Chapter - II

CHAPTER-II

INDO-ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE

2.1 MEANING AND DEFINATION OF ART

Architecture is the art and technique of building employed to fulfill the

practical and expressive requirements of human civilization. Almost every
settled society that possesses the technique of building produces architecture. It
is necessary in all but the simplest cultures, without it, man is confined to a
primitive struggle with the elements within it. It has not only a defense against
the natural environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a
prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civilized institutions.1
Architecture is the art of designing and constructing buildings that are both
functionally and aesthetically satisfying.2

According to Lethaby, Architecture is the matrix of civilization.3 To

such a definition on architecture it may be added that, historically architecture

intellectual evolution. Each great cultural movement has made its own
particular contribution to the art of building so that the aspiration of the people
and even their way of life stand revealed in substantial form for all to see.4

1
Encyclopedia Britannica, William Benton Publisher, Hemingway Benton Publisher,
USA,1979, p.1088.
2
World wide Encyclopedia, p.73.
3
Lethaby, W.R; Architecture, Thornton Butterworth Limited, London, 1939, p.7.
4
Brown, Percy; Indian Architecture(Buddhist and Hindu)D.B Taraporevala Sons &
Co.Pvt.Ltd.Bombay,1983, p.1.

31
 Chapter - II

The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man-

made structures are:

1. Its suitability to use by human beings in general and its adaptability to

practical human activities.
2. The material obtained.
3. The resource available in money and labour.
4. The stability and permanence of its construction.5

Architecture can be categorized into two:

1. Secular architecture.
2. Religious architecture.

The typology of architecture is complex because no basic requirements

such as those that characterize domestic architecture are common to all
religions and because functions of any one religions involves many different
kinds of activity all of which change with the evolution of cultural patterns.

monuments showing that few countries possess a richer architectural heritage.

The outstanding quality of the architecture of India is its spiritual content. It is
evident that the fundamental purpose of building art was to represent in
concrete form the prevailing religious consciousness of the people. It is mind
materialized in terms of rock, brick or stone.6

5
Encyclopedia Britannica, p.1088.
6
Brown, Percy; Indian Architecture(Buddhist and Hindu), p.1.

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 Chapter - II

2.2 Early Muslim Architecture:

Arabia, at the rise of Islam, on only a small proportion of the population

was settled and these lived in dwellings. Those who lived in mud-brick houses
were called al- -hair cloth, al-
mahar.7

A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style developed soon

after the time of Prophet Mohammed (SAS), developing from Roman,
Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian or Sassanid models. An earliest example of
this may be identified as early as 691 A.D with the completion of the Dome of
Rock i.e., Qubbat-al-Sakhrah in Jerusalem. It featured interior vaulted spaces, a
circular dome and the use of stylized repeating decorative patterns i.e.,
arabesque.8

The great mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 A.D combined

the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above
which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic Architecture.

When the Ottoman Turks captured the city form the Byzantines, they converted
the basilica into a mosque, which is now a museum and incorporated Byzantine
architectural elements into their work like domes. The Hagia Sophia also
served as a model for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade
Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque and the Rustem Pasha Mosque.9

7
Bosworth.C.E and Van Donzel .E, The Encyclopedia of Islam,Leiden,NewYork, 1993, p
.608.
8
Ibid.p.607
9
Ibid.p.609

33
 Chapter - II

The situation was different in Iraq, for here the Arabs founded new
towns. They constructed some sort of place for themselves. The following is a
list of those Ummayyad Friday mosques the essential features of which are
known from literary or archaeological evidence:

1.-Basra, reconstructed in 605.

2.- Kufa, reconstructed in 670.
3.- Damascus, construction began in 706
4.- Medina, reconstructed 706-710.
5.- al-Masjid al-Aksa , Jerusalem, built under Walid I, 705-715.
6. Aleppo, built under Walid I or Sulaiman, 705-717.
7.- Fustat, reconstructed 719-720.
8.- Ramla, completed 717-720.
9.-Busra, Built in 720.
10. Kasr al Hayr al-Sharki built in 728.
11.-Harran built in 744-750.
12. Hamar, reconstructed date uncertain.
13. Dara, date uncertain.

The first mosque worth mentioning was the Great Mosque at Basra and
Kufa. Then aman who had been one of the builder of Khusraw, came forward
and described how columns of stone from Jabal Ahwaz should be used to carry
to the roof of
kibla side has five aisles whereas the rest have two only; the aisle supported on

obvious that the roofing system resembled that of an apadana, or Hall of

Columns of the Achaemenian kings, exactly as was the case in the first great
Mosque at Baghdad.

