HVAC strategies for

well-insulated airtight buildings

CIBSE TM29: 2002

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

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Foreword
This publication reports the results of a major Partners in Innovation project that studied
the impact of high performance envelopes on the servicing strategy for office-type
buildings. The work was based on a range of detailed computer modelling techniques
supported by extensive climate chamber testing. The results suggest that there are
significant commercial benefits to be had from high performance envelopes. Equivalent
comfort conditions, significantly reduced operating and management costs and improved
space utilisation are achievable at costs no greater and possibly slightly less than
conventional air-conditioning systems. Although these ideas have not yet been fully
tested in practice, experience gained from the closest current exemplar, the Elizabeth Fry
building at the University of East Anglia, adds credibility to the conclusions presented.

Improved envelope standards will be required by the changes to Part L of the Building
regulations that come into force in 2002. This document demonstrates how such changes
to envelope standards can open up new opportunities for innovative design solutions that
are cost effective and make a major contribution to the wider sustainability agenda.

Steve Irving
Principal author

Acknowledgements
The work leading to the production of this publication was carried out as a Partners in
Innovation project co-ordinated by Oscar Faber. The funding provided by the
Department of Trade and Industry is gratefully acknowledged. The contributions of the
other project partners are also gratefully acknowledged. The project partners and their
representatives on the steering group are listed below.

Oscar Faber Group Ltd. S Irving, Q Babcock, A Wilson

Building Research Establishment Ltd F Alamdari, D Butler, A Perry
BSRIA Ltd. A Martin
Building Sciences Ltd. S Borland
CIBSE D Braham
Department of Trade and Industry G Henderson
Flomerics Ltd. M Seymour, S Somarathne
IPPEC Systems Ltd. M Namih
Klima-Therm (Distribution) Ltd. G Lovell
Pilkington plc R Wilberforce, J Bradshaw
Trox (UK) Ltd. A Green, F Tarada
SAS International Ltd. D Wisely

In addition to the members of the project partners listed above, thanks are also due to J
Lawrence (Sampson Windows Ltd.) and D Wadham (Franklin+Andrews), who provided
useful information for this publication. The measurement and analysis work that
provided the information on which this document is based was carried out by Quentin
Babcock, David Butler, Arron Perry, Mark Seymour and John Bradshaw.

The authors are also thankful to the CIBSE referees who provided a very thorough and
helpful review of the draft document.

This document is published with the consent of the Department of Trade and Industry,
but the views expressed are not necessarily accepted or endorsed by the Department.

Principal authors
S Irving (Oscar Faber)
S Borland (Building Sciences)
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Market drivers 1
1.2 Sustainability indicators 2

2 Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 3

2.1 Applicable building types 3
2.2 The building in winter 4
2.3 The building in summer 9
2.4 Achieving the required window performance 12
2.5 Achieving the required fabric performance 14

3 HVAC systems in combination with advanced envelopes 20

3.1 Changeover strategies 21
3.2 Simplified control 22
3.3 Central plant options 23

4 Performance estimates 25
4.1 Comfort 26
4.2 Energy costs/carbon emissions 26
4.3 Building costs 27
4.4 HVAC costs 27
4.5 Maintenance costs 28
4.6 Whole-life cost 28

5 Summary and design checklist 28

References 29

Appendix A1: Modelling methods 30


Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
1 Introduction
This publication explores the potential for high performance
building envelopes to simplify the design and operation of
HVAC systems. The keys to such high performance envelopes
are windows with low U-values and good solar protection,
coupled with good structural airtightness. These features are
readily attainable at marginal cost through careful design and
construction. Indeed, industry will be driven in this direction
by changes in the 2002 edition of Part L of the Building
Regulations(1). The practical achievement of high perfor-
mance envelopes* can deliver the following commercial
benefits:
— Eliminate the need for perimeter heating†,
plus
enable significant reductions in the installed
capacity of heating and cooling plant. This will
reduce the capital costs for HVAC plant.
— Free up valuable perimeter space in addition to
saving some distribution and plant room space by
eliminating perimeter heating. This will add sig-
nificant commercial value to the scheme.
— Allow simplification of the controls installation
and strategy, again reducing costs but also improv-
ing manageability and maintainability.
— Enable HVAC systems to operate at very high
efficiencies, thereby resulting in low operating
energy consumption.
— Improve the investment profile: the envelope has a
longer service life than the HVAC plant, so the
investment shifted from savings in plant to
additional cost in the envelope can be amortised
over a longer period, generating further indirect
financial benefit.
— Provide good comfort: climate chamber tests
coupled with detailed computer modelling work
suggest that even with significant areas of glazing,
good year-round comfort can be maintained.
This publication outlines the evidence for this approach
based on the results from a comprehensive series of climate
chamber tests and a range of detailed computer modelling
studies. Real buildings adopting all the concepts proposed
have yet to be constructed; the closest current exemplar is the
Elizabeth Fry building at the University of East Anglia,
Norwich. The PROBE report(2) records both excellent energy
and occupant satisfaction ratings for this building, giving
added confidence to the conclusions presented here.
* As detailed in later sections, the achievement of high performance
envelopes requires attention to design details and construction practice.
Without such careful attention at all stages of construction, the simpler
systems proposed will not deliver the required performance.
† This is only practical for sealed buildings with winter mechanical
ventilation; natural ventilation/mixed mode may be possible in warmer
weather, but any openable window needs to seal well on closure for this
to work effectively in winter.
1
1.1 Market drivers
The design strategy presented represents a significant shift
from current design norms. Despite this, there are market
trends that should encourage the adoption of the approach.
1.1.1 Part L of the Building Regulations
The 2002 edition of Part L of the Building Regulations(1)
requires designers to make significant changes to current
design norms. Key features include:
— significant improvement in envelope standards,
including provisions to control solar overheating
and to obtain reasonable standards of airtightness
— minimum efficiency standards for heating systems
— minimum efficiency standards for air conditioning
and mechanical ventilation systems based on limit-
ing the installed input power of equipment.
The design approach propounded herein takes the envelope
standards a little in advance of the standards in the 2002
Approved Document L(1), particularly in terms of window
standards and airtightness. This results in low heating
demands, allowing heating systems to operate at low water
temperatures, facilitating very high efficiency systems.
Through good solar protection of glazed areas, installed
chiller capacities will also be significantly reduced. Cooling
systems can then similarly operate at higher water temp-
eratures, allowing increased coefficient of performance (CoP)
for the chiller and substantial opportunities for free-cooling.
This publication therefore offers an effective solution to the
design challenge presented by the 2002 Part L; indeed, it
enhances and ‘future-proofs’ the design against proposed
further tightening of the standards.
1.1.2 Climate change levy
In April 2001, the climate change levy was introduced,
thereby increasing the energy costs for business and
industry. Given the increasing concerns over climate
change, the impact of this levy is likely to increase with
time. There is, therefore, an increasing business incentive
to reduce energy costs. The approach proposed here offers
substantial reductions in energy use, whilst retaining high
standards of occupant comfort. These benefits are achieved
at costs no greater, and potentially somewhat less, than
current norms. It also facilitates the use of low capacity but
high efficiency equipment; equipment that may well
qualify for enhanced capital allowances.
1.1.3 Lower cost but improved quality
A major challenge facing the industry is to reduce
construction costs by 30% whilst improving service to
clients. The design concepts outlined in this document
should make a significant contribution to achieving this
2 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
goal. Initial construction costs may well be reduced, but
another important aspect is that the cost distributions will
change. More money will go into the elements with the
greater service life (i.e. the fabric), and less into the elements
that need more frequent replacement (either as a result of
normal wear and tear, or through a new fit-out following a
change in occupier requirements). The approach, therefore,
offers a more robust and enduring investment strategy.
The strategy offers substantial whole-life cost benefits (see
section 1.2) and so will benefit from the increasing interest
in whole life costs (3). Indeed, it is now a requirement of
public sector purchasers that they move to whole-life cost
based procurement (4). As detailed later, the degree of
comfort and operating cost delivered through this approach
will also add to the quality of the building.
1.1.4 Flexibility and adaptability
Flexibility and adaptability are essential elements of a
building that is to be capable of meeting varying needs over
its design life. High performance envelope design reduces
perimeter loads for heating and cooling, such that different
zones have comparable loadings and servicing needs.
1.1.5 Integrated approach
The benefits of an integrated approach to design and
construction are recognised by many. The technical
concepts presented here are dependent on the realisation of
such integration. The success of the HVAC strategy relies on
the effectiveness of the envelope in terms of insulation,
airtightness and solar protection. These issues are often at
the boundaries between the members of the design team
and the contractor. It is therefore essential that responsibil-
ity for these issues is clearly identified, with all the team
working together to deliver the required objective. The
client has a particular responsibility to ensure testing of the
envelope as part of the total commissioning process — the
envelope performance is as much part of the HVAC strategy
as the boiler or the chiller plant.
1.2 Sustainability indicators
In order to assess the proposed design concepts, it is
necessary to benchmark performance against a reference
building typical of current good practice. The strategy is
offered as a potentially significant contributor to the drive
TM29 strategy
Nat.vent. (good)
Nat.vent. (typical)
A/C (good)
A/C (typical)
0 10 20 30
Carbon emission / (kg/m2) per annum
Figure 1.1 Relative operating carbon emissions
for truly sustainable buildings (5). Sustainability has a
number of interlinking themes, and it is believed that the
proposed design concept scores highly in all areas.
1.2.1 Environmental
1.2.1.1 Carbon emissions
Concern over climate change is a significant policy driver,
and so operating carbon emissions* are a significant design
issue. For office-type buildings, the ECON 19 (6) data set
gives valuable bench marks for ‘typical’ and ‘good practice’
standards†. It is always difficult to compare design predic-
tions with actual operating performance but so as to give an
indication of the expected level of performance, Figure 1.1
shows a comparison between the ECON 19 data and the
performance which it is expected can be achievable through
high performance envelopes. The ‘A/C’ buildings are
comfort cooled while the ‘nat vent’ are naturally ventilated.
The strategy presented in this publication provides comfort
cooling, giving comfort performance equivalent to the ‘A/C’
type but with carbon emissions reduced by 40% or more
from good ‘A/C’ standards.
1.2.1.2 Use of materials
Sustainability is also about efficient use of materials and
resources. High performance envelopes help also in this
respect. Investment is transferred from (relatively) short-
lived plant into longer life fabric measures; measures that
also need little maintenance. It is important to realise that
although HVAC plant has an expected service life of say 15–20
years, plant (especially terminal equipment) is often removed
and scrapped as part of a new fit-out well before the end of its
useful life. A high performance envelope is much more likely
to fulfil its service life than is the M&E equipment.
Another aspect of the use of materials is that of embodied
energy. At the current state of knowledge, this is difficult to
quantify. However, in terms of the main areas of enhanced
envelope design, significant overall performance improve-
ments can be obtained with few additional materials. For
example:
— The improvement in window U-values can largely
be achieved through the use of selective glass
coatings. Research into the application of such
coatings to housing has demonstrated that the
lifetime CO2 and energy savings are several hundred
times larger than the extra embodied CO2 /energy (7).
— Improved airtightness is achieved more through
careful design details and construction practice than
through the use of substantial additional materials.
1.2.2 Economic
Economic indicators are extremely important to the con-
struction industry. Traditionally, designs have been driven
* The data presented here are given in terms of emissions of carbon, rather
than carbon dioxide, since the former is the preferred unit for the
government’s climate change programme.
40
† ECON 19 gives the CO2 emissions in terms of carbon equivalent to be
consistent with the units used by the government’s climate change
programme (1 kg CO2 emissions is equivalent to 0.273 kg carbon).
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements
by considerations of first cost, but there is increasing
emphasis on whole-life costs and ‘soft issues’ such as the effect
of thermal comfort on productivity. The design approach
proposed here is likely to outperform conventional designs
on all fronts, as detailed in the following subsections.
1.2.2.1 Initial cost and value
As detailed elsewhere, initial costs are likely to be lower,
with the cost distribution also being shifted from the plant
to the longer service life envelope. Further, value is added to
the building through increased usable space and improved
space flexibility. The elimination of the perimeter heating
may well save installation time, and perhaps thereby
accelerate the contract programme.
1.2.2.2 Operating and maintenance costs
Energy consumption is substantially lower than a traditional
fan coil system for an equivalent level of comfort (see section
1.2.1.1). This is likely to cut £3–£4/m2 per annum from fuel
costs relative to ECON 19 type 3 good practice (with perhaps
double that from typical practice performance).
Further, the adoption of simpler concepts and a reduction in
the number and complexity of the electromechanical
controls will ease the demand on facilities management. The
elimination of conflict between heating and cooling systems
and the reduction in diversity should lead to reduced wear
and tear and consequent plant maintenance requirements.
Reconfiguring of internal partitions as a result of space
reorganisation should also be simplified, since there is no
need to ensure integration with the perimeter heating system.
1.2.3 Occupant satisfaction and productivity
The analysis presented later (see sections 2.2–2.3) illustrates
that the design concept can provide average comfort condi-
tions on a par with a 4-pipe fan coil air conditioning system.
The careful detailing and construction of a high performance
envelope will deliver additional benefits in terms of reduced
local discomfort associated with drafts or cold bridging. The
approach eliminates the compromise between comfort and
carbon emissions that has been the subject of much debate in
recent years. For example, naturally ventilated buildings can
deliver significant reductions in summertime energy use, but
the strategy can be fragile and may result in periods of sub-
optimal comfort at extreme weather conditions. Fully air
conditioned buildings can deliver year-round comfort, but
the cost and carbon impact can be high. The approach
proposed here offers optimal thermal comfort and very low
energy use, summer and winter. The impact of high
standards of thermal comfort and the general quality of the
building on staff morale and productivity should not be
underestimated, especially when the annual cost of
occupants’ salaries is compared with other operating costs.
Radiant panels combined with displacement ventilation
are an appropriate HVAC system for buildings with high per-
formance envelopes. The low-noise and good air quality
characteristics of such systems can provide added user
benefit.
3
2 Impact of advanced
envelopes on HVAC
requirements
This section details the way that the use of advanced
building envelopes change the basis on which HVAC systems
need to be designed. Additional guidance on the design of
ventilation and air conditioning systems can be found in
CIBSE Guide B2 (8).
2.1 Applicable building types
This publication concentrates on issues concerning the
interaction between the envelope and the HVAC system. It
therefore relates to the design of the perimeter zone
(typically to a depth 6 m from the façade). The approach
described can be used for both shallow or deep plan
buildings, since the servicing of internal zones is relatively
straightforward (gains are much more constant with both
time and orientation) and can therefore be considered
independently.
The main issue that needs to be considered is the level of heat
gains into the perimeter zone. If the building is too shallow
in plan, the perimeter zone may be less than 6 m and the solar
gain through the windows will have to be averaged over a
narrower depth. This will increase the solar cooling load per
unit floor area such that control of summer overheating
becomes more difficult. Similarly, if the perimeter is very
narrow, local occupant density may be less than in a more
conventional space, thereby limiting the free heat gains
required to offset the heat losses in winter.
It should be noted that eliminating perimeter heating
would not be possible if ventilation is provided by openable
windows or ventilators in winter. In warmer weather, it
may be possible to use natural ventilation as part of a
mixed-mode strategy, but this would require windows that
seal well on closure to keep infiltration losses and draughts
within acceptable limits.
The following analyses focus on the situation in a typical
perimeter zone. Designers should always check the applicability
of the following data to their own project details.
2.1.1 Reference data
The design analysis presented herein took as its reference
envelope specification the U-values given in Table 2.1. For
comparison, the standards defined in the 2002 Approved
Document to Part L are also shown.
It can be seen that the wall and window U-values are in
advance of the standards for the 2002 changes to Part L, but
Table 2.1 Comparison of U-values
Element U-values (W/m2·K)
Reference envelope 2002 Part L standards
Walls 0.3 0.35
Windows 1.0–2.0 2.0–2.2
Roof 0.3 0.25
Floor 0.3 0.25
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements
by considerations of first cost, but there is increasing
emphasis on whole-life costs and ‘soft issues’ such as the effect
of thermal comfort on productivity. The design approach
proposed here is likely to outperform conventional designs
on all fronts, as detailed in the following subsections.
1.2.2.1 Initial cost and value
As detailed elsewhere, initial costs are likely to be lower,
with the cost distribution also being shifted from the plant
to the longer service life envelope. Further, value is added to
the building through increased usable space and improved
space flexibility. The elimination of the perimeter heating
may well save installation time, and perhaps thereby
accelerate the contract programme.
1.2.2.2 Operating and maintenance costs
Energy consumption is substantially lower than a traditional
fan coil system for an equivalent level of comfort (see section
1.2.1.1). This is likely to cut £3–£4/m2 per annum from fuel
costs relative to ECON 19 type 3 good practice (with perhaps
double that from typical practice performance).
Further, the adoption of simpler concepts and a reduction in
the number and complexity of the electromechanical
controls will ease the demand on facilities management. The
elimination of conflict between heating and cooling systems
and the reduction in diversity should lead to reduced wear
and tear and consequent plant maintenance requirements.
Reconfiguring of internal partitions as a result of space
reorganisation should also be simplified, since there is no
need to ensure integration with the perimeter heating system.
1.2.3 Occupant satisfaction and productivity
The analysis presented later (see sections 2.2–2.3) illustrates
that the design concept can provide average comfort condi-
tions on a par with a 4-pipe fan coil air conditioning system.
The careful detailing and construction of a high performance
envelope will deliver additional benefits in terms of reduced
local discomfort associated with drafts or cold bridging. The
approach eliminates the compromise between comfort and
carbon emissions that has been the subject of much debate in
recent years. For example, naturally ventilated buildings can
deliver significant reductions in summertime energy use, but
the strategy can be fragile and may result in periods of sub-
optimal comfort at extreme weather conditions. Fully air
conditioned buildings can deliver year-round comfort, but
the cost and carbon impact can be high. The approach
proposed here offers optimal thermal comfort and very low
energy use, summer and winter. The impact of high
standards of thermal comfort and the general quality of the
building on staff morale and productivity should not be
underestimated, especially when the annual cost of
occupants’ salaries is compared with other operating costs.
Radiant panels combined with displacement ventilation
are an appropriate HVAC system for buildings with high per-
formance envelopes. The low-noise and good air quality
characteristics of such systems can provide added user
benefit.
3
2 Impact of advanced
envelopes on HVAC
requirements
This section details the way that the use of advanced
building envelopes change the basis on which HVAC systems
need to be designed. Additional guidance on the design of
ventilation and air conditioning systems can be found in
CIBSE Guide B2 (8).
2.1 Applicable building types
This publication concentrates on issues concerning the
interaction between the envelope and the HVAC system. It
therefore relates to the design of the perimeter zone
(typically to a depth 6 m from the façade). The approach
described can be used for both shallow or deep plan
buildings, since the servicing of internal zones is relatively
straightforward (gains are much more constant with both
time and orientation) and can therefore be considered
independently.
The main issue that needs to be considered is the level of heat
gains into the perimeter zone. If the building is too shallow
in plan, the perimeter zone may be less than 6 m and the solar
gain through the windows will have to be averaged over a
narrower depth. This will increase the solar cooling load per
unit floor area such that control of summer overheating
becomes more difficult. Similarly, if the perimeter is very
narrow, local occupant density may be less than in a more
conventional space, thereby limiting the free heat gains
required to offset the heat losses in winter.
It should be noted that eliminating perimeter heating
would not be possible if ventilation is provided by openable
windows or ventilators in winter. In warmer weather, it
may be possible to use natural ventilation as part of a
mixed-mode strategy, but this would require windows that
seal well on closure to keep infiltration losses and draughts
within acceptable limits.
The following analyses focus on the situation in a typical
perimeter zone. Designers should always check the applicability
of the following data to their own project details.
2.1.1 Reference data
The design analysis presented herein took as its reference
envelope specification the U-values given in Table 2.1. For
comparison, the standards defined in the 2002 Approved
Document to Part L are also shown.
It can be seen that the wall and window U-values are in
advance of the standards for the 2002 changes to Part L, but
Table 2.1 Comparison of U-values
Element U-values (W/m2·K)
Reference envelope 2002 Part L standards
Walls 0.3 0.35
Windows 1.0–2.0 2.0–2.2
Roof 0.3 0.25
Floor 0.3 0.25
4 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

