dk f 2 ei(k1 x1 −k2 x2 ) h0|b(k1 )b† (k2 )|0i
f 1 dk
Recall that i(k1 x1 − k2 x2 ) = i(k1 · x1 − k2 · x2 − (k10 t1 − k20 t2 )) and

[b(k), b† (k 0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k 0 ) so that
h0|b(k1 )b† (k2 )|0i = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k1 − k2 )
Z Z
=⇒ f 1 ei(k1 ·x1 −k1 ·x2 )−i(k10 t1 −k20 t2 ) =
dk f i(k·(x1 −x2 ))−i(k10 t1 −k20 t2 )
dke
Now
0 0
dk 0
d3 k −ik·(x−x0 ) ei(k (t−t ))
Z Z
0
∆(x − x ) = e =
(2π)3 (2π) (k2 + m2 ) − k 02
√ 0
2 2
d3 k −ik·(x−x0 ) ei k +m |t−t |
Z Z
= e { } = i f −ik·(x−x0 ) eiω|t−t0 |
dke
(2π) 3 2ω
where ω 2 − k2 = m2 . Note, from the form of the Lagrangian, ma = mb (mass of particle of type a, is same as
mass of particle of type b).
9. The path integral for interacting field theory
Solution 9.2.
(a)
L = L0 + L1
1 1
L0 = − ∂ µ φ∂µ φ − m2 φ2
2 2
1 1
L1 = − Zλ λφ + Lct = − Zλ λφ4 + Lct
4
24 4!
Recall for the path integral,
d4 xL1 ( 1i δ
) Z (J)
R
Z(J) ∝ ei δJ(x)
0
∞ Z P
R
d4 x −1
24 Zλ λ( i δJ(x) )
1 4 X 1 i
= ei d4 yd4 zJ(y)∆(y − z)J(z)
P! 2
P =0
For V = 1, 1 vertex,
4 Z P
−i
Z
4 1 1 i 4 4
d x Zλ λ δJ(x) d yd zJ(y)∆(y − z)J(z)
24 i P! 2
Consider only diagrams with sources for all legs.
Then P = 4.
We count the number of terms that result in a particular diagram.
4
Rearrange 1i δJ(x) by 4! ways.
Rearrange V ! vertices. V = 1, 1! = 1.
Rearrange 2 sources at end of each propagator, for each δJ(x) . 2!, 2!4 .
Rearrange the propagator themselves. P ! = 4!.
We can rearrange the 4 propagators in 4! ways, all these arrangements duplicated by exchanging the
1 1
derivatives at the vertices. S = 4! symmetry factor. S! = 4! .
However, for some given set of coordinates, y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , 4! ways to choose which propagator is exactly
1
y1 , y2 , y3 , or y4 . 4! · 4! = 1.
4
1 1 1 1
· 4! · 1! · · (2!)4 · 4! · 4! · =1
24 4! 2 4!
28
v v
@
@
@
@
@
v @v
Doing this problem more carefully,

start from the given Lagrangian.
1 1
L0 = − ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ2
2 2
1 4
L1 = − Zλ λϕ + Lct
24
1 1 −1 µ 1
Lct = − (Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ2 = A∂ ϕ∂µ ϕ − Bm2 ϕ2
2 2 2 2
Assuming Zλ = 1 + O(λ2 ),
4 Z 4
−Zλ λ
Z
R
d4 xL1 ( 1i δJx ) 1 1 i
Z1 = ei Z0 ' i d4 x δJ d4 yd4 zJy ∆y−z Jz =
4! i x 4! 2
Z 4
−iZλ λ
Z
4
= d x d4 yJy ∆y−x
4!
with 4! · 24 counting factor matching δJx ’s to propagators.
For ϕϕ → ϕϕ scattering, use 1i δJx1 1i δJx2 1i δJx3 1i δJx4 ,
−iZλ λ −i
Z Z
4 1
h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x3 )ϕ(x4 )|0i ' 4! d x∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x3 −x ∆x4 −x 4 = 4 Zλ λ d4 x∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x3 −x ∆x4 −x
4! i i
Z Z Z Z
−ik3 x3
hf |ii = i 4 4
d x1 e ik1 x1
(−∂12 +m ) 2 4
d x2 e ik2 x2
(−∂22 +m ) 2 4
d x3 e (−∂32 2
+m ) d4 x4 e−ik4 x4 (−∂42 + m2 )·
·h0|T ϕ1 ϕ2 ϕ3 ϕ4 |0i = −iZλ λ(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )

For A, B counterterms, consider P = 2 propagators.
Z 2
−i
Z Z
1 1 i 1 i
Z(J) ' d4 x δJx (−A∂x2 + Bm2 ) δJx · Z0 ' d4 xδJx (−A∂x2 + Bm2 )δJx d4 yd4 zJy ∆y−z Jz =
2 i i 2 2! 2

−1
Z Z Z
i
= d4 xδJx (−A∂x2 + Bm2 ) d4 yJy ∆y−x d4 zd4 wJz ∆z−w Jw =
2 2
Z Z Z
i
=− d x d zJz ∆z−x (−A∂x + Bm ) d4 yJy ∆y−x
4 4 2 2
2
Remember, only consider connected diagrams.
R d4 k eik(y−x) R d4 k (−k2 )eik(y−x)
Also, note that ∂x2 ∆y−x = ∂x2 (2π) 4 k 2 +m2 −i = (2π)4 k2 +m2 −i , so order is important.
−i
Z
1
h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = d4 x∆x2 −x (−A∂x2 + Bm2 )∆x1 −x (for this particular case, this particular order)
2 i2
−i
Z Z Z
1
(1) hf |ii = i2 d4 xeik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2 ) d4 x2 e−ik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2 ) d4 x∆x2 −x (−A∂x2 + Bm2 )∆x1 −x 2 =
2 i
−i
Z Z
4 −ik2 x
= d xe d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−A∂x2 + Bm2 )δ 4 (x1 − x) + . . .
2
R To deal with ∂x2 , use integration
R by parts:
d xe−ik2 x ∂x2 δ 4 (x1 − x) = −k22 d4 xe−ik2 x δ 4 (x1 − x) = −k22 e−ik2 x1
4
Then the right-hand side of Eq. (9) is

−i −i −i
(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 )Ak22 + Bm2 (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 ) = (Ak22 + Bm2 )(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 )
2 2 2
Because of δ 4 (k1 − k2 ), then the results are the same if labels 1,2, switched. Thus, a ×2 counting factor.
29
hf |ii = −i(Ak12 + Bm2 )(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 ) + . . .
-k1 X -
−i(Ak1 + Bm2 )
2
The associated vertex factor is

−iZλ λ
We also need to sprinkle counterterm vertices for each propagator with a factor of −i(Ak12 + Bm2 ).
(b)
(c) A clever way to see this (Arthur Lipstein, Nov. 17, 2008), that tadpoles are canceled, is to note that the
symmetry ϕ → −ϕ. Then h0|ϕ|0i = 0.
Or, note that E = 2P − 4V . For h0|ϕ(x)|0i 6= 0, E = 1, but 1 = 2P − 4V =⇒ 4V + 1 = 2P which is

not possible, for V, P ∈ Z+ . So no counterterm linear in ϕ is needed.
Problem 9.3. Consider a complex scalar field (see problems 3.5, 5.1, and 8.7) with L = L0 + L1 , where
L0 = −∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ† ϕ,
1
L1 = − Zλ λ(ϕ† ϕ)2 + Lct
4
Lct = −(Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ† ϕ
This theory has two kinds of sources, J and J † , and so we need a way to tell which is which when we draw the
diagrams. Rather than labeling the source blobs with a J or J † , we will indicate which is which by putting an
arrow on the attached propagator that points towards the source if it is a J † , and away from the source if it is a
J.
(a) What kind of vertex appears in the diagrams for this theory, and what is the associated vertex factor?
Hint: your answer should involve those arrows!
(b) Ignoring the counterterms, draw all the connected diagrams with 1 ≤ E ≤ 4 and 0 ≤ V ≤ 2, and find
their symmetry factors. Hint: the arrows are important!
Solution 9.3.
(a) Recall Z
† †
R 4
Z0 (J, J † ) = h0|0iJ,J † = DφDφ† ei d x[L0 +Jφ +J φ] =
Z
= exp [i d4 xd4 x0 J(x)∆(x − x0 )J † (x0 )]
Consider Z Z
−1
exp i d4 xL1 = exp i d4 x Zλ λ (φ† φ)2
4
Note that
1 δ 1 δ 1 δ 1 δ notation
φ† (x)φ(x)φ† (x)φ(x) → −−−−−−→ δJx δJx† δJx δJx†
i δJ(x) i δJ † (x) i δJ(x) i δJ † (x)
Consider, as an exercise, that’s not directly related to the problem at hand,

Z Z
δJx
δJx† Z0 = [i d4 x0 Jx0 ∆(x0 − x)]Z0 −−→ i∆(x − x)Z0 + [i d4 x0 ∆(x − x0 )Jx†0 ]Z0
δ †
Z Z Z
Jx †
−−→ [i d x Jx ∆(x − x)]i∆(0)Z0 + i∆(x − x)Z0 + [i d x ∆(x − x )Jx0 ][i d4 x0 Jx0 ∆(x0 − x)]Z0
4 0
0
0 4 0 0
δJ ,J,J † =0
−−x−−−−−→ −(∆(0))(1)
In a sense, I say I can set to as an overall multiplicative factor 1, diagrams that’s closed as a loop.
30
Recall doing the double Taylor series expansion:
" 2 #
−i
Z
4 1 δ 1 δ
exp Zλ λ d x Z0 (J)
4 i δJ(x) i δJ † (x)
∞
" 2 #V X ∞ Z P
−i
Z
†
X 1 4 1 δ 1 δ 1 4 4 †
Z1 (J , J) = Zλ λ d x i d yd zJ(y)∆(y − z)J (z)
V! 4 i δJ(x) i δJ † (x) P!
V =0 P =0
R 4 1 δ 1 δ 2
Consider 1 vertex. −i 4 Z λ λ d x i δJ(x) i δJ † (x)
P
Consider P ! i d yd zJ(y)∆(y − z)J † (z) . For P = 1, applying the vertex gives zero.
1
R 4 4
For P = 2,
−i 1 1 −i
Zλ λ (−1)(∆(0))2 = Zλ λ(∆(0))2
4 −1 2 8
is obtained. Result: closed double loop, figure eight.
For P = 3,
Z Z Z
1
[i d4 y1 d4 z1 Jy1 ∆y1 −z1 Jz†1 ][i d4 y2 d4 z2 Jy2 ∆y2 −z2 Jz†2 ][i d4 y3 d4 z3 Jy3 ∆y3 −z3 Jz†3 ]
3!
Consider only connected diagrams.
δ †
Z Z Z Z Z
Jx † δJx †
−−→ δJx δJx† d y1 Jy1 ∆y1 −x d z2 ∆x−z2 Jz2 d y3 Jy3 ∆y3 −x −−→ ∆(0) d z2 Jz2 d4 y3 Jy3 ∆x−z2 ∆y3 −x
4 4 4 4
Result: closed loop and 2 propagator legs.

For P = 4,
Z Z Z Z Z
−i 4 4 † 4 4 † 4
=⇒ Zλ λ d x d z1 ∆x−z1 Jx1 d y2 Jy2 ∆y2 −x d z3 ∆x−z3 Jz3 d y4 Jy4 ∆y4 −x
4
so we get the vertex, with 4 propagators attached in the following manner:
J J†
y i
@k1
@ k
3
R
@s
@
k2 @ k4
@@
i @y
I
J† J
Note that E = 2P − 4V by induction.

1
Note first the 4! factor, canceling 4! from the 4 propagators, due to matching functional derivatives to
propagators. Then another 2 × 2 factor when using the LSZ formula (see Problem 10.2) on the remaining
propagators (“amputating the external legs”).
The associated vertex factor is −iZλ λ .
(b) See diagram.
Solution 9.4.
R +∞
(a) Given exp W (g, J) = √12π −∞ dx exp −1 1
2 3

2 x + 6 gx + Jx
The trick is to do the following (Arthur Lipstein, Nov. 17, 2008).
Z ∞
1 1 3 1 2
exp W (g, J) = √ exp g (δJ ) dxe− 2 x +Jx
2π 6 −∞
Scratchwork: Z ∞
1 2
Z ∞
1 2 2 √ 2
dxe− 2 x +Jx
= dxe− 2 (x−J) eJ /2
= 2πeJ /2
−∞ −∞
since
2 2
!∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
−e−r
Z Z Z Z
2π

−x2 −x2 −y 2 −r 2
e = dx dye = rdrdϕe = 2π = =π

−∞ −∞ −∞ 0 2 2
0
31
Z ∞ 2 √
e−x = π
−∞
Note also,
1
y = √ (x − J)
2
dx
dy = √
2
∞ ∞
V X P
1 J2

1 3 J 2 /2
X 1 1 3
exp W (g, J) = exp g(δJ ) e = g(δJ )
6 V! 6 P! 2
V =0 P =0
Recall Srednicki, Sec. 9. Follow the development in Sec. 9.

It begins with ϕ3 theory.
Z
i 4 4
Z0 (J) = exp d yd zJ(y)∆(y − z)J(z)
2
∞
" Z 3 #
X 1 iZg g 4 1 δ
Z1 (J) ∝ d x ×
V! 6 i δJ(x)
V =0
∞ Z P
X 1 i
× d4 yd4 zJ(y)∆(y − z)J(z) (9.11)
P! 2
P =0
Most general diagram contributing to Z(J) consists of product of several connected diagrams.
Let CI = particular connected diagram.
Then general diagram is D = S1D I (CI )nI .
Q
nI ∈ Z counts number of CI ’s in D,
SD is additional symmetry factor for D (part of symmetry factor not already accounted for by symmetry
factors included in each of the connected diagrams).
Since propagator and vertex rearrangements within each CI accounted for we only need to consider
exchanged of propagators and vertices among different connected diagrams.
These can leave the entire diagram D unchanged only if (surely the following must be true):
(1) exchange made among different but identical connected diagrams.
(2) exchanges involve all of the propagators and vertices in a given connected diagram (exchanged within
a CI already accounted for)
=⇒ nI !
Y
SD = nI !
I
∞
!
X X 1 Y XY 1 YX 1 Y X
Z1 (J) ∝ D= (CI )nI = (CI )nI ∝ (CI )nI = exp (CI ) = exp Ci
SD nI ! n !
n =0 I
{nI } {nI } I {nI } I I I I I
P
So I claim that Z1 (J) ∝ exp ( I CI ).
Then if we identify
R − z) → 1,
∆(y
i d4 yd4 zJ(y)J(z) → J 2
iZg g → g
3
dx 1i δJ → δJ3
R
P
Then the result of Z1 ∝ e I CI applies here to, since the combinatorics are still the same, i.e., we still
exchange derivatives (δJ )3 at vertex g, we still can exchange (2) sources, J 2 .
Thus in our case,
2 X ∞ ∞ P
1 J2
iV X
1 3 J 1 hg 3
P
Z1 (J) = exp W (g, J) = exp g(δJ ) exp = (δJ ) ∝ e I CI
6 2 V! 6 P! 2
V =0 P =0
P
so W (g, J) = I CI .
A connected diagram is merely a term in the double Taylor expansion
1 VI EI
CI = g J
SI
32
So then
X 1
W (g, J) = g V I J EI
SI
I
For each set of terms of some (specified) V vertices, E external sources, there’s the same g V J E factor
for each of these terms. Sum over all connected diagrams with such specified V , E.
X 1 X 1
g VK J EK = g V J E
SK SK
K K
As in Problem 9.2(a), V ! ways to arrange V (δJ )3 ’s, 3! ways to arrange 3 δJ ’s, 2 ways to arrange J’s,
P ! ways to arrange P (J 2 )’s. So the above result, saying that a connected diagram is simply a term of
the form S1I g VI J EI is justified.
So we could impose the requirement of no tadpoles to rearrange our sum so that
∞ X
X ∞
W (g, J) = CV,E g V J E
V =0 E=0
where
X 1
CV,E =
SK
K
P
and K is the sum over all connected diagrams with V vertices and E external sources.
(b)
(c) Now recall
Z ∞
1 −1 2 1 3
expW (g, J) = √ dx exp x + gx + Jx (9.27)
2π −∞ 2 6
Adding a counterterm Y ,
Z +∞
1 −1 2 1 3
exp W (g, J + Y ) = √ dx exp x + gx + Jx + Y x
2π −∞ 2 6
Note

∂ W (g,J+Y ) ∂ ∂
e = eW (g,J+Y ) W (g, J + Y )|J=0 = 0 ⇐⇒ W (g, J + Y )|J=0 = 0
∂J
J=0 ∂J ∂J
are equivalent conditions.
Interpret eW as Z(J)
∞ ∞ P
W (g,J) 1 3
J 2 /2
X 1 hg iX 1 J2 P
Z(J) = e =e 6 g(δJ ) e = (δJ ) 3
∝ e I CI
V! 6 P! 2
V =0 P =0
Recall the development in Sec. 9. Analogously, note
J2 J4 J2 J4

g 3
Z(J) ' 1 + δJ 1+ + + . . . + O(g 2 ) = 1 + + + gJ + O(J 3 )
6 2 4 2 4
=⇒ δJ Z1 |J=0 = g or δJ W |J=0 ∝ g
Thus a counterterm is necessary.
Assuming Y = O(g),
(J + Y )2 (J + Y )4 (J + Y )2 (J + Y )4

g
Z1 (J) ' 1 + δJ3 1+ + =1+ + + g(J + Y )
6 2 4 2 4
δJ Z|J=0 = g + Y = 0
So Y = −g, assuming Y = O(g).
δ δ W (g,J+Y )
The “no tadpole” condition of W (g, J + Y )|J=0 = 0 is equivalent to δJ
δJ e J=0
= 0 or
Z +∞
1 −1 2 1 3
δJ exp W (g, J + Y )|J=0 = √ dx x exp x + gx + Jx + Y x =0
2π −∞ 2 6 J=0
analogous to h0|ϕ(x)|0i = 0.
1 V I EI
Interpreting connected Feynman diagrams as terms of the form CI = SI g J .
33
P∞ P∞ e V E δ
For a W (g, J +Y ) = V =0 E=0 C V,E g J (9.31) s.t. δJ W (g, J + Y )|J=0 = 0, then no connected
Feynman diagrams with tadpoles are included in the sum of connected Feynman diagrams W (g, J + Y ).
X 1 ∞ X
∞ X ∞ X
∞
X 1 V E X
W (g, J + Y ) = g V I J EI = g J = eV,E g V J E
C
SI SK
I V =0 E=0 K V =0 E=0
P
where the sum K is over all connected diagrams with no tadpoles of V vertices, E external sources.
(d)
10. Scattering amplitudes and the Feynman rules
Problem 10.2. Write down the Feynman rules for the complex scalar field of problem 9.3. Remember that
there are two kinds of particles now (which we can think of as positively and negatively charged), and that your
rules must have a way of ditinguishing them. Hint: the most direct approach requires two kinds of arrows:
momentum arrows (as discussed in this section) and what we might call “charge” arrows (as discussed in problem
9.3). Try to find a more elegant approach that requires only one kind of arrow.
Solution 10.2. With an expression for Z(J) = exp iW (J), we can take functional derivatives to compute
vacuum expectation values of time-ordered products of fields.
Recall from Problem 9.3,
Z Z
† i d4 x[L0 +Jϕ† +J † ϕ]
R
† 4 4 0 0 † 0
Z0 (J, J ) = h0|0iJ,J † = DϕDϕ e = exp i d xd x J(x)∆(x − x )J (x )
Z Z
4 4 −1 † 2
exp i d xL1 = exp i d x Zλ λ (ϕ ϕ)
4
Keep in mind the counterterms
Lct = −(Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ† ϕ = −A∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − Bm2 ϕ† ϕ
Recall doing the double Taylor series expansion:
" 2 #
−i
Z
1 1
exp Zλ λ d x4
δJ δ † Z0 (J) = Z(J, J † )
4 i x i Jx
So the path integral, with interaction, for our complex scalar field theory is
∞
" Z 2 # V X
∞ Z P
†
X 1 i 4 1 1 1 4 4 †
Z1 (J, J ) = Zλ λ d x δJ δ † i d yd zJ(y)∆(y − z)J (z)
V! 4 i x i Jx P!
V =0 P =0
Recall, from Problem 8.7,
h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = h0|T ϕ† (x1 )ϕ† (x2 )|0i = 0

since, for example
Z
1
d4 xJ(x)δ(x − x1 ) Z0 (J, J † )J,J † =0 =

h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = δJx†
i 1
Z Z
= ( d4 xJ(x)∆(x − x2 ))( d4 x0 J(x0 )∆(x0 − x1 )) Z0 (J, J † )J,J † =0 = 0

Z −i R 4 1 2
† 1 4 Zλ λ d x i δJx 1i δ †
4
h0|T ϕ (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = δJx1 i d xJ(x)δ(x − x2 ) e J x Z0 (J, J † ) = ∆(x1 − x2 ) + O(λ)
i
To study interaction in this theory, consider the following.

1 1 1 1
h0|T ϕ(x3 )ϕ† (x4 )ϕ† (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = δJx† δJx4 δJx1 δJx† Z(J, J † )

i 3i i i 2 J,J † =0
∞
X 2 !V ∞ Z P
−i
Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i d4 xd4 x0 Jx ∆(x − x0 )Jx†0
X
= δJx† δJx4 δJx1 δJx† Zλ λ d4 z δJz δJz† ·
i 3i i i 2 V! 4 i i P!
V =0 P =0
Remember to restrict ourselves to fully connected diagrams.

34
Consider, for O(λ), λ order,
(i d4 xd4 x0 Jx ∆x−x0 Jx†0 )4

2 R
−i
Z
1 1 1 1 4 1 1
δ † δJ δJ δ † Zλ λ d z δJ δ † ·
i Jx3 i x4 i x1 i Jx2 4 i z i Jz 4!
2
Matching up δJz δJz† with sources, there are 4! ways, if including only connected diagrams.
Matching up δJy1 δJy2 δJx† δJx† , there are 2 · 2 = 4 ways.
1 2
Note that the factors 4 · 4! match up to exactly cancel the factors in the denominators.
Z Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
δ † δJ δJ δ † (−i)Zλ λ d4 z( d4 xJx ∆x−z )( d4 yJy ∆y−z )( d4 x0 ∆z−x0 Jx†0 )( d4 y 0 ∆z−y0 Jy†0 )
i Jx3 i x4 i x1 i Jx2
Z
= −iZλ λ d4 z∆x4 −z ∆z−x3 ∆x1 −z ∆z−x2
Z
† †
=⇒ h0|T ϕ(x3 )ϕ (x4 )ϕ (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = −iZλ λ d4 z∆x4 −z ∆z−x3 ∆x1 −z ∆z−x2 + O(λ2 )
Recall Problem 5.1. LSZ formula for complex scalar field.

Z Z
n0 +n −ik10 x10
hf |ii = i d x e 4
10 + (−∂120 d4 xm0 e−ikm xm0 (−∂m
m2a ) . . . 2 2
0 + ma )·
Z Z
· d4 xm+10 e−ikm+10 xm+10 (−∂m+1 2 2
0 + mb ) . . . d4 xn0 e−ikn0 xn0 (−∂n2 0 + m2b )·
Z Z
4 ik1 x1
· d x1 e (−∂1 + ma ) . . . d4 xm e+ikm xm (−∂m
2 2 2
+ m2a )·
Z Z
· d4 xm+1 eikm+1 xm+1 (−∂m+12
+ m2b ) . . . d4 xn eikn xn (−∂n2 + m2b )·
·h0|T ϕ(x01 ) . . . ϕ(xm0 )ϕ† (x0m+1 ) . . . ϕ† (xn0 )ϕ† (x1 ) . . . ϕ† (xm )ϕ(xm+1 ) . . . ϕ(xn )|0i
In this case, for the vacuum expectation, J, J † = 0, so this condition forces “a”-type particles, arising from ϕ
to be each paired up with “b”-type particles, arising from ϕ† . Then, note that for the LSZ formula, there’s the
condition
m0 + (n − m) = n0 − m0 + m
Also, note that we are attempting a “more elegant approach” because the most direct approach requires two
kinds of arrows: momentum arrows and what we might call “charge” arrows, that distinguish the sources J, J † ,
or, in turn, distinguish between ϕ and ϕ† .
Then I claim that because of the time ordering operator of the vacuum expectation, then a particles could be
distinguished from b particles. For incoming particles, a particles correspond to ϕ† field and b particles correspond
to ϕ field. For outgoing particles, a particles correspond to ϕ field and b particles correspond to ϕ† field.
The term h0|T ϕ(x01 ) . . . ϕ† (x0m+1 ) . . . ϕ† (x1 ) . . . ϕ(xm+1 . . . |0i make it very clear which particles are incoming
and which are outgoing, compelled by the time ordering operator T .
If in this case, y1 , y2 come after x1 , x2 , then for this case, plug the above, very last result into the LSZ formula,
Z Z
hf |ii = (i)4 d4 x3 e−ik3 x3 (−∂32 + m2a ) d4 x4 e−ik4 x4 (−∂42 + m2b )·
Z Z Z
· d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂11 + m2a ) d4 x2 eik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2b )(−i)Zλ λ d4 z∆x4 −z ∆z−x3 ∆x1 −z ∆z−x2
Using (−∂i2 + m2 )∆(xi − y) = δ 4 (xi − y) (i.e. Klein-Gordon wave operator acts on propagator, i.e. propagator
is a Green’s function),
then for instance,
d4 x4 e−ik4 x4
R
(−∂42 + m2b )∆x4 −z = δ 4 (x4 − z) −−−−−−−−−→ e−ik4 z
Z
=⇒ hf |ii = −iZλ λ d4 z exp [(−ik3 − ik4 + ik1 + ik2 )z] = −iZλ λ(2π)4 δ (4) (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )
35
k1 k3
@
R
@
@v
@
@
@
k2 @ k4
I
@
The above, Figure (10), is for 1 a and 1 b particle coming in and a pair of a and b particles coming out, i.e.,
symbolically, ab → ab.
What about 2 other distinct cases, aa → bb and bb → aa? Are those processes allowed?
At the tree level, no.
For aa → bb, we must consider h0|T ϕ† (x3 )ϕ† (x4 )ϕ† (x1 )ϕ† (x2 )|0i.
For bb → aa, we must consider h0|T ϕ(x3 )ϕ(x4 )ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i.
The very first first order term, with no self-loops, with 4 propagators, that includes interaction, is
−i
2 R 4 2
d z∆x−z Jz†
R 4 R 4
4 Zλ λ d x d yJy ∆y−x
Then, when another four functional derivatves are to be applied, of the same kind, the result is 0.
Consider the counterterms A, B.
Lct = −(Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ† ϕ = −A∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − Bm2 ϕ† ϕ

R 4
Z
ei d xLct = exp i d4 x −A∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − Bm2 ϕ† ϕ

Z
4 2 2

= exp −i d x δJx −A∂x + m B δJx†
the last step by integration by parts.R

Consider the first order term in ei Lct . When this acts on 1 propagator, then the result is zero, after applying
the LSZ formula.
Go to 2 propagators.
Z 1 Z 2
−i d4 x −δJx A∂x2 δJx† + m2 BδJx δJx† i d4 yd4 y 0 Jy ∆y−y0 Jy†0

2
For the term involving B,
Z Z Z
=⇒ +i d4 xm2 B d4 y∆x−y Jy† d4 zJz ∆z−x
For the term involving A,
Z Z Z
†
id x(−δJx A∂x ) d yd y Jy ∆y−y Jy0 d zJz ∆z−x = (−iA) d4 xd4 yd4 z∆x−y Jy† Jz ∂x2 ∆z−x
4 2 4 4 0
0
4
Consider Z
i2 d4 x2 e−ik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2a )d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2a )h0|T ϕ(x2 )ϕ† (x1 )|0i
So for the term involving B, applying the LSZ formula,
Z
i
d4 xm2 B∆x−x2 ∆x1 −x =⇒ im2 B(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 )
i2
Then for the term involving A, first applying the functional derivatives due to the LSZ formula,
Z Z
1 1
δJx† δJx1 (−iA) d4 xd4 yd4 z∆x−y Jy† Jz ∂x2 ∆z−x = iA d4 x∆x−x2 ∂x2 ∆x1 −x
i 2i
Z Z
2 4 −ik2 x2 2 2 4 ik1 x1
=⇒ i d x2 e (−∂2 + ma )d x1 e (−∂1 + ma )iA d4 x∆x−x2 ∂x2 ∆x1 −x =
2 2
Z
= −iA d4 xe−ik2 x ∂x2 eik1 x = (−iA)(−k12 )(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 ) = iAk 2 (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 )
So the counterterms must be accounted for in our diagrams by sprinkling vertices of factor i(Ak 2 + Bm2 ) on
each propagator line.
36
The Feynman rules would be the following:
(1) Draw lines (called external lines) for each incoming and each of the outgoing particles.
(2) Leave one end of each external line free, and attach the other to a vertex at which exactly 4 lines meet. In-
clude extra internal lines in order to do this. In this ways, draw all possible diagrams that are topologically
inequivalent.
(3) Assign each line its own four-momentum. The four-momentum of an external line should be the four-
momentum of the corresponding particle.
(4) The time-ordering makes clear which particles are incoming (from the left) and which particles are outgoing
(to the right).
Now there are two type of particles, arising from the two different sources J, J † , resulting in fields ϕ† , ϕ.
Type “a” particle that is incoming is distinguished by the arrow flowing towards the vertex and type “b”
particle that is incoming is distinguished by the arrow flowing away from the vertex.
Again, because of the time-ordering operator, and if, on the diagram, we agree that time flows from left
to right, then it’s clear how to distinguish type “a” particle from type “b” particle just by the momentum
flow. The outgoing a particles have an arrow flowing away from the vertex and the outgoing b particles
have an arrow flowing towards the vertex.
Incoming type “a” particles have a 4-momentum of ka ; outgoing type “a” particles have a 4-momentum
of ka0 . Incoming type “b” particles have a 4-momentum of kb ; outgoing type “b” particles have a 4-
momentum of kb0 .
(5) Thus so, conserve 4-momentum at each vertex.
(6) The value of a diagram consists of the following factors:
for each external line, 1:
for each vertex, −iZλ λ
for each propagator,
Solution 10.3.
Consider using this free field path integral for the real scalar field.
Z
i
Zχ0 (K) = exp d4 xd4 x0 Kx ρx−x0 Kx0
2
which is coming from a source term Kχ0 and free-field Lagrangian.
Consider using this free field path integral for the complex scalar field.
Z
† i 4 4 0 †
Zϕ† 0 (J, J ) = exp d xd x Jx ∆x−x0 Jx0
2
which came originally from a source term J † ϕ + Jϕ† and a Lagrangian.
Z Z Z
4 † 4 1 1 1 4
exp i d xL1 (χ, ϕ, ϕ ) =⇒ exp i d xL1 δK , δJ , δJ † = exp i d xgδK δJ δJ †
i i i
Z
R 4 1 1 1
=⇒ Z = ei d xL1 Zχ0 Zϕ† 0 = 1 + i d4 xg δKx δJx δJx† + O(g 2 ) (Zχ0 Zϕ† 0 )
i i i
R 4 1 1 1
Consider the term i d xg i δKz i δJz i δJz† Zχ0 Zϕ† .
0
Z Z Z
4 1 1 1 4 i 4 4
d zg δKz δJz δJz† Zχ0 Zϕ† 0 = − d zgδKz δJz δJz† 1 + d ud wKu ρu−w Kw ·
i i i 2
Z Z 2 !
i 4 4 † 1 i 4 4 †
· 1+ d xd yJx ∆x−y Jy + d xd yJx ∆x−y Jy + . . .
2 2 2
If δJz δJz† acts on 2i d4 xd4 yJx† ∆x−y Jy , we’d get ∆(0) (i.e. closed loop in the diagram).
R
Z Z Z Z
4 i 4 4 1 i 4 4 † i 4 4 †
− d zgδKz δJz δJz† d ud wKu ρu−w Kw d x1 d y1 Jx1 ∆x1 −y1 Jy1 d x1 d y2 Jx2 ∆x2 −y2 Jy2
2 2 2 2
2 ways to match δJz δJz† with propagator.
2 ways to match δKz with propagator.
37
Symmetry factor of 22 = 4 (as we’ll see from the diagram).
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 4 cancels exactly with the denominator.
Z Z Z Z
i d4 zg d4 wρz−w Kw d4 x1 Jx†1 ∆x1 −z d4 y2 ∆z−y2 Jy2
To compute out a probability amplitude, we’ll ultimately need to strip off the sources.
1 1 1
h0|T χ(x01 )ϕ† (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i = δKx0 δJx1 δJx† Z
i 1 i i 2
Consider the following.
Z Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
δKx0 δJx1 δJx† i d4 zg d4 wρz−w Kw d4 y1 Jy†1 ∆y1 −z d4 y2 ∆z−y2 Jy2 = −i d4 zgρz−x01 ∆x2 −z ∆z−x1
i 1 i i 2
Z Z Z
0 0
hf |ii = i3 d4 x01 e−ik1 x1 (−∂χ2 + m2χ ) d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2ϕ ) d4 x2 e−ik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2ϕ† )h0|T χ(x01 )ϕ† (x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i
Noting that propagators are Green’s functions satisfying Klein-Gordon,

Z
0
=⇒ hf |ii = i d4 zge−ik1 z eik1 z e−ik2 z = ig(2π)4 δ (4) (k1 − k2 − k10 )
I had, as developed fully for my solution in Problem 10.2, denoted the antiparticle corresponding to ϕ† of the
complex scalar field, with momentum −k2 . However, this overall (−1) factor, negative sign, doesn’t change the
fact that both incident particle and antiparticle corresponding to ϕ, ϕ† are moving forward in spacetime.
@
R
@
@ ig
@

Problem 10.4. Consider a real scalar field with L1 = 12 gϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ. Find the associated vertex factor.
Solution 10.4.
Given L1 = 12 gϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ.
R
Consider exp i d4 x (L0 + Jϕ + L1 )
Recall the 4-dim. Fourier transforms:
d4 k ikx
Z Z
ϕ(x) = e ϕ(k), ϕ(k) = d4 xe−ikx ϕ(x) (8.6)
(2π)4
e e
Consider d4 xϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ.