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 Chapter - II

-Muqaddas), Jerusalem

The dome of the Rock at Jerusalem, the oldest existing monument of

Muslim architecture, was built by the Caliph Abdul Malik and completed in
691. It is an annular building and consists in its simplest analysis of wooden
dome 20.44 m. in diameter, set on a high drum, pierced with sixteen windows
and resting on four piers and twelve columns, places in a circle and so arranged
that three columns alternate with each pier. This circle of support is placed in
the centre of a large octagon averaging 20.60 m. a side , formed by eight walls
9 ½ in high each pierced in their upper half by five windows.10

Distinguished motifs of Islamic Architecture have always been ordered

repetition, radiating structures and rhythmic metric patterns. In this respect,
fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces.
Other significant features employed as motifs include columns, piers and
arches, organized and intern woven with alternating sequences of niches and
colonnades. The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable.
Its usage spans since centuries, first appearing in 691 A.D. with the
construction of the Dome of Rock and recurring even upto the 17 th century
with the Taj Mahal in India and as late as the 19th century, Islamic-domes had
been incorporated into western architecture.

2.3 Styles of Architecture

There are number of styles of architecture namely, Persian Architecture,

Moorish Architecture, Turkistan Architecture (Timurid), Ottoman Turkish
Architecture, Fatimid Architecture, Mamluk Architecture, Sino-Islamic
Architecture. Indo-Islamic Architecture.
10
Ibid.

35
 Chapter - II

Persian Architecture

The eastern banks of the Tigris and Euphrates was where the
capital of Persian empire lay during the 7th century. Persian style mosques are
characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades and arches supported
each by several pillars.

Moorish Architecture

The beginning of Islamic architecture in the Iberian and North Africa

began in 785 A.D. with the construction of the Great Mosque of Cardoba. The
mosque is noted for its striking interior arches.

Turkistan Architecture (Timurid)

Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of ahmad Yasawi in

-e-Amir in
Samarkhand. The style is largely derived from Persian style of architecture.

Ottoman Turkish Architecture

The architecture of Turkish Ottoman empire forms a distinctive whole

especially the great mosques by and in the style of Sinan, like the mid 16th
century mosque.

Fatimid Architecture

In Cairo, the first congregational mosque was al-Azar mosque founded

along with the city (969-973 A.D.) which together with its adjacent institution
of higher learning(Al-Azhar University) became spiritual centre for the Ismaili-

36
 Chapter - II

Shia. The mosque of (996-1013 A.D.) is an important example of Fatimid

architecture.

Mamluk Architecture

The reign of Mamluks(1250-1517 A.D.) marked the beginning of

flowering of Islamic architecture which is most visible in old Cairo.Thus Ibn

with majestic domes, courtyards and soaring minarets apread across the city.

Sino-Islamic Architecture

The first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century

during the Tang dynasty in Xian. An important feature of Chinese art is its
emphasis on symmetry which shows grandeur. Another notable exception is a
beautifullydesigned garden around their mosques.

Indo Islamic Architecture:

Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghurid occupation of India at

the close of the 12 century A.D. The Muslims having inherited a wealth of
varied designs from Sassanian and Byzantine empires and being naturally
endowed with good taste for buildings, never failed to adapt to their own
requirements the indigenous architecture of almost every foreign country that
they conquered.

The most important factors common to both forms of architecture,

especially in respect of mosques and temples, were that to both styles,
ornamental decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases
was surrounded by colonnades. But the contrast was equally striking: the

37
 Chapter - II

prayer chamber of the mosque was spacious, whereas the shrine of the temple
was comparatively small. The mosque was light and open, whereas the temple
was dark and closed. The difference between the lay-out of a temple and a
mosque is explained by the essential difference between the Hindu and Muslim
forms of worship and prayer.

A cell to house the image of the deity, garbha-griha, and often small
halls in front for the worshippers was regarded adequate for a simple Hindu
temple. But the Islamic form of worship, with its emphasis on congregational
prayer, requires a spacious courtyard with a large prayer hall, pointed towards
Mecca, as its western end that is, to the West of India. In the rear wall of the
prayer-hall, the centre is occupied by a recess or alcove, called mihrab; and
indicates the direction of prayer (quibla). A pulpit (mimber) at its right is meant
for the imam who leads the prayer. A tower or minaret, originally intended for
the muazzin to call the faithful to the prayer, later assumed a mere architectural
character. A gallery or compartment of the prayer hall or some other part was
screened off to accommodate the ladies who observed purdah.The main
entrance to a mosque is on the east, and the sides are enclosed by
cloisters (liwans). A tank is provided for ablutions usually in the courtyard of a
mosque.

This style of construction incorporated not only certain new modes and
principles but reflected also the religious and social needs of the Muslims. The
Muslim style of construction was based on arches, vaults and domes, on
columns and pyramidal towers or slender spires, called trabeate.