Table 2.2 Range of internal gains examined 15

Gain Winter Summer Conventional TM29 strategy
10
10–20 m2/person 7–10 m2/person

Ventilation
Occupancy

Infiltration
Window
Lights 10 W/m2 (of which 10 W/m2 (of which 5

Wall
6.5 W/m2 was seen as a 6.5 W/m2 was seen as a

Loads / (W/m2)
gain to the space) gain to the space) 0

People

Equipment

Lights

Net
Small power 6–12 W/m2 15–25 W/m2
–5

are slightly less demanding for roofs and floors. The better –10
standards required for roofs and floors will improve the
performance of ground and top floor zones compared with –15
the results given in the following sections.
–20
An air leakage index standard of 5 (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa was Figure 2.1 Winter energy balance
set, which is significantly in advance of the standard given
in the 2002 Approved Document L, but is in line with the amounts of localised heating may be required in corner
good practice recommendations of TM23 (9). rooms with more than one external surface.

The reference internal gains assumed for the space are
considered typical of modern offices. For the winter
analyses the loads were also varied to be on the low side of
normal; for the summer tests the gains were varied from
typical to high for both occupancy and small power loads.
The data are summarised in Table 2.2.
Traditionally, perimeter heating has been installed to fulfil
a number of requirements. The way these requirements
change with the use of high performance envelopes is
discussed in the following sub-sections.
2.2.1.1 Maintaining internal temperatures

2.2 The building in winter With a high performance envelope, moderate levels of inter-
nal gain are sufficient to offset perimeter losses, even during
2.2.1 Elimination of perimeter heating design weather sequences. Figure 2.1 compares the typical
balance of gains and losses in an office-type building
A key thesis of this publication is that perimeter heating is designed to standards typical of 2000 practice, and those
unnecessary in well-insulated airtight buildings (equipped proposed in this publication. The differences between the
with mechanical ventilation in winter). The elimination of specifications for the two sets of results are summarised in
perimeter heating can have significant commercial implica- Table 2.4. The last pair of bars in Figure 2.1 shows the net
tions. First, there is the direct cost saving of the terminal units gains to the space.
(equipment and installation) and the associated distribution
system. Secondly, but perhaps more significantly, it frees The conventional design shows a significant net heat loss,
valuable perimeter space and enables more flexible partition- whereas the high performance envelope shows a significant
ing arrangements. In city centre locations, where space is at a gain, even without taking any beneficial winter solar gain
premium, this can add significant value to the project. The into account. Consequently, in a building with typical
window U-value is the critical factor as far as achieving the occupancy and with a high performance envelope, the role
required insulation performance is concerned. It should be of the heating system becomes one of ensuring the building
stressed that the required window standards do not represent is up to temperature at the beginning of occupancy, not
premium products. Indeed, as indicated in Table 2.3, the target maintaining it once occupancy has started.
overall window U-values (1.5–2.0 W/m2·K) are required as
minimum standards in many European countries.
Table 2.4 Comparison between specifications for conventional and
‘TM29’ designs
It should be noted that heating is still required for pre-heat
purposes, but this can be achieved without recourse to a Parameter Conventional design TM29 design
separate, specific perimeter heating system (see section External design temperature (°C) –3 –3
3.1.1). It should also be emphasised that at design
conditions and dependent on the degree of glazing, small Internal design temperature (°C) 21 21
Wall U-value (W/m2·K) 0.45 0.30
Table 2.3 Window U-values required in European countries Window ratio in external wall (%) 50 50
Country U-value standard Window U-value (W/m2·K) 2.8 1.5
(W/m2·K)
Occupant density (m2/person) 12 12
Austria 1.9
Equipment gain (W/m2) 10 10
Denmark 1.8
Lighting gain (W/m2)* 6.5 6.5
Finland 1.4*
Infiltration (ACH) 0.5 0.15
Netherlands 1.2*
Ventilation rate (ACH) 3 3
Norway 1.6
Ventilation supply temperature (°C) 19 19
Russia 1.8
* proposed * Lighting load 10 W/m2, but 35% is removed via air-handling luminaires
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 5

2.2.1.2 Control of cold radiation 8

In many current buildings, perimeter heating is provided

Radiant assymetry / K
to ensure local comfort rather than to maintain overall 6
internal temperatures. Because of the relatively lower
thermal performance of the window, glass surface 4
temperatures can become quite low, creating local
discomfort problems with radiant asymmetry. CIBSE
Guide A(10) suggests that radiant asymmetry from a cool 2
wall should be limited to 10 K. Figure 2.2 shows the radiant
asymmetry for a 50% glazed façade with a window of U- 0
value 2.0 W/m2·K. This analysis (based on the work of 0 0·5 1 1·5 2 2·5
McIntyre(11)) indicates that, even quite close to the window, Distance from window / m
the radiant asymmetry is significantly less than this
limiting value. This means that, provided the building is Figure 2.2 Radiant asymmetry
up to temperature at the beginning of occupancy, heating is
not required to offset radiant asymmetry.
3·0

2.2.1.3 Control of downdraughts 2·8

To ensure comfort at the perimeter, heating may also be
provided to offset the effects of downdraughts. With high
performance windows, these effects can be effectively elim-
inated without the need for any perimeter heat. Figure 2.3
shows the results of a simplified analysis based on the work
of Heiselberg (12) giving the approximate glazing U-value
required to minimise the effects of downdraught.
It should be noted that, as far as downdraught is concerned,
it is the centre-pane U-value rather than the whole window
U-value that is more important. This is because it requires
significant areas of unobstructed cool surface to develop the
convection current, and it is the glass rather than the frame
that provides such a surface. Currently, whole window
performance is limited by the frame technology rather than
the glass; very low-emissivity coatings (ε ~0.02) can give
centre-pane U-values as low as 1.0 W/m2·K for a double-
glazed unit filled with argon. Thus available glazing
technologies can minimise downdraughts, even with
glazing approaching full height in typical office type
accommodation.
2.2.2 Detailed assessment of comfort
In order to validate the assertions developed in section
2.2.1, a substantial amount of climate chamber testing and
modelling has been carried out (see appendix A).
2.2.2.1 Climate chamber tests
downdraught / (W/m2·K)
2·6
U-value to avoid
2·4
2·2
2·0
1·8
1·6
1·4
0·8 1 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2
Glazing height / m
Figure 2.3 U-value to avoid downdraught
shown as a function of mean room dry resultant temperature
for many tests covering different window sizes, internal loads,
ventilation rates and target room temperatures. The results
clearly show that perception of comfort is dominated by the
average dry resultant temperature of the room. The effects of
cold radiation and downdraught from different window
configurations result in virtually insignificant variations
around the trend line. This suggests that local effects near the
window are largely irrelevant within the range of window
configurations tested. The ASHRAE comfort zone is defined
as less than 20% people dissatisfied, corresponding to a PMV of
60.85, and so it can be seen that all test conditions (with PMVs
ranging from –0.3 to +0.25) are well within what might
reasonably be desired. Indeed, thermal neutrality could be
achieved for all conditions simply by adjusting the mean
room dry resultant temperature to around 21 °C.

The testing concentrated on establishing the relationship

between window size/U-value and comfort conditions in the
absence of any heating other than that due to the internal 0·3
Predicted mean vote (PMV)

gains in the space. Four window sizes were investigated (1.2, 0·2
1.5, 1.8 and 2.8 m high) in a room with a floor to ceiling height
0·1
of 2.8 m. Traverses of temperatures (air and globe) and air
speed were concentrated in the zone within 1.1 m of the 0
window, and the ISO 7730 (13) equations used to combine –0·1
these individual measurements as a means of predicting
comfort. –0·2
–0·3
The detailed results can be distilled into Figure 2.4. This
shows the predicted mean vote (PMV) at a seated head height –0·4
19·5 20 20·5 21 21·5 22 22·5
of 1.1 m and at a point only 300 mm from the window. The Mean temperature / °C
calculations were based on normal winter clothing (i.e. 1.0 =
clo) and normal sedentary activity (i.e. 1.2 = met). The PMV is Figure 2.4 PMV as function of mean dry resultant temperature in room
6 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
Figure 2.5 Iso-surfaces of 0.1 m/s; 1.8 m window, U = 1.5 W/m2·K,
constant cold conditions outside
Figure 2.6 Iso-surfaces of 0.1 m/s; full height window, U = 1.5 W/m2·K,
constant cold conditions outside
The fact that comfort is dominated by mean room tempera-
ture is further confirmed by the fact that PMV does not vary
significantly with distance from the window over the range
tested (0.3–1.2 m). There is a tendency for the PMV to be
consistently lower at ankle height than at seated head height
by between 0.1 and 0.2, although much of this is probably
due to the effect of the floor-mounted swirl diffusers raising
local velocities and reducing temperatures (the air supply
temperature was 19 °C).
The overall conclusion from this work is that typical office
spaces that are sufficiently well insulated to be self-heating
(i.e. average room temperatures are adequate) will not suffer
from local discomfort in the absence of perimeter heating.
This conclusion applies only to spaces with one exposed
wall, and more detailed consideration needs to be given to
corner rooms (see section 2.2.2.2) or rooms with exposed
floors or ceilings.
2.2.2.2 Computational fluid dynamic
analysis of corner rooms
In corner rooms, the increased area of exposed façades
might be expected to produce significant downdraughts
and thus produce discomfort in the occupied zone,
particularly near the glazed elements. This has been
investigated for both
— the extreme design conditions of a continuous
period of –5 °C outside
— more realistic conditions of time varying outdoor
conditions.
Figure 2.7 Iso-surfaces of 0.1 m/s; full height glazing, U = 1.5 W/m2·K,
realistic design consideration
Three primary geometries were considered — i.e. 1.2 m,
1.8 m and full-height window sizes — with each case
analysed for window U-values of 1.5 and 2.0 W/m2·K. The
results demonstrate that the downdraught does not
penetrate significantly into the occupied zone, even with
full height glazing. In fact, apart from the additional
cooling effect generated, the downdraught tends to improve
the environment by reducing vertical temperature
stratification. Figures 2.5–2.7 show iso-surfaces encapsulat-
ing regions that have velocities higher than 0.1 m/s. The
surfaces are coloured according to the temperature of the air
at the edge of the high velocity region. The temperatures
vary from simulation to simulation, since the increasing
heat loss associated with larger window areas or higher U-
values reduces the average temperature in the room for the
same air temperature supply and heat dissipation rates in
the space. As can be seen from Figures 2.5 and 2.6, even for
the extreme conditions of constant outdoor conditions of
–5 °C, these ‘higher’ velocities are contained within areas
close to the glazed walls, the supply air diffusers (a thin
layer near the floor) and the plumes from the equipment
and occupancy heat sources. Figure 2.7 shows that the
extent of the high velocity regions are similar for the more
typical design condition, but the temperatures are slightly
elevated due to the lower average rate of heat loss.
2.2.2.3 Temperature and thermal stratification
The use of displacement ventilation is often expected to
produce higher vertical temperature stratification than a
conventional mixed environment. The addition of large
areas of glazing normally might be expected to increase
this, and perhaps also to produce substantial horizontal
stratification. The simulations investigated here consider
the effect of window height and U-value on the stratifica-
tion assuming both steady conditions of a continuous
period of –5 °C outside and more typical time varying
outdoor conditions.
Section 2.2.2.2 demonstrated that the downdraught from
the glazed elements did not penetrate far into the room. As
a consequence, the thermal variation in a horizontal plane
is small except in the proximity of the computers
generating significant vertical plumes. Very close to the
floor, the temperature also reduces near the swirl diffusers.
This latter effect is most noticeable in the more energy-
efficient cases with smaller glazed elements and lower U-
values. This is because the room temperature is higher and
further away from the fixed supply air temperature. Table
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 7

Figure 2.8 Temperature stratification; 1.8 m window, U = 1.5 W/m2·K, Figure 2.9 Temperature stratification; full-height glazing,
constant cold conditions outside U = 1.5 W/m2·K, constant cold conditions outside

2.5 shows the vertical temperature stratification in the

room from ankle height to seated (1.2 m — columns 4 and
6) and standing (1.8 m — columns 5 and 7) head heights.
The layer of cool air created by the diffusers is also thin and
may not be perceptible to occupants. Columns 4 and 5 show
the temperature stratification excluding the values
calculated within the first 150 mm above the floor. The
values in columns 6 and 7 show the stratification including
the cold air from the diffusers close to the floor.

ISO 7730(13) recommends that the temperature difference

between head and ankle be limited to 3 K. For seated
occupants, this limit is often reduced to 2 K. Table 2.5
shows that, even at design conditions, these limits are Figure 2.10 Temperature stratification; full-height glazing,
achieved, since the ankle height would be outside the cool U = 1.5 W/m2·K, realistic design conditions
boundary layer region. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 show selected
elevations of temperature for cases with constant cold
conditions of –5 °C outside. The vertical stratification is
These results demonstrate that even in extreme conditions
clear, and the figure show the minimal horizontal
where the outdoor temperature is constant at –5 °C, the
stratification.
design can maintain relatively uniform internal tem-
peratures. Clearly, for a sustained period of low outdoor
Figure 2.10 shows the considerably warmer conditions temperature, additional heating may be required to raise
when the external conditions are those of a more typical the mean temperatures in corner rooms with substantial
design day. The stratification is little changed, however. amounts of glazing.

Table 2.5 Vertical temperature stratification in a corner room

Window U-value Vertical stratification (°C) Vertical stratification (°C)
height (m) (W/m2·K) (excluding floor boundary layer) (including floor boundary layer)
To seated To standing To seated To standing
head height head height head height head height

Continuous external condition of –5 °C:

1.2 1.5 2.1 2.7 2.6 3.2
1.2 2.0 1.8 2.4 2.2 2.8
1.8 1.5 1.7 2.6 2.1 3.0
1.8 2.0 1.3 2.2 1.6 2.5
2.8 1.5 1.6 2.7 1.8 2.8
2.8 2.0 1.4 2.5 1.4 2.5

Varying external condition typical of design day:

1.2 1.5 1.4 2.3 1.8 2.7
1.2 2.0 1.9 2.5 2.3 2.8
1.8 1.5 1.8 2.6 2.1 2.9
1.8 2.0 1.5 2.3 1.8 2.5
2.8 1.5 1.6 2.4 1.7 2.5
2.8 2.0 1.3 2.2 1.4 2.2
8 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

Table 2.6 Mean values of PMV and PPD in a corner room

Window U-value Predicted mean vote (PMV) Predicted percentage
height (m) (W/m2·K) dissatisfied (PPD)†
To seated To standing To seated To standing
head height head height head height head height

Continuous external condition of –5 °C:

1.2 1.5 –0.49 –0.41 8.7 7.8
1.2 2.0 –0.55 –0.48 9.9 8.9
1.8 1.5 –0.63 –0.55 11.6 10.3
1.8 2.0 –0.73 –0.66 14.2 12.9
2.8 1.5 –0.89 –0.79 19.3 16.8
2.8 2.0 –1.05 –0.96 25.6 22.8

Varying external condition typical of design day:

1.2 1.5 –0.10 –0.05 5.1 5.1
1.2 2.0 –0.23 –0.18 5.6 5.4
1.8 1.5 –0.24 –0.18 5.7 5.4
1.8 2.0 –0.36 –0.30 6.7 6.3
2.8 1.5 –0.45 –0.38 8.0 7.3
2.8 2.0 –0.64 –0.57 11.7 10.6
† The ASHRAE comfort zone is defined as less than 20% PPD