R
Recall
∂ µ = (−∂t , ∇) ∂ µ eikx = (ik 0 , ik)eikx
∂µ = (∂t , ∇) ∂µ eikx = (−ik 0 , ik)eikx
d4 ka ika x d4 kb ikb x
Z Z Z Z 4
4 µ d kc ikc x
=⇒ d x 4
e ϕeka ∂ 4
e ϕ
ekb ∂µ e ϕ
ekc =
(2π) (2π) (2π)4
d4 x d4 kb d4 kc
Z Z Z Z
4
= d k a ϕ
ek ϕ ek (−kb kc )ei(ka +kb +kc )x =
ek ϕ
(2π)4 (2π)4 (2π)4 a b c
Z
1
= d4 ka d4 kb d4 kc δ (4) (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc )ϕ eka ϕ
ekb ϕ
ekc
(2π)8
J(k)
− change of integration variable for L0 + Jϕ only, separately; doesn’t
e
Note that we can do χ
e(k) = ϕ(k)
e k2 +m2
concern us for L1 .
Z
R
d4 xL1
R ig 1
d4 x 12 gϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ
ei = ei d4
ka d4
= expkb d4
kc δ (4)
(k a + kb + k c )(−k b k c ) ϕka
ϕk b
ϕkc
2 (2π)8
e e e
Looking at the form of S0 , and that Z0 (J) = DϕeiS0 .

R
38
d4 k h
Z
1 2 2
i
S0 = − ϕ(k)(k + m )ϕ(−k) + J(k)
e ϕ(−k) + J(−k)
e ϕ(k)
(2π)4
e e e e
2
Consider this functional derivative, but for momentum space: 1i δJ(−k) δ
= 1i δJ−k
So to O(g),
Z
ig 1 1 1 1
d4 ka d4 kb d4 kc δ (4) (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc ) δJ−ka δJ−kb δJ−kc
2 (2π)8 i i i
operate on Z0 .
Need 3 propagators:
3 Z 4 Z 4 Z 4
1 i d k1 J(k
e 1 )J(−k
e 1) d k2 J(k
e 2 )J(−k
e 2) d k3 J(ke 3 )J(−k
e 3)
3! 2 (2π)4 k12 + m2 − i (2π)4 k22 + m2 − i (2π)4 k32 + m2 − i
3! ways to match δJ to propagator, 23 ways for the 3 times to choose which Je of each propagator to act on 2
ways to choose which is kb or kc (indistinguishable).
Z
1 1 Jeka Jekb Jekc
=⇒ ig d4 ka d4 kb d4 kc δ (4) (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc ) 2
(2π)8 (2π) ka + m − i kb + m − i kc + m2 − i
12 2 2 2 2
Let’s examine the LSZ formula for momentum space.

Z
0 0 0
hf |ii = in+n d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2 ) . . . d4 x01 e−ik1 x1 (−∂120 + m2 ) · · · × h0|T ϕ(x1 ) . . . ϕ(x01 ) . . . |0i
R d4 k ikx
Use ϕ(x) = (2π) 4e ϕ(k)
e when considering
Z Z 4
d ka ika x1
d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2 ) e . . . h0|T ϕ(k
e a ) . . . |0i =
(2π)4
Z Z 4
d ka ik1 x1 2
= d4 x1 e (ka + m2 )eika x1 . . . h0|T ϕ(k
e a ) . . . |0i
(2π)4
1
R 4
For incoming particles, (2π) 4 d x1 ei(k1 +ka )x1 = δ (4) (k1 + ka )
−i(k10 −ka
0
)x01
1
d4 x02 = δ (4) (k10 − ka0 )
R
outgoing particles, (2π) 4 1 e
0
=⇒ hf |ii = in+n (k12 + m21 ) . . . (k120 + m210 ) · · · × h0|T ϕ(−k
e e 10 ) . . . |0i
1 ) . . . ϕ(k
So for our case,

hf |ii = i3 (k12 + m2 )(k22 + m2 )(k32 + m2 )h0|T ϕ(−k
e 1 )ϕ(−k
e 2 )ϕ(k
e 3 )|0i
1 1 1
So for our Z1 , we need to further apply i δJ−k3 i δJk2 i δJk1 to bring down T ϕ e−k1 ϕe−k2 ϕ
ek3 .
There are a number of ways to match these functional derivatives to the external sources, external legs, i.e. “am-
putate the legs,” distinguishable by (−kb kc ) factor.
a 1 1 2 2 3 3
b 2 3 1 3 1 2
c 3 2 3 1 2 1
−(−k2 )k3 −(−k1 )k3 −(−k1 )(−k2 )
There are actually 3 distinguishable arrangements, not 3!, as the particles associated with kb , kc should be
indistinguishable.
=⇒ igδ (4) (k1 + k2 − k3 )(k2 k3 + k1 k3 − k1 k2 ) = ig(k12 + k22 + k1 k2 )

Problem 10.5. The scattering amplitudes should be unchanged if we make a field redefinition. Suppose, for
example, we have
1 1
L = − ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ2 (10.15)
2 2
and we make the field redefinition
ϕ → ϕ + λϕ2 (10.16)
39
Work out the lagrangian in terms of the redefined field, and the corresponding Feynman rules. Compute (at tree
level) the ϕϕ → ϕϕ scattering amplitude. You should get zero, because this is a free-field theory in disguise. (At
the loop level, we also have to take into account the transformation of the functional measure Dϕ; see section 85.)
Solution 10.5.
1 1
L = − ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ2
2 2
ϕ → ϕ + λϕ2
ϕ2 → (ϕ + λϕ2 )(ϕ + λϕ2 ) = ϕ2 + 2λϕ3 + λ2 ϕ4
∂µϕ → ∂ µ ϕ + 2λϕ∂ µ ϕ
∂µ ϕ → ∂µ ϕ + 2λϕ∂µ ϕ
(∂ µ ϕ + 2λϕ∂ µ ϕ)(∂µ ϕ + 2λϕ∂µ ϕ) = ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ + 4λϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ + 4λ2 ϕ2 ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ =

= (1 + 4λϕ + 4λ2 ϕ2 )∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ
L → L0 + L3 + L4
where
1 1
L0 = − ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ2
2 2
L3 = λ −2ϕ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ3

2 2 µ 1 2 4
L4 = λ −2ϕ ∂ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m ϕ
2
So then Z
d4 x[L0 +L3 +L4 +Jϕ]
R
Z(J) ≡ h0|0iJ = Dϕei
Now
Z Z
R
d4 xL3 1
ei = exp −i2λ d4 ka d4 kb d4 kc δ (4) (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc )ϕ
eka ϕ ekc − iλm2
ekb ϕ d4 xϕ3
(2π)8
to first-order in λ, i.e. O(λ),
Z Z
1 4 4 4 (4) 2 4 3
λ −2i d ka d kb d kc δ (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc )ϕ
eka ϕ ekc − im
ekb ϕ d xϕ
(2π)8
Acting on 3 propagators,
Z 4 ! Z 4 ! Z 4 !
1 i d kα Jekα Je−kα i d kβ Jekβ Je−kβ i d kγ Jekγ Je−kγ
=
3! 2 (2π)4 kα2 + m2 − i 2 (2π)4 kβ2 + m2 − i 2 (2π)4 kγ2 + m2 − i
Z Z Z
1 i 4 4 0 i 4 4 0 i 4 4 0
= d xd x Jx ∆x−x0 Jx0 d yd y Jy ∆y−y0 Jy0 d zd z Jz ∆z−z0 Jz0
3! 2 2 2
3! ways to match derivatives δJ−ki to propagators. 23 total ways to pick which of 2 sources.
Z
1 Jeka Jekb Jekc
λ −2i d4 ka d4 kb d4 kc δ (4) (ka + kb + kc )(−kb kc )
2 +
(2π)20 2 2ka2
+ m − i kb + m − i kc + m2 − i
2
Z Z Z Z
2 4 4 4 4
+ − im d x d yJy ∆y−x d zJz ∆z−x d wJw ∆w−x
Considering 2 incoming particles and 1 intermediary particle,

Recall the LSZ formula in momentum space (See Problem 10.4). For this case,
hf |ii = i3 (k12 + m2 )(k22 + m2 )(kin

2
+ m2 )h0|T ϕ(−k
e 1 )ϕ(−k
e 2 )ϕ(k
e in )|0i
To obtain h0|T ϕ(−k
e 1 )ϕ(−k
e e in )|0i, we must apply functional derivatives 1i δJek 1i δJek 1i δJe−k to our O(λ)
2 )ϕ(k
1 2 in
term above.
Consider all the different ways to uniquely match functional derivatives to propagators.
40
a kin kin 1 1 2 2
b 1 2 kin 2 1 kin
c 2 1 2 kin kin 1
(k1 )k2 k2 k1 −kin k2 −(k2 )kin −k1 kin −(kin )(k1 )
So we obtain
λ(+2i)(2)(k1 k2 − kin (k1 + k2 )) = −λ4i(k12 + k22 + k1 k2 )
where there’s a factor of 2 for each unique kb kc .
Now for the second term in the sum,
Recall the LSZ formula,
Z Z
n+n0 0 0
hf |ii = i 4
d x1 e ik1 x1
(−∂12 + m21 ) . . . d4 x01 e−ik1 x1 (−∂120 + m210 ) · · · × h0|T ϕ(x1 ) . . . ϕ(x01 ) . . . |0i
In this case,
Z Z Z
0 0
hf |ii = i3 d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2 ) d4 x2 eik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2 ) d4 x0 e−ik x (−∂120 + m2 )h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x0 )|0i
To get h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x0 )|0i, we must apply 1i δJx1 1i δJx2 1i δJx0 to the 3 propagators.
There are 3! ways to match functional derivative δJxi to propagator (and all 6 yield the same result)
Z Z Z Z
0 0
=⇒ −i3! d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2 ) d4 x2 eik2 x (−∂22 + m2 ) d4 x0 e−ik x (−∂120 + m2 ) · m2 d4 x∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x0 −x
Using (−∂i2 + m2 )∆(xi − y) = δ (4) (xi − y),

Z
0
−i6λm2 d4 xei(k1 +k2 −k )x = −iλ6m2 (2π)4 δ (4) (k1 + k2 − k 0 )
So for the cubic vertex, for a single vertex, hf |ii has a factor of
3
−4λi(k12 + k22 + k1 k2 + m2 )
2
Before going on with the contribution due to cubic vertices to ϕϕ → ϕϕ scattering, consider the quartic vertex.
Similar to what was done for L3 ,
λ2 2
Z Z
R 4 1
ei d xL4 = exp −i2λ2 d 4
k a d 4
k b d 4
k c d 4
k d δ (4)
(k a + k b + kc + k d )(−kc k d )ϕ ka
ϕkb
ϕkc
ϕ kd
− i m d4
xϕ 4
(2π)12
e e e e
2
To first order in λ2 ,

−2i
Z Z
i 2
λ2 d 4
k a d 4
k b d 4
k c d 4
k d δ (4)
(k a + k b + kc + k d )(−k k
c d )ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
ka kb kc kd − m d4
xϕ4
(2π)12
e e e e
2
Let this term act on 4 propagators.
Then consider the LSZ formula, with 2 incoming particles and 2 outgoing particles.
For the first term, a factor of 4 for each unique way to match 1i δJki , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 with 4 propagators.
For the second term, a factor of 4! for 4! ways to match 1i δJxi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 with propagators.
4!m2

=⇒ −iλ2 8(−k1 k2 + k1 k3 + k1 k4 + k2 k3 + k2 k4 − k3 k4 ) +
2
Using momentum conservation,
k1 (k3 + k4 ) = k1 (k1 + k2 ) = k12 + k1 k2
k2 (k3 + k4 ) = k2 (k1 + k2 ) = k1 k2 + k22
So the quartic vertex contributes
3
−8iλ2 (k12 + k22 + k1 k2 − k3 k4 + m2 )
2
41
11. Cross sections and decay rates
Solution 11.1.
(a) Given L1 = gAB 2 . If source terms are J(x)A(x) and K(x)B(x),
Consider first order term. Z 2

1 1
d4 x δJ(x)
ig δK(x)
i i
Consider 2 B propagators, 1 A propagator.
Z Z 2
i 4 4 0 0 0 1 i 4 4 0 0 0
d xd x J(x)∆(x − x )J(x ) d yd y K(y)∆(y − y )K(y )
2 2 2
Include 2! × 23 combinatoric factor.
Z Z Z Z
4 0
4
ig d x d x Jx0 ∆x0 −x d yKy ∆y−x d4 zKz ∆z−x
4
Z Z Z
=⇒ hf |ii = i3 d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 +m2A ) d4 x2 e−ik2 x2 (−∂22 +m2B ) d4 x3 e−ik3 x3 (−∂32 +m2B )h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )ϕ(x3 )|0i
So apply 1i δKx2 1i δKx3 1i δJx1 .

Z Z Z
hf |ii = d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m2A ) d4 x2 e−ik2 x2 (−∂22 + m2B ) d4 x3 e−ik3 x3 (−∂32 + m2b )·
Z
·(2)ig d4 x∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x3 −x = 2ig(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 − k3 )
Now
hf |ii = (2π)4 δ 4 (kin − kout )iT
So
T = 2g
dLIP S(k1 ) is Lorentz invariant. Use CM frame.
Recall
0 0
n n
X Y 0
4 4
dLIP Sn0 (k) ≡ (2π) δ (k − ki0 ) dk
f
j
i=1 j=1
where
f≡ d3 k
dk
(2π)3 2ω
Recalling the steps in evaluating dLIP S2 (k1 ) = (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 − k3 )dk
f 2 dk
f 3 for 2 outgoing particles,
then in the CM frame,
d3 k1 d3 k2 1 d3 k1 d3 k2
dLIP S2 (k) = (2π)4 δ(E −E1 −E2 )δ 3 (k−k1 k2 ) 3 3
= 2
δ(E −E1 −E2 )δ 3 (k−k1 −k2 )
(2π) 2E1 (2π) 2E2 16π E1 E2
For k = 0 (CM frame),
d3 (k−k1 −k2 )d3 k2 1 d3 k1 1 p21 dp1 dΩcm
R
−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ δ(E − 2E 1 ) = δ(E − 2E 1 )
16π 2 E1 (E − E1 ) 16π 2 E1 (E − E1 )
√
∂(mA −2 p21 +m2B )
Now = −2p 1
R ∂p1 E1
Recalling dxδ(f (x)) = i |f 0 (xi )|−1 where xi s.t. f (xi ) = 0.
P
q 2 q 2
mA 2 dΩ mA 2
1 p1 dΩcm 1 4 − m B cm 1 4 − mB
=⇒ = = dΩcm
2 m2A

16π 2 2(E − E1 ) 16π 2 16π 2 mA
Since by kinematics, E = mA . E1 + E2 = 2E1 = E so, E1 = m2A .
So
q 2
mA 2
4 − mB
Z Z Z
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
Γ= dΓ = |T | dLIP Sn (k1 ) =
0 4g 2
dΩcm
S S 2E1 2 2mA 16π mA
42
R
Now dΩcm = 4π.
p
g2 m2A − 4m2B
Γ=
8π 2 m2A
(b) Now consider Z
i 4 4 0
Zϕ (K) = exp d xd x Kx ρx−x0 Kx0
2
Z
i
Zχ† ,0 (J, J † ) = exp d4 xd4 x0 Jx† ∆x−x0 Jx0
2
Source term J † χ + Jχ† .
Consider first order Z
1 1 1
d4 x δKx δJx δJx†
ig
i i i
Consider 2 χ propagators, 1 ϕ propagator.
Z Z Z
i 1 i i
d4 yd4 y 0 Ky ρy−y0 Ky0 d4 zd4 z 0 Jz† ∆z−z0 Jz0 d4 xd4 w0 Jx† ∆w−w0 Jw0
2 2 2 2
include 2! · 2 = 4 counting factor. Another counting factor of 22 , because eventually the outgoing particles
are distinguishable.
Z Z Z Z
†
ig d x d yKy ρy−x d zJz ∆z−x d4 w∆x−w Jw
4 4 4
Recall LSZ formula, for complex field χ and scalar field ϕ.

Z Z Z
0 0 0 0
hf |ii = i3 d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m21 ) d4 x01 e−ik1 x1 (−∂120 + m22 ) d4 x02 eik2 x2 (−∂220 + m22 ) · h0|T ϕ(x1 )χ(x01 )χ† (x02 )|0i
so do 1i δKx1 1i δJ † 1
i δJx02 .
x01
Z Z Z Z
0 0 0 0
hf |ii = d4 x1 eik1 x1 (−∂12 + m21 ) d4 x01 e−ik1 x1 (−∂120 + m22 ) d4 x02 eik2 x2 (−∂220 + m22 ) · ig d4 xρx1 −x ∆x01 −x ∆x−x02 =
= ig(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k10 + k20 )
T = ig
Since the particles in the final state are distinguishable, there’s no symmetry factor of 2 to divide by.
q
g 2 m2ϕ − 4m2χ
=⇒ Γ =
16π 2 m2ϕ
Solution 11.2.
(a) If, for 4-vectors,
(ω, p) is the incident photon, ω 2 = p2 ,
(m, 0) is the initial electron at rest
(ω2 , q) is the final photon, ω22 = q2 ,
(E, qe ) is the final electron, E 2 − q2e = m2 .
Then momentum-energy conservation says
p = q + qe
ω + m = ω2 + E
or
(ω, p) + (m, 0) = (ω2 , q) + (E, qe ) = (ω + m, p)
Recall that
s = −(k1 + k2 )2
t = −(k1 − k10 )2
u = −(k1 − k20 )2
43
then for our case
s = (ω + m)2 − p2 = 2ωm + m2 = m(m + 2ω)
t = −((ω − ω2 , p − q))2 = ω 2 − 2ωω2 + ω22 − (p2 − 2p · q + q2 ) = −2ωω2 (1 − cos θ)
u = −((ω − E, p − qe ))2 = (ω2 − m)2 − ω22 = m(m − 2ω2 )
(b) Starting from p − q = qe ,
(p − q)2 = ω 2 + ω22 − 2p · q = E 2 − m2 = q2e = (ω + m − ω2 )2 − m2 =
= ω 2 + m2 + ω22 + 2ωm − 2ωω2 − 2mω2 − m2 = ω 2 + ω22 + 2ωm − 2ωω2 − 2mω2
=⇒ −2p · q = 2m(ω − ω2 ) − 2ωω2
−ωω2 cos θ = m(ω − ω2 ) − ωω2
m(ω − ω2 )
=⇒ cos θ = 1 −
ωω2
(c) Consider first the |T |2 term.
m4 + m2 (3s + u) − su m4 + m2 (3m2 + 6mω + m2 − 2mω2 ) − m2 (m + 2ω)(m − 2ω2 )
2 2
= =
(m − s) (m2 − m2 − 2ωm)2
m4 + 3m4 + 6m3 ω + m4 − 2m3 ω2 − m2 (m2 − 2ω2 m + 2ωm − 4ωω2 )
= =
4ω 2 m2
4m4 + 4m3 ω + 4m2 ωω2 m2 + mω + ωω2
= =
4ω 2 m2 ω2
m4 + m2 (3u + s) − su m4 + m2 (3(m2 − 2ω2 m) + m2 + 2mω) − m2 (m2 − 2ω2 m + 2ωm − 4ωω2 )

= =
(m2 − u)2 (m2 − m2 + 2mω2 )2
m4 + m2 (4m2 − 6ω2 m + 2mω) − m4 + 2ω2 m3 − 2ωm3 + 4mωω2 4m4 + −4ω2 m3 + 4m2 ωω2
= = =
4m2 ω22 4m2 ω22
m2 − ω2 m + ωω2
=
ω22
2m2 (s + u + 2m2 ) 2m2 (m2 + 2mω + m2 − 2mω2 + 2m2 ) 2m2 (4m2 + 2m(ω − ω2 )) m(2m + (ω − ω2 ))
2 2
= = =
(m − s)(m − u) (−2ωm)(2mω2 ) −22 m2 ωω2 −ωω2
Summing those 3 terms up above,
(m2 ω2 62 + mωω22 + ωω23 + m2 ω 2 − ω2 mω 2 + ω 3 ω2 + −2m2 ωω2 − mω 2 ω2 + mω22 ω)/(ωω2 )2 =
= (m2 (ω2 − ω)2 + ωω2 (ω22 + ω 2 ) + 2mωω2 (ω2 − ω))/(ωω2 )2
Now
−2m(ω − ω2 ) m2 (ω − ω2 )2
−(1 − cos2 θ) = + = − sin2 θ
ωω2 (ωω2 )2
Then we have
ω ω2
2
|T | = 32π α2 2
+ − sin2 θF T
ω2 ω
Now in the lab frame,
1 1
dσ = |T |2 dLIP S2 (k1 + k2 ) = |T |2 dLIP S2 (k1 + k2 )
4|k1 |m2 4ωm
Now, evaluated in the lab frame,
d3 q d3 qe
dLIP S2 (k1 + k2 ) = (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 ) =
(2π) 2ω2 (2π)3 2E
3
d3 q d3 qe 1 d3 q
= (2π)4 δ(ω2 + E − ω − m)δ 3 (p − q − qe ) = δ(E + ω 2 − ω − m)
(2π)3 2ω2 (2π)3 2E 16π 2 ω2 E
With d3 q = ω22 dω2 dΩ,
1 ω2 dω2 dΩ
dLIP S2 = 2
δ(E + ω2 − m − ω)
16π E
44
Now

∂(−ω − m + ω2 + E) 1 (ω2 − ω cos θ)
=1+ (2ω2 − 2ω cos θ) = 1 + =
∂ω2 2E E
(E + (ω2 − ω cos θ))
=
E
1 E ω2 dΩ 1 ω2 dΩ
=⇒ dLIP S2 (k1 + k2 ) = = =
16π 2 (E + (ω2 − ω cos θ)) E 16π 2 (ω(1 − cos θ) + m)
1 ω2 dΩ 1 ω2 dΩ 1 ω22 dΩ
= 2
= 2 mω−mω +mω =
16π ω m(ω−ω2 ) + m 16π ω2
2 2
16π 2 mω
ωω2
α2 ω22

dσ ω ω2
=⇒ = + − sin2 θF T
dΩ 2m2 ω 2 ω2 ω
Problem 11.3. Consider the process of muon decay, µ− → e− ν e νµ . In section 88, we will compute |T |2 for
this process (summed over the possible spin states of the decay products, and averaged over the possible spin
states of the initial muon), with the result
|T |2 = 64G2F (k1 · k20 )(k10 · k30 ), (11.52)

0
where GF is the Fermi constant, k1 is the four-momentum of the muon, and k1,2,3 are the four-momenta of the
−
νe , νµ , and e , respectively. In the rest frame of the muon, its decay rate is therefore
32G2F
Z
Γ= (k1 · k20 )(k10 · k30 )dLIP S3 (k1 ), (11.53)
m
where k1 = (m, 0), and m is the muon mass. The neutrinos are massless, and the electron mass is 200 times less
than the muon mass, so we can take the electron to be massless as well. To evaluate Γ, we perform the following
analysis.
(a) Show that
32G2F
Z Z
0 0 0
Γ= f k1µ k 0
dk 3 3ν k2µ k1ν dLIP S2 (k1 − k30 ) (11.54)
m
(b) Use Lorentz invariance to argue that, for m10 = m20 = 0,
Z
0 0
k1µ k2ν dLIP S2 (k) = Ak 2 g µν + Bk µ k ν , (11.55)
where A and B are numerical constants.

(c) Show that, for m10 = m20 = 0,
Z
1
dLIP S2 (k) = . (11.56)
8π
(d) By contracting both sides of eq. (11.55) with gµν and with kµ kν , and using eq. (11.56), evaluate A and
B.
(e) Use the results of parts (b) and (d) in eq. (11.54). Set k1 = (m, 0), and compute dΓ/dEe ; here Ee ≡ E30
is the energy of the electron. Note that the maximum value of Ee is reached when the electron is emitted
in one direction, and the two neutrinos in the opposite direction; what is the maximum value?
(f) Perform the integral over Ee to obtain the muon decay rate Γ.
(g) The measured liftime of the muon is 2.197 × 10−6 s. The muon mass is 105.66 M eV . Determine the value
of GF in GeV −2 . (Your answer is too low by about 0.2%, due to loop corrections to the decay rate.)
(h) Define the energy spectrum of the electron P (Ee ) ≡ Γ−1 dΓ/dEe . Note that P (Ee )dEe is the probability
for the electron to be emitted with energy between Ee and Ee + dEe . Draw a graph of P (Ee ) versus
Ee /mµ .
Solution 11.3.
45
f≡ d3 k
(a) Recall dk (2π)3 2k0 .
3
Y 0
dLIP S3 (k1 ) = (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − (k10 + k20 + k30 )) dk
f =
j
j=1
2
Y 0 0
= (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k30 − (k10 + k20 )) dk
f dk
k
f
3
k=1
Now
2
Y 0
dLIP S2 (k1 − k30 ) = (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k30 − (k10 + k20 )) dk
f
j
j=1
32G2F 32G2F
Z Z
Γ= (k1 · k20 )(k10 · k30 )dLIP S3 (k1 ) = 0
k1µ k3ν k2µ0 k1ν0 dLIP S2 (k1 − k30 )dk
f 30 =
m m
32G2F
Z Z
= dk 30 k1µ k3ν
f 0
k2µ0 k1ν0 dLIP S2 (k1 − k30 )
m
(b) dLIP S2 (k) is Lorentz invariant.
There are 2 upper indices µ, ν.
All Lorentz-invariant objects with 2 upper indices µ, ν must be a linear combination of k120 g µν , k220 g µν ,
k 2 g µν and k µ k ν . Note k 2 , k120 , k220 , g µν are Lorentz invariant. Note k120 = k220 = 0.
Thus Z
k1µ0 k2ν0 dLIP S2 (k) = Ak 2 g µν + Bk µ k ν (11.55)
(c) Note that k10 + k20 = k1 − k30 by momentum conservation and that
(k10 + k20 )2 = 2k10 k20 = −2(E10 E20 )(1 − cos θ)
(k1 − k30 )2 = −m2
Then of course we can always boost to a frame where k = k1 − k03 = 0. Then E10 = E20 .
It’s important to see that we can use (11.30) from Srednicki (as Arthur Lipstein points out in his
homework solutions):
|k1 |
dLIP S2 (k) = √ dΩCM (11.30)
16π 2 s
For this frame, where k10 + k20 = 0,
s = −(k1 + k2 )2 = −(k10 + k20 )2 = −(2k10 k20 ) = (−2)(−E10 E20 − E10 E20 ) =
= 4E10 E20
and again, note that E10 = E20 in this frame (since, again, m10 = m20 = 0.
Z Z
E10 1
dLIP S2 (k) = 2
√ dΩCM =
16π 2 E10 E20 8π
(d) Note that
k = k10 + k20
k 2 = k120 + k220 + 2k10 k20 = 2k10 k20
Applying gµν onto (11.55),
Z
gµν k1µ0 k2ν0 dLIP S2 (k) = Ak 2 (4) + Bgµν k µ k ν =
k2
Z Z
ν 2 2 2
= k10 ν k20 dLIP S2 (k) = 4Ak + Bk = k (4A + B) = dLIP S2 (k) = k 2 (4A + B)
2
1
or = 4A + B
16π
Note that
k10 k = k120 + k10 k20
kk20 = k10 k20 + k220
46
Applying kµ kν on both sides to (11.55),
Z
kµ k1µ0 kν k2ν0 dLIP S2 (k) = Ak 2 k 2 + B(k 2 )2
(k 2 )2
Z Z
=⇒ (k10 k20 )(k10 k20 )dLIP S2 (k) = dLIP S2 (k) = (A + B)(k 2 )2
4
1 1 1
or = =A+B
4 8π 32π
1
A=
=⇒ 96π
1
B=
48π
(e) Z
1
k1µ0 k2ν0 dLIP S2 (k1 − k20 ) = ((k1 − k30 )2 g µν + 2(k1 − k30 )µ (k1 − k30 )ν ) =
96π
1
= ((−m2 − 2k1 k30 )g µν + 2(k1 − k30 )µ (k1 − k30 )ν )
96π
0 d3 k30
Recall dk
f =
3 (2π)3 2E30
k1µ k0 1
−−−−3ν
→ ((−m2 − 2k1 k30 )k1µ k3µ0 + 2(−m2 − k1 k30 )(k1 k30 − 0)) =
96π
1
= (−m2 k1 k30 − 2(k1 k30 )2 + −2m2 k1 k30 − 2(k1 k30 )2 ) =
96π
−k1 k30
= (3m2 + 4(k1 k30 ))
96π
Now k1 k30 = −mEe .
m3 Ee

mEe 2 4 Ee
=⇒ (3m + −4mEe ) = 1−
96π 32π 3m
32G2F E320 dE30 dΩ30 m3 Ee
Z
4 Ee
Γ= 1− =
m (2π)3 2E30 32π 3m
G2F m2 G2F m2
Z Z
2 4 Ee 2 1 Ee
= Ee 1 − dEe = Ee − dEe
(2π)2 π 3m π3 4 3m
G2F m2 2 1

dΓ Ee
= Ee −
dEe π3 4 3m
(f)
G2F m2 G2F m2

1 1 m 3 1 1 m 4 1 1
Γ= − = − =
π3 43 2 3m 4 2 π 3 12 8 16
G2F m5
=
192π 3
(g) Γ = τ1 .
3
192π 3 ~
G2F = 192π 1
m5 τ = m5 τ
s 2
192π 3 (6.582 × 10−22 M eV · s) 1.1637 × 10−11 103 M eV

GF = = = 1.1637 × 10−5 (GeV )−2
(105.66 M eV )5 (2.197 × 10−6 s) (M eV )2 1 GeV
vs. 1.16637 × 10−5 (GeV )−2 from physics.nist.gov. 0.229% too low.
(h)
P (Ee ) ≡ Γ−1 dE
dΓ
e
192π 3 G2F m2 2 1

Ee 192 2 1 Ee
P (Ee ) = 2 5 Ee − = 3 Ee − =
GF m π3 4 3m m 4 3m
2 2
192 Ee 1 Ee Ee 1 Ee
= − = 1.8171 (M eV )−1 −
m m 4 3m m 4 3m
47
Ee
Figure 1. P (Ee ) (M eV )−1 vs. m from 0 to 1
2 (maximum Ee physically allowed)
Ee
with m ranging from 0 to 12 , since maximum Ee is m
2. See Figure (1).
12. Dimensional analysis with ~ = c = 1
Problem 12.1. Express ~c in GeV fm, where 1 f m = 1 F ermi = 10−13 cm.

Solution 12.1.
1015 f m

−22 8 1 GeV
~c = (6.582 × 10 M eV · s)(3 × 10 m/s) =
1m 103 M eV
= 19.746 × 10−2 GeV · f m = 1.9746 × 10−2 GeV · f m
Problem 12.2. Express the masses of the proton, neutron, pion, electron, muon, and tau in GeV.
Solution 12.2. proton 0.9383 GeV
neutron 0.9396 GeV
pion π ± : 0.13957 GeV
π 0 : 0.13498
electron: 0.000511 GeV
muon: 0.1057 GeV
tau: 0.001777 GeV
13. The Lehmann-Källén form of the exact propagator

−1
Solution 13.1. Given L = µ
− 21 Zm m2 ϕ2 − L1 (ϕ),
2 Zϕ ∂ ϕ∂µ ϕ
Recall the canonical commutation relation,
[ϕ(x, t), Π(x0 , t)] = iδ 3 (x − x0 )
Note carefully that the time is the same for each operator, above.
Then note that
[ϕ(x), Π(y)]|x0 =y0 = [ϕ(x, t), Π, (x0 , t)]
which is a big math trick, here.
Recall this definition,
∂L
Π(x) =
˙
∂ ϕ(x)
Since L1 (ϕ) is not a function of its derivatives
∂L
= Zϕ ϕ̇(x) = Π(x)
∂ ϕ̇(x)
=⇒ [ϕ(x), Π(y)]|x0 =y0 = [ϕ(x), Zϕ ϕ̇(y)]|x0 =y0 = iδ 3 (x − y)

48
or
[ϕ(x), ϕ̇(y)]|x0 =y0 = iZϕ−1 δ 3 (x − y)
Now Z Z ∞ Z
h0|ϕ(x)ϕ(y)|0i = f ik(x−y) +
dke dsρ(s) f ik(x−y)
dke (13.12)
4m2
d−1 √ √
f ≡ d d−1k
where dk (13.5), and where k 0 = ω = k2 + m2 for the first term, above, and k 0 = k2 + M 2
(2π) 2ω
for the second term, where M is a parameter.
Note how k 0 is different for each of these terms.
h0|ϕ(x)ϕ̇(y)|0i|x0 =y0 = h0|ϕ(x, x0 )∂y0 ϕ(y, y 0 )|0ix0 =y0 =

= ∂y0 h0|ϕ(x, x0 )ϕ(y, y 0 )|0i 0 0

x =y
Then
Z Z ∞ Z Z Z ∞ Z
f ik(x−y) + f ik(x−y) f 0 eik(x−y) + f 0 eik(x−y)

∂y0 dke dsρ(s) dke = dkik dsρ(s) dkik =
4m2 x0 =y 0 4m2 x0 =y 0
Z ∞
dd k dd k
Z Z
0 ik(x−y) 0 ik(x−y)

= d−1
ik e + dsρ(s) d−1
ik e 0 0=
(2π) 2ω 4m2 (2π) 2ω x =y
Z d−1 Z ∞ Z d−1

i d k ik·(x−y) d k ik·(x−y)
= e + dsρ(s) e =
2 (2π)d−1 4m 2 (2π) d−1
Z ∞
i
= 1+ dsρ(s) δ d−1 (x − y)
2 4m2
Now Z ∞
−i
h0|ϕ̇(x)ϕ(y)|0i|x0 =y0 = 1+ dsρ(s) δ d−1 (x − y)
2 4m2
So Z ∞
−i
h0|ϕ̇y ϕx |0i|x0 =y0 = 1+ dsρ(s) δ d−1 (x − y)
2 4m 2
Z ∞
−1 d−1
h0|[ϕ(x), ϕ̇(y)]|0i|x0 =y0 = iZϕ δ (x − y) = i 1 + dsρ(s) δ d−1 (x − y)
4m2
1
=⇒ Zϕ = R∞
1+ 4m2
dsρ(s)
14. Loop corrections to the propagator
Solution 14.1.
Want: P Z Q αi −1
1 Γ( i αi ) 1 x
α1 αn = Q dFn P i i P α (14.49)
A1 . . . An i Γ(αi ) (n − 1)! ( i x i Ai ) i i
Let’s convert this to make it easier.
n Z 1
xαi −1
Q
Γ(αi ) Y Γ(αi ) X Y X
i
Q αi = αi = Γ( αi ) dxi δ( xj − 1) P i xi
i Ai i
Ai i i 0 j x A j j
j
R R1 R
where dFn = (n − 1)! 0 dx1 . . . dxn δ(x1 + · · · + xn − 1) and dFn 1 =.
Start with, as the hint suggests, Z ∞
Γ(α)
= dttα−1 e−At
Aα 0
Y Γ(αi ) Y Z ∞
αi
= dti tiαi −1 e−Ai ti
i
A i 0
R∞ P
Multiply the right side by 1 = 0 dsδ(s − j tj ).
Y Γ(αi ) Y Z ∞ Z ∞ X
αi −1 −Ai ti
α
= dti t i e dsδ(s − ti )
i
A i i 0 0 i
49
Note
ti = sxi ti
= xi
dti = sdxi s
X ti
(2) 1− =0
i
s
tj ’s are all positive.
s is positive.
Then by Eq. (2), tsi ’s must at least be less than 1. Thus xi ’s must be less than 1.
Also
X 1 X tj 1 X
δ(s − ti ) = δ(1 − ) = δ( xj − 1)
i
s j
s s j
Y Γ(αi ) Y Z ∞ Z 1 X
i −1 −Ai xi s
α
= ds sdxi sαi −1 xα
i e δ(s − tj ) =
i
A i
i 0 0 j
YZ 1 Z ∞ P P
X
αi −1 αj −1 − j Aj xj
= dxi xi dss i e δ( xj − 1) =
i 0 0 j
 
! Q αi −1
YZ 1 P P Z
i −1
Γ( i αi ) X Γ( i αi ) x
= dxi xα Pi αi  δ( xj − 1) = dFn P i i P α
 
i
(n − 1)!
 P
0 ( i x i Ai ) i i
j Aj x j
i j
2 √
dxe−x =
R
Solution 14.2. Recall π.
Z Z Z Z Z
n −x2 −x21 −x22 −x2n n/2 d−1 −r 2 d−1 −r 2
d xe = dx1 dx2 . . . dxn e e ...e =π = r drdΩd e = r e dΩd
2 2
rd−2 e−r e−r d−2
Z Z Z
2 2
rd−1 e−r = − (d − 2)rd−3 = rd−3 e−r
−2 −2 2
If d = 2n,
2 2
e−r e−r

2n − 2 2n − 2 (n − 1)!
Z Z Z
2 2 Γ(d/2)
r2n−3 e−r = · {r2n−4 − (2n − 4)r2n−5 } = (n − 1)! re−r = =
2 2 −2 −2 2 2
Γ(d/2) 2π d/2
= π d/2 or Ωd =
R
So that dΩd · 2 .
Γ(d/2)
Note that Γ(n + 1) = n! so Γ d2 = Γ 2n

2 = Γ(n) = (n − 1)! and 2n − 1 − 2(n − 1) = 1.
If d = 2n + 1
2 2
e−r e−r

2n − 1 2n − 1
Z Z Z
2 2
rd−1 e−r = r2n−2 e−r = {r2n−3 − (2n − 3)r2n−4 }=
2 2 −2 −2
(2n − 1)!! √

2n − 1 2n − 3
Z
1 2
= ... e−r = π
2 2 2 2n+1
Note 2n − 2(k) so for k = n, 2n − 2n = 0 and 2n + 1 − 2k, so for k = n, 2n + 1 − 2n = +1.
√ √
Recall Γ n + 21 = 2(2n)! π = (2n−1)!!

2n n! 2n π.
1
1R 2π d/2
So π d/2 = Γ n + 2 2 dΩd or Ωd = .
Γ(d/2)
Solution 14.4. Recall the development in Sec. 14, Srednicki, so to understand where κA , κB comes from, that
due to this renormalization scheme, to make g dimensionless, through parameter µ, we calculate the necessary
counterterms, A, and B, but they’re dependent on renormalization scheme, as we’ll see.
R 1 R dd q
Starting from Π(k 2 ) = 12 g 2 I(k 2 ) − Ak 2 − Bm2 + O(g 2 ) where I(k 2 ) ≡ 0 dx (2π) 1
d (q+D)2 using (14.27) and
following Srednicki Sec. 14.
Z 1 µ 1 µ 1
α D α 1 1
Π(k 2 ) = dxD ln −{ + ln + + A}k 2 − {α + ln + + B}m2 + O(α2 )
2 0 m2 6 m 2 m 2
50
γ = 0.5772
D = x(1 − x)k 2 + m2
where √ g2 .
µ = 4πe−γ/2 µ α=
(4π)3
e
Take
−1 1 µ 1
A= α + ln + + κA + O(α2 )
6 3 m 2

1 µ 1
B = −α + ln + + κB + O(α2 )
m 2
Z 1
α D 1
Π(k 2 ) = dxD ln + α κA k 2
+ κB m2
+ O(α2 )
2 0 m2 6
Π(−m2 ) = 0
Impose .
Π0 (−m2 ) = 0
Now D0 ≡ D|k2 =−m2 = (1 − x(1 − x))m2 .
1
−κA
Z
α
Π(−m2 ) = dxm2 (1 − x(1 − x)) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + αm2 + κB + O(α2 ) = 0
2 0 6
1 1
Z
κA
−
=⇒ κB = dx(1 − x(1 − x)) ln (1 − x(1 − x))
6 2 0
Now
D D
ln = ln − ln (1 − x(1 − x))
D0 m2

∂ D D D x(1 − x) D
(D ln ) = x(1 − x) ln + = x(1 − x) ln +1
∂k 2 D0 D0 D/D0 D0 D0
α 1
Z
D 1
Π(k 2 ) = dx D ln + D ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + α κA k 2 + κB m2 + O(α2 )
2 0 D0 6
Z 1
∂ 2 α D ακA
Π(k ) = dx x(1 − x) ln + 1 + x(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) +
∂k 2 2 0 D0 6
Z 1 Z 1
α ακA 1 κA 1
Π0 (−m2 ) = dx(x(1−x)+x(1−x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)))+ =α + + x(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) = 0
2 0 6 12 6 2 0
Notice that
1 1 1 1 −1 1 1
Z Z Z
1 2 2
κB = − − x(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) − (1 − x + x ) ln (x − x + 1) = − dx ln (x2 − x + 1)
12 2 0 2 0 12 2 0
1
1 √

3x − 1
Z
1 π
x ln (1 − x + x2 ) − (2x + ln (x2 − x + 1) − 3 arctan

dx ln (1 − x(1 − x)) = √ ) = √ − 2
0 2 3 0 3
11 π
κB = − √ = 0.009767
12 2 3
−1
R1
Now κA = 2 −3 0
x(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)).
Z 1
dx(x2 − x) ln (x2 − x + 1) =
0
√ !1
x3 x2 2x3 x2

2 2 5x 1 2 3 2x − 1
= ln (1 − x + x ) − ln (x − x + 1) − + + + ln (x − x + 1) − arctan √ =

3 2 9 3 6 12 2 3
0
√
51 π 3
= −
54 6
√ ! √
−1 51 π 3 7 π 3
κA = +3 − = − ' −0.3874
2 54 6 3 2
Solution 14.5. Work directly in momentum space.
51
I will develop ϕ4 theory here.
4
d4 k ikx
Z
−1 −i
Z Z
i d4 x Zλ λ(ϕ(x))4 = Zλ λ d4 x e ϕ(k) =
(2π)4
e
4! 4!
d Z
!
−i Y d4 ki
Zλ λ 4
ϕ(k)
e (2π)4 δ 4 (ka + kb + kc + kd )
4! i=a
(2π)
So
d Z
! d
! !3
−i d4 ki (2π)4 d4 k
Z
Y
4 4
X 1 i Jek Je−k
(3) Z1 ' Zλ λ δJ−ki (2π) δ ki · =
4! i=a
(2π)4 i i=a
3! 2 (2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i
d Z
!Z
−i 4 4
Y dd ki Jeki dd ka 1/i
(4) = Zλ λ(2π) δ (kc + kd ) d 2 2
4 i=c
(2π) ki + m − i (2π) ka + m2 − i
4 2
Now 1i ∆(x1 − x2 ) ≡ h0|T ϕ(x1 )ϕ(x2 )|0i, i.e. the definition of the exact propagator.
Note about the counting factor from going from Eq. (3) to Eq. (4): there is a 42 = 3! factor for choosing

which of the functional derivatives, which 2 legs of the φ4 theory, will loop into itself. The functional derivatives
are indistinguishable. Then there is the usual 3! · 23 factor, canceling the denominators in the propagators, from
matching 3 functional derivatives to propagators.
Indeed, the counting factor could be checked by this very educational diagram (cf. Arthur Lipstein and
Peskin and Schroeder, An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, 1995)
hk1 |φx φx φx φx |k2 i

2 (42) 1
4 4
(2π)
So apply i δJek (2π)
i δJe−k to obtain the first order term.
dd l
Z
1/i Zλ λ 1/i 1/i 2 e
= ∆(k)iΠ(k
e )∆(k)
k 2 + m2 − i 2i (2π)d l2 + m2 − i k 2 + m2 − i
I’ll include the A, B counterterms soon.
R dd l 1
Before evaluating (2π) d l2 +m2 −i , renormalize λ to make it dimensionless.
So before, we had,
d
d x = −d
1
[ϕ] = (d − 2)
2
1
=⇒ −d + 4 · (d − 2) + [λ] = [λ] + −d + 2d − 4 = [λ] + d − 4 = 0 or [λ] = 4 − d
2
So let = 4 − d.
λ → λe µ , which will force λ to be dimensionless.
Remember to do the Wick rotation before applying (14.27).
dd q (q 2 )2 Γ(b − a − d2 )Γ(a + d/2) −(b−a− d )

Z
= D 2
(2π)d (q 2 + D)b (4π)d/2 Γ(b)Γ(d/2)
Γ(1 − 0 − d2 )Γ(0 + d2 ) 2 −(1−0− d ) Γ 1 − d2

dd l dd q
Z Z
1 1
(m2 )( 2 −1) =
d
=i =i (m ) 2 =i
(2π)d l2 + m2 − i (2π)d q 2 + m2 − i (4π)d/2 Γ(1)Γ(d/2) (4π)d/2
Γ −2 iΓ 2 − 1

2
2 2( 2− ) /2 m
=i m 2 = (4π)
(4π)(4−)/2 (4π)2 m
2 2
now include the counterterms −i(Ak + Bm ).
µ
λe m 2 4π /2
iΠ(k 2 ) = i Γ −1 − i(Ak 2 + Bm2 )
2 2 4π m2
Π0 (k 2 = −m2 ) = 0 yields A = 0.
52
(−1)n
1 Pn −1

Now recall Γ(−n + x) = hx − γ + k=1 k +
n! i O(x) , (14.26), so
1
Γ(−1 + 2 ) = (−1) /2 − Γ + 1 + O() , and recall A/2 = 1 + 2 ln A + O(2 ) (14.33) and µ ≡
√ −γ/2
4πe µ
e (14.35).
µ2

λ 1 4πe 2 m 2
(−1) − Γ + 1 + O() 1 + ln + O( ) =
2 /2 2 m2 4π
µ2

−λ m 2 1 4πe −λ m 2 1 µ
= − Γ + 1 + ln + O() = + 1 + 2 ln + O()
2 4π /2 m2 2 4π /2 m

−λ m 2 1 µ
Π(k 2 = −m2 ) = 0 = −Bm2 + + 1 + 2 ln + O()
2 4π /2 m

λ 1 µ 1
B= + ln + + O()
(4π)2 m 2
Solution 14.6.
The answer ends up being the same as for φ4 theory, Problem 14.5. I will develop complex scalar theory here
in case it is not clear where the Feynman rules come from.
Consider 1 vertex and 3 propagators.
2 Z 3
−i
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
λ d4 x δJx δJx† i d4 yd4 zJy ∆y−z Jz† = −λ d4 x d4 aJa ∆a−x ∆(0) d4 b∆x−b Jb†
4 i i 3!
Z
1
=⇒ h0|T ϕ(x2 )ϕ† (x1 )|0i ' −λ d4 x∆x1 −x ∆(0)∆x−x2 2
i
It’s easier to evaluate ∆(0) in momentum space, so let’s redo all this in momentum space.
2
d4 k −ikx † d4 l ilx
Z R
−1 −iλ
Z Z
†4 2 4
i d x λ(ϕ ϕ) = d x e ϕek e ϕ el =
4 4 (2π)4 (2π)4
d Z
!
−iλ Y d4 kα (2π)4 (2π)4 (2π)4 (2π)4
(5) = 4
δ 4 (−ka + kb − kc + kd ) δJa δJ † δJc δJ †
4 α=a
(2π) i i b i i d
Jek Jek†
h R 4 i R d4 k †
Referencing Problem 8.7, Z0 (J † , J) = exp i (2π)d k
4 k 2 +m2 −i and source terms are i (2π) 4 Jek ϕk + Jek ϕ†k
Before applying the first order term, Eq. (5), to 3 propagators, multiply by 2 · 2 counting factor to determine
which of the functional derivatives will be involved with the loop. This could also be clearly seen, as in Problem
14.5, by this diagram:
hk1 |φx φ†x φx φ†x |k2 i

2 2 1
3
Jek Jek†
R
1 d4 k
So applying the first order term, Eq. (5), to 3 propagators, 3! i (2π)4 k2 +m2 −i ,
c Z
!Z
Y
4 Jea† Jec† Jeb 1
−λ d kα d4 kd δ 4 (−ka + kb − kc + kd )δJ † 2 =
d k + m k + m k + m (2π)12
2 2 2 2 2
α=a a c b
c Z
!
Y 1 Jec† Jeb 1
= −λ d4 ka δ 4 (kb − kc ) 2
α=a
ka2 + m2 kc2 + m2 kb + m2 (2π)12
Z
† 1 1 1 1
h0|T ϕ(k e (k1 )|0i ' λ
e 2 )ϕ d4 ka δ 4 (k1 − k2 )
ka2 + m2 (2π)4 k22 + m2 k12 + m2
d4 l
Z
1/i 1/i 1/i 2 e
=⇒ (λ/i) = ∆(k)iΠ(k
e )∆(k)
k + m2
2 (2π) l + m k + m2
4 2 2 2
R d4 l 1/i
So since iΠ(k 2 ) = λ/i (2π) 4
4 l2 +m2 , and the counterterms A, B are exactly the same as in the case of ϕ theory
(cf. Problem 14.5), then the steps are exactly the same as with Problem 14.5.
53

λ 1 µ 1
B= + ln + + O()
(4π)2 m 2
A=0
Note that there are 2 kinds of propagators, for type a particles and type b particles, but the factors and results
are the same for each.
15. The one-loop correction in Lehmann-Källén form
Solution 15.1.
/2
µ2
1
R1 4πe
(a) Now given Π(k 2 ) = 2 αΓ(−1 + 2 ) 0
dxD D − Ak 2 − Bm2 + O(α2 ) (14.32), where D =
2 2
x(1 − x)k + m .
Z 1
1
Πloop (k 2 ) = αΓ(−1 + ) dx(4πe µ2 )/2 D1−/2
2 2 0
α Z 1 −/2
Π0loop (k 2 ) = Γ −1 dx(4πe µ2 )/2 1 − D x(1 − x)
2 2 0 2
1
Z
α
Π0loop (−m2 ) = Γ − 1 (4πe µ2 )/2 1 − dx(m2 )−/2 (1 − x(1 − x))−/2 x(1 − x)
2 2 2 0
For x ∈ [0, 1], x2 − x + 1 ≥ 43 (note (x2 − x + 1)0 = 0 when x = 12 , and thus, 34 ).
So using A/2 = 1 + 2 ln A + O(2 ), (x2 − x + 1)−/2 = 1 + − 2 2
2 ln (x − x + 1) + O( ).
n
n
Also, using Γ(−n + x) = (−1) 1 −1
P
n! x −γ+ k=1 k + O(x) (14.26), we get
/2
µ2 1
Z
α 1 4πe
Π0loop (−m2 ) = (−1) − Γ + 1 + O() 1 − dx 1 − ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + O( 2
) x(1 − x) =
2 /2 m2 2 0 2
µ2 1

−α
Z
4πe 1 1 2
= 1 + ln − Γ + 1 + O() − 1 − dxx(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + O( ) =
2 2 m2 /2 6 2 0
Z 1
µ2

−α 4πe 1 1
= 1 + ln −γ − dxx(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + () =
2 2 m2 6 /2 0
Z 1
µ2

−α 1 2 1 4πe
= −γ − dxx(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + ln + O() =
2 6 0 6 m2
Z 1
−α 1 µ −α 1 µ 1
= −3 dxx(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) + ln = + ln + + κA + O(α2 ) = A
6 0 m 6 m 2
√
where the substitution µ = 4πe µe−γ/2 was used and the result from Problem 14.4, that κA = − 21 −
R1
3 0 x(1 − x) ln (1 − x(1 − x)) = −0.3874 was used.
So Π0loop (−m2 ) = A .
n! f (s)ds
Recall the Cauchy integral formula f (n) (z) =
R
2πi (s−z)n+1 .
Then Z
1 Πloop (w)
A= Π0loop (−m2 ) =
2πi (w + m2 )2
(b)
(c)
16. Loop corrections to the vertex
Solution 16.1.
I will develop ϕ4 theory here in case it is not familiar.
54
Recall in ϕ4 theory,
1 1
L0 = − ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ2
2 2
1
L1 = − Zλ λϕ4
4!
−1 1 1 1
Lct = (Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ2 = − A∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − Bm2 ϕ2
2 2 2 2
For O(λ) order,
4 Z 4 Z 4
−i −Zλ λi
Z Z
4 1 1 i 4 4 0 0 4
Z1 ' Zλ λ d x δJ d yd y Jy ∆y−y0 Jy = d x dyJy ∆y−x
4! i x 4! 2 4!
4! · 24 counting factor for ways to match (δJx )4 to propagators and sources.
Apply LSZ formula.
Z Z
hf |ii = d4 x1 eik1 x1 d4 x2 eik2 x2 d4 x3 e−ik3 x3 d4 x4 e−ik4 x4 (−Zλ λi) d4 x∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x3 −x ∆x4 −x =
= −Zλ λi(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )

For O(λ2 ) order, assuming Zλ = 1 + O(λ2 ),
2 Z 4 !2 Z 6
−i 1 1 i
λ 4
d x δJx d4 yd4 x0 Jy ∆y−y0 Jy0 =
4! i 6! 2
2 Z Z 3 Z 3
−i 1 1
(6) = λ d4 xd4 y δJx δJy d4 x0 Jx0 ∆x0 −x d4 y 0 Jy0 ∆y0 −y
4! i i
2 Z
Z 2 Z 2
λ 4 4 2 4 0 4 0 2
(7) = d xd y(3) d x Jx0 ∆x0 −x d y Jy0 ∆y0 −y (∆y−x )
(4!)2
where I used a 6! · 26 counting factor matching δJx ’s to propagators in Eq. (6) and 32 counting factor used in
Eq. (7) to match last 2 functional derivatives to sources. There’s also a 4 · 4 counting factor from distinguishing
1 of the functional derivatives, among 4, for each vertex, to be the one involved with the internal propagator.
Apply LSZ formula,
λ2
Z Z
d4 x1 eik1 x1 d4 x2 eik2 x2 d4 x3 e−ik3 x3 d4 x4 e−ik4 x4 d4 xd4 y∆x1 −x ∆x2 −x ∆x3 −y ∆x4 −y (∆y−x )2 =
4
λ2 d4 k eik(y−x) d4 l eil(y−x)
Z Z Z
= d4 xd4 yei(k1 +k2 )x e−i(k3 +k4 )y 4 2 2
=
4 (2π) k + m − i (2π) l + m2 − i
4 2
λ2
Z Z
1 1
= d4 k 2 2
d4 l 2 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k − l)δ 4 (−k3 − k4 + k + l) =
4 k +m l + m2
λ2
Z
1 1
= d4 l δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )
4 (k1 + k2 − l) + m l + m2
2 2 2
Note that there are 3 cases:

ei(k1 +k2 )x e−i(k3 +k4 )y
ei(k1 −k3 )x e−i(k4 −k2 )y
ei(k1 −k4 )x e−i(k3 −k2 )y
And for each case, there’s 2 counting factor for matching δJxi ’s to sources for each case.
(iλ)2
Z
4 1/i 1/i 1/i 1/i
=⇒ d l 2 + +
2 l + m2 (k1 + k2 − l)2 + m2 (k1 − k3 − l)2 + m2 (k1 − k4 − l)2 + m2
Calculating the vertex iV4 = iV4 (k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 ), with k1 + k2 = k3 + k4 (statement of momentum conservation),
with
−iλ being the original, tree-level vertex,
So to second order in λ,
55
d4 l e 2 e
Z
1
iV4 = −iλ + λ2 ∆(l ){∆(k1 + k2 − l)2 + ∆(l
e + k1 − k3 )2 + ∆(l
e + k1 − k4 )2 }
2 (2π)d
with
Z
1 1
e 2 )∆(k
∆(l e 1 + k2 − l)2 = = dF2 (x1 l2 + x2 (l − (k1 + k2 ))2 + m2 )−2
l + m (l − (k1 + k2 ))2 + m2
2 2
where Z 1
dF2 = 1 dx1 dx2 δ(x1 + x2 − 1)
0
Z 1
=⇒ dx((1 − x)l2 + x(l2 − s − l(k1 + k2 )) + m2 )−2 =
0
Z 1 Z 1
= dx(l2 − 2lx(k1 + k2 ) − xs + m2 )−2 = dx((l − x(k1 + k2 ))2 − x(1 − x)s + m2 )−2
0 0
Likewise,
Z 1
e 2 )∆(l
∆(l e + k1 − k3 )2 = dx((l + x(k1 − k3 ))2 − x(1 − x)t + m2 )−2
0
Z 1
e 2 )∆(l
∆(l e + k1 − k4 )2 = dx((l + x(k1 − k4 ))2 − x(1 − x)u + m2 )−2
0
In each O(λ2 ) diagram, q = (l ± xv), v = s, t, u, D = −x(1 − x)v + m2 .
R dd l R dd q
Do a Wick rotation for each diagram: (2π) d = i (2π)d
.
1
dd q
Z Z
V4 λ
= −Zλ + dx{(q 2 − x(1 − x)s + m2 )−2 + (q 2 − x(1 − x)t + m2 )−2 + (q 2 − x(1 − x)u + m2 )−2 }
λ 2 (2π)d 0
Do the renormalization (make interaction constant dimensionless).

µ ;
λ → λe = 4 − d; d = 4 − .
/2
Γ(2 − 4− Γ 2

2 ) −2+ 4− −/2 µ Γ 2
×e µ2
4πe
=⇒ D 2 = D − −→ '
(4π)2−/2 (4π)2−/2 (4π)2 D
2
2 2
+ ln 4πeµ
−γ

− O() 2

γ + 4πe
µ 2 D
' 1 + ln + O( ) =
(4π)2 2 D (4π)2
2
With ln 4πe
µ 2
eγ = ln µ ,
λ 1 dx
Z
V4 2 2 2
2 2
= −Zλ + 3 − γ + ln 4πe
µ − ln m − x(1 − x)s − ln (m − x(1 − x)t) − ln (m − x(1 − x)u) =
λ 2 0 (4π)2
Z 1 2 2 2
λ dx 2 µ m − x(1 − x)s m − x(1 − x)t m − x(1 − x)u
= −Zλ + 3 + 2 ln − ln − ln − ln
2 0 (4π)2 m m2 m2 m2
For V4 = λ,
and setting Zλ = 1 − C,
1 2 2 2
m − x(1 − x)s m − x(1 − x)t m − x(1 − x)u
Z
λ dx
2 µ
C= {3
+ 2 ln − ln − ln − ln }=
2 0 (4π)2
m m2 m2 m2
Z 1
λ 1 6 µ x(1 − x)s x(1 − x)t x(1 − x)u
= { + 6 ln − dx ln 1 − − ln 1 − − ln 1 −
2 (4π)2 m 0 m2 m2 m2
and remember that for V4 = λ, (k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 ) = ((m1 , 0), (m2 , 0), (m3 , 0), (m4 , 0)) = (0, 0, 0, 0).
So
s = −(k1 + k2 )2 = (m1 + m2 )2 = 4m2
t = −(k1 − k3 )2 = 0
u = −(k1 − k4 )2 = 0
56
Now 1 − x(1 − x)4 = 4(x2 − x + 14 ) = 4(x − 12 )2 .
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 0
1 2 2 1 1
dx ln (1 − x(1 − x)4) = dx ln (2(x − )) = dy ln y = { dy ln y 2 + dy ln y 2 } =
0 0 2 −1 2 2 0 −1
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 1
= dy ln y 2 + dy ln y 2 = 2 ln y = 2 (y ln y − y)|0 = 2(−1)
2 0 0 0
having used the substitution
1
y = 2(x − )
2
dy = 2dx
2
λ 1 6 µ λ 3 µ
C= { + 6 ln + 2} = + 3 ln +1
2 4π m (4π)2 m
Solution 16.2. In case it is unfamiliar, I will develop the Feynman rules for the complex scalar field theory
here.
Recall that
L0 = −∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − m2 ϕ† ϕ
1
L1 = − Zλ λ(ϕ† ϕ)2 + Lct
4
L2 = −(Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕ† ∂µ ϕ − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ† ϕ
Recall also
Z Z
d4 x[L0 +Jϕ† +J † ϕ]
R
Z0 (J, J † ) = h0|0i|J,J † = DϕDϕ† ei = exp i d4 xd4 x0 J(x)∆(x − x0 )J † (x0 )
and that Z Z
−1
exp i d4 xL1 = exp i d4 x Zλ λ (ϕ† ϕ)2
4
so that " 2 #
−i
Z
4 1 1
Z1 = exp Zλ λ d x δJ(x) δJ † (x) Z0 (J)
4 i i
The first order term is −iZλ λ.
Consider the second order term in momentum space.
d Z
! !2 !6
−iλ d4 kα (2π)4 d4 k Jek Jek†
Z
1 Y
4 1
(8) 4
δJa δJ † δJc δJ † δ (−ka + kb − kc + kd ) · i =
2 4 α=a
(2π) i b d 6! (2π)4 k 2 + m2 − i
(9)
d Z
1 2
Y 1 Jed Jec†
= (−λ ) d4 kα δ 4 (−ka + kb − kc + kd ) 2 ·
2 α=a
(2π)8 kd + m2 kc2 + m2
h Z
Jeg† d4 k d4 l Jek Jek† Jel Jel†
Z
Y 1 Jeh 1
· d4 kβ δ 4 (−ke + kf − kg + kh ) δ J δ † δ J δ † (−1) =
(2π)8 kh2 + m2 kg2 + m2 a Jb e Jf 2 (2π)4 (2π)4 k 2 + m2 l2 + m2
β=e
Jec†
Z
1 Jed
= λ2 d4 kd4 ld4 kc d4 kd δ 4 (−l + k − kc + kd ) ·
(2π)8 kd2 + m2 kc2 + m2
1 Jeh Jeg† 1 1 1
·d4 kg d4 kh δ 4 (−k + l − kg + kh ) 2
(2π) (kh + m )(kg + m ) l + m k + m (2π)8
8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Note the counting factor of (4)2 from going from Eq. (8) to Eq. (8), due to choosing which functional derivative,
for each vertex, will participate in the internal propagator.
h0|T ϕk3 ϕ†k4 ϕk1 ϕk2 |0i to second order in λ is
57
d4 k d4 l
Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
λ2 δ 4 (−l + k − k2 + k1 ) 2 δ 4 (−k + l − k3 + k4 ) 2 =
(2π) k + m (2π)4 l2 + m2
4 2 2 k2 + m2 k12 + m2 k4 + m2 k32 + m2
d4 l
Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= λ2 δ 4 (k1 − k2 − (k3 − k4 )) 2
(2π)4 l2 + m2 (l + k1 − k2 )2 + m2 (2π)4 k1 + m2 k22 + m2 k32 + m2 k42 + m2
Applying the LSZ formula to amputate the external legs, we have,
d4 l e 2 e
Z
2
(λ) ∆(l )∆(l + k1 − k2 )2
(2π)4
There is only 1 other distinct diagram that is allowed: for λ2 order terms
d4 l e 2 e
Z
2
(λ) ∆(l )∆(l + k1 − k3 )2
(2π)4
So 2 Z
1 2 d4 l e 2 e 2 2

iV4 = −iZλ λ + (−iλ) ∆(l ) ∆(l + k 1 − k 2 ) + ∆(l
e + k1 − k 3 )
i (2π)d
1
dd l
Z Z
V4 2 2
= −Zλ + λ dx{(l − x(1 − x)s + m2 )−2 + (l − x(1 − x)t + m2 )−2 } =
λ (2π)d 0
Z 1 2 2
dx 2 µ m − x(1 − x)s m − x(1 − x)t
= −Zλ + λ 2
{2 + 2 ln − ln − ln }
0 (4π) m m2 m2
For V4 = λ, Zλ = 1 + C,
1
x(1 − x)s x(1 − x)t
Z
1 4 µ
C=λ { + 4 ln − dx ln 1 − + ln 1 − }=
(4π)2 m 0 m2 m2
1 4 µ 1 1 µ 1
=λ 2
{ + 4 ln + 2} = λ 2
{ + ln + }
(4π) m (4π) m 2
17. Other 1PI vertices
Solution 17.1. Want:

D1234 = x1 x4 k12 + x2 x4 k22 + x2 x3 k32 + x1 x3 k42 + x1 x2 (k1 + k2 )2 + x3 x4 (k2 + k3 )2 + m2 (17.3)
Rewrite using x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 1, k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 = 0.
=⇒ D1234 = x1 (1 − x1 − x2 − x3 )k12 + x2 (1 − x1 − x2 − x3 )k22 + x2 x3 k32 +

+x1 x3 (−k1 − k2 − k3 )2 + x1 x2 (k1 + k2 )2 + x3 (1 − x1 − x2 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 + m2 =
= x1 (1 − x1 )k12 − x1 (x2 + x3 )k12 + x2 (1 − x2 )k22 + x2 (x1 + x3 )(−k22 ) + x2 x3 k32 +
+x1 x3 (k12 + (k2 + k3 )2 + 2k1 (k2 + k3 )) + x1 x2 (k12 + k22 + 2k1 k2 ) + x3 (1 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 − x3 (x1 + x2 )(k22 + k32 + 2k2 k3 ) =
= x1 (1 − x1 )k12 + x2 (1 − x2 )k22 − x2 x3 (k22 − k32 ) + 2x1 x3 k1 (k2 + k3 ) + 2x1 x2 k1 k2 +
+x3 (1 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 − x2 x3 (k22 + k32 + 2k2 k3 ) =
= x1 (1 − x1 )k12 + x2 (1 − x2 )k22 + x3 (1 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 + 2x1 x3 k1 (k2 + k3 ) + 2x1 x2 k1 k2 − 2x2 x3 (k2 (k2 + k3 ))
Calculating iV4 , which includes 3 distinct terms at the g 4 order,
d6 l e
Z
iV4 = g 4 ∆(l − k1 )2 ∆(l
e + k2 )2 ∆(l
e + k2 + k3 )2 ∆(l
e 2 ) + (k3 ↔ k2 ) + (k3 ↔ k4 ) + O(g 6 ) (17.1)
(2π)6
e − k1 )2 ∆(l
e + k2 )2 ∆(l
e + k2 + k3 )2 ∆(l
e 2) = 1 1 1 1
∆(l
(l − k1 )2 + m2 (l + k2 )2 + m2 (l + k2 + k3 )2 + m2 l2 + m2
Recall Feynman’s formula
Z
= dF4 [x1 (l − k1 )2 + x2 (l + k2 )2 + x3 (l + k2 + k3 )2 + x4 l2 + m2 ]−4
58
where
Z Z 1
dF4 = 3! dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 δ(x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 − 1)
0
=⇒ [x1 (l − k1 )2 + x2 (l + k2 )2 + x3 (l + k2 + k3 )2 + (1 − x1 − x2 − x3 )l2 + m2 ] =
(10) = l2 + x1 (k12 − 2lk1 ) + x2 (k22 + 2lk2 ) + x3 ((k2 + k3 )2 + 2l(k2 + k3 )) + m2
Now
q = l − x1 k1 + x2 k2 + x3 (k2 + k3 )
q 2 = l2 + x21 k12 + x22 k22 + x23 (k2 + k3 )2 +
+ 2l(−x1 k1 + x2 k2 + x3 (k2 + k3 )) + −2x1 x2 k1 k2 − 2x1 x3 (k2 + k3 ) + 2x2 k2 x3 (k2 + k3 )
Then the left-hand side, or the entire expression, of Eq. (10), is equal to
q 2 + x1 (1 − x1 )k12 + x2 (1 − x2 )k22 + x3 (1 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 + 2x1 x2 k1 k2 + 2x1 x3 k1 (k2 + k3 ) − 2x2 x3 k2 (k2 + k3 )
=⇒ D1234 = x1 (1 − x1 )k12 + x2 (1 − x2 )k22 + x3 (1 − x3 )(k2 + k3 )2 + 2x1 x2 k1 k2 + 2x1 x3 k1 (k2 + k3 ) − 2x2 x3 k2 (k2 + k3 )
18. Higher-order corrections and renormalizability
Solution 18.1.
(a) Recall that the action must be dimensionless since it’s in the exponential. Recall the action: S ∼
i dd xiΨγ µ ∂µ Ψ. where Ψ = Ψ† γ 0 .
R
Recall also the following mass dimensions:

[dd x] = −d
[Ψγ µ ∂µ Ψ] = 2[Ψ] + 1
So
d−1
−d + 2[Ψ] + 1 = 0 or [Ψ] =
2
(b) Then to make the action dimensionless,
d−1
[gn (ΨΨ)n ] = [gn ] + (2[Ψ])n = [gn ] + 2n = [gn ] + n(d − 1) = d
2
So
[gn ] = n + d(1 − n)
(c) Likewise,

1 d−1 m(d − 2)
[gm,n φm (ΨΨ)n ] = [gm,n ] + m (d − 2) + n(2) = [gm,n ] + + n(d − 1) = d
2 2 2
m
=⇒ [gm,n ] = d(1 − n − ) + (n + m)
2
(d) For d = 4,
4
[gn ] = n + 4(1 − n) ≥ 0 or − 3n + 4 ≥ 0 or ≥ n or n = 1
3
m
[gm,n ] = 4(1 − n − ) + n + m = 4 − 3n − m ≥ 0 so n = m = 1
2
59
19. Perturbation theory to all orders
20. Two-particle elastic scattering at one loop
Problems. Problem 20.1. Verify eq. (20.17).