2.2.2.4 Thermal comfort — window U-value (1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 W/m2·K)

Computational fluid dynamics was also used to predict
comfort in the corner rooms (see section 2.2.2.1). Table 2.6
shows the mean values of PMV and predicted percentage
dissatisfied (PPD) for the seated occupancy zone and the
standing occupancy zone.
These results demonstrate that even in extreme conditions
where the outdoor temperature is constant at –5 °C, the
design can maintain relatively uniform internal tempera-
tures. During sustained periods of low outdoor temperature,
corner rooms with substantial areas of glazing would
require some localised heating as demonstrated by the
relatively high PPD values for the larger window sizes and
the higher U-values. This same trend is confirmed by the
dynamic thermal modelling (see section 2.2.2.5). It should
be stressed that these conclusions relate to the corner room
situation with its two exposed façades, where the exposure
is much greater than in the climate chamber tests with the
one exposed façade typical of the majority of a building.
2.2.2.5 Dynamic thermal modelling
Climate chambers are best suited to investigating steady
state conditions, and thermal modelling was therefore used
to check dynamic effects and to ensure that comfort can be
maintained in the absence of heating during all occupied
hours. In the analysis described here, the heating and
cooling was provided by a single set of radiant panels*
operating in changeover mode, with the changeover timed
— small power loads (base case = 6, but also 12 W/m2):
the effect of delaying the onset of internal gains was
also investigated
— pre-heat strategy: most of the runs were carried out
with a simplified optimum start control. This
resulted in some underheating following very cold
weekend shut downs due to the limited heating
capacity offered by the radiant panel system.
Consequently, runs were also undertaken with
continuous overnight trickle heating.
— ventilation rate (3 and 6 ACH).
All these details cannot be summarised here, but the
significant parameters in achieving good year-round
comfort were the glazing U-value and size, and the pre-heat
strategy. To illustrate the key points, results are shown for
worst case configurations, i.e. N-facing ground floor (one
exposed wall and an exposed floor) and NW-facing ground
floor (two adjacent exposed walls and an exposed floor).
Figure 2.11 shows a base case analysis for a room with one
exposed end wall with a U = 2.0 W/m2 ·K window. Con-
ditions are maintained within limits very well with the
exception of the full-height glazing. The underheated hours
relate to inadequacies in the optimum start algorithm, and
constant overnight trickle heating completely cuts off the
60
Window height
2·8 m
50
Percentage of total office
hours (0700–1900) / %

to the beginning of occupancy. Frequency plots of dry 1·8 m

resultant temperature were generated for a wide variety of 40
office modules covering the following parameters: 1·2 m
30
— orientation (N/S/E/W)
20
— configuration (one end wall or two adjacent walls,
both with and without exposed floor or roof) 10

— window height (1.2, 1.5, 1.8 and 2.8 m in a 2.8 m 0

floor-to-ceiling height room) 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Room dry resultant temperature / °C

* Other heating strategies could be used (see section 3) Figure 2.11 Base case analysis — effect of window size
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements
Ramped heating from 15 to 21·5°C (Window height = 2·8 m)
(U-value = 1·5 W/m2·K)
Constant heating to 21·5°C (Window height = 2·8 m)
(U-value = 1·5 W/m2·K)
Ramped heating from 15 to 21·5°C (Window height = 1·8 m)
(U-value = 1·5 W/m2·K)
60
50
Percentage of total office
hours (0700–1900) / %
40
30
20
10
0
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Room dry resultant temperature / °C
Figure 2.12 Effect of pre-heat strategy on comfort in corner office
tail of temperatures below 20 °C (as illustrated by the
comparison of the two pre-heat schedules in Figure 2.12).
The problem of maintaining temperatures in the absence of
heating is obviously more significant in corner rooms, and
Figure 2.12 shows the equivalent data for a ground floor
room with windows facing north and west. In this case,
temperatures can be maintained provided the window U-
value is 1.5 W/m2 ·K or better, although with full-height
glazing there will always be a few hours of slight under-
heating during extreme weather conditions. The figure
shows the temperature frequency plot for the cases with
optimum start and with constant overnight trickle heating.
It is clear that the small amount of underheating has more to
do with the selected pre-heat strategy than the glazing
specification. It is also perhaps surprising how well average
conditions are maintained, even with relatively modest
equipment gains (6 W/m2).
It is worth noting that there are a few relatively high
temperatures for this module. Although the run was carried
out with no special solar protection measures, it does
highlight the problem of large areas of glass. It is therefore
recommended that, for corner rooms especially, 65% be
considered a sensible maximum value for glazing, and even
then appropriate solar control measures will need to be
applied. It should be noted that 65% glazing on two
orientations would require a very demanding shading
coefficient to limit the solar overheating, as detailed in
section 2.3.1.
2.3 The building in summer
The principal function of the advanced envelope in
summer is to control solar gain. The levels of insulation
applied to reduce heat loss in winter are effective in
limiting conduction gains from high sol-air temperatures.
Consequently, the main additional requirement is to limit
solar gain through glazing.
9
2.3.1 Control of solar gain
Effective solar control is a subject in its own right (14). The
principal objectives are to achieve a balance between control-
ling solar gain, admitting sufficient daylight, providing
occupant view and achieving an appropriate external
aesthetic. The difficulty is that the problem is orientation
dependent, and treatments that may work well on one façade
may not work well on another. Solar control is quantified by
the shading coefficient: the ratio of the instantaneous heat
gain at normal incidence of the window/shading system
relative to a single sheet of 4 mm thick clear glass.
It is important to recognise that solar gain takes two forms,
and that they influence cooling load and comfort in
different ways:
— Direct gain from short wave radiation transmitted
through the glass. Occupants exposed to direct gain
can quickly experience discomfort from overheating
or from glare. Those occupants shielded from the
direct effect of the sun’s rays will not experience the
effect of the gain immediately. The short wave
radiation is absorbed by surfaces, which warm up
and emit increasing amounts of long wave radiation.
The air temperature also increases as a result of
convection from the warm surfaces. The greater the
thermal capacity of the room, the lower the peak
cooling load.
— Indirect gain in the form of short wave radiation
that has been absorbed by the glazing-blind system
and re-transmitted as long wave radiation into the
room. Because the glazing-blind system is usually
lightweight, these surfaces heat up very quickly in
response to absorbed radiation, imposing an almost
immediate cooling load. It also has an impact on
comfort, since there can be large areas of warm glass
that significantly affect the mean radiant temperature
experienced by occupants close to the window. Con-
sequently, it is best to organise the solar protection
such that the solar gain is rejected back to outside
without significantly affecting the temperature of
the inner glass surface.
Therefore, when specifying a glazing/shading combination,
it is important to minimise both the long wave and short
wave shading coefficients. The short wave coefficient is a
measure of the amount of solar radiation that the system
allows through to the room. The long wave coefficient is a
measure of the solar absorptance that is re-radiated to the
room.
2.3.1.1 Reduced perimeter cooling loads
In the summer months, the shading coefficient of the
glazing is a more important characteristic than the U-value.
The relative importance of the solar protection is seen from
Figure 2.13, which shows typical office gains on a July
design day for a 50% glazed façade equipped with clear
double glazing and internal blinds. These solar loads have
been averaged over a 6 m deep perimeter zone for three
orientations: N, S and SW. Depending on orientation, the
solar contribution is between 45–70% of the peak load.
Reducing the solar load can therefore significantly reduce
the total required cooling capacity, and the turn down ratio
of the control system.
 10
Occupants Small power Lights
SW
Orientation
S better indeed than many designs typical of
N than the results presented here.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat gain / (W/m2)
Figure 2.13 Relative heat gains for an office
By going from clear double glazing plus internal blind with
a shading coefficient of 0.95 to a system with external
blinds or a ‘2+1’ window with mid-unit blinds (Figure 2.14)
with a shading coefficient < 0.3, the maximum solar load is
reduced by a factor of three, reducing the peak design load
by a factor of two in the critical spaces (15). Based on typical
elemental costs, this might save up to £10/m2 on the capital
cost of providing cooling plant. Of equal significance is that
the ratio of maximum to minimum load will reduce by 25%,
or even more if there is significant thermal inertia in the
space. This will make control much easier, as turn down
ratios are reduced. The smaller sized primary plant will
also be operating nearer its design capacity for longer
periods, generating improvements in operating efficiency.
2.3.1.2 Summer comfort conditions
In order to assess the potential for advanced envelopes to
simplify the design and operation of HVAC systems in
summer conditions, tests were carried out to determine the
relative comfort conditions achieved using two different
system configurations. These were as follows:
Figure 2.14 Typical ‘2+1’ window
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
Solar — A chilled ceiling system with radiant panels and
perimeter chilled beam, typical of much current
good practice. This design includes a good shading
system incorporating mid-pane blinds in the
double-glazed unit giving a shading coefficient of
0.33. This itself is a very good shading coefficient,
conventional practice. This suggests that typical
systems may perform worse in terms of comfort
— A chilled ceiling system using radiant cooling
120 panels only, but with enhanced shading system
providing a shading coefficient ~0.2.
Climate chamber tests were carried out with internal gains
either at or above the British Council for Offices (BCO) stan-
dard specification(16) recommendations. The module selected
was taken as the likely worst case, i.e. a SW-facing room, with
the solar gain being taken as the average of the three peak hours.
The results indicated that with the perimeter beam, comfort
was good for all window sizes (including full-height glazing),
although the cooling load (and hence energy cost and carbon
emissions) increased substantially. Figure 2.15 shows the
results for the higher internal loads (7 m2/person and 25 W/m2
small power). The PMV is the value at the seated head height of
1.1 m averaged across a distance 1.2 m from the perimeter. One
of the issues identified during the testing was the sensitivity of
the perimeter conditions to the exact position of the chilled
beam, and the balancing of the downward convection from the
beam and the effect of the warm glass surface.
0·4 2700
Predicted mean vote (PMV)
0·2 2500
Cooling load / W
d
Loa 2300
0
P MV 2100
–0·2
1900
–0·4 1700
–0·6 1500
1 1·5 2 2·5 3
Window height / m
Figure 2.15 Comfort and cooling load for chilled beam solution
For the high performance envelope solution, two sets of
runs were carried out, one with the same internal loads as
described above and another with lower loads typical of the
BCO specification (10 m2/person and 15 W/m2). For these
later runs, the displacement ventilation supply rate was also
increased from 3 to 6 ACH. The PMV data are summarised in
Figure 2.16 and indicate that, at the typical loads and with
the higher air change rate, comfort conditions are good
even for the full-height glazing. At the higher gains and
lower ventilation rate, comfort begins to become compro-
mised above a window height of about 1.5 m, equivalent to
54% glazed. (A PMV of ±0.85 is equivalent to the ASHRAE
comfort zone.) The dotted line shows the anticipated curve
for the higher gains and the higher ventilation rate (albeit
based on a single test). This suggests that comfort would be
acceptable even for full-height glazing and would be good
for glazing heights less than, say, 2.2 m. Bearing in mind
that this is for the extreme summer condition for the worst
facing orientation, and that the dynamic effects of thermal
mass could reduce the effect of these solar loads, it can be
seen that equivalent comfort to the chilled beam solution
can be obtained.
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 11

1·8 period, with cooling via radiant panels during

1·6 2 people, 6 ACH
3 people, 3 ACH
occupied periods. This approach was modelled for
1·4 both a lightweight and a heavyweight option.
Predicted mean vote (PMV)

3 people, 6 ACH
1·2 Ventilation was via a floor displacement system.
PMV = 0·85 (limit of
1·0
acceptable comfort)
0·8
Figures 2.18 and 2.19 illustrate typical output for two corner
0·6
offices. The NW-facing manager’s office has lower gains and
0·4 PMV = 0·5 (limit of
illustrates the performance of a space most likely to suffer
0·2 'good' comfort)
problems during the heating season. The SW-facing
0
perimeter office has typical gains, and illustrates the per-
–0·2
formance of a space most likely to suffer overheating in
–0·4
summer. The results indicate that the two peaks associated
–0·6 with the heating and cooling set points for the fan coil
1 1·5 2 2·5 3
Window height / m
system have been replaced by a smoother distribution for
the advanced envelopes options. Winter temperatures tend
Figure 2.16 PMV as a function of room temperature
to be slightly warmer and summer slightly cooler. The
thermal mass has a marginal effect on comfort (consistently
2·0 cooler), although the impact on energy is much more
pronounced (see section 4.2).
Predicted mean vote (PMV)

1·5
60
Advanced envelope
1·0 (heavy)
50
Percentage of total office
hours (0900–1800) / %

Advanced envelope
0·5 (light)
40
1995 Building
Regulations
0·0 30

20
–0·5
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
10
Dry resultant temperature / °C

Figure 2.17 Comfort conditions for high performance envelope solution 0

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Room dry resultant temperature / °C
As with the winter condition, comfort is totally dominated
by the dry resultant temperature that is achievable, as Figure 2.18 Annual temperature distribution for NW-facing office
Figure 2.17 illustrates. This means that the effects of
radiant temperature and air speed are only secondary and
that, within the limits of gains analysed, the primary 60
Advanced envelope
concern is to ensure that the gains are limited such as to (heavy)
50
Percentage of total office

achieve a satisfactory dry resultant temperature.

hours (0700–1900) / %

Advanced envelope
(light)
40
Once again, it should be stressed that these results apply 1995 Building
only to the case of a room with a window on the end wall. Regulations
30
Corner rooms will create additional solar gain problems. It
should be noted that the 2002 Approved Document L(1)
20
gives guidance on the control of overheating, and this will
limit the proportion of glazing in a corner room, unless
10
very effective solar control is provided.
0
2.3.2 Annual performance 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Room dry resultant temperature / °C
To assess the performance of this approach on an annual Figure 2.19 Annual temperature distribution for SW-facing office
basis, a real building was simulated. For the basis of
comparison, the same building geometry was modelled for
each of the following two cases:
— The 1995 Building Regulation standards and with a 2.4 Achieving the required
fan coil air conditioning system with perimeter window performance
heating to offset perimeter losses. Ventilation was
provided via a full fresh air system delivered into The previous sections have indicated that windows with U-
the fan coil unit values of 1.5–2.0 W/m2·K and shading coefficients of the
order of 0.2–0.3 are capable of delivering good year-round
— An advanced envelope with windows with a U- comfort conditions with very much simpler HVAC systems.
value of 1.5 W/m2·K and a shading coefficient of This section summarises the window technologies that are
0.2. Heating was available only during the pre-heat able to deliver this sort of performance.
12 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

2.4.1 U-values 2·4

UPVC frame Aluminium frame
2·2
It is impractical to give a comprehensive overview of Glass (centre of pane)

U-value / (W/m2·K)
window technology, but the following illustrates some of 2·0
the parameters that influence performance. The first key 1·8
point is that window U-values are as much a function of the
1·6
frame technology as they are of the glazing system. Figure
2.20 shows the way the proportion of frame influences 1·4
overall window U-value for a UPVC and an aluminium
1·2
frame window. Because frame section dimensions are fixed,
the relative significance of the U-value of the frame 1·0
decreases as window size increases, resulting in a reduction 1·2 1·5 1·8 2·8
in overall U-value. The centre-of-pane U-value of the glass Window height / m
is shown by the horizontal line. It can be seen that the Figure 2.20 Overall U-values as a function of size
achievement of good overall U-values is therefore as much
to do with careful detailing of the frame as it is about the
specification of the glazing and inter-pane cavity.

Relative U-value (centre of pane) / %

120
The above data are typical for windows that are for ‘domestic
Air-filled
style’ construction. In large, non-domestic buildings, 100
curtain walling is a common form of construction. Because Argon-filled
of the high conductivity of the framing material, low 80
overall U-values are more difficult to achieve. Even with
very high performance double glazing with a centre-pane 60
U-value of 1.0 W/m2·K, overall U-values for a typical full
height glazed curtain walling system with 10% framing is 40
only 1.94 W/m2·K. However, systems with overall U-values
of 1.5 W/m2·K are available by utilising improved thermal 20
breaks in the framing system(17).
0
Clear glass Low emissivity glass
Increasing consideration is being given to the ‘2+1’ (ε = 0·06) (ε = 0·026)
window typical of Scandinavian practice (Figure 2.14). Glass type for inner pane of double-glazed unit
This has a single outer pane thermally isolated from an Figure 2.21 Relative performance of 2+1 windows
inner double-glazed unit. As well as improving the centre-
pane U-value, this approach has an even more marked
improvement on overall window U-value, as indicated in
Table 2.7.
140
The performance of ‘2+1’ windows can be varied through Air-filled Argon-filled
120
selective mixing of surface coating, inter-pane gap and
cavity gas. Figure 2.21 shows the centre-pane U-value for a 100
Relative cost / %

window unit with different window configurations. The

inner pane of the double-glazed unit is progressively 80
improved from clear glass with successively advanced low-
emissivity coatings. In this example, the cavity width is 60
12 mm, and two alternative configurations are shown, one
with an air-filled cavity, the other filled with argon. 40

Figure 2.22 shows the relative costs of the same window 20

units. The cost data are based on information provided by a
0
window supplier (18), and illustrate that the cost to generate Clear glass Low emissivity glass
significant improvement in performance is quite modest. (ε = 0·06) (ε = 0·026)
Clearly, these data should be regarded as indicative rather Glass type for inner pane of double-glazed unit
than absolute, but they emphasise that the achievement of
very high performance windows need not involve premium Figure 2.22 Relative costs of ‘2+1’ windows