Problem 20.2. Compute the O(α) correction to the two-particle scattering amplitude at threshold, that is, for
s = 4m2 and t = u = 0, corresponding to zero three-momentum for both the incoming and outcoming particles.
Solution 20.2. What we want to calculate is
1
iT1−loop = [iV3 (s)]2 ∆(−s)
e + [iV3 (t)]2 ∆(−t)
e + [iV3 (u)]2 ∆(−u)
e + iV4 (s, t, u)
i
for s = 4m2 , t = u = 0.
Recall
1
∆(−s)
e =
−s + m2 − Π(−s)
2 1 1
=⇒ ∆(−4m
e )= , ∆(0)
e =
−3m2 − Π(−4m2 ) m2 − Π(0)
From (20.4), Srednicki,
1
D2 (4m2 )
Z
1 1
Π(−s) = Π(−4m2 ) = α dxD2 (4m2 ) ln − α(−4m2 + m2 )
2 0 D0 12
From (20.8), (20.9), Srednicki, the definitions
D2 (s) = −x(1 − x)s + m2
D2 (4m2 ) = m2 (−4x + 4x2 + 1) = m2 (2x − 1)2

2 2 2 2 1 3 1 2
D0 = m [1 − x(1 − x)] = m [1 − x + x ] = m (x − )2 + = m ((2x − 1)2 + 3)
2 4 4
1 1
m2 α αm2 αm2 αm2
Z Z
1 1 2 11 π
Π(0) = dx ln − =− + dx ln (x − x + 1) = −√
2 0 1 − x + x2 12 2 6 0 2 6 3
Z 1 Z 1
αm2 1 4(2x − 1)2 αm2 1 4u2

du 2
Π(−4m2 ) = + dx(2x − 1)2 ln = + u ln =
2 2 0 (2x − 1)2 + 3 2 2 −1 2 u2 + 3
1 !
αm2
Z 1
αm2 √
2
2 2 3 2 u 3 u
= 1 + ln 4 − duu ln 1 + 2 = 1 + ln 4 − ln 1 + 2 + 2u − 2 3 arctan √ =
4 3 −1 u 4 3 3 u 3
−1
√ !
αm2 √ π 2 −3 π 3
= 1−4+4 3 = αm +
4 6 4 6
since
0
u3 u3

3 2 3 1 −6 2 3 3
ln 1 + 2 = u ln 1 + 2 + = u ln 1 + 2 + −2 1 − 2
3 u u 3 1 + 3/u2 u3 u u +3
Consider the 3 point vertices.
Recall that Z
V3 (s) α D3 (s)
=1− dF3 ln (20.5)
g 2 m2
D3 (s) = −x1 x2 s + [1 − (x1 + x2 )x3 ]m2 (20.10)

For x3 = 1 − (x1 + x2 ),
D3 (0) = (1 − (x1 + x2 ) + (x1 + x2 )2 )m2
D3 (4m2 ) = −4m2 x1 x2 + (1 − (x1 + x2 ) + (x1 + x2 )2 )m2 = m2 (1 − (x1 + x2 ) + (x1 − x2 )2 )
60
Then consider
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1 Z 1−x
dx dy ln (1 − x − y + (x + y)2 ) = dy ln (y 2 + y(2x − 1) + x2 − x + 1) =
dx
0 0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1−x 2 !
2x − 1 3
= dx dy ln y− +
0 0 2 4
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1 Z 1−x
2 2
dx dy ln (1 − x − y + x − 2xy + y ) = dy ln (y 2 − y(2x + 1) + x2 − x + 1) =
dx
0 0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1−x 2 !
2x + 1 3
= dx dy ln y− − 2x +
0 0 2 4
21. The quantum action
Problems. Problem 21.1. Show that

Z
Γ(ϕ) = W (Jϕ ) − dd xJϕ ϕ, (21.20)
where Jϕ (x) is the solution of

δ
W (J) = ϕ(x) (21.21)
δJ(x)
for a specified ϕ(x).
Solution 21.1.
From the main result of the section, by stationary phase method and W (J) = WΓ,L=0 (J),
Z
W (J) = Γ(ϕJ ) + dd xJϕJ (21.12)
where
δΓ(ϕ)
= −J(x) (21.10)
δϕ(x)
and J(x) is a specified source.
δ
Then applying δJ(x) , since we could vary J(x) through varying ϕ,
Z
δW (J) δΓ(ϕJ ) δ
= + dd y (J(y)ϕJ (y)) =
δJ(x) δJ(x) δJ(x)
Z Z
δΓ(ϕJ ) δϕJ (y) δϕJ (y)
= dd y + dd y{δ(x − y)ϕJ (y) + J(y) }=
δϕJ (y) δJ(x) δJ(x)
Z
δϕJ (y) δϕJ (y)
= d4 y −J(y) + J(y) + ϕ(x) = ϕ(x)
δJ(x) δJ(x)
So
δW (J)
= ϕ(x)
δJ(x)
If so, we can say
Z
Γ(ϕ) = W (Jϕ ) − dd xJϕ ϕ
for
δW (J)
= ϕ(x)
δJ(x)
δW (J)
so that ϕ is specified and J = Jϕ (x) is a solution to δJ(x) = ϕ(x).
Solution 21.2.
61
(a) From the main result, that the sum of connected diagrams with sources iW (J),
Z
W (J) = Γ(ϕJ ) + dd xJϕJ
The action was given to be invariant.

Given Rhow the field transforms,
ϕa (x) → dd yRab (xy)ϕb (y)
and how the current transforms, then
Z Z Z Z
Ja ϕJ → dd y1 Jb (y1 )Rba (y1 , x) dd y2 RAc (x, y2 )ϕc (y2 ) = dd y1 dd y2 Jb (y1 )Rba (y1 , x)Rac (x, y2 )ϕc (y2 ) = Jb (x)ϕb (x)
since δ d (x − y1 )δ dR(x − y2 ).
(b) Γ(ϕ) = W (Jϕ ) − d4 xJϕ ϕ
Z Z Z Z Z
d xJϕ ϕ → d x d y1 Jbϕ (y1 )Rba (y1 , x) d y2 Rac (x, y2 )ϕc (y2 ) = dd xJb ϕb (x)
d d d 4
dd yJb (y)Rba (y, x) (21.23). Thus Γ(ϕ) is invariant.

R
W (Jϕ ) was shown to be invariant under Ja (x) →
22. Continuous symmetries and conserved currents
L = L(ϕ, ∂µ ϕ)
∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
L= δϕa + δ∂µ ϕa = δϕa + ∂µ δϕa
∂ϕa ∂(∂µ ϕa ) ∂ϕa ∂(∂µ ϕa )
Z
S= d4 xL
Z Z Z
∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
δS = d4 x{ δϕa + δ∂µ ϕa } = dd x{ δϕa − ∂µ δϕa } + dσ δϕa
∂ϕa ∂(∂µ ϕa ) ∂ϕa ∂(∂µ ϕa ) ∂V ∂(∂µ ϕa )
So

∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L δS
L= δϕa + ∂µ δϕa − ∂µ δϕa = ∂µ δϕa + δϕa
∂ϕa ∂(∂µ ϕa ) ∂(∂µ ϕa ) ∂(∂µ ϕa ) δϕa
Problem 22.1. For the Noether current of eq. (22.6), and assuming that δϕa does not involve time derivatives,
use the canonical commutation relations to show that
[ϕa , Q] = iδϕa (22.41)
where Q is the Noether charge.
Solution 22.1. Now Z
Q≡ d3 xj 0 (x) Noether charge
Z Z
∂L(x)
[ϕa , Q] = d3 x[ϕa , j 0 (x)] = d3 x[ϕa , δϕa ] =
∂(∂0 ϕa )
Z Z
= d3 x[ϕa (x0 ), Π(x)]δϕa = d3 xiδ 3 (ϕx0 − ϕx)δϕa = iδϕa
Problem 22.2. Use the canonical commutation relations to verify eq. (22.38).
Solution 22.2. Recall from (22.35) Srednicki,
Z
Pµ = d3 xT 0µ (x)
and recall
∂L µ
T 0µ = − ∂ ϕa = −Πa ∂ µ ϕa
∂(ϕ̇a )
Z Z
[ϕa (x), P µ ] = d3 x0 [ϕa (x), −Πa ∂ µ ϕa (x0 )] = + d3 x0 [Πa ∂ µ ϕa (x0 ), ϕa (x)] =
Z
= d3 x0 {Πa (x0 )[∂xµ0 ϕa (x0 ), ϕa (x)] + [Πa , ϕa ]∂ µ ϕa }
62
Now
[∂xµ0 ϕa (x0 ), ϕa (x)] = ∂xµ0 [ϕa (x0 ), ϕa (x)] = 0
so then
[ϕa (x), P µ ] = −i∂ µ ϕa (x)
Problem 22.3.
(a) With T µν given by eq. (22.31), compute the equal-time (x0 = y 0 ) commutators [T 00 (x), T 00 (y)], [T 0i (x), T 00 (y)],
and [T 0i (x), T 0j (y)].
(b) Use your results to verify eqs. (2.17), (2.19), and (2.20).
Solution 22.3.
(a) (20090511) INCOMPLETE.
Recall that
T µν = ∂ µ ϕa ∂ ν ϕa + g µν L
1
L = − ∂ µ ϕa ∂µ ϕa − V (ϕ)
2
Πa = ∂0 ϕa
T 00 = H
T 0j = ∂ 0 ϕa ∂ j ϕa = −Πa ∇j ϕa
So then, for g 00 = −1,
1
H = T 00 = +Π2a + L = +Π2a + (−Π2a + (∇ϕa )2 ) + V (ϕ) =
2
1 2 1 2
= Πa + (∇ϕa ) + V (ϕ)
2 2
Assume i, j 6= 0.
i0
T (x), T 0j (y) = [−Πa (x)∇i ϕa (x), −Πa (y)∇j ϕa (y)] = Πx [∇i ϕx , Πy ∇j ϕy ] + [Πx , Πy ∇j ϕy ]∇i ϕx =

= −Πx Πy [∇j ϕy , ∇i ϕx ] + [Πy , ∇i ϕx ]∇j ϕy − Πy [∇j ϕy , Πx ] + [Πy , Πx ]∇j ϕy ∇i ϕx =

= Πx (Πy [∇i ϕx , ∇j ϕy ] + [∇i ϕx , Πy ]∇j ϕy ) + Πy [Πx , ∇j ϕy ]∇i ϕx
What to do with the spatial derivatives on the fields ϕ?

Consider
∂ i ϕx , Πy f = (∂ i ϕx )Πy f − (Πy ∂ i ϕx )f = ∂ xi (ϕx Πy − Πy ϕx )f =

= ∂ xi [ϕx , Πy ]f
(f is just a single or multiple particle state, labeled by quantum numbers number of particles and total
momentum k, and not a function of position x).
=⇒ ∇i ϕx , Πy = ∇i iδ 3 (x − y)

Likewise,
[∇i ϕx , ∇j ϕy ]f = ∇i ϕx ∇j ϕy f − ∇j ϕy ∇i ϕx f = (∂ xi ϕx ∂ yj ϕy − ∂ yj ϕy ∂ xi ϕx ) f =
= ∂ xi ∂ yj [ϕx , ϕy ]f = 0
=⇒ Πx ((∇i iδ 3 (x − y))∇j ϕy ) + Πy (∇yj (−iδ 3 (x − y)))∇i ϕx =

= i{Πx (∇xi δ 3 (x − y))∇j ϕy + −Πy (∇yj δ 3 (x − y))∇i ϕx } =
= i{Πx ∇j ϕy ∇xi δ 3 (x − y) − Πy ∇i ϕx ∇yj δ 3 (x − y)}
(b)
63
23. Discrete symmetries: P , T , C and Z
24. Nonabelian symmetries
Problem 24.1. Show that θij in eq. (24.4) must be antisymmetric if R is orthogonal.
Solution 24.1. R orthogonal.
T
Rik Rkj = δij =
=⇒ = Rik Rjk = (δik + θik + O(θ2 ))(δjk + θjk + O(θ2 )) =
= δij + δik θjk + θik δjk + O(θ2 )
=⇒ −θji = θij
0
Problem 24.2. By considering the SO(N ) transformation R −1 R−1 R0 R, where R and R0 are independent
infinitesimal SO(N ) transformations, prove eq. (24.7).
0
Solution 24.2. By the property of SO(N ) being a group, R −1 R−1 R0 R is also an orthogonal N × N matrix
of determinant 1:
0
R −1 R−1 R0 R = R00 = δ + θ00
Recall that
Rij = δij + θij
(R−1 )ij = (RT )ij = Rji = δji + θji = δij − θij
0 0 0 0
(R −1 R−1 R0 R)ij = Rik−1 (R−1 R0 R)kj = Rik−1 Rkl
−1
(R0 R)lj = Rik−1 Rkl
−1 0 0
Rlm Rmj = Rki 0
Rlk Rlm Rmj
So now
0 00
(R −1 R−1 R0 R)ij = Rij
00 00
= δij + θij + O(θ 2 )
00
with θij = −iθc (T c )ij .
Keeping terms of order θ2 (which I found in retrospect in first attempting the problem)
0 0
(R −1 R−1 R0 R)ij = Rik−1 Rkl
−1 0 0
Rlm Rmj = Rki 0
Rlk Rlm Rmj =
0
0 0
= (δik + θki + O(θ 2 ))(δkl + θlk + O(θ2 ))(δlm + θlm + O(θ2 ))(δmj + θmj + O(θ2 )) =
0 0 0 0
= (δil + θli + θli + θki θlk )(δlj + θlj + θlj + θlm θmj ) =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
= δij + θij + θij + θim θmj + θji + θli θlj + θli θlj + θji + θli θlj + θli θlj + θki θjk =
0 0 0 0
= δij + θli θlj + θli θlj + θki θjk + θli θlj
00
So O(θ2 ) terms were kept to equate to θij .
Since it was defined that
θjk = −iθa (T a )jk
so then
0 0
θli θlj = −θil θlj = − − iθa (T a )il − iθb (T b )lj = (θa θb )Tila Tljb = (θa θb )(T a T b )ij
0 0
θki θjk = +θik θkj = −θb (T b )ik θa (T a )kj = −θa θb (T b T a )ij
θli θlj = −θil θlj = − − iθa (T a )il − iθa (T a )lj = (θa )2 (T a )2ij
0 0
=⇒ θli θlj + θki θjk = θa θb [T a , T b ]ij
Better yet, if we included all θ2 order terms from the beginning,
0 0
Rki Rlk Rlm Rmj

βkn βni αlp αpk βlq βqm αmr αrj
= δki + βki + δlk + αlk + δlm + βlm + δmj + αmj + =
2 2 2 2

αlp αpi βln βni αlr αrj βlq βqj
= δli + αli + + βli + βki αlk + δlj + αlj + + βlj + βlm αmj + =
2 2 2 2
αir αrj βiq βqj αjp αpi βjn βni
= δij + αij + + βij + βim αmj + + αji + αli αlj + αli βlj + + βj + βli αlj + βli βlj + βki αjk + =
2 2 2 2
= δij + βim αmj − αil βlj − βil αlj + βik αkj
64
=⇒ βim αmj − αil βlj = −iβ(T b )im (−iα(T a )mj ) − (−iα(T a )il )(−iβ(T b )lj ) = αβ(T a )il (T b )lj − αβ(T b )im (T a )mj =
= (αβ)(T a T b − T b T a )ij = (αβ)[T a , T b ]ij
Now since a group is closed under group multiplication,
0 0
Rki Rlk Rlm Rmj = δij + γij + δij + −iθc (T c )ij
(−θc ) c
=⇒ [T a , T b ]ij = i T = if abc T c
αβ
Solution 24.3.
(a) Recall
φi (x) → Rij φj (x) (24.3) N real scalar fields ϕi
Rij = δij + θij + O(θ2 ) (24.4)
θjk = −iθa (T a )jk (24.6) θa 12 N (N − 1) real, infinitesimal parameters.
So then
Rij ϕj ' (δij + θij )ϕj = φi + −iθa (T a )ij ϕj = ϕi + −iθa (T a ϕ)i
Recall the Noether current
∂L(x)
j µ (x) = δϕi (x)
∂(∂µ ϕi (x))
and the Lagrangian
−1 µ 1 1
L= ∂ ϕi ∂µ ϕi − m2 ϕi ϕi − λ(ϕi ϕi )2
2 2 16
so that
∂L
= −∂ µ φi
∂(∂µ ϕi )
and that
j µ = −∂ µ ϕi (−iθa (T a )ij ϕj ) = iθa ∂ µ ϕi Tija ϕi
so that
θa j µa = iθa ∂ µ ϕi Tija ϕj or j µa = i∂ µ ϕi Tija ϕj
(b) Z Z Z
Qa = d3 xj 0a (x) = − d3 xiϕ̇i Tija ϕj = −i d3 xπi Tija ϕj
so
Z Z Z
[ϕi , Qa ] = [ϕi , −i d3 xπj Tjk
a
d3 x [ϕi , πj ]Tjk
a a
d3 x iδ 3 (x0 − x)δij Tjk
a
ϕk = Tija ϕj (x)

ϕk ] = −i ϕk + πj Tjk [ϕi , ϕk ] = −i
=⇒ [ϕi , Qa ] = Tija ϕj
(c) Recall [T a , T b ] = if abc T c (24.7) and the Jacobi identity,
[[A, B], C] + [[B, C], A] + [[C, A], B] = 0
[[Qa , Qb ], ϕi ] = [Qa , [Qb , ϕi ]] + [Qb , [ϕi , Qa ]] = −[Qa , Tijb ϕj ] + [Qb , Tija ϕj ] = Tijb Tjk
a
ϕk + −Tija Tjk
b
ϕk = −if abc Tik
c
ϕk =
= −if abc [ϕi , Qc ] = [if abc Qc , ϕi ]
ϕi arbitrary so [Qa , Qb ] = if abc Qc
Solution 24.4.
Now
Sij Skl ηjl = ηik
If
Sij = δij + θij + O(θ2 )
then
Sij Skl ηjl ' (δij δkl + δij θkl + θij δkl )ηjl = ηik + θkl ηil + θij ηjk = ηik
=⇒ θkl ηil + θij ηjk = 0 or θik ηkj = −ηik θjk
65
which is the same as, which is nice to note and rewrite as, (θη)ij = −(ηθT )ij or θη = −ηθT
η is antisymmetric (and now include this fact):
θik ηkj = −θik ηjk = −ηjk θik = θjk ηki
Immediately, the number of independent equations from above is

2N (2N + 1) (2N )2
= +N
2 2
so that the number of (independent) generators is
(2N )2 (2N )2

2
(2N ) − +N = − N = 2N 2 − N
2 2
25. Unstable particles and resonnaces

26. Infrared divergences
27. Other renormalization schemes
Solution 27.1.
Given
β(α) = b1 α2 + O(α3 ) (27.27)
2
γm (α) = C1 α + O(α ) (27.28)
and recalling the development in Sec. 27,
dα dm
= b1 α2 + O(α3 ) = β(α) = γm (α)m = (C1 α + O(α2 ))m
d ln µ d ln µ
Using chain rule, for µ = µ(α),
(C1 α + O(α2 ))m

dm dm d ln µ 1 C1 1
= = (C1 α + O(α2 ))m = ' + O(α) m
dα d ln µ dα b1 α2 + O(α3 ) b1 α2 + O(α3 ) b1 α
C1 /b1
dm C1 1 m2 C1 α2 m2 α2
= dα =⇒ ln = ln or =
m b1 α m1 b1 α1 m1 α1
C1 /b1
α(µ2 )
m(µ2 ) = m(µ1 )
α(µ1 )
28. The renormalization group
Solution 28.1.
Consider ϕ4 theory.
L = − 21 Zϕ ∂ µ ϕ∂µ ϕ − 12 Zm m2 ϕ2 − 1
µ ϕ4
24 Zλ λe (28.41), in d = 4 − .
For bare fields and parameters,
1 1 1
L = − ∂ µ ϕ0 ∂µ ϕ0 − m20 ϕ20 − λ0 ϕ40
2 2 4!
Comparing the renormalized and bare Lagrangian,
ϕ0 (x) = Zϕ1/2 ϕ(x)

m0 = Zϕ−1/2 Zm
1/2
m
µ Zϕ−2
λ0 = Zλ λe
66
In M S scheme,
∞
X an (λ)
Zϕ = 1 +
n=1
n
∞
X bn (λ)
Zm = 1 +
n=1
n
∞
X cn (λ)
Zλ = 1 +
n=1
n
Recall, from Prob. 14.5,

1 1−γ
Π(k 2 ) = α + ln µ + + O() m2 − (Ak 2 + Bm2 ) + O(α)
2
√
λ
where α = (4π) 2; µ = e4πe
γ
µ
, and
A = Zϕ − 1 = 0

1 µ 1 .
B=α + ln + + O() = Zm − 1
m 2
From Prob. 16.1, to get V4 (0, 0, 0, 0) = λ, Zλ = 1 + C and so

3 µ
C=α + 3 ln +1
m
λ0
µ Zϕ−2 =⇒ α0 =
λ0 = Zλ λe µ Zϕ−2
= Zλ αe
(4π)2
ln α0 = ln Zλ + ln α + ln µe + −2 ln Zϕ

d ln α0 d 3 µ 1 dα dα 3 µ 1 dα
=0= (+α + 3 ln +1 )+ ++0=+ + 3 ln + 1 − α(3) + +
d ln µ d ln µ m α d ln µ d ln µ m α d ln µ

dα 3 1 µ
+ + 3 ln + 1 = 3α −
d ln µ α m
2

dα 3α − 3 3α − α 2 3 µ
= 1 3 µ = 3 µ
' (3α − α)(1 − α + 3 ln + 1 + O(α2 )) =
d ln µ α + + 3 ln m + 1 1 + α + 3 ln m + 1 m
= −α + 3α2 + O(α3 )
=⇒ β(α) = 3α2 + O(α3 )

−1/2 1/2
Now m0 = Zϕ Zm m
Zϕ = 1
Zm = 1 + α 1 + O(0 )

ln m0 = 12 α 1 + O(0 ) + ln m
d ln m0 1 1 dα 1 dm
=0= +
d ln µ 2 d ln µ m d ln µ
1 dm −1 dα −1 α
=⇒ = = (−α + O(α2 )) = + O(α2 )
m d ln µ 2 d ln µ 2 2
1 d ln Zϕ
γϕ (α) = =0
2 d ln µ
Solution 28.3.
Since for χ → −χ, L is invariant, then physically, h0|χ|0i = h0| − χ|0i = −h0|χ|0i.
So h0|χ|0i = 0.
Consider the interaction term 21 Zh he
µ/2 ϕχ2 . I will develop the theory and Feynman diagrams here. Work
directly in momentum space.
67
Z
1
d4 x Zh he µ3/2 ϕχ2 =
i
2
Z Z 4 Z 4 Z 4
i /2 4 d ka ika x d kb d kc ikb x
= Zh he
µ d x 4
e ϕ(k
e a) 4
e e b )eikc x ϕ(k
ϕ(k e c) =
2 (2π) (2π) (2π)4
c Z
!
i 4 /2
Y d4 kα
= (2π) Zh he µ 4
δ 4 (ka + kb + kc )ϕka χkb χkc =
2 α=a
(2π)
c
! 3
d4 kα (2π)4
Z
i 4 /2
Y
4
= (2π) Zh he µ δ (ka + kb + kc ) δJ−ka δK−kb δK−kc
2 α=a
(2π)4 i
Consider P ϕ propagators.
Q χ propagators.
Let 2P − V = Eϕ
2Q − 2V = 2(Q − V ) = Eχ .
Now V ∈ Z+ . Consider V = 1. Consider Q = 1. For P = 1, there’s the term h0|ϕ|0i = 0, fixed by Y .
For P = 2,
!2 !
d4 l Jel Je−l d4 q K
Z Z
1 i eq K
e −q
2 (2π)4 l2 + m2 2 (2π)4 q 2 + M 2
Applying δK−kb δK−ka then 1 vertex on the propagators leads to
K 1
kc
δ 4 (kc − (−kb ))
e
δK−kb k2 +M 2 = kb2 +M 2
c
so that kb + kc = 0. So there results a factor of δ 4 (ka ), forcing ka = 0.
But that means that for one of the particles of ϕ field, k = ka = 0. No particle. This is not physical.
Then Q ≥ 2.
Consider P = 1, Q = 2 (tree-level vertex).
c Z
! 3
d4 kα (2π)4

i Y
(2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 δ 4
(k a + k b + k c ) δJ−ka δK−kb δK−kc ·
2 α=a
(2π)4 i
! !2
Z Z
i 1 i eq K
e −q
· =
2 (2π)4 l2 + m2 2 2 (2π)4 q 2 + M 2
c Z
! P +Q
i Y 1 P +Q Jeka K
ek Kek 1
= (2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 4 4
d kα δ (ka + kb + kc ) 3V i b c
2 α=a
i ka2 + m2 kb2 + M 2 kc2 + M 2 (2π)4
Applying LSZ formula,
i3 (k22 + M 2 )(k32 + M 2 )(k 2 + m2 )h0|T ϕ−k1 χk2 χk3 |0i = i(2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 δ 4 (k1 − k2 − k3 )
µ/2 .
For each vertex is assigned a factor of iZh he
The counting factor of 2 is correct; indeed
hk2 k3 |χx χx ϕx |k1 i

2
Consider P = 2, Q = 2.
c Z
! !2
1 i Y 1
(2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 d4 kα δ 4 (ka + kb + kc )δJ−ka δK−kb δK−kc ·
2 2 α=a
i3V
!2 !2
Z Z
1 i 1 i eq K
e −q
· =
2 2 (2π)4 l2 + m2 2 2 (2π)4 q 2 + M 2
P +Q
−1
Z
1
= (i(2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 )2 4 4 4 4 4
d ka d kd d ke d kf δ (ka − ke − kf )δ (kd + ke + kf ) 4
·
2 (2π)4
!
Jeka Jekd 1 1
· 2
ka + m2 kd2 + m2 kf2 + M 2 ke2 + M 2
68
Applying LSZ formula, and while there is a counting factor of 2 from matching functional derivatives from
h0|ϕ ek2 |0i, there is a 12 factor from symmetry (the 2 internal propagators of χ can be exchanged).
ek1 ϕ
d4 l
Z
1 1/i 1/i
µ/2 )2
(iZh he (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 − k2 )
2 (2π)d (k1 + l)2 + M 2 l2 + M 2
The counting is correct, a factor of 23 = 8, as can be checked by the following:
2
hk2 |ϕy χy χy χx χx ϕx |k1 i
2 2
The consider another term (Feynman diagram).
c Z
! !2
1 i Y 1
(2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 d kα 4 4
δ (ka + kb + kc )δJ−ka δK−kb δK−kc ·
2 2 α=a
i3V
(11) ! !3
Z Z
i 1 i eq K
e −q
· · =
2 (2π)4 l2 + m2 3! 2 (2π)4 q 2 + M 2
f Z
! P +Q
1 Y 1
= ((2π)4 Zh he
µ/2 )2 4 4 4
d kα δ (−kd + −ke + kc )δ (kd + ke + kf ) ·
2 α=c
(2π)4
(12)
K
ec K
ef 1 1
· 2 2 =
kc2 + M kf + M kd + m ke + M 2
2 2 2 2
Z
1/i 1/i
(13) µ/2 )2
= (iZh he d4 k (2π)4 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )
k 2 + m2 (l + k)2 + M 2
where a counting factor of 2 · 2 · 2 · 3! · 23 was needed going from Eq. (11) to Eq. (12) and factor of 2 was
included, going from Eq. (12) to Eq. (13).
(a) So to calculate the 1-loop contributions to each of the Z’s in the M S renormalization scheme, be careful
to include all contributing Feynman diagrams.
For the ϕ propagator, there are 3 distinct diagrams, including 1 for the counterterms A, B.
1 (Zg g)2 + (Zh h)2 1 1 (Zg g)2 + (Zh h)2 2

Z
2 D
Πϕ (k ) = dxD ln 2 − + 1 + A k2 −
2 (4π)3 0 µ 12 (4π)3
1 (Zg g)2 m2 + (Zh h)2 M 2 2

2
− + 1 + Bm
2 (4π)3
Assuming Zg = 1 + O(g 2 ), Zh = 1 + O(h2 ),
A = Zϕ − 1, B = Zm − 1
2
−1 g 2 + h2 1 g 2 + h2 M
m2 1
A= , B = −1
6 (4π)3 (4π)3
For χ propagator, there’s only 2 distinct diagrams, including 1 for counterterms A0 , B 0 .