Table 2.7 Effect of window type on U-value

Window type* U-value (W/m2·K)
Centre pane Whole window
Conventional double-glazed window 2 × 6 mm glass, 16 mm air fill 2.59 2.8
Double glazed with low-emissivity (ε = 0.16) 16 mm argon fill 1.45 2.0
Double glazed with super low-emissivity (ε = 0.026) 16 mm argon fill 1.05 1.75
‘2+1’ unit with single pane outer in wood frame, cavity blinds and double glazed inner with 0.95 1.15
low-emissivity (ε = 0.16), 16 mm argon fill in aluminium frame
*Note that the quoted U-values are based on a 3 × 2.8 m window unit; whole window U-values will vary according to window size
 Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements
costs, especially when the reduced HVAC costs are taken into
account.
2.4.1.1 Effect of meteorological conditions
It is also important to appreciate that the U-value is
dependent on prevailing weather conditions, especially
temperature and wind speed. U-values are normally quoted
at standard conditions of –1 °C and 7 m/s. The centre-pane
U-value for the double-glazed unit of Figure 2.21 (low-
emissivity + argon fill) increases from 1.28 to 1.40 W/m2·K
as the temperature drops from –1 °C to –15 °C. Because
temperatures below the reference condition of –1 °C occur
relatively infrequently in the UK, this effect is unimportant
in energy terms, but could be significant in local comfort
terms. In that context, what is most important is the inside
surface temperature.
Figure 2.23 shows the inside surface temperature as a
function of the outside temperature and the diffuse
radiation falling on a horizontal surface. It can be seen that
even modest levels of diffuse radiation can increase the
surface temperature by 0.5 °C. Consequently, during most
daytime hours the surface temperatures are likely to be
0.5–1.0 °C warmer than the values predicted by U-value
calculations alone, thereby improving winter comfort. It is
also worth noting that although U-values are adversely
affected by increasing wind speed, the wind speed at
which U-values are quoted (7 m/s) is relatively high. For
most inland areas of the UK, the hourly mean wind speed
that is exceeded on only 10% of occasions is between 8 and
9 m/s. Further, these are meteorological wind speeds, and
wind speeds local to the building are likely to be
significantly reduced. In rural areas with scattered
windbreaks this reduction is about 20% and in urban areas
it is greater than 50% (10).
2.4.2 Shading coefficients
There are a range of ways of improving the shading
coefficient. These include:
— Internal blinds.
— Mid-pane blinds (between the panes of a double-
glazed unit).
22
Solar radiation
Glass surface temperature / °C
21 200 W/m2
20 100 W/m2
0 W/m2
19
18
17
16
15
–15 –10 –5
External temperature / °C
Figure 2.23 Effect of different levels of incident solar radiation on inside
surface temperature of glass for window with centre-pane U-value of
1.13 W/m2.K
13
Opaque blind
(closed)
Opaque blind
(45°)
Translucent
(closed)
Translucent
(45°)
None
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8
Shading coefficient
Figure 2.24 Shading coefficient for different blind configurations in
a ‘2+1’ window
— Ventilated cavity blinds (between the units of a ‘2+1’
window): Figure 2.24 shows the effect of different
blind arrangements (translucent and opaque in the
45° and closed positions). In this arrangement, the
cavity between the single and double-glazed unit
can be ventilated so that the solar radiation
absorbed by the blind is vented to outside, reducing
the long wave re-transmitted component. As well as
reducing the load, this will reduce the temperature
of the inner surface of glass, thereby improving
comfort.
— External blinds: this approach provides the best
form of solar protection, but the shading system
needs to be robust enough to withstand wind loads.
They also represent a potential site for roosting
birds and therefore may require frequent cleaning.
— Brise-soleil: different orientations need different
treatments to exclude solar gain. Figures 2.25 and
2.26 illustrate the relative effectiveness of overhang
and side fin on two different window orientations
for a 3 m wide full-height (i.e. 2.8 m) window.
— Surface coatings on the glass: historically these have
usually involved tinted glazings, but improvements
in technology mean that colour neutral systems are
now available. Table 2.8 illustrates the effect of this
technology for a double-glazed unit without any
blinds. The only change between the two window
options is the surface coating on the glass.
Table 2.8 Comparison between conventional and high performance
glazing units
Surface coating Centre-pane Shading
U-value coefficient
/ (W/m2·K)
Conventional double-glazed unit 2.59 0.8
Super low-emissivity glass (ε=0.026) 1.05 0.4
0 5 10 15 with double silver layer solar control on
inner surface of outer pane of double-
glazed unit with 16 mm argon fill
Note: the shading coefficient could be further improved by the addition of
cavity blinds (see Figure 2.24)
14 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

7 Figure 2.25 Effect of fixed

Overhang and side (0 m) Overhang and side (0·5 m) Overhang and side (1 m) shading; south facing
Overhang and side (1·5 m) Overhang and side (2 m) Overhang and side (2·5 m)
6
Overhang (0·5 m) Overhang (1 m) Overhang (1·5 m)
Overhang (2 m) Overhang (2·5 m)
5
Insolation / kW

0
4 8 12 16 20
GMT

7 Figure 2.26 Effect of fixed

Overhang and side (0 m) shading; east facing
Overhang and side (0·5 m)
6
Overhang and side (1 m)
Overhang and side (1·5 m)
5 Overhang and side (2 m)
Overhang and side (2·5 m)
Insolation / kW

4 Overhang (0·5 m)
Overhang (1 m)
Overhang (1·5 m)
3
Overhang (2 m)
Overhang (2·5 m)
2

0
4 8 12 16 20
GMT

2.4.3 Daylight and view 2.5 Achieving the required

In achieving effective solar control, it is important that light
transmission and occupant view are not compromised.
Good daylight is an important energy-saving strategy, and
visual communication with outside is an important element
of occupant satisfaction. The ideal combination is a
window system with high light transmission, neutral
colour rendering, low solar heat transmission and low U-
value. Such glazing systems are now available. The ratio of
light transmittance to solar heat transmittance is known as
‘selectivity’. Through recent developments in glass coating
technology, selectivities as high as 2 are possible. Such
coatings have very low emissivities. This means, for
example, that a double glazing unit can achieve 66% light
transmittance and 33% solar heat transmittance while
simultaneously having a U-value of 1.1 W/m2·K (if the
cavity is argon filled).
fabric performance
Two primary aspects require careful consideration during
the envelope design and construction phases. These are:
— the overall, and localised, thermal resistance of the
assembly
— the overall, and localised, air leakage performance
(infiltration/exfiltration).
In the majority of new buildings the performance of external
envelope assemblies is unsatisfactory with respect to both
these issues. Such buildings would not be suitable for an
integrated heating and cooling approach as the envelope
performance deficiencies would in turn lead to the failure of
the heating and cooling strategy under certain external
environmental conditions. Achieving satisfactory envelope
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 15

thermal resistance and air leakage performance is crucial to

the success of an integrated approach.

2.5.1 Insulation

Insulation must be installed in a continuous layer to be

fully effective. Gaps and discontinuities will have a signifi-
cant impact in terms of overall heat losses. In many typical
building types, thermographic surveys frequently reveal
significant areas of discontinuity in the insulation. It has
been estimated that gaps between sections of insulation can
account for up to 6% of the overall envelope area in
industrial buildings and that this can lead to up to 33%
additional heat loss(19). Figure 2.27 shows an infrared
thermographic image of a typical commercial unit with a
profiled metal site-assembled roofing system. The white
arrows near the black/purple areas highlight areas of
missing or misplaced insulation where significant
Figure 2.27 Thermographic image showing missing insulation
additional heat loss is occurring.

Cold bridges are localised areas of reduced thermal

resistance. Typically, they vary from uninsulated structural
members passing through the insulation layer to construc-
tion defects such as mortar ‘snots’ building up on cavity
wall batts during construction. Figure 2.28 shows large
mortar ‘snots’ on the top edge of the full-fill cavity
insulation in a typical masonry cavity wall. These snots will
provide significant heat and moisture bridges through the
cavity. Cold bridges have a similar effect on heat losses as
gaps and discontinuities.

Achieving effective envelope insulation performance in a

completed building requires careful consideration during
the design phase with a high level of workmanship and
supervision during the building construction. Detailed
construction drawings often show ‘ideal’ insulation
placement within the envelope assemblies, which cannot be
readily achieved on site. It is essential that any such
problem areas are identified and that an adequate Figure 2.28 Thermal
alternative means of insulation placement is achieved. bridge caused by
mortar ‘snots’

The following notes outline a methodology that should be

considered at each of the stages of design and construction
to ensure effective insulation performance.
2.5.1.1 Concept design
Consideration must be given early in the design process to
the type of envelope assembly which is to be used — e.g.
high thermal mass or lightweight quick response — and
this will generally dictate the type and position of the
insulation within the assembly.
2.5.1.2 Detail design
The thickness of insulation required to achieve the target
U-values for the type of assembly chosen can be readily
established through manual calculation or specialised
computer programs. Significant attention must be paid
during this stage to the elimination of cold bridging,
particularly at openings within the envelope assembly. The
impact of repeating thermal bridges such as wall ties and
framing material should not be underestimated. Specialist
insulated cavity closers should be used at all openings
within cavity wall construction to minimise cold bridging.
When suitably detailed sections are available, the line of the
insulation should be traced down through the insulating
layers to establish insulation continuity and to highlight
any weaknesses such as areas of potential cold bridging.
2.5.1.3 Construction phase
During the construction phase, care must be taken to
ensure effective continuity of insulation. Whilst small
cracks and gaps between sections of insulation may seem
insignificant to site operatives, they will have a significant
impact on the overall performance of the building. Ideally,
areas of insulation which will be concealed within the
envelope construction should be subjected to an
independent inspection of the quality of installation prior
to covering up.
2.5.1.4 Quality assurance of completed assembly
On completion of the envelope construction, it is recom-
mended that an infrared thermographic survey be
undertaken on the building as the final quality assurance
procedure for establishing insulation continuity. The
survey should be undertaken when the envelope is complete
and the building heating system is operational. A
16
temperature differential of 10 °C should exist between the
inside and outside air temperatures to ensure that an
effective survey can be undertaken. On a heavyweight
masonry construction, this temperature differential should
ideally be maintained for a minimum period of 24 hours
prior to a survey. A shorter period is acceptable in
lightweight envelope assemblies (e.g. curtain walling and
profiled metal cladding) that display a much more rapid
response to temperature gradients.
The thermographic survey must be undertaken by a
thermographer experienced in building construction
methods and building physics to ensure that the survey
findings are correctly interpreted. This is particularly
important when establishing acceptable levels of cold
bridging at any openings through the envelope. Further
guidance on infrared thermography can be found in BRE
Information Paper IP7/90 (20) and BSRIA guidance (21).
2.5.2 Thermal capacity
Thermal capacity can be almost as significant as insulation
levels in modulating the energy demand in intermittently
occupied buildings. This issue has been documented
elsewhere (22), but the essence of the effective use of thermal
mass is to use it as a heat recovery device by:
— storing excess heat in winter to offset heating
system requirements at other parts of the day
— absorbing heat gains in summer so that the heat can
be rejected from the building using free-cooling
techniques during the night when air temperatures
are at a minimum.
The rate of heat storage is limited by the surface heat
transfer characteristics and therefore the effectiveness of
thermal mass is as much to do with surface area as it is with
heat capacity of the materials. Consequently, the effect of
the ceiling slab is most pronounced in the thermal storage
process. This mass should be exposed to the room air,
either directly or via open cell ceilings.
2.5.3 Airtightness
The flow of air through the building envelope is commonly
known as air leakage. Air leakage can be defined as ‘the
movement of air into and out of the building which is not
for the specific and planned purpose of exhausting stale air
or bringing in fresh air’. It is estimated that the majority of
new non-domestic buildings constructed to comply with
the current regulatory requirements typically lose 50% of
the total heating loads as a result of uncontrolled air leakage
through the building envelope. In addition to the direct
heat loss, air leakage often leads to ingress of pollutants,
inability to heat or cool localised zones within a building
and occupier complaints of draughts and discomfort.
Air leakage should never be considered as acceptable
natural ventilation. It cannot be controlled or filtered and
will not provide adequate or evenly distributed ventilation.
It is generally at its most severe during the colder, windier,
winter months and has least impact during the warmer,
calmer, summer periods. This is generally the opposite of the
requirements for ventilation within buildings. Ventilation
of a building should never rely on air leakage, but should be
provided by purpose-designed systems based on the
assumption that the envelope will be relatively airtight.
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
A further potential problem of air leakage is that warm air
leaking through a building envelope can carry significant
quantities of moisture into that assembly. Measurement has
shown that air leakage can typically move up to 100 times
more moisture into an envelope assembly than would occur
by diffusion alone. This moisture may condense within the
assembly, potentially leading to degradation of insulation
performance and long-term degradation of component
parts.
Envelope air leakage has become a much more significant
issue in more recent years due to the construction
industry’s gradual move away from traditional building
methods. Traditional methods such as plastered masonry
walls, continuous ceiling linings and solid floor slabs have,
to a great extent, given way to lightweight prefabricated
cladding, ceiling and floor systems. These systems are not
as forgiving in terms of envelope leakage as their more
traditional counterparts.
The problem is further increased by the fact that main
contractors tend to let envelope packages to subcontractors,
each of which is responsible for its own specific element.
Unfortunately, there is often no one to take responsibility
for the interfaces between these subcontractor elements,
and it is at these interfaces where problems are most likely
to arise.
It is relatively easy to ensure that new buildings are
constructed to be acceptably airtight. The installation of
suitable seals between the elements typically used in
envelope construction will generally always ensure that an
acceptable level of leakage is achieved. However, this
requires a shift in the current thinking of both main and
subcontractors to ensure adequate integration between all
packages/trades.
2.5.3.1 Airtightness standards
Air leakage is measured as a rate of leakage per square metre
of external envelope per hour at an artificial pressure
differential through the envelope of 50 Pa (expressed as
(m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa). Two parameters are used:
— Air leakage index: this includes in the normalising
area only those elements of the envelope that are
exposed to the ‘external’ air (e.g. floor slabs in direct
contact with the ground are not included). It is
particularly useful for normalising the data
between different sized buildings of the same
generic type.
— Air permeability: this includes all the external surfaces,
and is the parameter used to define the leakage
standards in Building Regulations Part L(1).
The typical air leakage index in a standard new commercial
building in the UK is in the region of 20 (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa.
For an industrial unit this figure would increase to ~25–30
(m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa. The 2002 Part L standard is an air
permeability of 10 (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa, equivalent to an air
leakage index of nearer 15 for most office buildings. The
good practice envelope leakage rates for office buildings
recommended by CIBSE TM23(9) are shown in Table 2.9.
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 17

Table 2.9 Envelope air leakage rates recommended in CIBSE TM23(9)

Building type Air leakage Permeability
index (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa
Naturally ventilated 10.0 7.0
Low energy/air conditioned 5.0 3.5

When adopting an integrated heating, cooling and

envelope approach, the maximum envelope air leakage
index is 5 (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa, which is equivalent to the
specification recommended for a low energy building.
These standards are readily achievable with normal
construction methods, providing that the necessary air
seals are considered and specified at the design stage and
care is taken during the construction phase. Figure 2.29 Lack of air barrier continuity

Low air leakage envelope construction can be achieved

only if the requirement for tightness is considered early in flow of air and so significant leakage will occur at
the design process. Experience has shown that it is not this junction.
acceptable to design and construct buildings in the normal (d) Quality assurance of the completed building: a whole
way and then to attempt to seal junctions. This often leads building pressurisation test must be carried out to
to buildings that cannot be sealed to the specification establish the overall envelope leakage (Figure 2.30).
requirements and is also generally very costly. When the This will prove compliance or otherwise with the
requirement for low air leakage assemblies is considered at detailed envelope specification. The building
the design stage, the necessary air barrier becomes an envelope should be complete at the time of the test
integral part of the envelope design and construction. All to ensure that a meaningful result is achieved. The
seals necessary to minimise envelope leakage can then be test should be undertaken in accordance with
designed to provide optimum long-term performance. CIBSE TM23: Testing buildings for air leakage(9).
If the building were to fail to achieve the required
2.5.3.2 Design and construction leakage specification, identification of the principal
leakage routes must be undertaken, utilising either
The process of designing and constructing a low air leakage tracer smoke or an infrared thermographic camera.
building should be as follows: The contractor should then undertake remedial
(a) Conceptual design: decisions on the building form, sealing with subsequent retest(s) until the required
position and types of opening etc., all affect the ease specification is achieved. It is important that the
with which a low air leakage construction can be sealing materials be selected to give appropriate
achieved. The integration of effective draught durability in order that the required airtightness is
lobbies at external door openings is essential for the maintained over the life of the building.
success of a low air leakage strategy.
(b) Detail design: all air barrier components and seals
can be identified and specified during this stage.
Consideration must be given to the buildability of
the envelope elements, along with the necessary
seals, giving due attention to the durability of those
seals and how they can be maintained. When suffi-
ciently detailed envelope sectional drawings are
available, the line of the air barrier elements should
be traced to identify continuity between all the com-
ponents within the assembly. Junctions between
these components can then be considered in detail.
(c) Construction phase: site operatives should be educated
in the reason for, and the need for, the air barrier
within the envelope construction. Supervision must
be provided during the installation of key air barrier
elements, and the continuity and effectiveness of the
air barrier system continuously reviewed. Figure Figure 2.30 Multiple fan
pressurisation equipment
2.29 shows a typical problem where insulation has
been used to fill a gap: it will provide negligible
resistance to infiltration/exfiltration and certainly 2.5.4 Fabric details
does not constitute an element in an effective air
barrier. The figure shows the junction between the The following sections give brief details of key issues in
head of a window assembly and the underside of a different types of construction. More detailed guidance is
roof deck. Glass fibre insulation has been packed available in documents being produced(23) to support the
between the head of the window and the underside insulation standards introduced with the 2002 edition of
of the roof, but the insulation will not prevent the Approved Document L.
18 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

2.5.4.1 Masonry walls

Masonry wall construction is commonly found in new

commercial buildings. Walls are typically either cavity con-
struction with cavity insulation (fill or partial fill) or solid
construction with external insulation.

Continuity of insulation is the crucial issue in both types of

wall assembly. It is common to find gaps between sections of
insulation boards/batts or where blown insulants are
installed within cavity wall constructions. Defects can
either be identified visually as the work proceeds or after the
completion of the construction via infrared thermographic
surveys. These apparently minor deficiencies have a
significant impact on the overall thermal performance of
the assembly and must be minimised. For example, Figure Figure 2.32 Pre-formed cavity closer
2.31 shows a failure of insulation continuity where the
flange of a steelwork column projects into the cavity in a filled and tooled to ensure effective air barrier continuity
typical masonry cavity wall construction. The rigid partial between blocks. The actual air permeability of the block
fill insulation has not been tightly fitted against the column must be checked with the manufacturer prior to
flange and a further gap exists at the butt joint between specification. For example, Figure 2.33 shows a gap at the
board sections. Even if the boards had been tightly fitted, a abutments between the inner skin and the structural steel
cold bridge would still have existed at the flange, although column on an external cavity wall. Significant air leakage
this would not have been as severe as the illustrated will occur through this discontinuity.
configuration.
Effective soft air barrier joints must be provided wherever
Similar deficiencies can occur with external insulation the blockwork abuts structural columns or the underside of
systems, but these tend to be less frequent as it is generally floor/roof slabs. These joints must be designed and installed
much easier to inspect the installed insulation prior to to permit the differential movement that will occur between
covering with external finishes. the blockwork and structural elements.

If the inner blockwork skin has a plaster internal finish, the

plaster can be utilised as the air barrier line. Proprietary
plaster stop beads can be installed at all abutments with
structural elements or window/door openings to allow
effective soft joint mastic seals to be provided between the
plaster and adjacent substrate to ensure air barrier
continuity. Problems are often encountered where walls are
plastered but the plaster is not continuous above suspended
ceiling assemblies,in which case the air barrier resorts back
to the line of the blockwork. In such a situation it is
generally easier to utilise the blockwork as the sole line of
the air barrier and to treat the plaster finish as a simple
decorative overcoat.

Seals will also be required between any window or door

Figure 2.31 Lack of frame members and the inner blockwork skin. These seals
insulation continuity can generally be simply formed in externally insulated
assemblies as the frame member and brickwork usually
Cold bridging at window and door penetrations through abut. Cavity wall assemblies will require seals to be formed
cavity wall constructions requires careful consideration to over the cavity width. These seals can be readily provided
ensure effective insulation performance is achieved.
Utilising brick or block to close the cavity at opening
positions is not acceptable. Rigid pre-formed cavity closers
should be utilised. Figure 2.32 shows a pre-formed rigid
cavity closer installed to provide air barrier continuity
between the window assembly and inner blockwork skin,
where the mastic seal is still to be installed between the
flange of the closer and the inner skin.

Cold bridging at openings in external insulated walls do

not tend to be as problematic as the external insulation can
be continued to abut or overlap the opening element.

The inner masonry skin of the cavity or externally

insulated walls must act as the air barrier line in the
construction. The blockwork used for this skin must be
impervious and all mortar beds and perpend joints fully Figure 2.33 Air leakage path
Impact of advanced envelopes on HVAC requirements 19

by ensuring that rigid proprietary cavity closures are mastic

sealed to the inner blockwork skin during installation and
that a further mastic seal is installed between the cavity
closer and window/door frame member. An identical detail
can also be adopted at the cill of window openings. As
cavity closers are generally installed to minimise cold
bridging at such details, the additional cost of providing
airtight details relate to the mastic seals, which are marginal
in overall construction terms.

Pre-formed insulated lintels should be used over window

and door openings in cavity masonry construction. It is
important that the lower flange of the lintel be continuous
to allow an effective air seal to be provided between the
window or door frame head and the lintel, which will then
provide the continuity back to the blockwork inner skin. Figure 2.34 Sealing membrane for curtain walling system
Perforated flanges will permit leakage into the cavity void
unless overplastered. by the insulation installers to ensure that no minor gaps are
left between sections of insulant and that insulation
2.5.4.2 Curtain walling/lightweight cladding continuity is achieved at details such as roof water outlets or
other roof penetrations. Insulation must be installed to all
The standard of insulation continuity typically achieved by upstand details to roof penetrations such as smoke vents,
curtain walling and lightweight cladding assemblies is access hatches, fan outlets, etc.
generally acceptable for an integrated heating and cooling
strategy. The principal areas that require further considera- The concrete deck will generally provide an exceptionally
tion are where the assemblies abut adjacent construction good air barrier line. If pre-cast concrete planks are utilised
materials such as at cill, head and jamb details. It is seals may be required at butt joints between planks to
essential that effective insulation continuity be provided to ensure effective continuity. Any expansion joints within
ensure adequate overall performance. This can be readily the roof deck should be sealed on the underside to ensure
achieved through the application of sections of rigid board effective air barrier continuity.
insulation or expanding foam insulants applied on-site.
2.5.4.4 Roof assembly: metal deck with
Achieving effective air barrier continuity at abutment details insulation and waterproof layer over
can be problematic due to the differential movement that
generally occurs between the lightweight cladding system
Where such constructions are used for ‘flat’ roofs, insulation
and the adjacent, generally masonry, structure. The most
is generally either bonded or mechanically fixed down to the
effective means of providing effective seals whilst accom-
deck and the issues surrounding continuity are identical to
modating this movement is achieved by utilising ethylene-
those outlined in section 2.5.4.3. If the profiled metal deck is
propylene-diene-terpolymer (EPDM) membranes. These can
part of a pitched roof constructed with profiled metal
either be glazed into the curtain walling assembly or bonded
cladding assembled on site, the issue of insulation continu-
to the lightweight cladding system and then bonded back to
ity must be considered in greater detail. As a result of poor
the adjacent construction. EPDM seals are typically included
workmanship, areas of missing insulation or gaps between
in curtain wall construction at such details. The only
sections of insulation are common in site-assembled metal
additional requirement is to ensure adequate bonding
cladding systems. Figure 2.35 shows gaps left between light-
between the EPDM and adjacent substrates. This has a very
weight glass wool insulation; condensation droplets can be
marginal cost implication.
seen on the underside of the profiled metal weathering skin.
In Figure 2.34 an EPDM membrane has been installed to
Training and supervision of installers must be provided to
provide a seal between the head of the curtain walling and
ensure effective insulation continuity is achieved. An infra-
the upstand to the roof deck. The membrane is glazed into
red thermographic survey should always be undertaken on
the top channel of the curtain wall assembly and fully sealed
completion of such installations. Figure 2.36 is an infrared
to the head of the concrete roof upstand.
thermographic image showing an area of missing insulation
It is important with curtain wall assemblies that the
membrane be sealed or glazed into the front face of the
assembly to prevent the possibility of the curtain wall frame
members acting as ‘air ducts’ into the building. This seal
will require to be returned into the inner blockwork skin at
masonry wall constructions to provide effective air barrier
continuity.

2.5.4.3 Roof assembly: concrete deck with

insulation and waterproof layer over

Insulation is typically either bonded or mechanically fixed

down to the concrete deck and insulation continuity over
the general roof area is rarely a problem. Care must be taken Figure 2.35 Loss of insulation continuity
20
Figure 2.36 Thermographic image of missing insulation
of approximately 6 m2 in a pitched roof. The large area of
black represents the zone of missing insulation.
To ensure effective air barrier continuity, it is essential that
the profiled metal deck be fully sealed during installation.
Reliance should never be placed on the vapour barrier or
weathering membranes within the system to act as air
barrier lines. As experience has shown, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to achieve effective air barrier continuity with
these elements, particularly at wall/roof junctions.
Profiled metal decking can be readily sealed during
installation with the aid of proprietary pre-formed sealant
strips placed at all side and end laps. Additional stitcher
screws or rivets should be provided at 450 mm centres to all
sheet side lap junctions.
3 HVAC systems in
combination with
advanced envelopes
This section describes how the design of HVAC systems can
be simplified in response to the substantially reduced
demands that result from a properly designed and
constructed advanced envelope. For information on a
range of approaches to heating and cooling, see CIBSE
Guides B1(24) and B2(8).
A possibility opened up by the strategies being considered in
this publication is the integration of heating and cooling
functions into a single system. If heating is no longer
required during the occupied period (see section 2.2.1.1), the
heating design issue becomes solely one of pre-heat. Conse-
quently, it is possible to envisage a situation where a single
system is used in changeover mode to provide heating prior
to occupancy then switching to cooling mode once
occupancy begins. This potentially could eliminate the cost
of one complete distribution network and one set of terminal
devices.
This publication concentrates on a system whereby heating
and cooling are provided by ceiling mounted radiant
panels, coupled with a displacement ventilation system.
One possible problem with using the radiant ceiling for
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
heating is radiant asymmetry. Figure 3.1, reproduced from
CIBSE Guide A(10), shows that the percentage dissatis-
faction is more sensitive for a heated ceiling than for any
other surface. However, for the range of envelope options
investigated, and for a full radiant ceiling, surface-room
temperatures are unlikely to exceed 8–10 K, even under
extreme weather conditions. It should also be noted that,
because heating is limited to providing pre-heat, there are
no occupants to experience any adverse radiant asymmetry
or temperature gradient. The only issue that needs
consideration is the transition from heating to cooling, and
how quickly a stable stratified layer might form. Again, this
is not significant because the situation will never arise
where there is a need for a changeover from maximum pre-
heat output to maximum cooling output.
In principle, the integrated heating and cooling could be
provided in other ways:
— Two-pipe changeover fan coil system: the changeover
would be daily in winter, rather than seasonal. The
disadvantage is that higher water supply tempera-
100
80 Warm ceiling
60
40
Cool wall
20
Dissatisfied / %
10
8 Cool ceiling Warm wall
6
4
2
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Radiant temperature asymmetry / K
Figure 3.1 Radiant asymmetry and comfort
tures would be needed to provide the required heat
output, thereby reducing efficiency.
— Floor systems: pipe systems embedded in the floor
are becoming increasingly popular for heating and,
in some European countries, floor cooling is also
used. The main disadvantage is that the cooling
capacity of floors is limited by comfort constraints.
Since the cooling demand is likely to be the over-
riding design criterion for office type buildings,
ceiling cooling systems are more likely to be
preferred.
— Ventilation system: this is likely to be less efficient in
terms of transport energy (unless the ventilation rate
to meet the fresh air requirements is sufficient to
provide the heating and cooling without excessive
supply temperatures). In this case, the system is
more likely to require a mixing ventilation strategy
because heating with displacement ventilation
diffusers is unlikely to be effective in achieving
20
Figure 2.36 Thermographic image of missing insulation
of approximately 6 m2 in a pitched roof. The large area of
black represents the zone of missing insulation.
To ensure effective air barrier continuity, it is essential that
the profiled metal deck be fully sealed during installation.
Reliance should never be placed on the vapour barrier or
weathering membranes within the system to act as air
barrier lines. As experience has shown, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to achieve effective air barrier continuity with
these elements, particularly at wall/roof junctions.
Profiled metal decking can be readily sealed during
installation with the aid of proprietary pre-formed sealant
strips placed at all side and end laps. Additional stitcher
screws or rivets should be provided at 450 mm centres to all
sheet side lap junctions.
3 HVAC systems in
combination with
advanced envelopes
This section describes how the design of HVAC systems can
be simplified in response to the substantially reduced
demands that result from a properly designed and
constructed advanced envelope. For information on a
range of approaches to heating and cooling, see CIBSE
Guides B1(24) and B2(8).
A possibility opened up by the strategies being considered in
this publication is the integration of heating and cooling
functions into a single system. If heating is no longer
required during the occupied period (see section 2.2.1.1), the
heating design issue becomes solely one of pre-heat. Conse-
quently, it is possible to envisage a situation where a single
system is used in changeover mode to provide heating prior
to occupancy then switching to cooling mode once
occupancy begins. This potentially could eliminate the cost
of one complete distribution network and one set of terminal
devices.
This publication concentrates on a system whereby heating
and cooling are provided by ceiling mounted radiant
panels, coupled with a displacement ventilation system.
One possible problem with using the radiant ceiling for
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
heating is radiant asymmetry. Figure 3.1, reproduced from
CIBSE Guide A(10), shows that the percentage dissatis-
faction is more sensitive for a heated ceiling than for any
other surface. However, for the range of envelope options
investigated, and for a full radiant ceiling, surface-room
temperatures are unlikely to exceed 8–10 K, even under
extreme weather conditions. It should also be noted that,
because heating is limited to providing pre-heat, there are
no occupants to experience any adverse radiant asymmetry
or temperature gradient. The only issue that needs
consideration is the transition from heating to cooling, and
how quickly a stable stratified layer might form. Again, this
is not significant because the situation will never arise
where there is a need for a changeover from maximum pre-
heat output to maximum cooling output.
In principle, the integrated heating and cooling could be
provided in other ways:
— Two-pipe changeover fan coil system: the changeover
would be daily in winter, rather than seasonal. The
disadvantage is that higher water supply tempera-
100
80 Warm ceiling
60
40
Cool wall
20
Dissatisfied / %
10
8 Cool ceiling Warm wall
6
4
2
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Radiant temperature asymmetry / K
Figure 3.1 Radiant asymmetry and comfort
tures would be needed to provide the required heat
output, thereby reducing efficiency.
— Floor systems: pipe systems embedded in the floor
are becoming increasingly popular for heating and,
in some European countries, floor cooling is also
used. The main disadvantage is that the cooling
capacity of floors is limited by comfort constraints.
Since the cooling demand is likely to be the over-
riding design criterion for office type buildings,
ceiling cooling systems are more likely to be
preferred.
— Ventilation system: this is likely to be less efficient in
terms of transport energy (unless the ventilation rate
to meet the fresh air requirements is sufficient to
provide the heating and cooling without excessive
supply temperatures). In this case, the system is
more likely to require a mixing ventilation strategy
because heating with displacement ventilation
diffusers is unlikely to be effective in achieving
HVAC systems in combination with advanced envelopes
uniform comfort distribution. In deeper plan
buildings, it may be viable to provide perimeter
pre-heat by transferring heat from the core areas to
the perimeter using the ventilation system. This
heat would have been stored in the core fabric from
the internal heat gains arising during the previous
day’s occupancy, and would minimise the need for
heat to be provided from boiler plant.
3.1 Changeover strategies
This section discusses the ways in which the heating and
cooling water might be provided to the ceiling panels. The
different approaches offer different benefits in terms of cost
and controllability. In all cases, both warm and chilled
water will be supplied to the panels. Consequently, the
design should cater for the thermal stresses during the
changeover from heating to cooling.
3.1.1 Ceiling in 4-pipe configuration
In this configuration (Figure 3.2), the system is acting like a
4-pipe fan coil unit. This provides the maximum control
flexibility to maintain heating in those localised areas that
may be occupied later than others. It has the disadvantage
that two separate flow and return distribution networks
have to be installed. With this configuration, the only
capital cost saving is on the terminal device itself, plus the
benefit of freeing perimeter space. Also, because heating and
cooling must be available simultaneously, the service must
be provided by separate central plant items, i.e. a centralised
changeover heat pump is not possible (see section 3.1.3).
Warm water flow
and return pipes
Flow
Return
Flow
Return
Diverting valve
Chilled water
flow and
return pipes
Radiant Common
panel return
Figure 3.2 Four-pipe configuration
3.1.2 Ceiling in 2-pipe configuration
With this arrangement (Figure 3.3), the ceiling panels
operate only in changeover mode, resulting in savings on
distribution pipework as well as on terminal devices and
perimeter space. Unlike a conventional fan coil system, the
changeover follows a daily rather than a seasonal cycle,
21
Flow pipe (warm or chilled water
depending on changeover mode)
Return pipe (warm or
chilled water depending
on changeover mode)
Radiant
panel
Figure 3.3 Two-pipe configuration
although the need for changeover is likely to be restricted to
the colder months. Control flexibility is much more limited
than in the 4-pipe system, but some zonal (as opposed to
local) flexibility is possible. With the zone control
approach, relatively large sections of the building (e.g. a
wing or a floor) can be switched from heating to cooling,
while retaining heating in other zones (or vice versa). This
would require a 4-pipe main distribution manifold, with 2-
pipe local distribution circuits being fed from it. This
approach would provide considerable cost savings because
the total length of installed pipe run is substantially
reduced. There are also savings in the more labour-
intensive parts of the network, i.e. the work carried out in
confined ceiling voids when coordinating the layout with
the structure and other services.
If zonal changeover is considered unnecessary, whole
building changeover would allow even more capital cost
savings, since there is the saving of a complete distribution
network as well as one set of terminal devices. However care
would be required during changeover to avoid ‘slugs’ of
warm water entering the chiller.
Whole-building changeover does not require totally simul-
taneous occupation in all parts of the building. Because the
envelope is so effective, the rate of fall of temperature is
slow, even in the absence of heating on a design winter day.
To illustrate this approach, Figure 3.4 shows simulated
conditions in a N-facing room with different amounts of
glazing following a cold weekend. No internal gains are
effective in the space until 1200. The building is pre-heated
to 21.5 °C, and switches off at 0700. The optimum start
algorithm for the largest glazed area is also shown for
comparison. Following the end of heating, the temperature
falls under the influence of the displacement ventilation,
but picks up reasonably quickly once the gains become
available in the space. The graphs present the worst case; in
real buildings there will be inter-zone coupling that will
tend to distribute heat from an occupied zone to an
unoccupied one. Further, if the ventilation system were
controlled to avoid supplying air to unoccupied zones, the
gradient of the temperature decay would be substantially
reduced, and comfort would be maintained (as well as
saving fan energy).
Whole building changeover would also allow a changeover
heat pump to provide both heating and cooling, thereby
saving plant room space. Another possibility would be to
provide buffer storage so that the heat being rejected by the
22 HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15
Ramped heating from 15 to 21·5°C Constant heating to 21·5°C
14 (Window height 2·8 m, U-value 2 W/m2·K) (Window height 2·8 m, U-value 2 W/m2·K)
13 Constant heating to 21·5°C Constant heating to 21·5°C
(Window height 1·8 m, U-value 2 W/m2·K) (Window height 1·2 m, U-value 2 W/m2·K)
12
0000 0600 1200 1800 0000 0600 1200 1800
Monday Tuesday Figure 3.4 Building changeover
Time of day / h with delayed occupancy

chiller during the day could be stored and used to provide
the pre-heat for the following night time (see section 3.1.3).
3.1.3 Ceiling connected via reversible heat
pumps to a common water loop
This mode of operation relies on the use of distributed
reversible heat pumps (Figure 3.5). This provides the same
level of control flexibility as the 4-pipe system. It dis-
tributes the heating and cooling equipment around the
building, requiring less central plant room space. Because
the building is primarily either all-heating or all-cooling,
the dimensioning of the water loop will require careful
consideration to avoid excessive temperature differences
along the loop length, which would adversely affect heat
pump performance.
In conventional systems, the water loop is usually controlled
to about 33 °C. In this application, it may be appropriate to
reduce this as the water temperature is only ~30 °C for
Water loop to provide heat source/heat dump
depending on heat pump mode
heating and ~16 °C for cooling. Consequently, a lower loop
temperature may be beneficial but this would depend on the
relative efficiencies of the dry cooler and the heat pumps.
Another approach worth considering would be to use the
water loop as a buffer to store energy during changeover. For
example, during pre-heat the water temperature in the loop
could be allowed to fall in order to maximise the efficiency of
cooling, once this became the dominant load. Similarly at the
end of daytime cooling, the water loop temperature could be
allowed to rise, providing a higher source temperature for the
next pre-heat period.
3.2 Simplified control
Problems of zoning and of simultaneous heating and
cooling are reduced with this approach, as the building is
always either in pre-heat or in cooling, never the two
simultaneously. Large variations in internal gain will still
require zoning for cooling purposes, with possible supple-
mental cooling provision. As far as heating is concerned,
the building can be treated as one large zone as the issue is
only pre-heat, when diversity of internal gain or variations
in solar gain are irrelevant.