Note that because the 2 internal propagators, 1 χ, 1 ϕ, are distinct, there’s no symmetry factor of 2 in
the denominator.
d4 l
Z
1/i 1/i
iΠχ (k 2 ) = (iZh he
µ/2 )2
(2π)d (l + k1 )2 + m2 l2 + M 2
Z 1 −2
((l + k)2 + m2 )−1 (l2 + M 2 )−1 = dx x((l2 + 2lk + k 2 ) + m2 ) + (1 − x)(l2 + M 2 ) =
0
Z 1 Z 1
= dx(l2 + 2lkx + x(k 2 + m2 ) + (1 − x)M 2 )−2 = dx((l + kx)2 + x(1 − x)k 2 + x(m2 − M 2 ) + M 2 )−2
0 0
here D = x(1 − x)k 2 + x(m2 − M 2 ) + M 2 .
69
Note Z 1
1 1 1 1
dxD = k 2 + (m2 − M 2 ) + M 2 = k 2 + (m2 + M 2 )
0 6 2 6 2
2 Z 1
2
(Zh h) D 2 k 1 2
Πχ (k 2 ) = { dxD ln + − + 1 + (m + M 2
) } − A0 k 2 − B 0 M 2
(4π)3 0 µ2 6 2
matching terms of k 2 and m2 , M 2 ,
(Zh h)2 1/3
A0 = −
(4π)3
(Zh h)2 1 m2

0
B =− 1+ 2
(4π)3 M
For ϕ3 vertex, there are 3 diagrams.
Z 1 Z 1−x Z 1 Z 1−x
g3
2
h3 µ2

/21 1 µ 1 1
V3ϕ3 = Zg ge
µ + + 2 dx dy ln + + 2 dx dy ln
(4π)3 2 0 0 D (4π)3 2 0 0 D
For Zg = 1 + C, for the tree-level term, first term, above,
−1 (g 3 + h3 ) /2 −1 (g 3 + h3 )
C= /ge
µ → C =
(4π)3 g(4π)3
For ϕχ2 vertex, there are 3 diagrams.
1 1−x 1 1−x
h3 µ2 h2 g µ2
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
µ/2 +
V3ϕχ2 = Zh he + 2 dx dy ln + + 2 dx dy ln
(4π)3 2 0 0 D (4π)3 2 0 0 D
For Zh = 1 + C 0 ,
−1 h(h2 + hg) −1 (h2 + hg)
C0 = 3
=
(4π) h (4π)3
(b)

ln µ
ln g0 = G(g, h, ) + ln g + e
2
d ln g0 ∂G dg ∂G dh 1 dg
=0= + + +
d ln µ ∂g d ln µ ∂h d ln µ g d ln µ 2

∂G dg ∂G dh g
=⇒ g +1 +g + =0
∂g d ln µ ∂h d ln µ 2

ln h0 = H(g, h, ) + ln h + ln µ e
2
d ln h0 ∂H dh ∂H dg h
= 0 =⇒ h +1 +h + =0
d ln µ ∂h d ln µ ∂g d ln µ 2
Now
∞
X
−n G1 (g, h) 1
G(g, h, ) = Gn (g, h) = +O
n=1
2
∞
X H1 (g, h) 1
H(g, h, ) = Hn (g, h)−n = +O 2
n=1

Then
∂g G1 dg ∂h G1 dh −g
1+g + ... +g + ... =
d ln µ d ln µ 2

∂h H1 dh ∂g H1 dg −h
1+h + ... +h + ... =
d ln µ d ln µ 2
dg dh dg dh
d ln µ , d ln µ finite, so d ln µ , d ln µat “most” O(0 ), no powers of 1 .
! !
∂ G dg
g ∂hG1

1 + g g 1 d ln µ − g
∂ H dh =
h g 1 1 + h ∂hH1 d ln µ 2 h
70
! !
dg
1 + h ∂hH1 −g ∂hG1

1 − g d ln µ
∂ G ∂ H ∂ G ' dh
1 + h ∂hH1 + g g 1 −h g 1 1 + g g 1 2 h d ln µ
Doing long division with the determinant, for instance,

∂h H1 ∂h H1 ∂g G1 ∂g G1
1+h / 1+h +g =1−g + ...

!
− 1 − g ∂gG1 −g ∂1G1 g
=⇒ ∂g H1 ∂h H1 '
2 −h 1−h h

−g g ∂G1 ∂G1 dg
+ g +h =
2 2 ∂g ∂h d ln µ
'
−h h ∂H1 ∂H1 dh
+ g +h =
2 2 ∂g ∂h d ln µ
(c) Using ln (1 − x) = −x − x2 + . . . and going to O 1 order,

3
G = − ln Zϕ + ln Zg =
2
3 1 g 2 + h2 1 −1 g 3 + h3 −3 2 h3 h2

1
=− − + = g − +
2 6 (4π)3 g(4π)3 (4π)3 4 g 4
h2 −7h2 g2

−1 1 1 2 2 2 1
H= ln Zϕ − ln Zχ + ln Zh = (g + h ) + + −h − hg = − hg +
2 (4π)3 12 3 (4π)3 12 12
3

−3g h

∂G1 1 ∂H1 1 −7h
= + 2 = −g
∂g (4π)3 2 g ∂h (4π)3 6
−3h2

∂G1 1 h ∂H1 1 g
= + = −h +
∂h (4π)3 g 2 ∂g (4π)3 6
−3g 2 h3 3h3 h2 −3g 2 −2h3 h2

g 1 g
βg = + − + = + +
2 (4π)3 2 g g 2 2(4π)3 2 g 2
=⇒ 2 2
2 2

h 1 g 7h h 1 −7h g
βh = −gh + − − gh = − 2gh +
2 (4π)3 6 6 2 (4π)3 6 6
(d) Now
2 3 !
g3 −3 1 h h
βg = + −2
2(4π)3 2 2 g g
2 !
g2

βh −7 h h 1
= −2 +
h 2(4π)3 6 g g 6
dg
If βg is negative, µ dµ is negative. If µ increases (and assuming µ positive), then coupling constant
decreases. Recall in M S scheme µ ∼ s2 (or just by dimensional analysis) so at higher energy, coupling
constant decreases: asymptotic freedom.
For g > 0, βg < 0 when hg > −0.8324.

For −0.8324 < hg < 0, h < 0.
when h < 0, βhh > 0, then βh < 0, then βh < 0, for
when −1.7936 < hg < 0.07979
So βg and βh is negative when −0.8324 < hg < 0.
For hg > 0 and h > 0,
βh h
h < 0 so that βh < 0 when g > 0.07979.
h h
=⇒ −0.8324 < < 0 or > 0.07979
g g
for both βg and βh to be negative.
71
29. Effective field theory
30. Spontaneous symmetry breaking
31. Broken symmetry and loop corrections
32. Spontaneous breaking of continuous symmetries
Part II Spin One Half
33. Representations of the Lorentz group
Problems. Problem 33.1. Express Aµν (x) S µν (x), and T (x) in terms of B µν (x).
Solution 33.1. Given B µν (x) = Aµν (x) + S µν (x) + 14 g µν T (x), (33.6),
1 1
B νµ (x) = Aνµ (x) + S νµ (x) + g νµ T (x) = −Aµν (x) + S µν + g µν T (x)
4 4
Now
B µν + B νµ
= S µν
2
1
gµν B µν (x) = (4)T (x) = T (x)
4
  
1 1
 −1  −1 
Note gµν g µν = 4 because (protože, perché), gµν g µν =
   =4
−1  −1 
−1 −1
and gµν S µν = 0 (traceless).
B µν − B νµ
= Aµν (x)
2
Problem 33.2. Verify that eqs. (33.18)-(33.20) follow from eqs. (33.11)-(33.13).
Solution 33.2. Recall,
[Ji , Jj ] = +iijk Jk (33.11) 1
Ni = (Ji − iKi ) (33.16)
[Ji , Kj ] = iijk Kk (33.12) 2
1
[Ki , Kj ] = −iijk Jk (33.13) Ni† = (Ji + iKi ) (33.16)
2
Then we want
[Ni , Nj ] = +iijk Nk (33.18)
[Ni† , Nj† ] = iijk Nk† (33.19)
[Ni , Nj† ] = 0 (33.13)
1 1
[Ni , Nj ] = {[Ji − iKi , Jj − iKj ]} = {[Ji , Jj ] − i[Ji , Kj ] − i[Ki , Jj ] − [Ki , Kj ]} =
4 4
1 iijk
= {iijk Jk + ijk Kk − jik Kk + iijk Jk } = Nk
4 2
h i 1 1
Ni† , Nj† = {[Ji + iKi , Jj + iKj ]} = {[Ji , Jj ] + i[Ji , Kj ] + i[Ki , Jj ] − [Ki , Kj ]} =
4 4
1 iijk †
= {iijk Jk − ijk Kk + jik Kk + iijk Jk } = Nk
4 2
h i 1 1
Ni , Nj† = {[Ji − iKi , Jj + iKk ]} = {iijk Jk − ijk Kk − jik Kk − iijk Jk } = 0
4 4
72
34. Left- and right-handed spinor fields
Problems. Problem 34.1. Verify that eq. (34.6) follows from eq. (34.1).
Solution 34.1. Given U (Λ)−1 ψa (x)U (Λ) = Lba (Λ)ψb (Λ−1 x) (34.1),
Λµν = δνµ + δωνµ
(Λ−1 )ρν = Λρν = δνρ + δωνρ
(Λ−1 )ρν = xρ + δωνρ xν
ψb (Λ−1 x) ' ψb (xρ ) + δωνρ xν ∂ρ ψb = ψb (xρ ) + g ρk δωνk xν gρl ∂ l ψb =

= ψb (x) + δωνk xν ∂ k ψb
i i i i 1
(I + − δωµν M µν )(ψa + δωµν ψa M µν ) = ψa + δωµν ψa M µν − δωµν M µν ψa + δωab δωµν M ab M µν
2 2 2 2 4
Consider first-order terms.
=⇒ iδωµν [ψa , M µν ]
(when summing over µ, ν, we obtain 2 terms, each), i.e.
δωµν ψa M µν + δωνµ ψa M νµ = δωµν ψa M µν + (−δωµν ψa (−M µν )
i
Lba (Λ) = Lba (1 + δω) = δab + δωµν (SLµν )ba
2
δωµν i i
La (Λ)ψb (Λ x) −−−→ δωµν (SLµν )ba ψb (x) + δωµν (xµ ∂ ν − xν ∂µ )ψa + δωνµ (SLνµ )ba ψb (x)
b −1
2 2
=⇒ [ψa , M µν ] = Lµν ψa + (SLµν )ba ψb (x)
with (SLµν )ba = −(SLνµ )ba

Solution 34.2.
Recall that
[SLµν , SLρσ ] = i(g µρ SLνσ − (µ ↔ ν)) − (ρ ↔ σ) (34.4)
1
(SLij )ba = ijk σk (34.9)
2
1
(SLk0 )ba = iσk (34.10)
2
For (34.9) obeying (34.4), without loss of generality, assume only one pair of indices of (34.4) are the same,
since µ, ν, ρ, σ = 1, 2, 3, and if there are two matching pairs, then because SL is antisymmetric, indices could be
exchanged, SLµν and SLρσ are the same, and the commutator is 0.
[SLµν , SLµσ ] = iSLνσ
1 1 1 1 νσ jk −i σνl
[ µνj σj , µσk σk ] = µνj µσk [σj , σk ] = δ σ − δ νk δ jσ iσl jkl = = +iSLνσ

σl
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 −1 jkl l −i jkl l
[SLj0 , SLk0 ] = [ iσj , iσk ] = 2ie σ = σ = −iSLjk
2 2 4 2
Indeed,
[SLj0 , SLk0 ] = i(0 − 0) − (0 − SLjk ) = iSkjk
Problem 34.3.
Solution 34.3. µνρσ αβγσ = σµνρ σαβγ .
Consider all permutations of µνρ to αβγ.
73
35. Manipulating spinor indices
Problems. Solution 35.1.

σ µȧa ≡ ab ȧḃ σbµḃ = ȧḃ ab σbµḃ since we’re given (3.19).
What does it mean, ”written in ‘matrix multiplication’”?
Recall 12 = +1, 21 = −1.
To begin, consider writing everything explicitly:

1 1 1
ab σb0ḃ = −δa2 δḃ1 + δa1 δḃ2 = i(σ 2 )aḃ .Equivalently, =
−1 1 −1
Likewise, for example, µ = 3,

1 1 0 −1
ab σb3ḃ = −δa2 δḃ1 − δa1 δḃ2 = i2 (σ 1 )aḃ .Equivalently, =
−1 −1 −1 0
So, being careful about the spinor indices, that we can’t cavalierly say ”ab σbµḃ
= σḃµa ”, and keeping in mind
µ
the definition σaḃ = (I, ~σ ), I conclude that (can be shown explicitly for µ = 1, 2 as well),
(
ab µ i(σ 2 )aḃ for µ = 0
σbḃ =
i(σ 2 σ µ )aḃ = i(i2µρ σ ρ + δ 2µ 1)aḃ = (−2µρ σ ρ + iδ 2µ 1)aḃ if µ 6= 0
where, recall σ i σ k = iikl σ l + δ ik .
ȧḃ =−ḃȧ i(σ 2 )aḃ (−i)(σḃ2ȧ ) = (regular matrix multiplication)

−−−−−−→ if µ = 0,
= (1)aȧ = (1)ȧa
If µ 6= 0,
−ḃȧ ab σbµḃ = −(−2µρ σ ρ + iδ 2µ 1)aḃ i(σ 2 )ḃȧ = i2µρ (σ ρ σ 2 )aȧ + δ 2µ σa2ȧ =
= −2µρ ρ2ν σaνȧ + δ 2µ σa2ȧ = −σaµ6ȧ=2 + δ 2µ σa2ȧ = −σȧa
µ6=2
+ δ 2µ (−σȧa
2
)
1 T 1
(σ ) = σ

1 1 −i 1
Recall, σ = , σ2 = , σ3 = . Note that 3 T but (σ 2 )T = −σ 2 , !
1 i −1 (σ ) = σ 3
=⇒ σ µȧa = −ḃȧ ab σbµḃ = (I, −~σ )
Solution 35.2. Given

1
(SLij )ba = ijk σk (34.9)
2
1
(SLk0 )ba = iσk (34.10)
2
we want (SLµν )ba = 4i (σ µ σ ν − σ ν σ µ )ba (35.21).
Now (SLij )ba = 4i (σ i σ j − σ j σ i )ba
If i = j,
σ i σ i = 1 + −4 = −3
j j
=⇒ (SLij )ba = 0.
σ σ = 1 + −4 = −3
i 1
(SLij )ba = (−iijk σ k + ijik σ k )ba = ijk σ k
4 2
i i
(SLk0 )ba = (σ µ σ 0 − σ 0 σ µ )ba = (σ µ )ba
4 2
Solution 35.3.
i µ ν i
(SLµν )ba =
(σ σ − σ ν σ µ )ba = ((σ µ σ ν )ba − (σ ν σ µ )ba )
4 4
−i
((SLµν )ba )∗ = (((σ µ σ ν )ba )∗ − ((σ ν σ µ )ba )∗ )
4
Now recall that Hermetian conjugation swaps the 2 SU(2) Lie algebras.
((σ µ )ak (σ ν )kb )∗ = (σ µ )∗ak ((σ ν )kb )∗ = (σ µ )k̇ȧ (σ ν )ḃk̇ = (σ ν σ µ )ḃȧ
((σ ν )ak (σ µ )kb )∗ = (σ ν )∗ak ((σ µ )kb )∗ = (σ µ )ḃk̇ (σ ν )k̇ȧ = (σ µ σ ν )ḃȧ
74
i i
=⇒ ((SLµν )ba )∗ = − ((σ ν σ µ )ḃȧ − (σ µ σ ν )ḃȧ ) = −(− (σ µ σ ν − σ ν σ µ )ḃȧ ) = −(SR
µν ḃ
)ȧ
4 4
Solution 35.4. Given ab ȧḃ σaµȧ σbνḃ = (σaµȧ ȧḃ )(ab σbνḃ ),
from previous problem 35.1, (
i(σ 2 )aḃ for ν = 0
ab σbνḃ =
(−2νρ σ ρ + iδ 2ν 1)aḃ if ν 6= 0
Likewise, (
i(σ 2 )aḃ if µ = 0
σaµȧ ȧḃ µ 2
= i(σ σ )aḃ =
i(iµ2ρ σ ρ + δ µ2 1)aḃ = −µ2ρ σaρḃ + iδ µ2 1aḃ 6 0
if µ =
If µ = ν = 0, i(σ 2 )aḃ i(σ 2 )aḃ = −(σ 2 )aḃ (σ 2 )ḃa (−1) = (1)1aa = 2 (it’s the trace).
6 0, ν = 0,
If µ =
(−µ2ρ σaρḃ + iδ µ2 1aḃ )i(σ 2 )aḃ = +iµ2ρ σaρḃ σḃa
2
− δ µ2 1aḃ (−σḃa
2
)=
α
= iµ2ρ ρ2α σaa + δ µ2 σaa
2
=0 (trace of Pauli matrices is 0)
6 0, µ = 0,
Likewise, if ν =
i(σ 2 )aḃ (−2νρ σaρḃ + iδ 2ν 1aḃ ) = i2νρ σḃa
2 ρ
σaḃ + δ 2ν σḃ2ḃ = i2νρ 2ρα σḃαḃ + δ 2ν σḃ2ḃ = 0
If µ, ν 6= 0, 2,
(−µ2ρ σaρḃ )(−2να σaαḃ ) = −2µρ 2να σaρḃ σḃa
α µ
= −{δµν 1aa + −σaνḃ σḃa }=
α
= −{δµν (2) − iµνα σaa } = −2δµν
If µ 6= 0, 2, ν = 2,
(−µ2ρ σaρḃ )(i1aḃ ) = −iµ2ρ σaa
ρ
=0
Likewise, for ν 6= 0, 2, µ = 2,
(−2νρ σ ρ )aḃ (i1aḃ ) = −i2νρ σaρḃ 1ḃa = 0
If µ = ν = 2,
i1aḃ i1aḃ = −1aa = −2
 
1
 −1 
In my convention, gµν =
 . So I obtain
−1 
−1
ab ȧḃ σaµȧ σbνḃ = +2g µν
36. Lagrangians for spinor fields
Problems. Problem 36.1.

Problem 36.2. Verify that eq. (36.46) is consistent with eq. (36.43).
Solution 36.2. µ c
0 σeȧ −δa
Recall that γ µ = (36.39), γ5 = (36.43).
σ µėa 0 +δċȧ
Rewrite the gamma matrices as tensor products:

0 1
γ = = 1 ⊗ σ1
1
σµ

µ
γ = = σ µ ⊗ iσ 2 µ = 1, 2, 3
−σ µ
Then multiply tensor products:
γ 1 γ 2 = (σ 1 ⊗ iσ 2 )(σ 2 ⊗ iσ 2 ) = σ 1 σ 2 ⊗ −σ 2 σ 2 = iσ 3 ⊗ −1
γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 = −i(σ 3 ⊗ 1)(σ 3 ⊗ iσ 2 ) = (+1)(1 ⊗ σ 2 )

−1
γ 0 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 = i(1 ⊗ iσ 3 ) = −(1 ⊗ σ 3 ) =
1
Problem 36.3.
75
(a) Prove the Fierz identities
(χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 ) = −2(χ†1 χ†3 )(χ2 χ4 ), (36.58)
(χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 )(χ†1 σ µ χ4 )(χ†3 σ µ χ2 ), (36.59)
(b) Define fields

χi ξi
Ψi ≡ , ΨC
i ≡
ξi† χ†i
Solution 36.3.
(a) Consider (χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 ). Note that χ†1 σ µ χ2 is a scalar, i.e. column matrix · row = number .
˙
(χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 ) = χ†1ȧ σ µȧa χ2a χ†3ċ σ ċc † † ab ȧḃ cd ċd µ
µ χ4c = χ1ȧ χ3ċ χ2a χ4c σbḃ σµdd˙ =
˙
= χ†1ȧ χ†3ċ χ2a χ4c ab ȧḃ cd ċd (−2bd ḃd˙)
since, recall that σaµȧ σµbḃ = −2ab ȧḃ (35.4)
= −2χ†1ȧ χ†3ċ χ2a χ4c ab ȧḃ (−δbc )(−δḃċ ) =
= −2(χ†1ȧ χ†3ċ (−ċȧ ))(χ2a χ4c (−ca )) = −2(χ†1ȧ χ3†ȧ )(χ2a χa4 ) =
= −2(χ†1 χ†3 )(χ2 χ4 )
(χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 ) = −2(χ†1 χ†3 )(χ2 χ4 )
(χ†1 σ µ χ4 )(χ†3 σ µ χ2 ) = −2(χ†1 χ†3 )(χ4 χ2 )
χ4 χ2 = χ4a χa2 = ab χb4 ac χ2c = −ba ac (−χ2c χb4 ) =
= δbc χ2c χb4 = χ2b χb4 or χ2a χa4 = χ2 χ4
Components of Weyl fields themselves anticommute, so (χb4 χ2c = −χ2c χb4 ).
Pedagogically, I figured the last identity by doing a simple example:

c
χ2 =
d

a
χ1 =
b χ†3 = (e f )
χ†1 = (a b)

g
χ4 =
h
For the LHS of the identity:
For σ 0 = 1,
c
(a b) = (ac + bd)
d

g
(e f ) = (eg + f h)
h
(ac + bd)(eg + f h) = aceg + bdeg + acf h + bdf h

1
For σ 1 = ,
1

d
(ab) = (ad + bc)
c

h
(e f ) = (eh + f g)
g
(ad + bc)(eh + f g) = adeh + bceh + adf g + bcf g
For the RHS of the identity,

g c
(a b) (e f) =
h d
= (ag + bh)(ec + f d) = agec + bhec + agf d + bhf d
76

h d
(a b) (e f) =
g c
= (ah + bg)(ed + f c) = ahed + bged + ahed + bgf c

χi χic
(b) Now Ψi = = . (Dirac field)
ξi† ξi†ċ
Consider (Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ2 )(Ψ3 γµ PL Ψ4 ).
Recall the left and right projection matrices.
c
1 δa for a Dirac field χc
PL ≡ (1 − γ5 ) = −−−−−−−−−−−→ PL Ψ =
2 0

1
PR ≡ (1 + γ5 ) =
2 δċȧ
σaµċ

Recall γ-matrix definition, γ µ = .
σ µȧc

µ 0
=⇒ γ PL Ψ2 =
σ µȧc χ2c
0 δċȧ

Now recall Ψ = Ψ† β = (ξ a , χ†ȧ ), where β ≡ c .
δa 0
Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ2 = χ†1ȧ σ µȧc χ2c

σµaċ
=⇒ Ψ3 γµ PL Ψ4 = χ†3ȧ σ ȧc
µ χ4c where γµ =
σ ȧc
µ
c T ξa
Recall charge conjugate of Ψ = Ψ ≡ CΨ = . Notice how χ, ξ are switched.
χ†ȧ

0
=⇒ PR Ψc =
χ†ȧ
Ψ1 PR Ψc3 = χ†1ȧ χ†3ȧ = χ†1 χ†3
c
Consider Ψ4 PL Ψ2
χ2c
PL Ψ2 =
0
c
What is Ψ4 ? We cannot simply apply the definition as outlined in Srednicki (2007), Sec. 36, as it was
for Ψ: the order of operations change. But we know that we want to switch χ, ξ in the end, i.e.,
c
for Ψ = (ξ a , χ†ȧ ), Ψ = (χa , ξȧ† ) switch χ, ξ in the end, i.e.
†ȧ
δca

ξ χ
†
(Ψ) = β (Ψ) = ċ †
= †cċ = Ψ; (Ψ)T = (χc , ξ †ċ )
δȧ χa ξ
vs.
c
δċȧ

ξ
(Ψ) = Ψ† β = (χ†ȧ , ξ a ) c = (ξ c , χ†ċ ); (Ψ)T =
δa χ†ċ
ac c
c ξ ξa
(Ψ)T C 0 = (χc , ξ †ċ ) = (χa , ξȧ† ) = Ψ vs. C(Ψ)T = ac ȧċ = = Ψc
ȧċ χ†ċ χ†ȧ
c
Notice how for Ψ , I had to multiply ΨT = (Ψ)T with C 1 to the right.
c
Nevertheless, Ψ4 PL Ψ2 = χc4a χ2c = χ4 χ2 = χ2 χ4 . (by (35.25), for left-handed Weyl fields).
Using the Fierz identity (χ†1 σ µ χ2 )(χ†3 σ µ χ4 ) = −2(χ†1 χ†3 )(χ2 χ4 ).
c
=⇒ (Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ2 )(Ψ3 γµ PL Ψ4 ) = −2(Ψ1 PR Ψc3 )(Ψ4 PL Ψ2 )
As before,
Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ4 = χ†1ȧ σ µȧc χ4c = χ†1 σ µ χ4
Ψ3 γ µ PL Ψ2 = χ†3ȧ σ µȧc χ2c = χ†3 σ µ χ2
77
=⇒ (Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ2 )(Ψ3 γµ PL Ψ4 ) = (Ψ1 γ µ PL Ψ4 )(Ψ3 γµ PL Ψ2 ) (36.62)
(c)
µ †ċ
0 σ aċ ξ2
µ
Ψ1 γ PR Ψ2 = (ξ1a , χ†1ȧ )γ µ a †
= (ξ1 , χ1ȧ ) = ξ1a σaµċ ξ2†ċ = ξ1 σ µ ξ2†
ξ2†ċ 0

c µ ξ1c 0
Ψ2 γ µ PL Ψc1 = (χa2 , †
ξ2ȧ )γ a †
= (χ2 , ξ2ȧ ) = ξ2†ȧ σ µȧc ξ1c =
0 σ µȧc ξ1c
= ξ2†ȧ cb ȧḃ σbµḃ ξ1c =
= (−ḃȧ ξ2†ȧ )σbµḃ (−bc ξ1c ) = ξ2†ḃ σ µbḃ ξ1b = ξ1b σbµḃ ξ2†ḃ = −ξ1 σ µ ξ2†
(ξ2†ḃ , ξ1b will anticommute with each other)

c
=⇒ Ψ1 γ µ PR Ψ2 = −Ψ2 γ µ PL Ψc1

a † χ2a
Ψ1 PL Ψ2 = (ξ1 , χ1ȧ ) = ξ1 χ2
0

c ξ
Ψ2 PL Ψc1 = (χa1 , ξ2†ȧ ) 1a = χa2 ξ1a = χ2 ξ1 = ξ1 χ2 (ξ1 , χ2 are left-handed Weyl fields and by (35.25))
0
c
=⇒ Ψ1 PL Ψ2 = Ψ2 PL Ψc1

0
Ψ1 PR Ψ2 = (ξ1a , χ†1ȧ ) = χ†1ȧ ξ2†ȧ = χ†1 ξ2† = ξ2† χ†1
ξ2†ȧ

c 0
Ψ2 PR Ψc1 = (ξ2a , χ†2ȧ ) = ξ2†ȧ χ1†ȧ = ξ2† χ†1
χ1†ȧ
c
=⇒ Ψ1 PR Ψ2 = Ψ2 PR Ψc1
Problem 36.5. Symmetries of fermion fields. (Prerequisite: 24.) Consider a theory with N massless Weyl
fields ψj ,
L = iψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj (36.74)
where the repeated index j is summed. This lagrangian is clearly invariant under the U (N ) transformation,
ψj → Ujk ψk , (36.75)
where U is a unitary matrix. State the invariance group for the following cases:
(a) N Weyl fields with a common mass m,
1
L = iψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj − m(ψj ψj + ψj† ψj† ). (36.76)
2
(b) N massless Majorana fields,
1 T µ
L= Ψ Cγ ∂µ Ψj (36.77)
2 j
(c) N Majorana fields with a common mass m,
i T µ 1
L= Ψ Cγ ∂µ Ψj − mΨTj CΨj . (36.78)
2 j 2
(d) N massless Dirac fields,
L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj (36.79)
(e) N Dirac fields with a common mass m,
L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj − mΨj Ψj (36.80)
Solution 36.5.
78
(a) Consider SO(N ) transformation. Note that ψj ψj = ψ T ψ = 1.
0
ψj0 ψj0 = ψ T ψ 0 = (Rψ)T Rψ = ψ T RT Rψ = ψ T ψ
0 0 0 0
ψj† ψj† = (ψ † )T ψ †
= ((Rψ)† )T (Rψ)† = (ψ † RT )T ψ † R† = Rψ †T ψ † RT = (ψ †T ψ † )RRT = ψ †T ψ † = ψj† ψj†
Note that for column vectors,
ψi0 = (Rψ)i = Rij ψj or ψi1

0
= Rij ψj1
but for row vectors, one must be careful about the indices:
0 0
ψi† = (Rψ)†i = (ψ † R† )i = ψk† Rki
T
= ψk† Rik or ψ1i† = (Rψ)†1i = (ψ † R† )1i = ψ1k
† T
Rki †
= ψ1k Rik
0
iψi† σ µ ∂µ ψi0 = iψk† Rik σ µ ∂µ Rij ψj = iRik Rij ψk† σ µ ∂µ ψj = iψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj
=⇒ SO(N ) symmetry.
Also, N Weyl fields with a common mass m has Z2 symmetry because the Z2 transformation ψ → −ψ,
and ψ † → −ψ † still leaves L invariant.
With Z2 symmetry, SO(N ) is “extended” to O(N ) symmetry, “overall,” for the Lagrangian of N Weyl
fields.
(b)
(c)
µ χc
(d) Given L = iΨj γ ∂µ Ψj for N massless Dirac fields, recall that for the Dirac field, Ψ = .
ξ †ċ
Now
σaµċ

∂µ χc
µ
Ψγ ∂µ Ψ = (ξ a
, χ†ȧ ) =
σ µȧc ∂µ ξ †ċ

∂µ χc
= (χ†ȧ σ µȧc , χa σaµċ ) = χ†ċ σ µȧc ∂µ χc + ξ a σaµċ ∂µ ξ †ċ
∂µ ξ †ċ
Now
ξ a σaµċ ∂µ ξ †ċ = ξ c σcµċ ∂µ ξ †ċ = ξ c ca ċȧ σ µȧa ∂µ ξ †ċ = ξa σ µȧa ∂µ ξ †ȧ = ξσ µ ∂µ ξ †
and (∂µ ξ)σ µ ξ † = ξ † σ µ (∂µ ξ) since ξ, ξ † anticommute (since ξ is spin- 12 field)
=⇒ ξσ µ ∂µ ξ † = ξ † σ µ ∂µ ξ + ∂µ (ξσ µ ξ † )
So
Ψγ µ ∂µ Ψ = χ† σ µ ∂µ χ + ξ † σ µ ∂µ ξ
(up to a total divergence, that will be integrated out).
So then
L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj = iχ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + iξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj

Now let
ψα = χj for α = j = 1, . . . N and ψα = ξj for α − N = j, for α = N + 1, . . . 2N
I was encouraged to do this by the form of L where we seemed to have 2 sets of N Weyl fields.
Then
L = iχ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + iξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj =
= iψα† σ µ ∂µ ψα
For ψ → U ψ,
0
ψα† = (U ψ)†1α = (ψ † U † )1α = ψ1k
† †
Ukα = ψα† U †
ψα0 = (U ψ)α = Uαj ψj = U ψj
Then
0 † † † † †
ψα† σ µ ∂µ ψα0 = ψ1k Ukα σ µ ∂µ (Uαj ψj ) = ψ1k Ukα Uαj σ µ ∂µ ψj = ψ1k δkj σ µ ∂µ ψj = ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj
e = 1 was not specified. Then L has U (2N ) symmetry.
Now detU
79
(e) Now ΨΨ = ξχ + ξ † χ† . So an U (2N ) or O(2N ) transformation cannot be applied directly since the ΨΨ
terms “mixes together” ξ, χ. ξ and χ are considered to be 2 different Weyl fields and transform each in
their own way.
Let
ϕj1 − iϕj2
ξj = √
2
ϕj1 + iϕj2
χj = √
2
(inspired by Lipstein’s solution to Problem Set 3, Winter term 2009, Ph205b) where ϕj1 , ϕj2 are real,
scalar fields.
Then
ϕj1 − iϕj2 ϕj1 + iϕj2 ϕj1 ϕj1 + ϕj2 ϕj2
ξj χj = √ √ =
2 2 2
likewise,

ϕj1 + iϕj2 ϕj1 − iϕj2 ϕj1 ϕj1 + ϕj2 ϕj2
ξj† χ†j
= √ √ =
2 2 2

ϕj1 − iϕj2 ϕj1 + iϕj2
χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj = √ σ µ ∂µ √ =
2 2
1
= (ϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 + iϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2 − iϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 + ϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2 )
2
† µ 1
ξj σ ∂µ ξj = (ϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 − iϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2 + iϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 + ϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2 )
2
=⇒ χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj = ϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 + ϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2

Then
L = i(ϕj1 σ µ ∂µ ϕj1 + ϕj2 σ µ ∂µ ϕj2 ) − m(ϕj1 ϕj1 + ϕj2 ϕj2 )
In this form, as previously shown, for ϕj ϕj terms, L is invariant under O(2N ) transformations (because
we now have 2N real, scalar fields).
Explicitly:
0
ϕ0j ϕ0j = ϕjT ϕ0j = (Rϕ)Tj (Rϕ)j = (ϕT RT )j Rjk ϕk = ϕT1l Rlj
T
Rjk ϕk = ϕl1 Rjl Rjk ϕk =
= ϕk ϕk
Complete solution to Problem 36.5; 20100302

Recall definitions of unitary and orthogonal matrices.
†
U †U = 1 Ujk Ukl = δjl ∗
= Ukj Ukl
TTT = 1 T
Tjk Tkl = δjl = Tkj Tkl
I have to be careful about indices and the difference between column vectors and row vectors.
For a column vector, ψj = ψj1 . Index 1 denoting only 1 column.
Then for a row vector, such as ψ † , ψj† = (ψj1 )† = ψ1j
∗ ∗
. If there’s no confusion, denote ψ1j row vector as
†
ψj .
Now ψ † U should also be a row vector, of components
†
(ψ † U )1j = ψ1k Ukj
So from the introduction to the problem,
ψj → ψj0 = Ujk ψk
0
ψj† → ψj† = ψk† Ujk
†
ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj → ψk† Ukj

† µ
σ ∂µ Ujl ψl = ψk† σ µ Ujk
∗
Ujl ∂µ ψl = ψk† σ µ ∂µ ψk
So for a theory of N massless Weyl fields ψj , L = iψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj , invariance group is U (N ).

80
(a) N Weyl fields with a common mass m, L = iψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj − 12 m(ψj ψj + ψj† ψj† ).
(be careful that ψj ψj implies ψj (row) ψj (column))
T
ψj ψj → ψk Tjk Tjl ψl = ψk Tjk Tjl ψl = ψk ψk
Be careful in considering ψj† ψj† term.

ψ1∗
 
For ψj† , a column of N Weyl fields, complex conjugated, ψj† =  ... ,

 
∗
ψN
0
ψj† → ψj† = Tjk ψk†
0
For row vector ψj† , ψj† → ψj† = ψk† Tkj
T
(where, for instance if Tij xj = xi1 , (xi1 )T = x1i = (T x)T =
xT T T = x1j Tjk
T
).
0 0
ψj† ψj† = ψk† Tkj
T
Tjl ψl† = ψk† Tjk Tjl ψl† = ψk† ψk†
So due to mass term, only O(N ) symmetry of Weyl fields.
(b) N massless Majorana fields, L = 2i ΨTj Cγ µ ∂µ Ψj .
Now
!T !T
ψjc ca ψja
T
Ψj = = = (ac ψja , ȧċ ψj†ȧ )
ψj†ċ ċȧ ψj†ȧ
ac
−
ΨTj C = (bc Ψbj , ḃċ ψj†ḃ ) = (bc ca ψjb , ḃċ ċȧ ψj†ḃ ) = (ψja , ψj†ȧ )
−ȧċ
σaµċ σaµċ ∂µ ψj†ċ

∂µ ψjc
ΨTj Cγ µ ∂µ Ψj = (ψja , ψj†ȧ ) ∂µ = (ψja , ψj†ȧ ) = +ψj σ µ ∂µ ψj† + ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj
σ µȧc ∂µ ψj†ċ σ µȧc ∂µ ψjc
12 = 21 = +1 1̇2̇ = 2̇1̇ = +1

where and likewise . Also contract the second index to keep (+) sign.
21 = 12 = −1 2̇1̇ = 1̇2̇ = −1
+i
L= (ψj σ µ ∂µ ψj† + ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj )
2
As given in the problem, for ψj0 → Ujk ψk ,
T
ψj (row) → ψk Ukj
ψj† → Ujk
∗
ψk
ψj† (row) → ψk Ukj
∗T
ψj σ µ ∂µ ψj† → ψk Ukj
T µ ∗ †
σ ∂µ Ujl ∗ µ
ψl = ψk Ujk Ujl σ ∂µ ψl† = ψk σ µ ∂µ ψk†
ψk† Ukj σ ∂µ Ujk ψl = ψk† Ujk
∗T µ ∗
Ujl σ µ ∂µ ψl = ψk† σ µ ∂µ ψk
=⇒ U (N ) symmetry
(c) N Majorana fields with a common mass m, L = 2i ΨTj Cγ6µ∂µ Ψj − 12 mΨTj CΨj (36.78).

ψjc
ΨTj CΨj = (ψja , ψj†ȧ ) = (ψj ψj + ψj† ψj† )
ψj†ċ
as shown in (a), only O(N ) symmetry for N Weyl fields with this form of the mass term.
(d) N massless Dirac fields, L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj (36.79).
σaµċ

∂µ χja ∂µ χja
Ψj γ µ ∂µ Ψj = (ξja , χ†j ȧ ) = (χ †
σ µȧc a µ
, ξ σ ) = χ†j ċ σ µċa ∂µ χja + ξjc σcµȧ + ∂µ ξ †ȧ =
σ µȧc ∂µ ξj†ȧ j ȧ j aċ
∂µ ξj†ȧ
= χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + ξj σ µ ∂µ ξ †
There are N χ fields and N ξ fields.
81
As in the development in Srednicki (36.26),
(ξj σ µ ∂µ ξj† ) = ∂µ (ξj σ µ ξj† ) − (∂µ ξj )σ µ ξj†
So for
(∂µ ξjc )σcµȧ ξj†ȧ = −ξj†ȧ σcµȧ ∂µ ξjc = −ξj†ȧ ca ȧḃ σ µḃȧ ∂µ ξjc = −(−ḃȧ ξj†ȧ )σ µḃa (−ac ∂µ ξjc ) = −ξj†ḃ σ µḃa ∂µ ξja = −ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj
where in the first equality, the anticommutation of Grassmann numbers was used.
L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj = i(χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj − ∂µ (ξj σ µ ξj† ))
The total divergence integrates out to results in zero.  

ψ1
So if for ψj , a column vector of 2N fields (components), ψj =  ...  s.t. ψj = χj for j = 1, . . . , N ,
 
ψ2N
ψj+N = ξj , j = 1, . . . , N then clearly, χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj = ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj .
Then as explicitly shown in the beginning of the problem, ψj† σ µ ∂µ ψj invariant under ψj → Ujk ψk .
=⇒ U (2N ) symmetry
(e) N Dirac fields with a common mass m, L = iΨj γ µ ∂µ Ψj − mΨj Ψj (36.80)

χj ȧ
Ψj Ψj = (ξja , χ†j ȧ ) = ξja χja + χ†j ȧ ξj†ȧ = ξj χj + χ†j ξj†
ξ †ȧ
1
χj = √ (ψ2j−1 + iψ2j )
For 2
1
ξj = √ (ψ2j−1 − iψ2j )
2
1 † 1 †
χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj = †
(χ2j−1 − iψ2j )σ µ ∂µ (ψ2j−1 + iψ2j ) = (ψ2j−1 †
σ µ ∂µ ψ2j−1 + iψ2j−1 † µ
σ µ ∂µ ψ2j − iψ2j † µ
σ ∂µ ψ2j−1 + ψ2j σ ∂µ ψ2j )
2 2
1 1 †
ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj = (χ†2j−1 + iψ2j
†
)σ µ ∂µ (ψ2j−1 − iψ2j ) = (ψ2j−1 †
σ µ ∂µ ψ2j−1 − iψ2j−1 † µ
σ µ ∂µ ψ2j + iψ2j † µ
σ ∂µ ψ2j−1 + ψ2j σ ∂µ ψ2j )
2 2
χ†j σ µ ∂µ χj + ξj† σ µ ∂µ ξj = ψ2j−1

† † µ
σ µ ∂µ ψ2j−1 + ψ2j σ ∂µ ψ2j
We treat ψ2j−1 , ψ2j as 2 left-handed Weyl fields. Weyl fields describe spin- 12 particles; by spin-statistics
theorem, particles must be fermions =⇒ corresponding fields must anticomute.
e.g. χψ = χa ψa = −ψa χa = −ab ψb ac χc == ca ab ψb χc = +δcb ψb χc = ψb χb
† † † †
so ψ2j−1 ψ2j − ψ2j ψ2j−1 = ψ2j−1 ψ2j − ψ2j ψ2j−1 =0
1
ξj χj + χ†j ξj† = †
(ψ2j−1 ψ2j−1 + ψ2j ψ2j + ψ2j−1 †
ψ2j−1 †
+ ψ2j †
ψ2j )
2
† † µ m † † † †
=⇒ L = i(ψ2j−1 σ µ ∂µ ψ2j−1 + ψ2j σ ∂µ ψ2j ) −(ψ2j−1 ψ2j−1 + ψ2j ψ2j + ψ2j−1 ψ2j−1 + ψ2j ψ2j )
2
 
ψ1
With ψj a column vector of 2N left-handed Weyl fields ψj =  ... , then like (a),
 
ψ2N
=⇒ O(2N ) symmetry
82
37. Canonical quantization of spinor fields I
Solution 37.1. Given

{ψa (x, t), ψc (y, t)} = 0 (37.4)
c
{ψa (x, t), Π (y, t)} = iδac δ 3 (x − y) (37.5)
a
where Π (x) ≡ ∂L
=
∂(∂0 ψa (x)) iψȧ† (x)σ 0ȧa (37.2).
χ, ξ each obey (37.4), (37.5).
χa
Now {Ψα (x, t), Ψβ (y, t)} = 0, since for Ψ ≡ ,
ξ †ȧ
{χa (x, t), χb (y, t)} = 0
{χa (x, t), ξb† (y, t)} = 0 (χa , ξb are 2 different left-handed Weyl fields)
{ξa† (x, t), ξb† (y, t)} =0

1
Recall {Ψα (X, t), Ψβ (y, t)} = (γ 0 )αβ δ 3 (x − y) (37.14). Now Ψ = (ξ c , χ†ȧ ), since recall γ 0 = =
1

δaċ
.
δ ȧc
So from the following, then for the only nonzero results for the anticommutators,
(α, β) = (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2). (α, β are 4-component spinor indices are “top” and “bottom” are distinguished
by dotted or undotted.
{χa (x, t), ξ b (y, t)} = 0. So clearly {Ψα (x), Ψβ (y)} = 0 for α, β undotted.
{ξ †ȧ (x, t), ξȧ† (y, t)} = 0. So clearly {Ψα (x), Ψβ (y)} = 0 for α, β dotted.
{χa (x, t), iχ†ȧ (y, t)σ 0ȧc } = δac δ 3 (x − y)
Multiply both sides by the number σc0ċ to get back (37.7).
{χa (x, t), χ†ċ (y, t)} = σa0ċ δ 3 (x − y) = δaċ δ 3 (x − y)

Comparing with (γ 0 )αβ , clearly, I obtain the “block” of (γ 0 )αβ containing δaċ .
{ξ †ċ , ξ a } = −{ξ a (y, t), ξ †ċ (x, t)} = −σ 0ċa δ 3 (y − x) = −σ 0ċa δ 3 (y − x)

or
{ξ †ȧ , ξ c } = −σ 0ȧc δ 3 (x − y) = −δ cȧ δ 3 (x − y) = δ ȧc δ 3 (x − y)
where for the last equality, the apparent statement that δ cȧ = −δ ȧc can be traced back to σ 0ȧc .
And so for the “block” containing δ ȧc (note the order of dotted a first, then undotted c), then we reobtain the
entries for (γ 0 )αβ .
=⇒ {Ψα (x, t), Ψβ (y, t)} = (γ 0 )αβ δ 3 (x − y)
38. Spinor technology
Solution 38.1.
Boost K i has a matrix representation
i i 0 i
Ki = [γ , γ ] = γ i γ 0
4 2
Now pi K i = 2i pi γ i γ 0 , so then
 
pb3 pb1 − ib
p2
σai ċ

−pi i 0 −pi pb1 + ibp2 −bp3
pi K i =

2ib γγ = = − 
|pi | |pi | σ iȧc  −bp3 −b
p1 + ib
p2 
−b
p1 − ib
p2 pb3
Solving the eigenvalue equation for one of the 2 × 2 blocks,

λ − pb3 −(bp1 − ibp2 )

−(b = λ2 − pb23 − (b
p21 + pb22 ) = λ2 − 1 = 0
p1 + ib
p2 ) λ + pb3
So then λ = ±1.
83
Now for A diagonalized to be B,
∞ ∞ j j
† X (cU † BU )j X c B
ecA = ecU BU
= = U† U since
j=0
j! j=0
j!
(U † BU ) . . . (U † BU ) = U † BU
| {z }
j times

1
B 2n = =1
1
Now . So
1
B 2n+1 = =B
−1
 
2n+1 1
∞ ∞ c
X c2n X −1 
ecA = U †  +  U = cosh c + sinh cA

n=0
(2n)! n=0 (2n + 1)! 
So η η η
p · K) = exp
exp (iηb p · K) = cosh
(2ib + sinh p · K)
(2ib
2 2 2
Recalling that  
1
√ 0
u+ (0) = m  
1
0
 
0
√ 1
u− (0) = m  0

1
  then
0
√ 1
v+ (0) = m  0

−1
 
−1
√ 0
v− (0) = m  1

0
Problem 38.2. Verify eq. (38.15).
Solution 38.2.
I
Recall that A = βA† β where β = , and
I
σaµċ σ µ∗aċ σ µċa

µ 0 µ †
γ = (γ ) =µ∗ =
σ µȧc 0 σȧc σcµȧ
σcµȧ σaµċ
µċa
σ
(γ µ )† β = =⇒ γ µ = β(γ µ )† β = = = γµ
σcµȧ σ µċa σ µȧc
Recall
+i µ ν
µν c (SLµν )ca =
(σ σ − σ ν σ µ )ca
µν (SL )a 0 4
S = µν ȧ where
0 −(SR )ċ µν ȧ −i µ ν
(SR )ċ = (σ σ − σ ν σ µ )ȧċ
4
Now
˙
σ µȧl σ νlċ = ȧ lm σ µḃm ln ċȧ σnν d˙ = ȧḃ ċd σ µḃl σlνd˙
˙ ˙ ˙
Note that ȧḃ ċd = −δȧċ δḃd − δȧd δḃċ , and so
˙ ˙
σ µȧl σ νlċ = (−δȧċ δḃd − δȧd δḃċ )σ µḃl σlνd˙ = (−σ µ σ ν )ċȧ
84
where the first term in the second equality is zero since the trace of the Pauli matrices are zero.
Likewise, (σ µ σ ν )ac = (σ µ σ ν )ca .
i ν† µ† i µ ν
(SLµν )c†
a = − (σ σ − σ µ† σ ν† )ċȧ (σ σ − σ ν σ µ )ċȧ = −(SR
= µν ȧ
)ċ
4 4
µν ȧ† i i ν µ i
(SR )ċ = (σ ν† σ µ† − σ µ† σ ν )ac = (σ σ − σ µ σ ν )ac = − (σ µ σ ν − σ ν σ µ )ca = −(SLµν )ca
4 4 4
So µν ȧ
µν † 0 −(SR )ċ
(S ) β =
+(SL )µνc
a
µνc

µν † +(SL a)
β(S ) β = µν ȧ
−(SR )ċ
−δac

Recall γ5 ≡
δċȧ
−δȧċ δca
c
† 1 1 −δa
iγ5 = β(iγ5 ) β = (−i) = (−i) =i
1 δċa 1 −δȧċ δċȧ
µ
−δac σaµȧ

σaċ
γ µ γ5 = µȧc = µȧa
σ δċȧ −σ
µ†aȧ µ∗aȧ
−σ µȧa

−σ −σ
(γ µ γ5 )† =
µ† = µ∗ = µ
σȧa σȧa σaȧ
µȧa
µ
1 −σ σaȧ
β(γ µ γ5 )† = =
1 σaµȧ −σ µȧa
µ
σaµȧ

σaȧ 1
β(γ µ γ5 )† β = =
−σ µȧa 1 −σ µȧa
−(SLµν )ca
µν c
(SL )a
iγ5 S µν = i µν ȧ = −i µν ȧ
−(SR )ċ (SR )ċ
µν †ċ µν ȧ µν ȧ
µν † (SL )ȧ (−SR )ċ (SR )ċ
(iγ5 S ) = i =i = −i
−(SR µν †a
)c (−SLµν )ca (SLµν )ca
µν
µν † 1 (SR )
(iγ5 S ) = −i
1 SLµν
µν
µν † SL
β(iγ5 S ) β = −i µν = (iγ5 S µν ) = iγ5 S µν
SR
Solution 38.3.
1 µ 1
γµ 6 p = {γ , 6 p} + [γ µ , 6 p] = −pµ − 2iS µν pν since
2 2
{γ µ , pν γ ν } = pν {γ µ , γ ν } = −2g µν pν = −2pµ
i µ ν
[γ , γ ] = S µν (by definition)
4
1 1 0
6 p0 γ µ = {γ µ , 6 p0 } − [γ µ , 6 p0 ] = −p µ + 2iS µν p0ν
2 2
0
{γ µ , p0ν γ ν } = p0ν {γ µ , γ ν } = −2p0ν g µν = −2p µ
[γ µ , 6 p0 ] = [γ µ , p0ν γ ν ] = p0ν (−4iS µν ) = −4iS µν p0ν
Add the 2 equations above together.
γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ = −(p + p0 )µ − 2i(S µν pν − S µν p0ν )
Sandwich the above equation with u,u and v, v.
u0s (p)(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ )us (p) = u0s0 (p0 )(−(p + p0 )µ − 2iS µν (pν − p0ν ))us (p)
Now use
(6 p + m)us (p) = 0 us (p)(6 p + m) = 0
(− 6 p + m)vs (p) = 0 v s (− 6 p + m) = 0
85
u0s (p0 )(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ )us (p) = u0s (p0 )γ µ (−mus (p)) + −mu0s (p0 )γ µ us (p) = −2mu0s (p0 )γ µ us (p)
=⇒ 2mu0s (p0 )γ µ us (p) = u0s0 (p0 )((p + p0 )µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν )us (p)
Likewise,
v 0s0 (p0 )(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ )vs (p) = v 0s0 (p0 )γ µ mvs (p) + mv s0 (p0 )γ µ vs (p) =
= 2mv 0s0 (p0 )γ µ vs (p) = −v 0s0 (p0 )((p + p0 )µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν )vs (p)
Problem 38.4. Derive the Gordon identities

us0 (p0 )[(p0 + p)µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν ]γ5 us (p) = 0
v s0 (p0 )[(p0 + p)µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν ]γ5 vs (p) = 0. (38.41)

(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ ) = −(p + p0 )µ + 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν
Consider us0 (p0 )(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ )γ5 us (p). Now
us0 (p0 ) 6 p0 γ µ γ5 us (p) = −mus0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 us (p)
from using the Dirac equation (equation of motion) as in the previous problem.
An important property is {γ5 , γ µ } = 0 (Zee, 2003).
us0 (p0 )(γ µ 6 pγ5 us (p) = us0 (p0 )(γ µ pν γ ν γ5 us (p)) = −us0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 (pν γ ν us (p)) = −us0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 6 pus (p) =
= +mus0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 us (p)
Thus,
us0 (p0 ) [(p0 + p)µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν ] γ5 us (p) = 0
Likewise,
v s0 (p0 )(γ µ 6 p+ 6 p0 γ µ )γ5 vs (p) = v s0 (p0 )γ µ 6 pγ5 vs (p) + mv s0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 vs (p) =
= −v s0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 (mvs (p)) + mv s0 (p0 )γ µ γ5 vs (p) = 0
So
v s0 (p0 ) [(p0 + p)µ − 2iS µν (p0 − p)ν ] γ5 vs (p) = 0
39. Canonical quantization of spinor fields II

XZ
Ψ(x) = f s (p)us (p)eipx + d† (p)vs (p)e−ipx ]
dp[b s
s=±
XZ
Ψ(x) = f † (q)ur (q)e−iqx + d† (q)v r (q)e−iqx ]
dq[b r r
r=±
So
X Z Z
Ψ(x)γ 0 Ψ(x) = dq
f f † ur e−iqx + dr v r eiqx )γ 0 (bs us eipx + d† vs e−ipx ) =
dp(b r s
r,s=±
X Z
= dq f † ur γ 0 bs us e−i(q−p)x + b† ur γ 0 d† vs e−i(q+p)x +
fdp{b
r r s
r,s=±
+ dr v r γ 0 bs us ei(q+p)x + dr v r γ 0 d†s vs ei(q−p)x }
Note the x0 = t part of the exponentials. Without loss of generality, since H doesn’t depend on time, choose
a single time t.
i(p − q)x → i(−ωt + ωt) = 0
i(p − q)x → i(−ωt − ωt) = −2iωt and likewise
Integrate to obtain and use δ functions.
86
X Z dp
f
R
f d3 x
dq
R {b†r (p)bs (p)ur (p)γ 0 us (p) + b†r (−p)d†s (p)ur (−p)γ 0 vs (p)e2iωt +
−−−−−−→ r,s=± 2ω
dr (−p)bs (p)v r γ 0 us e−2iωt + dr (p)d†s (p)v r γ 0 vs }
Recall the Gordon identities:
u0s (p)γ µ us (p) = 2pµ δs0 s us0 (p)γ 0 vs (−p) = 0
v 0s (p)γ µ vs (p) = 2pµ δs0 s (38.21) v s0 (p)γ 0 us (−p) = 0 (38.22)
XZ
=⇒ H = f † (p)bs (p) + ds (p)d† (p)}
dp{bs s
s=±
XZ XZ
=⇒ H = f † bs − d† ds + (2π)3 2ω} =
dp{b f † bs − d† ds } + 2V0
dp{b
s s s s
s=± s=±
d3 p and 2 is for 2 spin factors.

R
where V0 =
Problem 39.2. Use [Ψ(x), M µν ] = −i(xµ ∂ ν − xν ∂ µ )Ψ(x) + S µν Ψ(x), plus whatever spinor identities you need,
to show that
1
Jz b†s (pẑ)|0i = sb†s (pẑ)|0i
2
† 1 †
Jz ds (pẑ)|0i = sds (pẑ)|0i
2
where p = pẑ is the three-momentum, and ẑ is a unit vector in the z direction.
1
Ji = ijk M jk
2
1
J3 = 3jk M jk
2
M jk ’s are antisymmetric, the generators of the Lorentz group; M µν = −M νµ .
J3 = M 12 .
Also, recall,
Z
b†s (p) = d3 xeipx Ψ(x)γ 0 us (p)
Z both obtained by Fourier transforming the mode expansion of Ψ
d†s (p) = d xe3 ipx 0
v s (p)γ Ψ(x)
The trick is to use this and the mode expansion to make delta functions (like using the completeness relation).
Recall the hint
[Ψ(x), M µν ] = −i(xµ ∂ ν − xν ∂ µ )Ψ(x) + S µν Ψ(x)
Now J3 is an operator on states.
Z
Jz d†s (pẑ)|0i = d3 xeipx v s (pẑ)γ 0 J3 Ψ(x)|0i =
Z
= d3 xeipx v s (pẑ)γ 0 {Ψ(x)M 12 + i(x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ(x) − S 12 Ψ(x)}|0i = ∗
We were able to move M 12 because M 12 is an operator on |0i. γ 0 is a matrix. us (pẑ) is a “number” of a

4-component spinor. They each are on different spaces, so they “commute.”
J3 |0i = 0 (vacuum state is spinless; it’s zero).

Since M12 |0i = J3 |0i = 0, the first term in ∗ is 0.
Z Z
0
f [bs0 (p0 )us0 (p0 )eip0 x + d†0 (p0 )vs0 (p0 )e−ip0 x ]|0i
3 ipx 0 1 2 2 1 12
X
=⇒ ∗ = d xe v s (pẑ)γ i(x ∂ − x ∂ ) − S dp s
s0 =±
Now
0 0 0 0
bs0 (p0 )us0 (p0 )eip x |0i = us0 (p0 )eip x bs0 (p0 )|0i = 0
87
How does Sz act on a 4-component spinor in a non-rest frame? Let’s be careful.
1 1
Sz vs0 (p0 ) = γ5 6 z 6 pvs0 (p0 ) = γ5 6 zvs0 (p0 )
2m 2
where (6 p − m)vs (p) = 0 was used, and
−1 boosted 1
rest frame Sz = γ5 γ 3 γ 0 −−−−−→ Sz = γ5 6 z 6 p
2 2m
Now z = (0, ẑ) and z is all in the 3 direction.
6 z = zµ γ µ = γ 3
So with this explicit formula for Sz vs0 (p0 ) in boosted frame, we can conclude Sz vs0 (p0 ) = −1 0 0 0
2 s vs (p ), either
using the explicit formula
vs (p) = exp (iη p̂ · K)vs (0) and
   
0 −1
√ 1 √ 0
v+ (0) = m   0 ,
 v− (0) = m =  1

−1 0
or use
1
(1 − sγ5 6 z)vs0 (p) = δss0 vs0 (p)
2
which is mathematically equivalent to Sz vs0 (p0 ) = −1 0 0 0
2 s vs (p ).
0
−s
Likewise for Sz us0 (p0 ) = 2 us0 (p0 ). Why (−1) factor for us0 (p)? It comes from boosting which gives (38.27)
(Srednicki, 2007):
1
(1 − sγ5 z)us0 (p) = δss0 us0 (p)
2
f0
Z Z
1 X 1
R
0 0 dp
d3 xeipx e−ip x = d3 xei(p−p )x = (2π)3 δ 3 (p − p0 ) −−−→ v s (pẑ)γ 0 vs0 (pẑ) s0 d†s0 |0i
2ω 0 2
s =±
0
where Sz acted on vs0 (p0 ), and then dp f δ 3 (pẑ − p0 ) was applied, yielding 1 s0 vs0 (pẑ).
R
2
Now recall µ µ
v s0 (p)γ vs (p) = 2p δs0 s
1
=⇒ sd†s |0i
2
What about (x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )?
Use this trick of moving the partial around,
Z Z
d3 xeipx v s (pẑ)γ 0 (ix1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ(x)|0i = ivs (pẑ)γ 0 d3 xeipx ((∂y (xΨ(x))) − ∂x (yΨ(x)))|0i
Now p = pẑ. Z
y x→∞
dy∂y (xΨ(x)) = lim xΨ(x)|−y = 0 since Ψ(x) −−−−→ 0
y→∞
R x
Likewise dx∂x (yΨ(x)) = limx→∞ yΨ(x)|−x = 0.
For the other identity,
Z Z
†
Jz bs (pẑ)|0i = Jz d xe Ψ(x)γ us (pẑ)|0i = d3 xeipx M 12 Ψ(x)γ 0 us (pẑ)|0i = ∗∗
3 ipx 0
Now
[Ψ(x), M 12 ] =?
[Ψ, M 12 ] = ΨM 12 − M 12 Ψ
[Ψ, M 12 ]† = M 12† Ψ† − Ψ† M 12† = M 21 Ψ† − Ψ† M 21 = Ψ† M 12 − M 12 Ψ† = [Ψ† , M 12 ]
[Ψ† , M 12 ]β = Ψ† M 12 β − M 12 Ψ† β = Ψ† βM 12 − M 12 Ψ = ΨM 12 − M 12 Ψ = [Ψ, M 12 ]
[Ψ, M 12 ]† = (−i(x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ)† + (S µν Ψ)† = i(x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ† + Ψ† S µν†
[Ψ, M 12 ]† β = i(x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ + ΨS 12†
Z
∗∗ = d3 xeipx (Ψ(x)M 12 − i(x1 ∂ 2 − x2 ∂ 1 )Ψ − ΨS 12 )γ 0 us (pẑ)|0i =
88
Consider the orbital part alone.
Z Z
d3 xeipx (−i(x∂y − y∂x )Ψγ 0 us (pẑ)|0i = −i{ d3 xeipz (x∂y − y∂x )Ψ(x)}γ 0 us (pẑ)|0i
Z Z y

dy(x∂y Ψ) = dy(∂y (xΨ)) = lim (xΨ) = 0
y→∞
−y
Likewise
Z
dx(y∂x Ψ) = 0
So we’re left with d3 xeipx ΨSz γ 0 us (pẑ)|0i.

R
Sz us (pẑ) = −s
2 us (pẑ) (from (38.27) and our previous discussion).
Z XZ
f (b†0 (p0 )us0 (p0 )e−ip0 x + ds0 (p0 )v s0 (p0 )eip0 x )]γ 0 s us (pẑ) |0i
0
=⇒ d3 xeipx [ dp s
0
2
s =±
with ds0 |0i = 0,

R 0 R 3 i(p−p0 )x
us0 (p0 )γ 0 us (pẑ) 2s b†s0 (p0 )|0i.
P
=⇒ s0 =± dp
f d xe
0 R 0
d3 xei(p−p )x = (2π)3 δ 3 (p − p0 ), applying dp f and using us0 (p)γ µ us (p) = 2pµ δs0 s ,
R
s †
=⇒ b (pẑ)|0i
2 s
40. Parity, time reversal, and charge conjugation
Problems. Problem 40.1. Find the transformation properties of ΨS µν Ψ and ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ under P , T , C.
Verify that they are both even under CP T , as claimed. Do either or both vanish if Ψ is a Majorana field?
Solution 40.1. Recall S µν = 4i [γ µ , γ ν ] = 2i γ µ γ ν for µ 6= ν.
T
−1 µν T i µ ν i i
C (ΨS Ψ)C = ΨC γ γ ΨC T γ νT γ µT CΨ = Ψ(−γ ν )(−γ µ )Ψ = −ΨS µν Ψ
CΨ =
2 2 2
i i
P −1 (ΨS µν Ψ)P = Ψ(βS µν β)Ψ = Ψβ γ µ γ ν Ψ = ΨPaµ γ a Pbν γ b Ψ = ΨS µν Ψ
2 2
∗
−1 −1 i µ ν −i
µν
T (ΨS Ψ)T = Ψ(γ5 C γ γ Cγ5 )Ψ = Ψ(γ5 C −1 γ µ∗ Cγ5 γ5 C −1 γ ν∗ Cγ5 Ψ =
2 2
−i i
= Ψ(Taµ γ a Tbν γb )Ψ = − Ψγ µ γ ν Ψ = −ΨS µν Ψ
2 2

T i
C −1 (ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ)C = iΨC T (S µν γ5 ) CΨ = iΨC T γ5 γ νT γ µT CΨ =
2
−1 +i i
= Ψ(C T γ5T γ νT γ µT )CΨ = Ψ(iγ5 (−γ ν )(−γ µ ))Ψ = −Ψ(iγ5 γ µ γ ν )Ψ = −Ψ(iS µν γ5 )Ψ
2 2 2
−1 i µ ν i µ a ν b
P (ΨiS γ5 Ψ)P = Ψ(iβ γ γ γ5 β)Ψ = Ψ(−i) Pa γ Pb γ γ5 Ψ = −ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ
µν
2 2
−i
T (ΨiS γ5 Ψ)T = Ψγ5 C (−i)S γ5 Cγ5 Ψ = Ψγ5 C −1 (−i)
−1 µν −1 µν∗ ∗
γ µ∗ Cγ5 γ5 C −1 γ ν∗ γ5∗ Cγ5 Ψ =
2
(−i)2
= Ψ(−Taµ γ a )(−Tbν γb )γ5 Ψ = ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ
2
Recall, for a Majorana field, C −1 ΨC = Ψ and C −1 ΨC = Ψ, implying C −1 (ΨAΨ)C = ΨAΨ for any combination
of gamma matrices A. Clearly,
C −1 (ΨS µν Ψ)C = ΨS µν Ψ = −ΨS µν Ψ
C −1 (ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ)C = ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ = −Ψ(iS µν γ5 )Ψ
so ΨS µν Ψ, ΨiS µν γ5 Ψ vanish under charge conjugation for Majorana fields.

89
41. LSZ reduction for spin-one-half particles
42. The free fermion propagator
43. The path integral for fermion fields
44. Formal development of fermionic path integrals
45. The Feynman rules for Dirac fields
Solution 45.1.
(a) For the theory L1 = gϕΨΨ,
P −1 ϕΨΨP = (P −1 ϕP )(−iΨβ)(iβΨ) = (P −1 ϕP )(ΨΨ)
=⇒ P −1 ϕP = ϕ
(T −1 ϕT )(Ψγ5 C −1 )(Cγ5 Ψ) = T −1 ϕT ΨΨ
T −1 ϕT = ϕ
where γ52 = 1
T T
C −1 ϕC(ΨT C)(CΨ ) = C −1 ϕC(ΨT Ψ ) = C −1 ϕC(ΨΨ)
C −1 ϕC = ϕ
Then ϕ is invariant under CPT.
(b)
P −1 ϕP P −1 iΨγ5 ΨP = (P −1 ϕP )(−Ψiγ5 Ψ)
so P −1 ϕP = −ϕ.
T −1 ϕT T −1 Ψiγ5 ΨT = T −1 ϕT (−Ψiγ5 Ψ)
so T −1 ϕT = −ϕ.
C −1 ϕCC −1 Ψiγ5 ΨC = C −1 ϕCΨiγ5 Ψ

so C −1 ϕC = ϕ.
Since ϕ is odd under T, P and even under C, ϕ is even under CPT.
Solution 45.2.
46. Spin Sums

47. Gamma matrix technology
48. Spin-averaged cross sections
49. The Feynman rules for Majorana fields
50. Massless particles and spinor helicity
Problems. Problem 50.1.