Another important consequence of the low loads is that the

system flow temperatures for both heating and cooling are
relatively close to the required room temperature. As room
temperatures change, the temperature difference between
Reversible
heat pump the radiant panel and the room also changes to modulate
the convective output, so as to return the room temperature
towards the desired set-point.

One of the reasons why current designs sometimes fail to

perform to expectations is because the HVAC systems are
trying to deal with the rapid changes in thermal energy
caused by the vagaries of the UK climate and the traditional
approach to core and perimeter zones. This problem is
exacerbated by high glazing areas and thermally light-
Radiant weight buildings. Sophisticated control systems have been
panel developed to try to cater for these rapid temporal and
spatial variations, but the systems are often not designed,
commissioned or maintained as well as they might be. The
Figure 3.5 Heat pump and common water loop approach outlined in this publication is to remove the
HVAC systems in combination with advanced envelopes
problem rather than treat the symptoms. High perfor-
mance building envelopes can substantially simplify the
design and operation of HVAC systems. By effectively
isolating the occupied space from the external climate, the
internal loads become much more constant with time and
much more even between core and perimeter and between
different orientations of perimeter zone, especially if the
thermal capacity is high.
3.3 Central plant options
This section explores the options available for providing
warm and chilled water to supply to the heating and cooling
systems.
3.3.1 Heating
Two issues influence the selection of heating plant:
— the very low supply temperature required for
ceiling radiant heating (<35 °C)
— the fact that heating is only required during the
pre-heat period and never simultaneously with
cooling.
The first point allows very efficient heat raising plant to be
utilised. One obvious option is a condensing boiler, since
this would operate with continuous low return water
temperatures, thereby maximising the period of condens-
ing operation and achieving seasonal gross efficiencies of
>90%. Another important issue is that, because heating
demands are small, the required capacity may be met with
multiple domestic-type units, with much simpler (and
cheaper) flue arrangements. Such units can easily be wall
hung and thereby save further plant room space.
An alternative to a condensing boiler would be a heat
pump, which would operate with a low condensing
temperature resulting in a high CoP, especially if the heat
source were at a reasonably high temperature (e.g. ground
source) such that the temperature rise was small. Since
heating will be needed only for pre-heat, a heat pump
would operate for most of the time at off-peak tariffs,
thereby ensuring low energy costs as well as attractively low
emissions of carbon. The fact that heating is required only
during the pre-heat period means that reversible heat
pumps should also be considered because they would
provide another level of integration, extending plant
utilisation and reducing plant space requirements.
The 2002 edition of Part L of the Building Regulations(1)
characterises the performance of a heating system in terms
of carbon intensity (kg(carbon)/kW·h of useful heat, i.e. the
ratio of the carbon emission factor for the fuel to the gross
thermal efficiency). Users would also be interested in the
cost intensity (pence/kW·h of useful heat, i.e. the ratio of
Table 3.1 Comparison of a condensing boiler with electric heat pumps
Efficiency/ Fuel emission factor
Heating plant CoP (kg(carbon)/kW·h)
Gas condensing boiler 95% 0.053
Electric heat pump 2.5 0.113
Electric heat pump 4.0 0.113
23
the cost of the fuel to the gross thermal efficiency). Table
3.1 compares a condensing boiler and a heat pump, based
on a relatively modest heat pump CoP of 2.5 and a high
efficiency heat pump (e.g. ground source). The table
illustrates that the heat pump is significantly better in
carbon emission terms and that, at off-peak electricity rates,
the costs are comparable. Because all the heating is pre-
heat, the majority of the heating demand will be in off-peak
periods. Clearly, the cost issue is very dependent on tariff,
but the current trend is for gas prices to increase and
electricity rates to decrease.
The low supply water temperature also benefits heat pump
performance by reducing the required temperature lift. The
key design issue for a heat pump is to identify a suitable heat
source. If an air-source heat pump is used, maximum heat
demand occurs at times of lowest ambient temperature,
thereby reducing efficiency. This is made worse in the
approach discussed here because all the heating is required
during pre-heat, when ambient temperatures are at their
lowest during the diurnal cycle. This suggests that a ground
source heat pump might provide the most energy efficient
solution, although clearly capital costs will be higher than
for an air source heat pump. Ground temperatures below
about 2 m approximate the annual average temperature,
which in the UK is typically 10–12 °C. This constant source
temperature can enable high CoPs in the region of 4.0 (the
value used for the second example in Table 3.1). Performance
is best in areas with non-consolidated (sandy) sediments,
with a high groundwater table and groundwater flow. This
eases the drilling of the boreholes, and promotes high heat
transfer rates.
Ground loop systems are usually in the form of a series of
boreholes to a depth of ~100 m. Water/glycol mixture is
circulated around each loop, and the individual loops
manifolded together to provide the source water for the
reversible heat pump(s). In this way, the soil acts as a heat
storage device: during heating, the ground temperature is
lowered, storing energy to be used in the next cooling cycle.
Indeed, it is usually required that the net annual heat
injection into the ground by the system is approximately
zero to avoid altering the thermal balance of the ground
beyond the boundaries of the building. With the integrated
approach proposed in this publication, there is a significant
net cooling demand, and so ground temperatures will
continue to rise unless some balancing measures are taken.
This could include using other forms of free-cooling in
winter months (see section 3.3.2) or cooling the ground
during unoccupied night hours. This can be done by the
pre-heat operation or, when pre-heat is not required,
passing the water from the ground loops through a dry-air
cooler. This takes advantage of the lower night-time
temperatures to generate cooling at a very high efficiency.
This parasitic energy loss is compensated for through the
very high CoP (of 5 or more) when the system is providing
cooling to the building.
Price Carbon intensity Cost intensity
(pence/kW·h) (kg(carbon)/kW·h) (pence/kW·h)
1.15 0.056 1.21
6.5 (peak) 0.045 2.60
2.5 (off-peak) 1.00
6.5 (peak) 0.028 1.63
2.5 (off-peak) 0.63
24
The water loop from the boreholes can be integrated into
the radiant panels by using the two-pipe approach (see
section 3.1.2) with a centralised reversible heat pump, or it
can be the circulating loop to which distributed reversible
heat pumps are coupled (see section 3.1.3). In either mode,
the ground is acting as the heat rejection system,
eliminating the need for a rooftop heat rejection plant. This
might have significant advantages in terms of the aesthetics
of a clean roofline or where planning restrictions limit total
building height.
3.3.2 Cooling
Radiant cooling, together with many chilled beam systems,
utilise relatively high design flow water temperatures
(~16 °C). As cooling loads reduce from the design value,
flow water temperatures can be raised still further. This
means elevated evaporating temperatures with increased
CoPs for mechanical cooling plant. If the heat sink also
allows a lower condensing temperature (such as floating
head pressure control or the use of groundwater), further
increases in CoP can be obtained. For these reasons, very
good chiller CoP should be attainable in buildings with high
performance envelopes requiring year-round cooling.
However, the greatest energy saving benefit will come from
the utilisation of free or high efficiency ambient cooling, e.g.
dry-air coolers, cooling towers and ground/lake water
sources (25).
Even if the chilled water temperature is not increased at
reduced cooling load, for much of the winter period water at
16 °C can be obtained using ambient energy sources,
thereby enabling apparent CoPs as high as 20 or more to be
obtained for significant periods. The provision of cool water
at ~16 °C requires a source whose temperature is ≤ 14 °C.
The 2 K difference allows for an adequate driving potential
across the heat exchanger that cools the circulating chilled
water. One approach is to use a dry-air cooler. Figure 3.6
shows typical CoPs as a function of ambient temperature
when operating at two different chilled water flow
temperatures, 14 °C and 16 °C(26). For comparison, the CoP
of a typical conventional water chiller system is also shown.
It is necessary to use an anti-freeze fluid in the dry-air cooler
to provide frost protection. Traditionally, the anti-freeze
mixture is isolated from the chilled water circuit by the use
of a high efficiency plate-type heat exchanger. However,
there is no practical reason why the anti-freeze solution
should not be circulated throughout the chilled water
25
Chilled water flow temperature
14°C
20
16°C
Cooling CoP
Typical chiller system
15
10
5
0 Overall system efficiencies might be improved still further
0 5 10 15
Ambient temperature / °C
Figure 3.6 Efficiency of dry-air cooler
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
30
Maximum daily temperature / °C
25
20
15
Frequency exceeded
10
2 days/month
5 15 days/month
Target
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 3.7 Frequency at which maximum daily temperature is exceeded
circuit, thereby simplifying the system, increasing both the
system CoP and the operating period, and reducing capital
cost. The effect of using anti-freeze mixtures will marginally
increase system pump energy, but much less than that
needed to provide for the pressure losses of a plate heat
exchanger. It may also slightly decrease the heat transfer
efficiency of the terminal cooling devices themselves,
perhaps resulting in a slight increase in their cost.
The importance of this free-cooling opportunity is readily
apparent from an analysis of the weather data as illustrated
in Figure 3.7. The upper curve shows the maximum daily
temperature that is exceeded on average for only two days a
month. This indicates that for the period November to
March, the dry cooler can provide virtually all the cooling
requirements. The lower line shows the maximum
temperature exceeded on half the days of the month. It
indicates that free-cooling can provide all the cooling for at
least half the days for another month or more at the
beginning and end of the winter period. Comparison with
Figure 3.6 suggests that the average CoP for cooling during
this period will be of the order of 10. This figure would
improve still further if the chilled water temperature were
scheduled to increase at reduced winter cooling demand.
Another approach would be to use groundwater to cool the
chilled water circuit. The ground below about 2 m depth in
the UK provides a year-round temperature of the order of
12 °C. With this approach, the groundwater is pumped out
of the ground using an open loop configuration, with the
water being re-injected into the ground via a second,
remote borehole. In some UK locations, the re-injection of
the groundwater is not even required because there are
problems of rising groundwater tables causing flooding of
deep basements and underground tunnels. For example,
Sainsbury’s Millennium Superstore in Greenwich uses
groundwater in this way(27), both to cool the store via
embedded pipes in the floor and to lower condensing tem-
peratures for the low temperature refrigeration equipment.
After use, the water is pumped to a surface drain.
If it is a requirement that the water be re-injected, the
implications of continued heat rejection to the aquifer need
to be understood. If necessary, the heat rejected to the
ground could be taken out at night using a dry-air cooler.
Night-time temperatures will typically be at least 5 K cooler
than the daytime values, which would significantly increase
the efficiency of the dry cooler process and extend the
length of the season for which free-cooling is available.
20
by using a ground-coupled heat pump system for cooling.
* From manufacturers’ data
Performance estimates
Cooling could be taken from the ground during the day at
quoted CoPs of more than 30*.
Supply temperature / °C
3.3.3 Ventilation
This section has concentrated on using radiant ceiling panels
as the room heating and cooling device. Conventionally,
such systems are used in conjunction with displacement
ventilation. The detailed design of such systems is covered
elsewhere(28), and this section will only review how a
displacement ventilation system might be integrated into
the overall strategy.
Figure 3.8 The effect of heat recovery effectiveness on supply
temperature
The main issue for consideration is the air supply
temperature, which is normally scheduled at 19 °C. The
issue is that, even during winter, the building is in cooling
mode even though the outside air is much cooler than the
room supply temperature. The amount of cooling available
via the ventilation plant is significant, as can be seen from
Figure 2.1. However, this cooling potential is limited by the
need to heat the room air supply temperature to 19 °C.
Reducing the ventilation supply temperature to, say, 17 °C
would reduce heating demand due to ventilation and
simultaneously double the usable cooling potential of the
supply air. This increased cooling would be sufficient to
maintain space conditions in cold weather without the need
to provide cooling from the radiant panels, even allowing
for some solar gain to the space. Indeed, if the room
temperature is allowed to rise a little from the 21 °C on
which Figure 2.1 is based, the free-cooling potential of the
ventilation air would increase still further.
The main reason for controlling the room supply tempera-
ture to approx. 19 °C is to maintain comfort in the region of
the floor diffusers. A reduction in supply temperature
would be possible if the induction ratio of the diffuser were
increased (28). This can be achieved with user adjustable
outlets giving a high degree of swirl. An alternative
approach to increase the cooling potential would be to
increase the ventilation rate, but here the savings from the
free-cooling would have to be offset against increased fan
power. It should be pointed out that free-cooling is also
available via the radiant ceiling panels (see section 3.3.2),
and so energy benefit is not entirely lost if high induction
diffusers are impractical or unjustifiably expensive.
The other issue for consideration with a relatively high air
supply temperature is the energy demand for heating the
air. To achieve good indoor air quality, displacement
ventilation systems are usually 100% outside air. In that
context, heat recovery systems may provide significant
benefit. Figure 3.8 shows the room supply temperature
achievable with different levels of device effectiveness as a
function of outside air temperature. The analysis is based
on a return air temperature of 22 °C, i.e. a room temperature
of 21 °C and a fan pickup of 1 K. In reality, the return
temperature is likely to be much greater because of
temperature stratification with displacement ventilation
and further heat pickup through the air handling
luminaires. The analysis is therefore conservative. The
graphs indicate that heat recovery is able to meet the
ventilation heating requirement under all likely condi-
tions, provided the effectiveness can approach 90%. This is
at the top end of the performance range, but thermal wheels
and regenerators are capable of sensible effectiveness of
90% or even slightly more(8).
25
25
20
15
10 Heat recovery effectiveness
50%
5 70%
90%
0
–10 –50 5 10 15
Outside temperature / °C
It is always important to assess the energy costs associated
with achieving heat recovery. Increased fan power and the
direct costs associated with, for example, the drive motor
for the thermal wheel must be offset against the cost and
carbon impact of the heat recovered. The specification of
air handling units with low specific fan power (~1.5
W/litre·s–1 or less) will be beneficial in this respect. Analysis
shows that such specific fan powers offer reduced whole life
cost related to conventional specifications(29).
Another important consideration with respect to use of heat
recovery is the sizing of the primary heat source for the
building. It has been conventional practice to ignore the
effect of the heat recovery when sizing the heat-raising
plant. The argument has been that if the building is cold,
there is no heat in the building to recover and therefore the
heating plant should be capable of supplying all the
ventilation heat demand. This logic is debatable: when
bringing a building up to temperature from cold, the
ventilation system would either not be running or running
on full recirculation. In the context of advanced envelope
buildings that are self heating, it would seem fully justified
to size the heating plant based on fabric and infiltration
losses only, provided the heat recovery plant is sufficiently
efficient to handle the ventilation loss.
4 Performance estimates
In order to get an indication of the relative cost of the
approach proposed in this publication, a comparison
exercise was undertaken for a realistic modern office
building. The work was based on the three-storey office
shown in Figure 4.1; the gross floor area was 4130 m2.
Three variants of this building were analysed. All were the
Figure 4.1 Reference building
Performance estimates
Cooling could be taken from the ground during the day at
quoted CoPs of more than 30*.
Supply temperature / °C
3.3.3 Ventilation
This section has concentrated on using radiant ceiling panels
as the room heating and cooling device. Conventionally,
such systems are used in conjunction with displacement
ventilation. The detailed design of such systems is covered
elsewhere(28), and this section will only review how a
displacement ventilation system might be integrated into
the overall strategy.
Figure 3.8 The effect of heat recovery effectiveness on supply
temperature
The main issue for consideration is the air supply
temperature, which is normally scheduled at 19 °C. The
issue is that, even during winter, the building is in cooling
mode even though the outside air is much cooler than the
room supply temperature. The amount of cooling available
via the ventilation plant is significant, as can be seen from
Figure 2.1. However, this cooling potential is limited by the
need to heat the room air supply temperature to 19 °C.
Reducing the ventilation supply temperature to, say, 17 °C
would reduce heating demand due to ventilation and
simultaneously double the usable cooling potential of the
supply air. This increased cooling would be sufficient to
maintain space conditions in cold weather without the need
to provide cooling from the radiant panels, even allowing
for some solar gain to the space. Indeed, if the room
temperature is allowed to rise a little from the 21 °C on
which Figure 2.1 is based, the free-cooling potential of the
ventilation air would increase still further.
The main reason for controlling the room supply tempera-
ture to approx. 19 °C is to maintain comfort in the region of
the floor diffusers. A reduction in supply temperature
would be possible if the induction ratio of the diffuser were
increased (28). This can be achieved with user adjustable
outlets giving a high degree of swirl. An alternative
approach to increase the cooling potential would be to
increase the ventilation rate, but here the savings from the
free-cooling would have to be offset against increased fan
power. It should be pointed out that free-cooling is also
available via the radiant ceiling panels (see section 3.3.2),
and so energy benefit is not entirely lost if high induction
diffusers are impractical or unjustifiably expensive.
The other issue for consideration with a relatively high air
supply temperature is the energy demand for heating the
air. To achieve good indoor air quality, displacement
ventilation systems are usually 100% outside air. In that
context, heat recovery systems may provide significant
benefit. Figure 3.8 shows the room supply temperature
achievable with different levels of device effectiveness as a
function of outside air temperature. The analysis is based
on a return air temperature of 22 °C, i.e. a room temperature
of 21 °C and a fan pickup of 1 K. In reality, the return
temperature is likely to be much greater because of
temperature stratification with displacement ventilation
and further heat pickup through the air handling
luminaires. The analysis is therefore conservative. The
graphs indicate that heat recovery is able to meet the
ventilation heating requirement under all likely condi-
tions, provided the effectiveness can approach 90%. This is
at the top end of the performance range, but thermal wheels
and regenerators are capable of sensible effectiveness of
90% or even slightly more(8).
25
25
20
15
10 Heat recovery effectiveness
50%
5 70%
90%
0
–10 –50 5 10 15
Outside temperature / °C
It is always important to assess the energy costs associated
with achieving heat recovery. Increased fan power and the
direct costs associated with, for example, the drive motor
for the thermal wheel must be offset against the cost and
carbon impact of the heat recovered. The specification of
air handling units with low specific fan power (~1.5
W/litre·s–1 or less) will be beneficial in this respect. Analysis
shows that such specific fan powers offer reduced whole life
cost related to conventional specifications(29).
Another important consideration with respect to use of heat
recovery is the sizing of the primary heat source for the
building. It has been conventional practice to ignore the
effect of the heat recovery when sizing the heat-raising
plant. The argument has been that if the building is cold,
there is no heat in the building to recover and therefore the
heating plant should be capable of supplying all the
ventilation heat demand. This logic is debatable: when
bringing a building up to temperature from cold, the
ventilation system would either not be running or running
on full recirculation. In the context of advanced envelope
buildings that are self heating, it would seem fully justified
to size the heating plant based on fabric and infiltration
losses only, provided the heat recovery plant is sufficiently
efficient to handle the ventilation loss.
4 Performance estimates
In order to get an indication of the relative cost of the
approach proposed in this publication, a comparison
exercise was undertaken for a realistic modern office
building. The work was based on the three-storey office
shown in Figure 4.1; the gross floor area was 4130 m2.
Three variants of this building were analysed. All were the
Figure 4.1 Reference building
26
same in terms of building geometry and occupancy/use; the
variations were in terms of the fabric insulation and
servicing strategy. The three models were as follows:
(a) Reference case: built to 1995 Part L standards, with
the exception of the office glazing. This was taken
as U = 2.7 W/m2·K, a value in advance of 1995 Part
L but typical of current practice. An infiltration
rate of 0.5 ACH was assumed. The reference design
had better than average solar shading with external
louvres on the SE and SW façades. The building
was conditioned by a 4-pipe fan coil system, with
perimeter heating under the windows. Fresh air
was supplied at 3 ACH at 17 °C to all spaces.
(b) Advanced envelope (lightweight) with wall U-values of
0.3 W/m2·K and windows of 1.5 W/m2·K. Infiltra-
tion was taken as 0.15 ACH, corresponding to an air
leakage rate of ~5 (m3/h)/m2 @ 50 Pa. The building
was conditioned by a 2-pipe changeover heated/
chilled radiant ceiling system, with heating control-
led via a night setback and optimum start schedule.
Ventilation was via a displacement ventilation
system, supplying air at 3 ACH at 19 °C.
(c) Advanced envelope (heavyweight): details as for (b),
except that the building was heated continuously
overnight to maintain a set point of 21 °C.
The following sections detail the relative performance of
the buildings in relation to a number of key criteria.
4.1 Comfort
The cumulative comfort distributions shown in Figure 4.2
illustrate that, in general, the advanced envelope buildings
were a little warmer, especially in winter, than the design
based on current practice. The light and heavy variants
performed almost identically. All three buildings main-
tained conditions within the acceptable thermal comfort
envelope at all times.
100
90 Design to 1995 Building
Regulations
80
occupied hours / %
Percentage of total
70 Advanced envelope
(light)
60
Advanced envelope
50
(heavy)
40
30
20
10
0
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Dry resultant temperature / °C
Figure 4.2 Comfort comparison for the three variants
4.2 Energy costs/carbon emissions
In order to estimate energy consumption (and hence costs
and carbon emissions), the performance of the HVAC system
was modelled in terms of estimating the load on the central
plant (i.e. the efficiency of all central plant items was set at
100%). The effect of different central plant efficiencies can
then be assessed as a second stage calculation.
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
140
1995 Building Regulations
120
Advanced envelope (light)
100
Advanced envelope (heavy)
Load / GJ
80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 4.3 Air heating demands
In considering the figures for the relative heating and
cooling demands for the three options, the following points
can be made:
— The air heating demand is lower in the reference
case because of the lower room supply temperature
(Figure 4.3). For the advanced envelope design,
this is significant because, when the ventilation
system is running, the space requires cooling.
Consequently, when outside temperatures are less
than the ventilation supply temperature, air is
being heated to supply a room requiring cooling.
This means that a reduction in supply air
temperature would reduce both heating and
cooling demands for the advanced design. The
lightweight version was re-run using the same
supply air temperature as the conventional design.
The total heating load was reduced by 13%, and the
cooling load by 9%. As discussed in section 3.3.3, a
reduced supply air temperature may be possible in a
displacement ventilation regime, if high induction
diffusers were used.
— As would be expected with the increased insulation
standards, the room heating demands are signifi-
cantly lower in winter for the advanced envelope
options (Figure 4.4). What is particularly signifi-
cant is the further reduction in heating demand
with the thermally massive option. This is due to
the increased ability of the fabric to retain the
excess heat gains from the previous day and thereby
reduce the pre-heat demand for the next day. There
is a small increase in room heating demand for the
advanced envelope design relative to the reference
through the summer months. This is due to the
pre-heat control algorithm still heating the build-
ing to 21.5 °C prior to occupancy. This is almost
certainly unnecessary in summer, and refinement
of the pre-heat control would mean that the
summer heating demand would be no greater than
with the reference design.
— The room cooling loads are significantly higher for
the lightweight advanced envelope design than the
140
1995 Building Regulations
120
Advanced envelope (light)
100
Advanced envelope (heavy)
Load / GJ
80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 4.4 Room heating demands
Performance estimates
reference design in winter. One reason for this is
the apparent free-cooling provided by the higher
infiltration rate in the conventional design. This is
no argument for higher infiltration rates, since the
air leakage is likely to create draughts and local
discomfort rather than any real cooling energy
benefit. As discussed previously, the winter cooling
can be provided via a number of free-cooling
techniques and so any winter increase is relatively
insignificant. What is more important is the
significant reduction in summer loads consequent
upon the improved solar control. Once again, the
heavyweight version outperforms the lightweight
version in all seasons (Figure 4.5).
140
1995 Building Regulations
120
Advanced envelope (light)
100
Advanced envelope (heavy)
Load / GJ
80
60
40
20
0 guidance in 2002 Approved Document L requires ‘standard’
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 4.5 Room cooling demands
As explained above, the data represent the demands on the
central plant, not the energy consumed in meeting those
demands. The advanced concepts are likely to be more
efficient in meeting the cooling demands than is the
conventional design but, even before those effects are
accounted for, the loads can be seen to be less, as shown by
Figure 4.6. The only exception is the lightweight version