Given (50.33)

φa
|p] = u− (p) = v+ (p) = (50.8)
0

0
(14) |pi = u+ (p) = v− (p) = (50.13) (50.33)
φ∗ȧ
[p| = ū+ (p) = v̄− (p) = (φa 0) (50.14)
hp| = ū− (p) = v̄+ (p) = (0 φ∗ȧ ) (50.10)
90
(a)
a
|pi[p| = 0) = (φ
φ∗ȧ φ∗ȧ φa
φa φ∗ȧ

∗

|p] < p| = φa ( φȧ ) = (50.35)
φa φ∗ȧ

|pi[p| + |p]hp| = ∗ȧ a =−6p
φ φ
(b) Now (50.28) could be calculated in a straightforward manner:
κa κ∗ȧ

0 0 0
ū+ (p0 )(− 6 k)u+ (p) = φ a κa κ∗ȧ φ∗ȧ = (φ a 0) ∗ȧ a = [p0 k]hkpi (50.28)
κ κ φ∗ȧ
However, do it the spinor-helicity formalism way:
[p0 |(|k > [k| + |k] < k|)|p >= [p0 k] < kp >
Same with (50.29), (50.30), do it the spinor-helicity formalism way:
0
ū− (p0 )(− 6 k)u− (p) = hp0 |(|ki[k| + |k] < k|)|p] =< p0 k > [kp] = φȧ∗ κ∗ȧ κa φa (50.29)
and
ū− (p0 )(− 6 k)u+ (p) = ū+ (p0 )(− 6 k)u− (p) = 0 (50.30)
because
hp|(|ki[k| + |k] < k|)|pi = [p|(|ki[k| + |k] < k|)|p] = 0
EY : 20150415
I want to implement this spinor-helicity formalism into symbolic computation. It appears that classes
are needed. I want to assert the difference between angles and squares. I also would probably need to do
operation overloading on ∗ and + to ensure that bras and kets of squares match up with squares and bras
and kets of angles match up with angles in a nontrivial manner, and otherwise it is zero. Each of classes
have the 4-momentum p in cartesian and spherical coordinates.
51. Loop corrections in Yukawa theory

52. Beta functions in Yukawa theory
53. Functional determinants
Part III - Spin One
54. Maxwell’s equations
55. Electrodynamics in Coulomb gauge
Problems. Problem 55.1. Use eqs. (55.13)-(55.20) and [Ai , Aj ] = [Πi , Πj ] = 0 (at equal times to verify eqs.
(55.21)-(55.23).
←→
Z
aλ (k) = +iλ (k) · d3 xe−ikx ∂ 0 A(x) (55.16)
←→
Z
a†λ (k) = −i∗λ (k) · d3 xe+ikx ∂ 0 A(x) (55.17)
←→
where f ∂ µ g = f (∂µ g) − (∂µ f )g.
For x0 = y 0 ,
←→ 0 ←
→
h i Z Z
aλ (k), a†λ0 (k0 ) = [+iλ (k) · d3 xe−ikx ∂ 0 A(x), −i∗λ0 (k0 ) · d3 ye+ik y ∂ 0 A(y)] =
Z
0 0
= d3 xd3 ye−ikx eik y [λ (k) · (∂0 A(x) − (ik 0 )A(x)), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · (∂0 A(y) + (ik 0 )A(y))] = ∗
∂L
Recall Πi = ∂ Ȧi
= Ȧi (55.18). Then
Z
0 0
∗= d3 xd3 ye−ikx eik y [λ (k) · (Π(x) − ik 0 A(x)), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · (Π(y) + ik 0 A(y))]
91
Given [Ai , Aj ] = [Πi , Πj ] = 0 ∀ i, j, then
Z
0 0
∗ = d3 xd3 ye−ikx eik y {ik 0 [λ (k) · Π(x), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · A(y)] − ik 0 [λ (k) · A(x), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · Π(y)]} =
Z
0 0
= i d3 xd3 ye−ikx eik y {ik 0 [iλ (k)Πi (x), ∗jλ0 (k0 )Aj (y)] − k 0 [iλ (k)Ai (x), ∗jλ0 (k0 )Πj (y)]} for indices i, j = 1, 2, 3
Z
0 0
= i d3 xd3 ye−ikx eik y {k 0 iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 )(−)[Aj (y), Πi (x)] − k 0 iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 )[Ai (x), Πj (y)]} =
R d3 k ik·(x−y) ki kj

Recall [Ai (x, t), Πj (y, t)] = i (2π) 3 e δ ij − k2 (55.20).
d3 q iq·(y−x) d3 q iq·(x−y)
Z Z Z
0 qi qj qi qj
∗= d3 xdy {k 0 jλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 ) e δ ij − + k 0
iλ (k) ∗
jλ0 (k 0
) e δ ij − }
(2π)3 q2 (2π)3 q2
Now 00
0 0
eik y = eik ·y−ik t
Z
0
d3 yeik ·y eiq·y = (2π)3 δ 3 (k0 + q)
Z
0
3 −ikx −ik 0 t 0
∗ 0 −iq·x qi qj
3
∗ = d xd qe e 0
{k jλ (k)iλ0 (k )e δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + q)+
q

0 ∗ 0 iq·x qi qj
+ k iλ (k)jλ0 (k )e δij − 2 δ 3 (k − q)}
q
Z
0 00 0 qi qj qi qj
= d3 qei(k −k )t {k 0 jλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + q)δ 3 (k + q) + k 0 iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k − q)δ 3 (k0 − q)}
q q

0 0
−k 0 )t 0 qi qj qi qj
= ei(k {k 0 jλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 − k) + k 0 iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 − k)}
q q
jλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )δij = iλ (k∗iλ0 (k0 ) = δλ0 λ from (55.14)
Likewise for iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 )δij = δλλ0 = δλ0 λ .
k k ki iλ (k)kj ∗ 0 (k0 ) (k· (k))(k·∗ (k0 ))

iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) ki 2j = k2
jλ
= λ
k2
λ0
=0
since k · λ (k) = 0 (55.13).
k k
Likewise for jλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 ) ki 2j = 0.
0
Note that k = ω = ω(k), k 0 = ω 0 = ω 0 (k) and if k = k0 (there’s only 1 dispersion relationship for 1 physical
0
0
system), ω = ω .
=⇒ ∗ = (2π)3 ωδλλ0 (1 + 1)δ 3 (k − k0 ) = 2ω(2π)3 δλλ0 δ 3 (k − k0 )
Z h i
0 0
[aλ (k), aλ0 (k0 )] = − d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y λ (k) · (∂0 A(x) − (ik 0 )A(x)), λ0 (k0 ) · (∂0 A(y) − (ik 0 )A(y)) =
Z
0 0
=− d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y [λ (k) · (Π(x) − ik 0 A(x)), λ0 (k0 ) · (Π(y) − ik 0 A(y))] =
Z
0 0
=− d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y {[λ (k) · Π(x), λ0 (k0 ) · (−ik 0 A(y))] + [λ (k) · (−ik 0 A(x)), λ0 (k0 ) · Π(y)]} =
Z
0 0
=− d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y {[iλ (k)Πi (x), −ik 0 jλ0 (k0 )Aj (y)] + [−ik 0 iλ (k)Ai (x), jλ0 (k0 )Πj (y)]} =
Z
0 0
= − d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y {+ik 0 iλ (k)jλ0 (k0 )[Aj (y), Πi (x)] − ik 0 [iλ (k)jλ0 (k0 )[Ai (x), Πj (y)]} =
d3 q iq·(y−x)
Z Z
0 0 qi qj
= d3 xd3 ye−ikx e−ik y {k 0 iλ (k)jλ0 (k0 ) e δ ij − −
(2π)3 q2
d3 q iq·(x−y)
Z
qi qj
− k 0 iλ (k)jλ0 (k0 ) e δ ij − } = ∗∗
(2π)3 q2
92
Z 0
Z
00
−ik0 y iq·y ik0 t 0
d ye3
e =e d3 ye−i(k −q)·y = eik t
(2π)3 δ 3 (k0 − q)
Z Z
0 0
d3 xe−ikx e−iq·x = eik t d3 xe−i(k+q)·x = eik t (2π)3 δ 3 (k + q)
Z
0 00 0 qi qj
∗∗ = (2π)3 d3 qei(k +k )t {k 0 jλ (k)iλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 − q)δ 3 (k + q)−
q

q q
i j
− k 0 iλ (k)jλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + q)δ 3 (k − q)} =
q
= (2π)3 eiωt ω 0 (iλ (k)iλ0 (−k) − iλ (k)iλ0 (−k)) δ 3 (k + k0 ) = 0
h i Z Z
0 0
a†λ (k), a†λ0 (k0 ) = −[∗λ (k) · d3 xeikx (Π(x) + ik 0 A(x)), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · d3 yeik y (Π(y) + ik 0 A(y))] =
Z
0 0
= − d3 xd3 yeikx eik y {[e∗λ (k) · Π(x), ik 0 ∗λ0 (k0 ) · A(y)] + [ik 0 ∗λ (k) · A(x), ∗λ0 (k0 ) · Π(y)]} =
Z
0 0
= − d3 xd3 yeikx eik y {ik 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 )[Πi (x), Aj (y)] + ik 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 )[Ai (x), Πj (y)]} =
d3 q iq·(y−x)
Z Z
0 0 qi qj
= − d3 xd3 yeikx eik y {k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) e δ ij − −
(2π)3 q2
d3 q iq·(x−y)
Z
qi qj
− k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) e δ ij − }=
(2π)3 q2
Z
0 00 0 qi qj
= (2π)3 d3 qe−i(k +k )t {k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + q)δ 3 (k − q)−
q

q i qj
− k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (k0 ) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 − q)δ 3 (k + q)} =
q

k k
i j
= (2π)3 e−i2ωt {k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (−k) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + k)−
k

ki kj
− k 0 ∗iλ (k)∗jλ0 (−k) δij − 2 δ 3 (k0 + k)} = 0
k
Problem 55.2. Use eqs. (55.11), (55.14), (55.19), and (55.21)-(55.23) to verify eq. (55.24).
Solution 55.2. Recall that Z
f ∗ (k)aλ (k)eikx + λ (k)a† (k)e−ikx ]
X
A(x) = dk[ λ λ (55.11)
λ=±
λ0 (k) · ∗λ (k) = δλ0 λ (55.14) [aλ (k), aλ0 (k0 )] = 0
1 1
H = Πi Ȧi − L = Πi Πi + ∇j Ai ∇j Ai − Ji Ai + Hcoul (55.19) [a†λ (k), a†λ0 (k0 )] = 0
2 2
Hcoul = −Lcoul [aλ (k), a†λ0 (k0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 )δλλ0
XZ h i XZ h i
Πi = Ȧi = f −ik 0 ∗ (k)aλ (k)eikx + ik 0 λ0 (k)a† (k)e−ikx = −i
dk f 0 ∗ (k)aλ (k)eikx − λ (k)a† (k)e−ikx
dkk
iλ λ λ λ
λ=± λ=±
X Z 0
Πi Πi = − dk f k 0 k 0 0 [∗ (k)aλ (k)eikx − iλ a† (k)e−ikx ][∗ (k0 )aλ0 (k0 )eik0 x − iλ a† 0 (k0 )e−ikx ] =
f dk
iλ λ iλ λ
λ,λ0 =±
X Z 0
=− dk f k0 k0 0 ×
f dk
λ,λ0 =±
0 0
× ( ∗iλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )aλ (k)aλ0 (k0 )ei(k+k )x + iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )a†λ (k)a†λ0 (k0 )e−i(k+k )x −
0
− ∗iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )ei(k−k )x (a†λ0 (k0 )aλ (k) + (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 )δλλ0 )−
0
− iλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )e−i(k−k )x (a†λ0 aλ ) )
93
0
f k 0 k 0 0 (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 )δλλ0 separately from Πi Πi .
P R
From this point on, I’ll deal with the term λ,λ0 =± dk f dk
Then the rest of the expression is labeled ∗.
0
f = d33k0 0 0 and d3 xeik·x = (2π)3 δ 3 (k)
R
Recall that dk (2π) 2k
d3 x
R
−−−→
X Z 0 0
∗=− dk f k 0 k 0 0 (2π)3 ( ∗ (k)∗ 0 (k0 )aλ (k)aλ0 (k0 )e−i(k0 +k 0 )t δ 3 (k + k0 )+
f dk
iλ iλ
λ,λ0 =±
0 0
+k 0 )t 3
+ iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )a†λ (k)a†λ0 (k0 )ei(k δ (k + k0 )+
+ −∗iλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )δ 3 (k − k0 )(a†λ0 (k0 )aλ (k))−
− ∗iλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )δ 3 (k − k0 )(a†λ0 (k)aλ (k0 )) ) =
X Z dk
k 0 (∗iλ (k)∗iλ0 (−k)aλ (k)aλ0 (−k)e−i(2ωt) + iλ (k)iλ0 (−k)a†λ (k)a†λ0 (−k)e2iωt )+
f
=−
2
λ,λ0 =±
X Z dk
k 0 (−(a†λ aλ ) − (a†λ aλ ))
f
+−
2
λ=±
XZ
∇ j Ai = f ∗ (k)aλ (k)ikj eikx + iλ (k)a† (k)(−ikj )e−ikx ]
dk[iλ λ
λ=±
X Z 0
∇ j Ai ∇ j Ai = − dk f [ ∗ (k)∗ 0 (k0 )kj k 0 aλ (k)aλ0 (k0 )ei(k+k0 )x +
f dk
iλ iλ j
λ,λ0 =±
0
+ iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )kj kj0 a†λ (k)a†λ0 (k0 )e−i(k+k )x −
0
− ∗iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )kj kj0 aλ (k)a†λ0 (k0 )ei(k−k )x −
0
− iλ (k)∗iλ0 (k0 )kj0 kj0 a†λ (k)aλ0 (k0 )e−i(k+k )x ]
Using the commutation relation to put the term containing aλ (k)a†λ (k0 ) into “normal ordering”, and then
0
ff ∗ 0 0 3 3 0 i(k−k0 )x
P R
removing the term λ,λ0 =± dk dk iλ (k)iλ (k )kj kj (2π) 2ωδ (k − k )δλλ e for later, and labeling the
0 0
remaining terms ∗∗, then
d3 x
R
∗∗ −−−→
X Z 0
=− dk f (2π)3 [ ∗ (k)∗ 0 (k0 )kj k 0 aλ (k)aλ0 (k0 )e−2iωt δ 3 (k + k0 )+
f dk
iλ iλ j
λ,λ0 =±
+ iλ (k)iλ0 (k0 )kj kj0 a†λ (k)a†λ0 (k0 )e2iωt δ 3 (k + k0 ) ] +
X Z 0
+− dk f (2π)3 [ − ∗ (k)iλ (k)kj k 0 a† 0 (k0 )aλ (k)δ 3 (k − k0 )+
f dk
iλ j λ
λ,λ0 =±
+ iλ (k)(∗iλ0 (k0 )kj0 kj a†λ (k)aλ0 (k0 )δ 3 (k − k0 ) ] =
X Z dk
f
=− 0
[ ∗iλ (k)∗iλ0 (−k)(−kj kj )aλ (k)aλ0 (−k)e−2iωt +
0
2k
λ,λ =±
+ iλ (k)iλ0 (−k)(−kj kj )a†λ (k)a†λ0 (−k)e2iωt ] +
X Z dk
f h i
0 † 0 † 0
+ k k a
j j λ 0 (k )aλ (k) + k k a
j j λ (k)aλ0 (k )
2k 0
λ=±
0 0
Photons are massless. So k k − kj kj = 0.
So then adding all the terms above for ∗ and ∗∗,
94
ω2
XZ XZ XZ
kj kj ω
∗ + ∗∗ = − dk
f (−2a†λ aλ ) − (2a†λ aλ ) = dk
f † †
(2aλ aλ − 2aλ aλ ) = f ω(2a† aλ )
dk λ
2ω 2ω 2
λ=± λ=± λ=±
Consider now the 2 terms I had neglected above.

X Z 0
+ dk f k 0 k 0 0 ∗ (k)iλ0 (k0 )ei(k−k0 )x (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k0 − k)δλλ0 −
f dk
iλ
λ,λ0 =±
X Z 0
− dk f (−∗ (k)iλ0 (k0 )kj k 0 ei(k−k0 )x (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 )δλλ0
f dk
iλ j
λ,λ0 =±
0
d3 k0
Now dk
f =
(2π)3 2k0 0
. Then the two terms above is equal to
dk
f XZ
k 02 ∗iλ (kiλ (k)(2ω) + ∗iλ (k)iλ (k)kj kj (2ω) =

=
00
2k
λ=±
d3 k
X Z Z
= f 2 δλλ0 + ω 2 δλλ0 ) = 2
dk(ω ω 2 (2) =
2ω(2π)3
λ=±
Z
2
= d3 kω
(2π)3
Z
2
R 3
× 12 3 d x
−−→ d kω = 2 0 −−→ 20 V
−
2(2π)3
Note that − d3 xJi Ai = − d3 xJ(x) · A(x) and that
R R
Hcoul = d3 xHcoul = d3 x − Lcoul = d3 x 12 d3 y ρ(x,t)ρ(y,t)

R R R R
4π|x−y| .
So then
XZ Z
H= f † (k)aλ (k) + 20 V − d3 xJ(x) · A(x) + Hcoul , (55.24)
dkωa λ
λ=±
56. LSZ reduction for photons
Problem 56.1. Use eqs. (55.11) and (55.21)-(55.23) to verify eqs. (56.9) and (56.10).
XZ
A(x) = f ∗ (k)aλ (k)eikx + λ (k)a† (k)e−ikx ]
dk[ (55.11)
λ λ
λ=±
[aλ (k), aλ0 (k0 )] = 0 (55.21)

[a†λ (k), a†λ0 (k0 )] =0 (55.22)
[aλ (k), a†λ0 (k0 )] = (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k0 − k)δλλ0 (55.23)
We want to show (56.9), (56.10).
h0|T Ai (x)Aj (y)|0i =

X Z 0
= dk f h0|T [i∗ (k)eikx aλ (k) + i (k)a† (k)e−ikx ][j∗0 (k0 )eik0 y aλ0 (k) + j 0 (k0 )a† 0 (k0 )e−ik0 y ]|0i
f dk
λ λ λ λ λ λ
λ,λ0 =±
Note that a|0i = 0 and h0|a† = 0. Then we obtain

X Z
= dk f0 h0|T i∗ (k)j 0 (k0 )aλ (k)a† 0 (k0 )eikx e−ik0 y + i (k)∗j0 (k0 )a† (k)aλ0 (k0 )e−ikx eik0 y |0i
f dk
λ λ λ λ λ λ
λ,λ0 =±
95
Using the commutator relation,
X Z 0
= dk f h0|T (i∗ (k)j 0 (k0 )(2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k0 − k)δλλ0 eikx e−ik0 y )|0i =
f dk
λ λ
λ,λ0 =±
XZ Z
ik·(x−y) −ik0 x0 +ik0 y 0 0 0 0 0
j
X j
= dkh0|T
f (i∗
λ (k)λ (k)e e )|0i = dkh0|T
f eik·(x−y) e−ik x +ik y |0i i∗
λ (k)λ (k)
λ=± λ=±
ki kj
Note λ=± ∗iλ (k)jλ (k) = δij −
P
(55.15) k2
Recall the trick of doing the contour integral over k 0 (this was utilized in Sec. 8 of Srednicki, and Problem 8.4).
k 2 = −(k 0 )2 + k2 .
∞ 0 0 0
d4 k eik(x−y) d3 k eik·(x−y) e−ik (x −y )
Z Z Z
= dk 0
(2π)4 k 2 − i (2π)4 −∞ k2 − i − (k 0 )2
Consider
∞ ∞ ∞
e−izτ e−izτ e−izτ
Z Z Z
dz = dz =−
−∞ A2 − z 2 −∞ (A − z)(A + z) ∞ (z + A)(z − A)
For z = Reiθ , −izτ = −iReiθ τ = −iτ R cos θ + τ R sin θ.
If τ > 0, consider enclosing in lower half plane of z for a finite integral: Resz = A, where
A2 = k√2 iθ+i2πn
− i = Re√
θ
A = ± k − i = Rei 2 +iπn .
2
∞
e−izτ e−iAτ +πie−iAτ
Z
− dz = − −2πi =
−∞ (z + A)(z − A) 2A A
Note the direction of the contour (clockwise) and winding number, −1, so that in a sense, the contour integral
went around by −2π.
If τ < 0, enclose in upper half plane:
Z ∞
e−izτ eiAτ πieiAτ

− dz 2 = − 2πi =
−∞ z − A2 −2A A
√
For → 0, A = k2 = ω, (ω 2 = k2 for photons),
0 0 0 0
!
∞ −y 0 ) 0
−y 0 )
e−ik (x −y ) +πie−iω(x πieiω(x
Z
0
dk 2 0 )2
= θ(x0 − y 0 ) + θ(y 0 − x0 )
−∞ k − i − (k ω ω
d4 k eik(x−y) d3 k ik·(x−y) πi −iω|x0 −y0 |

Z Z Z
= e e =i f ik·(x−y) e−iω|x0 −y0 |
dke
(2π)4 k 2 − i (2π)4 ω
Then
1 ij
h0|T Ai (x)Aj (y)|0i = ∆ (x − y) (56.9)
i
d4 k eik(x−y) X i∗
Z
ij
where ∆ (x − y) = λ (k)jλ (k)
(2π)4 k 2 − i
λ=±
57. The path integral for photons

58. Spinor electrodynamics
Solution 58.1. Recall the Lagrangian L = − 14 F µν Fµν + iΨ6DΨ − mΨΨ where D = ∂µ − ieAµ .
iΨγ µ (∂µ − ieAµ )Ψ = iΨγ µ ∂µ Ψ + eΨγ µ Aµ Ψ
P −1 Ψγ µ ΨAµ P = Pνµ Ψγ ν ΨP −1 Aµ Ψ = Ψγ ν ΨP −1 Pνµ Aµ P

96
If Aµ → Pµν Aν then Pνµ Pµν = 1, resulting in Ψγ ν ΨAν
=⇒ P −1 Aµ P = P νµ Aν
T −1 Ψγ µ Aµ ΨT = T −1 Ψγ µ ΨT T −1 Aµ T = −T νµ Ψγ ν ΨT −1 Aµ T
If Aµ → −T µν Aν , then L invariant.
=⇒ T −1 Aµ T = −T µν Aν
C −1 Ψγ µ Aµ ΨC = −Ψγ µ ΨC −1 Aµ C. If C −1 Aµ C = −Aµ , then L invariant. C −1 Aµ C = −Aµ .

Solution 58.2. Furry’s theorem
Recall the LSZ formula for photons,
Z
a†λ (k)in → iµ∗
λ (k) d4 xe+ikx (−∂ 2 )Aµ (x)
Z
aλ (k)out → iµλ (k) d4 xe−ikx (−∂ 2 )Aµ (x)
So scattering amplitudes involve field Aµ anytime with external photons.

Charge conjugation is a symmetry in QED, so C|0i = 0.
h0|Aµ |0i = h0|C −1 CAµ C −1 C|0i = h0|CAµ A−1 |0i = −h0|Aµ |0i =⇒ h0|Aµ |0i
h0|Aµ Aν Aρ |0i = h0|C −1 CAµ C −1 CAν C −1 CAρ C −1 C|0i = (−1)3 h0|Aµ Aν Aρ |0i =⇒ h0|Aµ Aν Aρ |0i = 0
By induction, scattering amplitude of an odd number of external photons is zero.
59. Scattering in spinor electrodynamics
Solution 59.2. Bhabha scattering, e+ e− → e+ e−

1 1
T = e2 ((u0 γ µ v 0 )(vγµ u) − (vγ µ v 0 )(u0 γµ u) )
−s − i −t − i
1 1
T = e2 ((vγ ν u0 )(uγν v) − (v 0 γ ν v)(uγν u0 ) )
−s − i −t − i
(u0 γ µ v 0 )(vγµ u)(v 0 γ ν v)(uγν u0 )

1
|T |2 = e4 (u0 γ µ v 0 )(vγµ u)(v 0 γ ν u0 )(v 0 γ ν u0 )(uγν v) 2 − −
s st
(vγ µ v 0 )(u0 γµ u)(v 0 γ ν u0 )(uγν v) (vγ µ v 0 )(u0 γµ u)(v 0 γ ν v)(uγν u0 )

=− +
ts t2
0 0 µ 0 0 ν

1 tr(uuγν u u γ v v γ vvγµ )
= e4 tr(u0 u0 γ µ v 0 v 0 γ ν )tr(uuγν vvγµ ) 2 − −
s st
tr(uuγν vvγ µ v 0 v 0 γ ν u0 u0 γµ ) tr(uuγν u0 u0 γµ )tr(vvγ µ v 0 v 0 γ ν )

− +
ts t2
Average over initial spins of electron and positron, sum over final spin states of electron-positron pair.
60. Spinor helicity for spinor electrodynamics

61. Scalar electrodynamics
62. Loop corrections in spinor electrodynamics
Solution 62.1.
−1 µν 1 (∂ µ Aµ )2
F Fµν −
4 2 ξ
1 1 1 (∂ µ Aµ )(∂ ν Aν )
− (∂ µ Aν )(∂µ Aν ) + (∂ µ Aν )(∂ν Aµ ) −
2 2 2 ξ
97
Apply Fourier transform to momentum space.
−1 µ eν (k 0 ) + 1 ik ν ikµ0 A eν (k 0 ) − 1 ik µ ik ν 0 A
(ik )(ikµ0 )A
=⇒ eν (k)A eµ (k)A eµ (k)Aeν (k 0 )
2 2 2ξ
R d4 x i(k+k0 )x
Applying d4 x and noting that (2π) = δ 4 (k + k 0 ) and then applying d4 k 0 ,
R R
4e
kµ kν e kµ kν 1 kµ kν e

−1 e µν 2 µ ν e −1 e 2 µν
=⇒ Aµ (k)(g k − k k )Aν (−k) + Aµ (k)
e Aν (−k) = Aµ (k)k g − 2 + Aν (−k)
2 ξ 2 k ξ k2
kµ kν
For P µν (k)= g µν − P2 = 1 (definition
k2 , σ νof a projection operator).
kµ kν kν kµ kµ kσ k k kµ k ν kµ kν
Note k2 2 = 1 and gµσ − k2 k2 = k2 − k2 = 0.
k µ ν µ ν

So then k 2 g µν − k kk2 + 1ξ k kk2 can be inverted to yield the photon propagator in Rξ gauge.
So
1 kµ kν 1 kµ kν
∆µν = 2
e gµν − (1 − ξ) 2 − 2 Pµν (k) + ξ 2
k − i k k − i k

1 k µ kν Pµν (k)
When ξ = 0, ∆ k −i gµν − k2
e µν (k) = 2 = k2 −i .
(∂ µ Aµ )(∂ ν Aν )
For ξ = 0, ∂ µ Aµ = 0 for finite L, in ξ .
Solution 62.2.
d4 q q 2
Z Z
1
=⇒ (ξ − 1)e2 dF3 (−dm − 6p(d − 2 + x1 (d + 2))) 2
(2π)4 d (q + D)3
µ
i 2 − 12 + ln D

d4 q (q 2 )1 Γ(3 − 1 − d/2)Γ(1 + d/2) −(3−1−d/2)
Z
=⇒ i D =
(2π)4 (q 2 + D)3 (4π)d/2 Γ(3)Γ(d/2) (4π)2
2 1 µ
!
−

2 2 i + ln
=⇒ (ξ − 1) e2 −m − 6p 1 − + x1 1 + 2 D
=
d d (4π)2
2 1 µ

i + 2 + ln D
Z
d=4−, →0 2 1 3
−−−−−−−−→ (ξ − 1) e dF3 −m − 6p + x1
2 2 (4π)2
2

2 1 31 2 −i (ξ − 1) e 2(6p + m)
= (ξ − 1) e −m − 6p − 6p i + O(1) = + O(1)
2 2 3 (4π)2 (4π)2
So then
e2 1 (1 − ξ)e2
Z2 = 1 − +
8π 2
8π 2
2
e 1 (1 − ξ)e2
Zm =1− 2 +
2π 8π 2
or
e2 1
Z2 = 1 − ξ
8π 2
=⇒
e2 1 3 ξ

Zm =1− 2 +
2π 4 4
63. The vertex function in spinor electrodynamics
Solution 63.1.
(a) So qµ u0 V µ (k, p)u = 0.
=⇒ qµ u0 V µ u = eu0 [A6q + Bqµ (k + p)µ + Cq 2 ]u
Note u0 6q u = u0 (6k − 6p)u = −mu0 u + mu0 u = 0 and (k − p)(k + p) = k 2 − p2 = −m2 + m2 = 0
=⇒ qµ u0 V µ u = e[0 + Bu0 (k − p)(k + p)u + Cq 2 ]u = 0

So C = 0.
98
(b) Now
i i
u0 V µ (k, p)u = eu0 [F1 γ µ −
F2 S µν qν ]u = F1 eu0 γ µ u − eF2 u0 S µν qν u
m m
The trick is to use the Gordon identity!
=⇒ u0 (p0 + p)µ u = u0 [2mγ µ + 2iS µν qν ]u or u0 (p0 + p)µ u − 2mu0 γ µ u = 2iu0 S µν qν u
So then
u0 (p + p0 )u

1 −eF2
u0 V µ (k, p)u = F1 eu0 γ µ u − eF2 − mu0 γ µ u = u0 (F1 e + eF2 )γ µ u + u0 (p + p0 )µ u
m 2 2m
A = F1 + F2
=⇒ −F2
B=
2m
64. The magnetic moment of the electron

65. Loop corrections in scalar electrodynamics
66. Beta functions in quantum electrodynamics
Solution 66.1.
Note that
1/2
Z 3 A = A0
1/2
Z2 Ψ = Ψ 0

1 1 2α 1 m 1
ln Z3 + ln A = ln A0 ln 1 − − ln = ln Z3
2 2 3π µ 2
1 1 1 α −α
ln Z2 + ln Ψ = ln Ψ0 ln Z2 = ln 1 − ξ ' ξ
2 2 2 2π 4π
2α2

d ln Ψ0 d ln Ψ0 −1 dα −ξ
=0= = ξ = −α +
d ln µ d ln µ 4π d ln µ 4π 3π
1
For ln Z3 , if the can be treated as the dominant term, even over ln m
µ,

1 1 −2α −α
ln Z3 ' =
2 2 3π 3π
2α2 2α2

−α d ln A0 d ln A −1 d ln A 1 α 2α
+ln A = ln A0 =⇒ = + −α + = 0 or = −α + = −1 +
3π d ln µ d ln µ 3π 3π d ln µ 3π 3π 3π 3π
Solution 66.3.
Recall that
1 1
L = iΨ6∂ Ψ − mΨΨ − F µν Fµν + Z1 eΨ6AΨ + i(Z2 − 1)Ψ6∂ Ψ − (Zm − 1)mΨΨ − (Z3 − 1)F µν Fµν
4 4
So then
1/2
Z2 Ψ = Ψ0
1/2
Z 3 A = A0
Zm Z2−1 m = m0
−1/2 /2
Z1 Z2−1 Z3 µ e = e0
Also note that
e2 e2
α= α0 = 0
4π 4π
−1 −2 2
α0 = Z3 Z2 Z1 µ α
99
e2 α
Z1 = 1 − 2
ξ =1− ξ
8π 2π
e2 α
Z2 = 1 − 2 ξ = 1 − ξ
8π 2π
2

e 1 m 2α 1 m
Z3 = 1 − 2 − ln =1− − ln
6π µ 3π µ
e2

3 α
Zm = 1 − 2 + =1− (3 + ξ)
2π 4 4 2π
P∞ En (α)
For ln (Z3−1 Z2−2 Z12 ) = n=1 n ,

−α −α −2α 2α
ln (Z3−1 Z2−2 Z12 ) = 2 ξ + ... −2 ξ + ... − + ... = + ...
2π 2π 3π 3π
2α 2α
ln α0 = ln µ
e + ln α + so E1 (α) =
3π 3π
β(α) = α2 E10 (α) + O(α3 )
2α2 e4
β(α) = + O(α3 ) or β(e) = + O(e5 )
3π 24π 3
Zm Z2−1 m = m0
ln Zm Z2−1 + ln m = ln m0

α α −α −α −3α
ln Zm Z2−1 = ln 1 − (3 + ξ) − ln 1 − ξ ' (3 + ξ) − ξ =
2π 2π 2π 2π 2π
Require m0 to be unchanged.
2α2 2α2

d ln m0 1 dm −3 dα 1 dm 3 3α
0= = + or = −α + = −1 +
d ln µ m d ln µ 2π d ln µ m d ln µ 2π 3π 2π 3π
d ln α0 d ln α 2 dα 1 2 − 2α2
dα dα
where d ln µ = + d ln µ + 3π d ln µ = + α + 3π d ln µ = 0 or d ln µ = 1 + 2 = −α + 3π (use long division
α 3π
for the last statement).
−3α
γm (α) = + O(α2 )
2π
Solution 66.4. MW = 80.4 GeV . Note that the top quark mass is 174 GeV , greater than the mass of the W
boson; the top quark is not included in the sum.
For each quark, there is a factor of 3 for the 3 color factors.
Neutrinos have charge 0 and so do not contribute to the sum.

1 1 2 80400 80400 80.4
= − (2/3)2 ln · 3 + (−1/3)2 ln · 3+ · 3 · 2 + (2/3)2 ln
α(MW ) α(µ) 3π 300 300 1.3
+(−1/3)2 (ln (80.4/4.3)) · 3 + (−1)2 ln 80400/105.7 + (−1)2 ln (80400/1777) + (−1)2 ln (80400/0.511) = 128.5

so that
α(MW ) = 0.007782
67. Ward identities in quantum electrodynamics I
Solution 67.2.
h i
Consider v 0 60 −6pm+62k−t
+m
6 + 6 −6m p+6l+m
2 −u 60 u.
Now replace 6 with 6k .

0 0 −6p + 6k + m −6p + 6l + m 0
v 6 6k + 6k 6 u
m2 − t m2 − u
Consider
v 0 60 (−6p + 6k + m) 6k u = v 0 (−60 6p6k + 60 6k 6k + m60 6k )u
100
Now (trick is)
6p6k = pµ kµ γ µ γ ν = pµ kν (−γ ν γ µ − 2g µν ) = −6k 6p − 2(pk)
so − 60 6p6k = 60 (6k 6p + 2(pk))

Also, (the trick is)
6k 6k = kµ kν γ µ γ ν = kµ kν (−γ ν γ µ − 2g µν ) = −6k 6k − 2k 2 = −6k 6k ( since k 2 = 0)

6 6k = 0
=⇒ k
Also 6k 6pu = −m6k u since (6p + m)u = 0
=⇒ (−6p + 6k + m)6k u = (6k 6p + 2(pk) + m6k )u = 2(pk)u

0
For the 6k (−6p + 6l + m)6 u term,
By momentum conservation (p + q = k + l),
6 (−6p + 6l + m) = 6k (6 q− 6 k + m) = −6q 6k − 2(qk) − 6k 6k + m6k = −6q 6k − 2(qk) + m6k

k
Since v6q = mv6q , so applying v from the left, −m6k − 2(qk) + m6k = −2(qk).

0 0 2(pk) −2(qk) 0
=⇒ v 6 2 + 6 u
m − t m2 − u
Note that
(pk)(m2 − u) = (pk)(m2 + (p − l)2 ) = (pk)(m2 + −m2 − 2pl) = −2(pk)(pl)
(qk)(m2 − t) = (qk)(m2 + (p − k)2 ) = (qk)(m2 + −m2 − 2pk) = −2(qk)(pk)
(p − l)2 = −m2 − 2pl = (q − k)2 = −m2 − 2qk so pl = qk

−6p + 6k + m −6p + 6l + m 0
=⇒ v 0 6 0 6
k + 6
k 6 u = 0
m2 − t m2 − u
68. Ward identities in quantum electrodynamics II

69. Nonabelian gauge theory
Notes on the material in section 69. Solution 69.1. Recall the expansion in terms of traceless, Hermitian
generators
Aµ (x) = Aaµ (x)T a
and the gauge transformation
i
Aµ (x) → U (x)Aµ (x)U † (x) + U (x)∂µ U † (x)
g
Recall the infinitesimal expansion of the unitary transformation in this adjoint representation, to first order:
Ujk = δjk − igθa (x)Tjk
a
†
Ujk = δjk + igθa Tjk
a
Then
i
U Aµ U † = (δjk − igθa Tik a
)Abµ Tkl
b
(δlj + igθc Tljc ) + (δik − igθa Tik
a
)(ig(∂µ θb )Tkjb
)=
g
i
= (Abµ Tilb − igθa Abµ (T a T b )il )(δlj + igθc Tljc ) + (ig(∂µ θb )Tijb ) = Abµ Tijb − igθa Abµ (T a T b )ij + igθc Abµ Tilb Tljc − (∂µ θb )Tijb =
g
= (Abµ − ∂µ θb )Tijb + igθa Abµ (T b T a − T a T b )ij = (Aµ − ∂µ θa )Tija − igθa Abµ if abc Tijc =
= (Aaµ − ∂µ θa )Tija + gθb Acµ f bca Tija = (Aaµ − ∂µ θa + gf abc θb Acµ )Tija =
Now for U Aµ U † + gi U ∂µ U dag ,
i
(1 − igθa T a )Aµ (1 + igθb T b ) + (1 − igθa T a )(ig(∂µ θb )T b ) = Aµ − igθa T a Aµ + Aµ igθb T b + −(∂µ θb )T b =
g
= Aµ + igθa (Aµ T a − T a Aµ ) − (∂µ θa )T a
101
Solution 69.2.
[T a T a , T b ] = T a [T a , T b ] + [T a , T b ]T a = T a if abc T c + if abc T c T a = if abc T a T c + if cba T a T c = if abc T a T c (1 − 1) = 0
70. Group representations
Solution 70.1.
Recall the index T (R), such that tr(T a T b ) = T (R)δ ab .
Recall that matrix T a T a commutes with every generator, and so must be a number times the identity.
T a T a = C(R)1
=⇒ tr(T a T a ) = C(R)D(R)
where D(R) = dimension of representation R.
The fundamental representation of a group is spanned by D(A) generator matrices.
D(A) = number of generators of the group.
tr(T a T a ) = T (R)δ aa = D(A)T (R).
=⇒ D(A)T (R) = C(R)D(R)

Solution 70.2.
(a) For SU (N ), N ⊗ N = 1 ⊕ A.
1 1
T (N ⊗ N ) = T (N )D(N ) + D(N )T (N ) = N+ N =N
2 2
T (1 ⊕ A) = T (1) + T (A) = T (A) = N
where T (1) = 0 , the index of a singlet is 0.

(b) From the definition of an index of a representation, tr(TRa TRb ) = T (R)δ ab ,
tr(TAa TAb ) = T (A)δ ab = (TAa )cd (TAb )dc = −iacd (−ibdc ) = −cda dcb = cda cdb = δ dd δ ab − δ db δ ad = δ dd δ ab = 2δ ab
T (A) = 2 for SU (2).
Also, another way to do this is to consider the adjoint representation explicitly.
   
T 1 = −i  1 = i  −1
−1 1
   
−1 1
T 2 = −i   = i 
1 −1
   
1 −1
T 3 = −i −1  = i 1 
    
T 1 T 1 = −1  −1  −1 = −1 
=2 −1
1 1 −1
(c) Given that N of SU (N ) transforms as 2 ⊕ (N − 2)1s that means that
=⇒ N = 2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1
| {z }
N −2
Recall N ⊗ N = 1 ⊕ A (70.26).
N = 2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1 since 2 = 2
| {z }
N −2
N ⊗ N = (2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1) ⊗ (2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1) = 2 ⊗ 2 ⊕ 2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
N −2 N −2 2(N −2) (N −2)2
102
Now
2 ⊗ 2 = 3S ⊕ 1A
=⇒ N ⊗ N = 3 ⊕ 2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 2 ⊕ 1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1
| {z } | {z }
2(N −2) (N −2)2 +1
So
A = 3 ⊕ 2 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 2⊕1 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 1
| {z } | {z }
2(N −2) (N −2)2
(d) Recalling T (R1 ⊗ R2 ) = T (R1 )D(R2 ) + D(R1 )T (R2 ),

1 1
T (2 ⊗ 2) = T (2)D(2) + D(2)T (2) = 2+ 2=2
2 2
Now
A = 3 ⊕ 2 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 2⊕1 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 1
| {z } | {z }
2(N −2) (N −2)2
A = 2 ⊗ 2 ⊕ 2 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 2⊕1 ⊕ ··· ⊕ 1
| {z } | {z }
2(N −2) (N −2)2 −1
1
Recall that T (2) = 2 for the fundamental representation of SU (N ).
1
T (A) = T (2 ⊗ 2) + T (2)2(N − 2) + T (1)((N − 2)2 − 1) = 2 + 2(N − 2) = N = T (A)
2
Solution 70.6.
Recalling that
(Dρ Fµν )a = ∂ρ Fµν
a
− igAcρ (TAc )ab Fµν
b
and
c
Fµν = ∂µ Acν − ∂ν Acµ + gf abc Aaµ Abν
(Dµ Fνρ )a + (Dν Fρµ )a + (Dρ Fµν )a =

a
= ∂µ Fνρ − igAcµ (TAc )ab Fνρ
b
+
a
+ ∂ν Fρµ − igAcν (TAc )ab Fρµ
b
+
a
+ ∂ρ Fµν − igAcρ (TAc )ab Fµν
b
=
= ∂µ (∂ν Aaρ − ∂ρ Aaν + gfbca Abν Acρ ) − igAcµ (TAc )ab (∂ν Abρ − ∂ρ Abν + gf deb Adν Aeρ )+
+ ∂ν (∂ρ Aaµ − ∂µ Aaρ + gfbca Abρ Acµ ) − igAcν (TAc )ab (∂ρ Abµ − ∂ρ Abρ + gf deb Adν Aeρ )+
+ ∂ρ (∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ + gfbca Abµ Acν ) − igAcρ (TAc )ab (∂µ Abν − ∂ν Abµ + gf deb Adµ Aeν ) =
= gf bca ∂µ (Abν Acρ ) − gAcµ f cab (∂ν Abρ − ∂ρ Abν ) − g 2 Adµ f cab f deb Adν Aeρ +
= gf bca ∂ν (Abρ Acµ ) − gAcν f cab (∂ρ Abµ − ∂µ Abρ ) − g 2 Adν f cab f deb Adρ Aeµ +
= gf bca ∂ρ (Abµ Acν ) − gAcρ f cab (∂µ Abν − ∂ν Abµ ) − g 2 Adρ f cab f deb Adµ Aeν
Looking at the above equation, the O(g) terms cancel.
For O(g 2 ) term, the trick is to use the Jacobi identity. Making all those terms have a common factor of Acµ Adν Aeρ
by rewriting the labels (indices).
f cab f bde + f dab f bec + f eab f bcd = 0
71. The path integral for nonabelian gauge theory

72. The Feynman rules for nonabelian gauge theory
Solution 72.1.
For a renormalizable, Lorentz invariant theory with N complex scalars, indexed by i, the free Lagrangian is
λ
L = −(Dµ ϕ)† (Dµ ϕ) − m2 ϕ† ϕ − (ϕ† ϕ)2
4
† i† † 2 i† j† µ † µ i †
where ϕ ϕ = ϕ ϕi , (ϕ ϕ) = ϕ ϕi ϕ ϕj and (D ϕ) (Dµ ϕ) = (D ϕ ) (Dµ ϕi ).
103
The covariant derivative is
Dµ ϕi = ∂µ ϕi − igAaµ taj
i ϕj
a
where the generators t are for the gauge group.
Now
(Dµ ϕi )† = ∂ µ ϕi† + igAµa tai
k ϕ
k†
so that
a aj
(Dµ ϕi )† Dµ ϕi = (∂ µ ϕi† + igAµb tbi k†
k ϕ )(∂µ ϕi − igAµ ti ϕj ) =
= ∂ µ ϕi† ∂µ ϕi − igAaµ taj µ i† i† µ 2 µb a bi aj k†

i ((∂ ϕ )ϕj − ϕ ∂ ϕj ) + g A Aµ tk ti ϕ ϕj
µa νb † a b
So there is a term of order g 2 , (O(g 2 )): g 2 gµν Aµa Aνb tai bk j† 2
j ti ϕ ϕk = g gµν A A ϕ t t ϕ.
So for
L0 = −∂ µ ϕi† ∂µ ϕi − m2 ϕ† ϕ
and L1 , which includes counterterms,
L1 = −(Zϕ − 1)∂ µ ϕi† ∂µ ϕi − (Zm − 1)m2 ϕ† ϕ + Z1 igAaµ taj µ i† i† µ 2 µa νb ai bj k†
i ((∂ ϕ )ϕj − ϕ ∂ ϕj ) − Z2 g gµν A A tk ti ϕ ϕj −
λ
− Z4 (ϕi† ϕi ϕj† ϕj )
4
Consider doing a Fourier transform to transform the fields into momentum space (to deal with derivatives):
(∂ µ ϕi† )ϕj → −ipϕi† ϕj

∂ i† ∂µ ϕj → iqϕi† ϕj
Then doing the Fourier transform on the following term,
Z1 igAaµ taj µ i† i† a aj i†
i ((∂ ϕ )ϕj − ϕ ∂µ ϕj ) → Z1 gAµ ti (p + q)µ ϕ ϕj
73. The beta function in nonabelian gauge theory

74. BRST symmetry
75. Chiral gauge theories and anomalies
76. Anomalies in global symmetries
77. Anomalies and the path integral for fermions
78. Background field gauge
79. Gervais-Neveu gauge
80. The Feynman rules for N × N matrix fields
81. Scattering in quantum chromodynamics
82. Wilson loops, lattice theory, and confinement
83. Chiral symmetry breaking
84. Spontaneous breaking of gauge symmetries
Solution 84.1.
(a) Given V (Φ) = 21 m2 T rΦ2 + 14 λ1 T rΦ4 + 14 λ2 (T rΦ2 )2 ,
 2 
α1
.. N
Φ2 = v 2 
 
.
X
T rΦ2 = v 2 αi2 = v 2

2
αN i=1
 4 
α1 XN
4 4
.. T rΦ = v αi4
Φ4 = v 4 
 
. 
i=1
4
αN
So then
N
m2 2 λ1 4 X 4 λ2 4
V = v + v αi + v
2 4 i=1
4
104
N
∂V X −m2 −m2
= m2 v + (λ1 αi4 + λ2 )v 3 = 0 =⇒ v = 0 or v 2 = PN =
∂v i=1 λ1 i=1 αi4 + λ2 λ1 C + λ2
m2 −m2 m4 m4 −m4 m4 −m4

λ1 λ2
=⇒ V = + C+ = + =
2 λ1 C + λ2 4 (λ1 C + λ2 )2 4 (λ1 C + λ2 )2 2(λ1 C + λ2 ) 4(λ1 C + λ2 ) 4(λ1 C + λ2 )
(b) Consider
(λ1 C + λ2 )v 2

∂V
= m2 v 1 +
∂v m2
2
m2 < 0. If λ1 C + λ2 ≤ 0, then v 2 = λ1−m
C+λ2isn’t an allowed critical point.
2
∂V (λ C+λ 2 )v
Consider large v. ∂v ' m2 v 1
m2 → −∞ as v → −∞. So V is not bounded below.
−m4
(c) v = 4(λ1 C+λ2 ) ≤ 0 as established above (note, for v = 0, V = 0).
min (λ1 C + λ) ≤ (λ1 C + λ2 )

−1 −1
1 1 =⇒ ≥
≤ λ1 C + λ2 min (λ1 C + λ2 )
λ1 C + λ2 min (λ1 C + λ2 )
−m4
=⇒ V ≥
4 min (λ1 C + λ2 )
PN
(d) From previous part, extremize f (α) = λ1 i=1 αi4 + λ2 .
X X
αi = 0 g(α) = αi = 0
i=1 i=1
X X
αi2 = 1 h(α) = αi2 − 1
i=1 i=1
Let
Λ = f − ag − bh
with a, b as Lagrange multipliers.
b a
∂j Λ = 4λ1 αj3 − a − 2bαj = 0 or αj3 − αj − =0
2λ1 4λ1
α3j
P
4λ1 j
Now N = a using the constraints and if αj 6= 0 ∀ αj ,
X
2λ1 αj4 = b
j
P 3
i αi
then αj3 − i αi4 αj − N
P
= 0.
In any case, the solution to this cubic will be 3 possibly complex numbers that sum to 0.
(e) Φ = vdiag(α
P 1 , . . . , αP
N ).
Since i αi = 0, i αi2 = 1, and αi take on at most 3 different values, u1 , u2 , u3 , and u1 + u2 + u3 = 0.
But for solutions to the cubic, they are complex conjugates; so there are only 2 possible values for αi .
Since i αi = 0, N+ = N− = 12 N if N even, N± = 12 (N ± 1) if N odd (so that N+ + N− = N ).
P
=⇒ SU (N+ ) × SU (N− ) × U (1)

105
85. Spontaneously broken abelian gauge theory
86. Spontaneously broken nonabelian gauge theory
87. The Standard Model: gauge and Higgs sector
88. The Standard Model: lepton sector
89. The Standard Model: quark sector
90. Electroweak interactions of hadrons
91. Neutrino masses
92. Solitons and monopoles
93. Instantons and theta vacua
94. Quarks and theta vacua
95. Supersymmetry
Problem 95.1. Recall {QaA , Q†ȧB } = −2δAB σaµȧ Pµ (95.6). P0 is the Hamiltonian.
−2δAB (σ101̇ P0 + σ131̇ P3 ) = −2δAB (−H + P3 ) = {Q1A , Q†1̇B }
If massive, P3 = 0,
2hϕ|H|ϕi = hϕ|Q1A Q†1̇A |ϕi + hϕ|Q†1̇A Q1A |ϕi = kQ†1̇A |ϕik2 + kQ1A |ϕik2
H positive definite.
If massless, then consider a, ȧ = 2, 2̇ for σ 3 22̇P3 = −H. Then similar to above, H positive definite.
If H|ϕi = 0, kQ1A |ϕik2 = 0 or Q1A |ϕi = 0. Likewise for Q2A |ϕi = 0
If massless, P3 = H so consider σ2µ2̇ for −2δAB (−2H) = 4δAB H = {Q2A , Q†2̇B } and for a = ȧ = 1, {Q1A , Q†1̇B } =
0 so reobtain kQ†1̇A |ϕik2 + kQ1A |ϕik2 = 0
Problem 95.2.
√
(a) If h0|F |0i =
6 0, using first of eqs. (95.34), {ψc , Qa } = −i 2ac F ,
√ √
h0| − i 212 F |0i = i 2h0|F |0i = h0|{ψ2 , Q1 }|0i = h0|ψ2 Q1 |0i + h0|Q1 ψ2 |0i
6 0 implying Q†1 |0i =
If Q1 |0i = 0, h0|Q1 ψ2 |0i = 6 0 and vice versa.
(b) [V (x, θ, θ), Qa ] = −iQa V (x, θ, θ)
Recall that
2 2 1 2
V (x, θ, θ) = C(x) + θχ(x) + θχ† (x) + θ2 M (x) + θ M (x) + θσ µ θvµ (x) + θ2 θλ† (x) + θ θλ(x) + θ2 θ D(x)
2
Now
2 2 2 2
[θ θa λa , Qb ] = θ θa λa Qb − Qb θ θa λa = θ θa {λa , Qb }
2
Consider θ θa components.
1 2 1 2 1 2
∂θb θ2 θ D = θb θ D = θa ab θ D
2 2 2
ḃ α̇ i m n ḃα̇ 2 α i 2 i 2
−iσbmḃ θ ∂m θα σαnα̇ θ vn = σ σ θ θ ∂m vn = σbmḃ αc α̇ċ σ nċc ḃα̇ θ θα ∂m vn = σbmḃ σ nḃc αc θ θα ∂m vn =
2 bḃ αα̇ 2 2
−i m n 2
= (σ σ )ba θ θa ∂m vn
2
So then
1 i
{λa , Qb } = ab D − (σ m σ n )ba ∂m vn
2 2
Knowing that h0|D|0i =
6 0,
106
1 i
h0| 21 D|0i = h0|λ2 Q1 |0i + h0|Q1 λ2 |0i + (σ m σ n )12 h0|∂m vn |0i
2 2
Problem 95.3.
(a) Given the O’Raifeartaigh model,
W = mBC + κA(C 2 − v 2 )
we must also consider the D-terms due to these hermitian terms:
A† AD = −∂ µ A†A ∂µ AA + iψA † µ
σ ∂µ ψA + FA† FA

B † B D = −∂ µ A†B ∂µ AB + iψB σ ∂µ ψB + FB† FB

† µ

C † C D = −∂ µ A†A ∂µ AA + iψC
† µ
σ ∂µ ψC + FC† FC

Now to compute the F -terms using

∂W (A) 1 ∂ 2 W (A)
W (Φ)F = Fi − ψi ψj
∂Φi 2 ∂Φi ∂Φj
∂CA W = 2κC
2 2 ∂CB W = m
∂A W = κ(C − v )
∂B W = mC ∂AC W = 2κC
∂C W = mB + 2κAC ∂BC W = m
∂CC W = 2κA
W (Φ)F = κ(A2C − v 2 )FA + mAC FB + (mAB + 2κAA AC )FC −

1 2

− 2κAC ψC ψA + mψC ψB + 2κAC ψA ψC + mψB ψC + 2κAA ψC =
2
= κ(A2C − v 2 )FA + mAC FB + (mAB + 2κAA AC )FC − 2κAC ψC ψA − mψC ψB − κAA ψC
2

L = Φ†i Φi + ( W (Φ)|F + h.c.)

D
So
∂L
= FA† + κ(A2C − v 2 ) = 0 or FA† = −κ(A2C − v 2 )
∂FA
Similarly for the other fields.
So recalling
∂W (A) 2 1 ∂ 2 W (A)

L = −∂ µ
A†i ∂µ Ai + iψi† σ µ ∂µ ψi −
− ψi ψj + h.c.
So clearly,
∂W (A) 2 1 ∂ 2 W (A)

V =
+ ψi ψj + h.c.
V = |κ|2 |A2C − v 2 |2 + m2 |AC |2 + |mAB + 2κAA AC |2 + 2κAC ψC ψA + mψC ψB + κψC

2
AA
FA = −κ((A†C )2 − v 2 )
FB = −mA†C
FC = −(mA†B + 2κA†C A†A )
If A2C = v 2 , then FB 6= 0. If |AC |2 = 0, then FA = |κ|2 |0 − v 2 |2 = |κ|2 v 4 6= 0
107
(b) From V above, the scalar potential is
2
V = κ2 (v 4 − v 2 A2C − v 2 AC + |AC |4 ) + m2 |AC |2 + m2 |AB |2 + 2κmAB AA AC + 2κmAB AA AC + 4κ2 |AA |2 |AC |2
2
Identify quadratic terms: −κ2 v 2 A2C − κ2 v 2 AC + m2 |AC |2 + m2 |AB |2
m2AC = m2
m2AB = m2
m2AA = 0
Big trick: If AC = c + id,
A2C = c2 + 2icd + −d2
2 m2C = m2 + −2κ2 v 2
2 2 =⇒
AC = c + −2icd − d
m2d = m2 + 2κ2 v 2
2 2 2
|AC | = c + d
If m2 > −2κ2 v 2 , absolute minimum of scalar potential when AC = AB = 0. So V = κ2 v 4 at minimum.
Masses for 6 real scalars (bosons): 0, 0, m2 , m2 , m2 ± 2κ2 v

Problem 95.4. Supersymmetric quantum electrodynamics
(a)

† −2gV
† +2gV
1 a
Φ e ΦD+B e
B D + W Wa + h.c. + W |F =
4 F
√ √
= −(D A) Dµ A + iψ σ Dµ ψ + F F + 2gψ † λ† A + 2gA† λψ − gA† DA+
µ † † µ †
† µ
√ √
+ − (Dµ AB )† Dµ AB + iψB σ Dµ ψB + FB† FB − 2gψB
† †
λ AB − 2gA†B λψB + gA†B DAB +
1 1
+iλ† σ µ ∂µ λ − F µν Fµν + D2 + m(AB F + AFB − ψB ψ)
4 2
(b)
∂F L = F ∗ + mAB = 0
=⇒ F = −mA∗B
∂D L = D − g(|A|2 − |AB |2 ) = 0 or D = g(|A|2 − |AB |2 )
∂FB L = FB∗ + mA = 0
=⇒ FB = −mA∗
so then
√ √
−(Dµ A)† Dµ A + iψ † σ µ Dµ ψ + 2gψ † λ† A + 2gA† λψ−
† µ
√ † †
√ 1
−(Dµ AB )† Dµ AB + iψB σ Dµ ψB − 2gψB λ AB − 2gA†B λψB + iλ† σ µ ∂µ λ − F µν Fµν − m(ψB ψ)
4
Problem 95.5.
(a) Consider supersymmetric gauge theory with U (1) factor. So supersymmetry transformation of the D
component of a vector field is a total derivative. Here D is the auxiliary field for the U (1) gauge field or
i.e. the vector field V , which transforms in this way: V → V + i(Ξ† − Ξ)
So eξD would transform as a total derivative under supersymmetry in the action, leaving the action
invariant.
Recall, for any vector field,
[D, Qa ] = −σaµċ ∂µ λ†ċ
[D, Q†ȧ ] = ∂µ λc σcµȧ
or i.e.
i
δDa = √ (−† σ µ Dµ λa + Dµ λ†a σ µ )
2
If nonabelian, [D, Qa ], [D, Q†ȧ ] not a total derivative.
108
(b) Recall that
√ √
Φ† e−2gV ΦD = −(Dµ A)† Dµ A + iψ † σ µ Dµ ψ + F † F + 2gψ † λ† A + 2gA† λψ − gA† DA

† µ
√ √
B † e+2gV B D = −(Dµ AB )† Dµ AB + iψB σ Dµ ψB + FB† FB − 2gψB † †
λ AB − 2gA†B λψB + gA†B DAB

1 a 1 1
W Wa + h.c. = iλ† σ µ ∂µ λ − F µν Fµν + D2
4 F 4 2
For SQED, we’re told to include gauge-invariant superpotential W = mBΦ. Recall,
W |F = m(AB F + AFB − ψB ψ)
Solving for the equation of motions for F † and FB† (i.e. just take the partial derivatives) then
F = −mA∗B
FB = −mA∗
Then the scalar potential is immediately obtained
W |F = m2 |AB |2 + m2 |A|2 − mψB ψ

Having added
LF I = eξD
then solving for the equation of motion for D,
∂D L = eξ + D + −g|A|2 + g|AB |2 = 0 or D = g(|A|2 − |AB |2 ) − eξ
(c) The potential is
1 1
V = m2 |A|2 + m2 |AB |2 + D2 = m2 (|A|2 + |AB |2 ) + (g(|A|2 − |AB |2 ) − eξ)2 =
2 2
1 2
2 2 2
= m (|A| + |AB | ) + (g (|A| − |AB | ) − 2eξg(|A|2 − |AB |2 ) + e2 ξ 2 ) =
2 2 2
2
g2 e2 ξ 2
= (m − eξg)|A| + (m2 + eξg)|AB |2 + (|A|2 − |AB |2 )2 +
2 2
2 2
Note that
∂B W = mΦ
∂Φ W = mB
Suppose nonzero vacuum expectation values. Then for
m2
m2 > eξg or ξ <
eg
supersymmetry is spontaneously broken (V nonzero).
Problem 95.6. R symmetry
(a) Upon inspection of Φ† e−2gV Φ|D , if λa → e−iα λa , and noting that
√
Φ(θ) = A + 2θψ + θ2 F
and letting θa → eiα θa , so that Φ(θ0 ) = e−irα Φ(θ), then
√
Φ(θ0 ) = e−irα A + 2e−irα θe−i(r−1)α ψ + e−2iα θ2 e−i(r−2)α F
then A† λψ term leads to eirα A† e−iα λe−i(r−1)α ψ
So for the scalar component of the chiral superfield, it has R-charge r and the fermionic component
has R-charge r − 1.
−2iα
(b) W (Φ)F is θ2 coefficient. Now 2 2iα 2
d θ → e d θ. W (Φ)F → e W (Φ)F . +2 R-charge.
† −2gV † +2gV
(c) Φ e ΦD+B e B D has R symmetry.
1 a
4 W Wa |F + h.c. W |F will have +2 R-charge.
E-mail address: ernestyalumni@gmail.com

URL: http://ernestyalumni.wordpress.com ernestyalumni.tilt.com https://www.patreon.com/ernestyalumni
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NOTES AND SOLUTIONS FOR QUANTUM FIELD THEORY BY MARK SREDNICKI.

ERNEST YEUNG AND ERNEST YEUNG

Date: 14 avril 2015.

Part I Spin Zero

Problems. Solution 1.1. Recall

{α1 , α1 }ab = 2(α1 )2ab = 2δab

αi2 |ψi = λαi |ψi = λ2 |ψi = |ψi =⇒ λ = ±1

For the kinetic and self-potential terms of H|ψ, ti,

Now, on ax a†x1 , . . . , a†xn |0i.

= V (x − y)a†x a†y (a†z ay + δ(z − y))ax az + V (x − y)a†x a†y ay az δ(x − z)

+V (x − y)a†x a†y {ax , ay } =

(for both commutation and anticommutator rules)

gµσ g µl δωlρ = −gρν g νm δωmσ = −δρm δωmσ = −δωρσ

Recall Ji ≡ 12 ijk M jk . Then

Keep first order infinitesimals.

=⇒ g µρ δωρσ P σ + g µσ δωσρ P ρ = δωρσ (g µρ P σ − g µσ P ρ )

[Ki , Pj ] = M i0 , Pj = gjk M i0 , P k = −gjk [P k , M i0 ] = −gjk i(g k0 P i − g ki P 0 ) = iδij H

3. Canonical quantization of scalar fields

[∂0 ϕx , ∂0 ϕx0 ] = [ϕ̇x , ϕ̇x0 ] = 0

Letting A0 = (2π)3 2ω, δ 3 (k − k1 ) = δk1 ,

Note that ak |0i.

(c) Writing the mode expansion of ϕ as

a† (−k) 2iωt b(k)

[ϕ(x, t), ϕ(x0 , t)] = 0

ϕ(x), Πϕ† (x0 ) = 0

[Πϕ (x), Πϕ (x0 )] = 0 [∂0 ϕ(x), ϕ(x0 )] = 0

It can be shown that

Remember, δ 3 (k0 + k) makes k0 = −k.

2 2 −2iωt k2 a†k b†k0 e2iωt k2 bk b†k

Now bk b†k = b†k bk + (2π)3 2ωδ 3 (k − k0 ) = b†k bk + (2π)3 2ω.

V = (2π)3 δ 3 (0) interpreted as volume of space V .

4. The spin-statistics theorem

Problem 4.1. Verify eq. (4.12). Verify its limit as m → 0.

5. The LSZ reduction formula

|ii = lim a†1 (t)a†2 (t)|0i or

|ii = lim b†1 (t)b†2 (t)|0i or

|ii = lim a†1 (t)b†2 (t)|0i or in general

|ii = lim a†1 (t) . . . a†m (t)b†m+1 (t) . . . b†n (t)|0i

(note [a†1 , b†2 ] = d3 kf1 (k) d3 k 0 f2 (k0 )[a† (k), b† (k 0 )] = 0)

So, taking the limit for f (k),

For the Hermitian conjugate,

hf | = lim h0|a10 (t)a20 (t) or

6. Path integrals in quantum mechanics

7. The path integral for the harmonic oscillator

We see for ∆t > 0, we sought the lower half semicircle,

→ 0, due to e−Rs(θ)∆t factor in integrand.

Problem 8.1. Starting with eq. (8.11), verify eq. (8.12).

On semicircle C, let k 0 = Reiθ ,

By symmetry about (x − x0 ), k → −k0 leaves d3 k unchanged, +1 overall factor.

d3 k d3 k −ik(x−x0 ) d3 k −ik·(x−x0 )+iω(t−t0 )

If t = t0 , or x = x0 , then ∗ → ∞ due to δ(t − t0 ), δ(t0 − t).

since a(k)|0i; h0|a† (k) = 0.

By Time ordering, we require

Now k 2 = k2 − (k 0 )2 (Srednicki’s convention)

w in 4th quadrant for   ωk2 . −w in 2nd. quadrant.

Recall that i(k1 x1 − k2 x2 ) = i(k1 · x1 − k2 · x2 − (k10 t1 − k20 t2 )) and

9. The path integral for interacting field theory

Doing this problem more carefully,

·h0|T ϕ1 ϕ2 ϕ3 ϕ4 |0i = −iZλ λ(2π)4 δ 4 (k1 + k2 − k3 − k4 )

Then the right-hand side of Eq. (9) is

The associated vertex factor is

Or, note that E = 2P − 4V . For h0|ϕ(x)|0i 6= 0, E = 1, but 1 = 2P − 4V =⇒ 4V + 1 = 2P which is

Recall Ji ≡ 12 ijk M jk . Then

w in 4th quadrant for ωk2 . −w in 2nd. quadrant.

Consider first order term. Z 2

h0|ϕ(x)ϕ̇(y)|0i|x0 =y0 = h0|ϕ(x, x0 )∂y0 ϕ(y, y 0 )|0ix0 =y0 =