with a supply air temperature of 19 °C. In this case, heating
is very slightly more and cooling 18% more. However, as
shown from the detailed figures, this additional cooling is
the result of increased demand for cooling in winter, a
demand that can be met from ‘free’ sources (see section
3.3.2). Figures 3.6 and 3.7 would suggest that the average
CoP during the period October to April would be of the
order of 10. This figure could be improved if the ground
source option were used. A conventional vapour compres-
sion system would be operating at around 3, after taking
into account the ancillary consumptions (chilled water
250
Heating Cooling
200
Loads / (MW·h) per annum
150
100
50
0 broadly in agreement with the offices cost model published
Current Advanced envelope
Light Light Heavy
(19°C) (17°C) (19°C)
Figure 4.6 Total heating and cooling loads
27
pumps, heat rejection fans etc). The summer operation
would not show much improvement in CoP other than those
normally consequent on the use of a displacement
ventilation/chilled ceiling strategy. However, the loads that
have to be met are reduced by the improved solar
protection, and so the total energy costs/carbon emissions
are therefore lower in summer.
4.3 Building costs
The new approach to design puts greater emphasis on the
façade investment. This delivers reduced costs in HVAC
plant and equipment. The following section gives some
basic data on how these costs might be distributed.
4.3.1 Windows
The main emphasis on the fabric is in improved windows.
Data from a window supplier(18) suggest that the marginal
cost for a good quality ‘2+1’ window with high solar
protection would be about £70/m2 relative to an equivalent
quality standard double-glazed unit (U ~2.7 W/m2·K). The
units to improve their performance to 2.2 W/m2·K or better,
so the figure of £70/m2 is an overestimate of the real
marginal cost that will apply once the 2002 Part L standards
take effect.
4.3.2 Opaque fabric
In this area, the main changes are slightly increased
thicknesses of thermal insulation, and greater attention to
thermal bridging and air barriers. None of these activities is
particularly cost intensive, apart from perhaps an initial
investment in the development of good design details and
the training of site operatives. The marginal cost of these
improvements will be recouped in many ways that are not
accounted for in the analysis presented here. For example,
the general building quality will be improved so that there
will be reduced problems with drafts or local condensation
and mould. Also, general insulation performance will not
be compromised by air passing behind insulation layers, a
phenomenon quite common in buildings with poor
airtightness.
4.4 HVAC costs
Clearly the savings in HVAC system cost depend on the
configuration selected (see sections 3.1.1–3.1.3) and the
particulars of each design. However, the following general
guidance indicates that the extra cost of the windows will,
in most cases, be more than compensated by reduced HVAC
costs.
The three possible changeover modes discussed in section
3.1 progressively eliminate terminal devices, LTHW distri-
bution pipework within each heating/cooling zone and all
LTHW pipework other than in the plantroom. Table 4.1
shows the level of cost savings associated with each of these
three levels of system simplification(30). The figures are
in the Building Services Journal(31), except that the tabulated
figures are about £7/m2 cheaper in terms of the heating
elements because they are based on a more common
radiator system rather than a trench heating system. In
28
Table 4.1 Level of cost savings associated with changeover modes
discussed in section 3.1
Level Description of system option
1 Eliminate perimeter heating elements only
(LTHW pipework connected to each bank of
radiant panels)
2 Eliminate both the perimeter heating elements
and the LTHW pipework from edge of heating/
cooling zone to the radiant panels
3 Eliminate perimeter heating elements and all
LTHW distribution pipework other than in
the plant room
addition to these direct cost savings there is the added
value associated with the extra perimeter space and the
increased space flexibility.
Figure 4.7 shows how these cost savings usually more than
compensate for the additional window cost of £70/m2 (see
section 4.3.1). To aid comparison, this cost has been
translated to a floor area basis for the case of a building with
a floor-to-ceiling height of 2.8 m and a plan width of 15 m.
The window area is expressed as a function of the visible
wall area looking from the inside of the room. The saving
in terminal device cost is comparable to the additional
window cost at low glazing ratios. However, if some of the
LTHW pipework is eliminated (levels 2 or 3), significant cost
savings of £10–25/m2 are possible, depending on glazing
ratio. It should be noted that the marginal window cost
included high solar protection, and so the cost benefit of
the improved windows is further enhanced by reduced
chiller costs as well as reduced boiler costs (see paragraph
below), making the financial case even stronger.
£40
Costs/savings / (£/m2)
£30
Glazing Level 2
£20
Level 1 Level 3
£10
£0
20 30 40 50 60
Window area / %
Figure 4.7 Marginal extra costs of windows and reduction in heating
system costs
Figure 4.8 shows that the design space heating demand in
the case study is reduced by ~50%. The overall savings
through the reduced boiler size will be modest, because the
ventilation heat loss is increasingly dominant, and this
component is not being affected by the proposed design
strategy. It is anticipated that the savings will not amount
to more than £1/m2 although, depending on building size,
this might increase by utilising simpler domestic style
boilers. If domestic wall-hung boilers are used, there will be
reduced requirement for plant room space.
Similarly, Figure 4.8 shows the required chiller capacity is
reduced by 20%. Cooling costs for office buildings are
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
typically £30–40/m2 (32), so the enhanced solar protection
might generate costs savings of £5/m2 or slightly more. This
Budget cost benefit could be used to reduce capital costs, or to re-invest
reduction the savings in free-cooling equipment that will significantly
£5–7/m2 reduce running costs.
Taken in combination, the elimination of the perimeter
£25–30/m2 heating elements and the downsizing of boiler and chiller
plant is likely to generate cost reductions for mechanical
plant of about £12/m2. This would finance the extra window
cost for glazing ratios of 45% and below. If elements of the
£28–34/m2
LTHW pipework can be eliminated (levels 2 or 3), overall
savings of between £15–35/m2 are possible, or approxi-
mately 1.5–4% of total building cost.
4.5 Maintenance costs
It is difficult to provide quantified maintenance data, but it
is probably reasonable to assume that fewer and smaller
mechanical systems should lead to reduced maintenance
requirements. This trend is likely to be enhanced by the
fact that the range of loads over which the plant will operate
will be compressed, leading to reduced low load operation.
4.6 Whole-life cost
The simplified cost data given above suggest that the
approach described in this document would be cheaper in
terms of capital costs than current design approaches,
although this would always need to be checked on a case-
by-case basis. Coupled to this are substantial reductions in
running costs and carbon emissions. All these benefits are
attained in a building that provides comfort conditions that
are at least as good as conventional designs. The approach
will also improve the overall quality of construction and the
longevity of the building, thereby contributing to the wider
sustainability agenda.
5 Summary and design
checklist
This publication has sought to demonstrate that high
performance envelopes can deliver substantial benefits in
allowing simpler, more efficient HVAC strategies. The
evidence suggests that buildings designed to the standards
70 80
180
Boiler
160
Chiller
140
120
Capacity / kW
100
80
60
40
20
0
Current Advanced envelope
Light Heavy
Figure 4.8 Calculated plant sizes (excluding ventilation and plant
margin
28
Table 4.1 Level of cost savings associated with changeover modes
discussed in section 3.1
Level Description of system option
1 Eliminate perimeter heating elements only
(LTHW pipework connected to each bank of
radiant panels)
2 Eliminate both the perimeter heating elements
and the LTHW pipework from edge of heating/
cooling zone to the radiant panels
3 Eliminate perimeter heating elements and all
LTHW distribution pipework other than in
the plant room
addition to these direct cost savings there is the added
value associated with the extra perimeter space and the
increased space flexibility.
Figure 4.7 shows how these cost savings usually more than
compensate for the additional window cost of £70/m2 (see
section 4.3.1). To aid comparison, this cost has been
translated to a floor area basis for the case of a building with
a floor-to-ceiling height of 2.8 m and a plan width of 15 m.
The window area is expressed as a function of the visible
wall area looking from the inside of the room. The saving
in terminal device cost is comparable to the additional
window cost at low glazing ratios. However, if some of the
LTHW pipework is eliminated (levels 2 or 3), significant cost
savings of £10–25/m2 are possible, depending on glazing
ratio. It should be noted that the marginal window cost
included high solar protection, and so the cost benefit of
the improved windows is further enhanced by reduced
chiller costs as well as reduced boiler costs (see paragraph
below), making the financial case even stronger.
£40
Costs/savings / (£/m2)
£30
Glazing Level 2
£20
Level 1 Level 3
£10
£0
20 30 40 50 60
Window area / %
Figure 4.7 Marginal extra costs of windows and reduction in heating
system costs
Figure 4.8 shows that the design space heating demand in
the case study is reduced by ~50%. The overall savings
through the reduced boiler size will be modest, because the
ventilation heat loss is increasingly dominant, and this
component is not being affected by the proposed design
strategy. It is anticipated that the savings will not amount
to more than £1/m2 although, depending on building size,
this might increase by utilising simpler domestic style
boilers. If domestic wall-hung boilers are used, there will be
reduced requirement for plant room space.
Similarly, Figure 4.8 shows the required chiller capacity is
reduced by 20%. Cooling costs for office buildings are
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
typically £30–40/m2 (32), so the enhanced solar protection
might generate costs savings of £5/m2 or slightly more. This
Budget cost benefit could be used to reduce capital costs, or to re-invest
reduction the savings in free-cooling equipment that will significantly
£5–7/m2 reduce running costs.
Taken in combination, the elimination of the perimeter
£25–30/m2 heating elements and the downsizing of boiler and chiller
plant is likely to generate cost reductions for mechanical
plant of about £12/m2. This would finance the extra window
cost for glazing ratios of 45% and below. If elements of the
£28–34/m2
LTHW pipework can be eliminated (levels 2 or 3), overall
savings of between £15–35/m2 are possible, or approxi-
mately 1.5–4% of total building cost.
4.5 Maintenance costs
It is difficult to provide quantified maintenance data, but it
is probably reasonable to assume that fewer and smaller
mechanical systems should lead to reduced maintenance
requirements. This trend is likely to be enhanced by the
fact that the range of loads over which the plant will operate
will be compressed, leading to reduced low load operation.
4.6 Whole-life cost
The simplified cost data given above suggest that the
approach described in this document would be cheaper in
terms of capital costs than current design approaches,
although this would always need to be checked on a case-
by-case basis. Coupled to this are substantial reductions in
running costs and carbon emissions. All these benefits are
attained in a building that provides comfort conditions that
are at least as good as conventional designs. The approach
will also improve the overall quality of construction and the
longevity of the building, thereby contributing to the wider
sustainability agenda.
5 Summary and design
checklist
This publication has sought to demonstrate that high
performance envelopes can deliver substantial benefits in
allowing simpler, more efficient HVAC strategies. The
evidence suggests that buildings designed to the standards
70 80
180
Boiler
160
Chiller
140
120
Capacity / kW
100
80
60
40
20
0
Current Advanced envelope
Light Heavy
Figure 4.8 Calculated plant sizes (excluding ventilation and plant
margin
References
outlined here should be more economic to construct, allow
better use of space and provide good comfort conditions.
However, the achievement of these desirable objectives
does require careful thought to both design and con-
struction to ensure the necessary standards are met. The
following checklist summarises the key points that need to
be achieved.
— Good window U-values, of the order of 2.0 W/m2·K
or better, depending on the glazing ratio. The frame
design is as important as the glazing specification
when seeking such U-value standards.
— Good solar protection, offering shading coefficients
of 0.3 or better.
— Good envelope airtightness — an air leakage index
of 5 (m3/h)/m2 at 50 Pa. This requires careful detail-
ing of the air barrier, and a pressure test of the
completed assembly to ensure the standard is
achieved in practice.
— Care over the detailing of the envelope to minimise
the effects of cold bridging. Similar care over instal-
lation is needed to ensure the insulation is con-
tinuous. Thermographic surveys of the construc-
tion are a useful tool to ensure the required
standards are achieved in practice.
— Special consideration given to areas of increased
exposure to external conditions — e.g. corner rooms,
spaces with exposed floors (such as those above
underground car parks) etc. In such cases, provision
may be needed for local supplementary heating.
— Consideration of the benefits of increased thermal
mass to provide passive heat (and ‘coolth’) recovery.
This will also facilitate the use of overnight trickle
heating as a means of ensuring optimum comfort
during cold weather.
— Use of displacement diffusers with a high induction
ratio to maximise the free-cooling potential of the
ventilation air.
— Configuring the heat rejection system pipework
such that free-cooling can be used for much of the
year to generate the chilled water supplied to the
radiant panels.
— Careful consideration of the likely pattern of inter-
nal gain through the space, so that an appropriate
balance can be struck between cost and the degree
of flexibility to heat and cool simultaneously.
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7 Weir G and Muneer T Low emissivity coatings in high-
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11 McIntyre D A Radiation draughts Building Services Engineer 43
136–139 (October 1975)
12 Heiselberg P Draught risk from cold vertical surfaces Building
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13 ISO 7730: Moderate thermal environments - determination of PMV
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14 Littlefair P J Solar shading of buildings BRE Report BR364
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32 Spon’s Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book 2002
(London: Spon Press) (2001)
References
outlined here should be more economic to construct, allow
better use of space and provide good comfort conditions.
However, the achievement of these desirable objectives
does require careful thought to both design and con-
struction to ensure the necessary standards are met. The
following checklist summarises the key points that need to
be achieved.
— Good window U-values, of the order of 2.0 W/m2·K
or better, depending on the glazing ratio. The frame
design is as important as the glazing specification
when seeking such U-value standards.
— Good solar protection, offering shading coefficients
of 0.3 or better.
— Good envelope airtightness — an air leakage index
of 5 (m3/h)/m2 at 50 Pa. This requires careful detail-
ing of the air barrier, and a pressure test of the
completed assembly to ensure the standard is
achieved in practice.
— Care over the detailing of the envelope to minimise
the effects of cold bridging. Similar care over instal-
lation is needed to ensure the insulation is con-
tinuous. Thermographic surveys of the construc-
tion are a useful tool to ensure the required
standards are achieved in practice.
— Special consideration given to areas of increased
exposure to external conditions — e.g. corner rooms,
spaces with exposed floors (such as those above
underground car parks) etc. In such cases, provision
may be needed for local supplementary heating.
— Consideration of the benefits of increased thermal
mass to provide passive heat (and ‘coolth’) recovery.
This will also facilitate the use of overnight trickle
heating as a means of ensuring optimum comfort
during cold weather.
— Use of displacement diffusers with a high induction
ratio to maximise the free-cooling potential of the
ventilation air.
— Configuring the heat rejection system pipework
such that free-cooling can be used for much of the
year to generate the chilled water supplied to the
radiant panels.
— Careful consideration of the likely pattern of inter-
nal gain through the space, so that an appropriate
balance can be struck between cost and the degree
of flexibility to heat and cool simultaneously.
References
1 Conservation of fuel and power in buildings other than dwellings,
Approved Document L2 2002 edition (London: Stationery
Office) (2001)
2 PROBE 14 — Elizabeth Fry building Building Services 20 (4)
37–42 (April 1998)
3 Whole life costing: a client’s guide (London: Construction Clients
Forum) (2000)
4 Whole life costs Construction Procurement Guidance No 7
(London: Office of Government Commerce) ( 2000)
5 Building a better quality of life (London: Department of
Environment, Transport and Regions) (2000)
6 Energy use in offices Energy Efficience Best Practice Programme
ECON 19 (Garston: BRECSU) (1998)
29
7 Weir G and Muneer T Low emissivity coatings in high-
performance double-glazed windows: energy, monetary and
environmental costs Building Services Engineering Research &
Technology 18 (2) 125–127 (1997)
8 Ventilation and air conditioning CIBSE Guide B2 (London:
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2001)
9 Testing buildings for air leakage CIBSE Technical Memoranda
TM23 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers) (2000)
10 Environmental criteria for design Section 1 in Environmental design
CIBSE Guide A (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers) (1999)
11 McIntyre D A Radiation draughts Building Services Engineer 43
136–139 (October 1975)
12 Heiselberg P Draught risk from cold vertical surfaces Building
and Environment 29 (3) 297–301 (1994)
13 ISO 7730: Moderate thermal environments - determination of PMV
and PPD indices and specifications of the conditions for thermal comfort
(Geneva: International Standards Organisation) (1994)
14 Littlefair P J Solar shading of buildings BRE Report BR364
(Garston: Building Services Establishment) (1999)
15 Thermal response and plant sizing Section 5 in Environmental design
CIBSE Guide A (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers) (1999)
16 Best practice in the specification of offices (London: British Council
for Offices) (2000)
17 Borland S Private communication
18 Sampson Windows Private communication
19 . Haughey D The right way for industrial buildings Architects
Journal (9th June 1993)
20 An introduction to infrared thermography for building surveys
BRE Information Paper IP7/90 (Garston: Building Research
Establishment) (1990)
21 Guidance to the standard specification for thermal imaging of non-
electrical building services installations BSRIA Facilities
Management Specification FMS 6/2000 (Bracknell: Building
Services Research and Information Association) (2000)
22 Braham D, Barnard N and Jaunzens D Thermal mass in office
buildings, Part 1 An introduction, Part 2 design criteria BRE Digest
454 (Garston: Building Research Establishment) (2001)
23 Limiting thermal bridging and air leakage: robust construction details
for dwellings and similar buildings (Garston: Building Research
Establishment) (in press)
24 Heating CIBSE Guide B1: (London: Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers) (1986)
25 Butler D J G and Alamdari F Chilled ceilings and beams -
opportunities for free-cooling Proc. Institute of Refrigeration 1998-
1999 94–103
26 Lovell G Private communication,
27 Going to ground Building Services 21 (10) 15–17 (October 1998)
28 Displacement ventilation in non-industrial premises REHVA
Guidebook No. 1 (Leusden, Netherlands: European Federation
of Heating and Air Conditioning Associations) (2002)
29 Improved life cycle performance of ventilation systems PII Project
Report (St Albans: Oscar Faber) (2001)
30 Franklin and Andrews Private communication (2001)
31 Out of town commercial offices cost model Building Services 21
(4) 15–17 (1999)
32 Spon’s Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book 2002
(London: Spon Press) (2001)
30
Appendix A1: Modelling methods
In order to prove the concepts outlined above, a comprehen-
sive series of modelling (physical and computational) were
carried out. These are described in the following sections.
A1.1 Climate chamber tests
Climate chamber testing of realistic room mock-ups with
fully functioning HVAC systems is perhaps the most
credible way to demonstrate accurately the performance of
HVAC systems and their interaction with the building fabric
and indoor climate. A 6.5 m deep by 3.2 m wide office
module was therefore simulated in a climate chamber
(Figure A1.1).
Tests were run for both summer and winter conditions.
Internal gains representing people, lights and computers
were placed in the chamber. The effect of a window in the
end-wall of the chamber was simulated by passing chilled
(winter) or warm (summer) water through coils embedded
in the wall. The size of the window was varied by blanking
off sections of the end wall with insulation board, such that
the surface temperature of the ‘wall’ was equivalent to that
to be expected for a wall U-value of ~0.3 W/m2·K. Detailed
traverses of air and globe temperatures and air speed were
made so that detailed assessments of comfort could be
determined.
For the winter tests, the main purpose was to assess comfort
in the situation where there was no perimeter heating.
Consequently, no active heating or cooling was provided,
other than the effect of the displacement ventilation
system. The surface temperature of the ‘window’ was
progressively lowered until thermal balance was achieved
at two pre-defined internal dry-bulb temperatures (20 and
Figure A1.1 BRE climate chamber during tests
HVAC strategies for well-insulated airtight buildings
22 °C). At this condition, perimeter losses exactly matched
internal gains, representing the most extreme condition for
a system without perimeter heating. The measured glass
surface temperature at these conditions can be used to
predict the required glazing performance for any outside
and inside design conditions. Detailed measurements of
the comfort parameters were taken in the zone immediately
adjacent to the window.
For the summer tests, the purpose was to compare the
performance of the proposed system with a system more
typical of current good practice. The reference case was a
radiant ceiling panel system, with an additional passive
chilled beam to cope with the perimeter load. Some solar
control was provided via external brise-soleil. The test
system just incorporated the radiant ceiling panels, but
with a higher performance envelope.
A1.2 Dynamic thermal modelling
In operational terms, the performance of the concept over
the whole year is perhaps more important than performance
at the design condition, which by definition will occur less
than 2.5% of the time. Detailed thermal simulations were
carried out to assess the distribution of comfort conditions
through a typical year.
Figure A1.2 shows a sample output, comparing the
temperature distributions for two versions of the advanced
concept (one lightweight, the other heavy) against a
reference design built to current practice standards.
Detailed investigations were also made of typical design
weeks of hot and cold weather, to better understand the
dynamics of the building response. As well as modelling the
building fabric, the performance of the HVAC system and
controls was simulated. This enabled the effect of the
changeover control strategy to be assessed, as well as
determining the likely impact of the approach in reducing
energy consumption and carbon emissions.
Initial modelling was based on examining a number of
typical office modules. In this way, a wide range of
parameters was investigated, including orientation, win-
dow size and U-value, thermal capacity, pre-heat strategies,
and heating to cooling changeover modes. The new design
concept was compared with a reference building construct-
ed to 1995 Part L standards, with the exception of the
glazing, which was to an improved standard, typical of
current practice (i.e. double glazing with a U-value of 2.7
60
Advanced envelope
(heavy)
50
Percentage of total office
hours (0900–1800) / %
Advanced envelope
(light)
40
1995 Building
Regulations
30
20
10
0
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Room dry resultant temperature / °C
Figure A1.2 Typical temperature frequency plot
Appendix A1: Modelling methods
rather than 3.3 W/m2·K ). The final round of modelling was
based on a complete real building in order to enable
estimates of energy/CO2 performance to be made. To that
end the reference building was conditioned with a 4-pipe
fan coil system, with perimeter heating scheduled to
outside conditions.
A1.3 Finite element modelling
Two-dimensional finite element modelling was used
(Figure A1.3) to predict the distribution of window surface
temperatures (glazing and frame), and how this would vary
as a function of meteorological wind-speed, incident solar
radiation etc. The work highlights the importance of the
frame in achieving good overall window U-values, since
centre-pane U-values are usually better than whole-window
values. Analyses were carried out for a range of window
types typical of modern practice:
— a thermally broken aluminium framed window
typical of smaller non-domestic buildings
— a curtain walling construction more commonly
used in large scale commercial projects
— a ‘2+1’ window (double-glazed inner unit plus
single glazed outer unit).
Figure A1.3 Finite element modelling of window
31
The performance of the units was assessed for both winter
and summer performance in terms of U-value, internal
surface temperatures and shading coefficient. Particular
attention was given to the performance of units with very
low-emissivity coatings (ε = 0.02–0.06, rather than the
more common ε = 0.16, such as the Pilkington K-glass).
A1.4 Computational fluid dynamics
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was undertaken to
understand better the detail of the comfort conditions
throughout a typical office module (Figure A1.4). The work
was carried out in two stages; first, to compare predictions
against the climate chamber measurements, and then to
simulate situations that would be impractical to model in
the climate chamber (e.g. a corner room with cold glazing
on two adjoining walls).
The degree of correlation between climate chamber and
CFD predictions was encouraging, enabling the modelling
of the more complex configurations to proceed with
confidence. Key parameters in the modelling were the
proper representation of the floor mounted swirl diffusers
and the need to model the detailed radiation exchanges,
since these are crucial to the perception of comfort. One
interesting point to emerge from the comparison of test
chamber and CFD was the impact of the heat gain from
computers. These were initially modelled as convective
heat sources, resulting in a fairly strong buoyant plume that
dominated the flow field. In reality, the majority of the heat
from the computer is ejected via the cooling fan in the
computer case, resulting in a much higher degree of
horizontal entrainment and general mixing.
Figure A1.4 Typical CFD output
Foreword
This publication reports the results of a major Partners in Innovation project that studied
the impact of high performance envelopes on the servicing strategy for office-type
buildings. The work was based on a range of detailed computer modelling techniques
supported by extensive climate chamber testing. The results suggest that there are
significant commercial benefits to be had from high performance envelopes. Equivalent
comfort conditions, significantly reduced operating and management costs and improved
space utilisation are achievable at costs no greater and possibly slightly less than
conventional air-conditioning systems. Although these ideas have not yet been fully
tested in practice, experience gained from the closest current exemplar, the Elizabeth Fry
building at the University of East Anglia, adds credibility to the conclusions presented.

Improved envelope standards will be required by the changes to Part L of the Building
regulations that come into force in 2002. This document demonstrates how such changes
to envelope standards can open up new opportunities for innovative design solutions that
are cost effective and make a major contribution to the wider sustainability agenda.

Steve Irving
Principal author

Acknowledgements
The work leading to the production of this publication was carried out as a Partners in
Innovation project co-ordinated by Oscar Faber. The funding provided by the
Department of Trade and Industry is gratefully acknowledged. The contributions of the
other project partners are also gratefully acknowledged. The project partners and their
representatives on the steering group are listed below.

Oscar Faber Group Ltd. S Irving, Q Babcock, A Wilson

Building Research Establishment Ltd F Alamdari, D Butler, A Perry
BSRIA Ltd. A Martin
Building Sciences Ltd. S Borland
CIBSE D Braham
Department of Trade and Industry G Henderson
Flomerics Ltd. M Seymour, S Somarathne
IPPEC Systems Ltd. M Namih
Klima-Therm (Distribution) Ltd. G Lovell
Pilkington plc R Wilberforce, J Bradshaw
Trox (UK) Ltd. A Green, F Tarada
SAS International Ltd. D Wisely

In addition to the members of the project partners listed above, thanks are also due to J
Lawrence (Sampson Windows Ltd.) and D Wadham (Franklin+Andrews), who provided
useful information for this publication. The measurement and analysis work that
provided the information on which this document is based was carried out by Quentin
Babcock, David Butler, Arron Perry, Mark Seymour and John Bradshaw.

The authors are also thankful to the CIBSE referees who provided a very thorough and
helpful review of the draft document.

This document is published with the consent of the Department of Trade and Industry,
but the views expressed are not necessarily accepted or endorsed by the Department.

Principal authors
S Irving (Oscar Faber)
S Borland (Building Sciences)
Editor
Jackie Wilson

CIBSE Editorial Manager

Ken Butcher

CIBSE Research Manager

Hywel Davies

CIBSE Publishing Manager

Jacqueline Balian

Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the
design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It is
not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the guidance
given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to abide by or
depart from it.
INDEX

Index Terms Links

Advanced envelopes 20–25

Air leakage 16–17
Air leakage index 4 16–17
permeability 16
Airtightness 2 16–17

Blinds 13–14
Building
costs 27
fabric 18–20
orientation 8 9 11
types suitable 13
Building Regulations Part L
2002 edition 1 3 4 17
23 27
1995 edition 11 26 30

Carbon intensity 23
Carbon emissions 2 26
Carbon dioxide emissions 2 26
Cavity walls 18–19
Ceiling panels 21–22
Central plant 23–25
Changeover strategies 21–22
2-pipe 20 21
4-pipe 21
reversible heat pumps 22
whole-building 21
zoned 21
Cladding 19–20
Climate change levy 1
Climate chamber tests 5–6 10 29
Cold bridging 15 18
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Index Terms Links

Cold radiation 5
Comfort
occupant 3 5–9 10–11 20–26
occupant, assessment of 5–9
summer 10–11
thermal 8
Computational fluid dynamic analysis 6 30–31
Condensing boiler 23
Construction 14–20
Construction costs 1
Cooling 24
chilled beam system 10 24
ground source 24
systems 10–11
Corner rooms 6 8–9 11
Costs
building 27
construction 1
energy 1 25–28
fabric 27
maintenance 28
HVAC 27
initial 3
operating 3
maintenance 3
whole life 2 28
windows 27
Curtain walling 19–20

Daylight 14
Design and construction 15–16 17
Displacement ventilation 6 10 20 25
Downdraughts 5 6
Dynamic thermal modelling 8–9 30

Economic indicators 2
Embodied energy 2
Energy costs 1 26–27 28
Envelope design 14–20
Environmental indicators 2
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Index Terms Links

Fabric (of building) 18–20

cavity walls 18–19
cladding 19–20
costs 27
curtain walling 19–20
masonry walls 18–19
performance 14–20
roof assembly 19–20
Facade, orientation 8 9 11
Finite element modelling 31
Free cooling 1 16 24 25
26

Glazing 5 10 12
Ground loop systems 23

Heat gains, level of 3 4

Heat pumps 21–22 23–24
air-source 23
ground source 23
Heating/cooling systems
2-pipe 20 21
4-pipe 21
floor 20
ventilation 20
HVAC systems
costs 27–28
impact on 3–20
with advanced envelopes 20–25

Indicators
economic 2
environmental 2
sustainability 2
Insulation 15–16 18 19
Integrated healing and cooling systems 20–23

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Index Terms Links

Internal temperatures, maintaining 4

Internal gains 3 4 5
Iso-surfaces 6

Light transmission 14

Maintenance costs 3 28
Market drivers 1
Masonry walls 18–19
Materials 2
Meteorological effects 13
Modelling methods 5–6 30–31

Occupant
comfort 3 5–9 10–11 20–26
productivity 3
Operating costs 3

Performance
annual 11
estimates 25–28
fabric 14–20
window 12–14
Perimeter
cooling loads 9–10
heating, elimination of 1 4–5 6
zone 3
Plant
cooling 24
heating 23–24
options 23–25
PMV 5 8 10–11
PPD 8 20
Pre–heating 4 20 23
Predicted percentage dissatisfied 8 20
Predicted mean vote 5 8 10–11
Productivity, occupant 3
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Index Terms Links

Quality assurance 16

Radiant panels 3 8 10 20
Radiant asymmetry 3 5 18 20
Radiation, cold 5
Roof assembly 19–20
Room, corner 6 8–9 11

Selectivity 14
Shading coefficient 9 13–14
Solar control 9 14
Solar gain 9 10 13 14
Stratification, temperature 6–8
Summer, building in 9
Summer, comfort conditions 10–11
Surface temperature 13
Sustainability indicators 2

Temperature
internal 4 13
dry resultant 5 11
stratification 6–8
surface 13
Thermal
capacity 16
comfort 8
mass 16
stratification 6–8

U-values 5 12–13
improvement in 2
standards 4

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Index Terms Links

Ventilation 25
and air leakage 16
displacement 6 10 20

Water loop 22 23
Whole life costs 2
Wind speed, effect of 13
Window
costs 27
performance 12–14
size 5–6
type 12
Winter, building in 4–9

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.