In the Hindu style of construction spaces were spanned corbels, held

together by making courses project, each further than the one below, so that the

38
 Chapter - II

open span was gradually reduced to a size which could be covered with a
single slab or brick. Although there exists some evidence to suggest that the
true arch may have been known in India earlier, it is the Muslims who are
believed to have brought the principle of building a true arch so as to hold up
the roof or ceiling or a top part of a structure, the bricks or stones laid to
reproduce a curve, held together by the key-stone on the top of the rise. In
many cases even if the true arch was familiar to indigenous architects in
ancient times, it was re-introduced by the Muslims. The result was that flat
lintels or corbelled ceilings were replaced by arches or vaults, and the
pyramidal roof or spire by the dome. The necessity of raising a round dome
over a square construction introduced multiplication of sides and angles by
providing squinches so that a base with many sides usually 16, could be
obtained to raise a circular drum for the dome. A sunshade or balcony was laid
on cantilever brackets fixed into the projection from the walls, which
introduced the chajja (caves or sunshade). The practice of the burial of the
dead, as distinct from the cremation practised by the Hindus, chamber,
a mihrab in the western wall and the real grave (qabr) in an underground
chamber. In larger and more complex tombs, there is also a mosque, and well
planned garden. The mode, theme or motifs or ornamentation employed in
Islamic buildings also made a departure from the earlier vogues. The Hindu
style or ornamentation is largely naturalistic showing human and animal forms
and the luxuriant vegetation life.

As among the Muslims the representation of living beings was taboo by

way of decoration or ornamentation, they introduced geometrical and
arabesque patterns, ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and
floral life. In short the contribution of the Muslims to Indo-Muslim architecture

39
 Chapter - II

is profound and no less interesting. Among the architectural features

introduced by them mention may be made of arches, domes, minars and
minarets, the pendentive, squinch arch, half domed double portals,
kiosks (chhatris) and the use of concrete as a factor of construction. They also
introduced gilding and painting in varied colours and designs. Muslim
decorative elements are usually of the nature of embroidery. Even though lime
was known and to certain extent used in construction work in India fairly early,
mud was generally used for brick work and large blocks of stones were laid
one on top of the other and held by means of iron clamps. The Muslims, like
the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and
lime mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally.

As the first - Muslim invaders of India were merely armed horsemen

who had come into the country to loot and plunder and not think in terms of
founding towns, cities or empires. Consequently they did not bring with them
architects or masons. The building material obtained from the destruction of
other buildings was used for new improvised buildings such as Quwwatul-
Islam Mosque in Delhi and the Adhai din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer. The advent of
the Muslims in India therefore did not immediately make a great impact on
Indian architecture and as the physical conquest of India actually took more
than a thousand years it was only with the conquest of India by Emperor Babar
in 1526 that the Muslims began to think in terms of settling down in the
country and in course of time had the satisfaction that they now belonged to the
country and that the country belonged to them. As such from the 7th century to
the 16th century Muslim architecture in India reflects the unsettled condition of
the conquerors who felt that they were living amidst the conquered inhabitants,
many of who were hostile to them. As such the accent thus far was on security

40
 Chapter - II

which could be had only in walled fortifications. It is, therefore, that early
Muslim towns and cities, even when they are tombs were made as fortified
places which they could easily defend against hostile forces.

The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was constructed by Qutub-ud-din Aibak

around 1197 A.D. and as is very clear from inscriptions he demolished 27
Hindu and Jain temples within the Rajput citadel of Lalkot as well as the Quila-
Rai Pithora and that their carved columns, lintels, ceiling slabs, all showing
Hindu gods and goddesses, Purnaghatas and temple bells handing by chains,
were utilised to construct the mosque known as the Might of Islam". The
massive stone screen with five graceful arches, the central one being the
highest, not built on the true arch principle with voussoirs and key-stone, but
by corbelling the successive courses (a system known to Indian masons for
over 2,000 years) it is a trabeate construction, with lintels holding up the top
and the arch only an ornamental false element. As the entire work was carried
out by native Indian craftsmen, the ornamentation of the screens show typical
Hindu decorative floral elements, serpentine tendrils and undulating leaves.
The only new element that was introduced by the Muslims is the Arabic
inscription.

The concept of decoration and ornamentation formed an essential part of

their building arts. The decorations of the Muslims under religious injunctions,
avoided representation of the living beings and took the form of flat surface
ornament depicting arabesque or geometrics, calligraphies, floral patterns for
motifs and design, painting, glass-mosaic, glazed tiling and marble by the
11

11
Desai, Ziyauddin, Indo-Islamic Architecture,p.2.

41
 Chapter - II

Though all these features gradually became characteristics of Islamic art,

yet it was left mainly to the tastes and likes of the patrons, and the thought and
skill of the builders in their own way. 12

2.4 Features of Islamic Architecture:

Islamic architecture in India is represented by different types of buildings,

which however can be referred to four conventional divisions, i.e.,

a. Secular architecture

b. Religious Architecture

c. Military Architecture

d. Recreational Architecture

2.4.1 Secular architecture: arose out of need of the local rulers for their comfort
and show of power or display like palaces, gardens, harem, ministerial
quarters, stables, etc.

2.4.2 Religious Architecture: In most of the past cultures the universal and
exalted appeal of religions is made the church, temple or a mosque, the most
expressive, permanent and influential building in any community and Islamic
architecture can be visualized by three kinds of structures.

I. Mosque
II. Dargah (Tomb)
III Idgah

12
Nath R., Medieval Indian History oand Architecture,p.100.

42
 Chapter - II

I. Mosque:

The word masjid is found in Aramaic, meaning in Nabataean a atele, a

Elephentine papyri Arabie masjid is taken over from Aramaic or formed

For performing prayer(salat), a place was needed which later took the
form of masjid or place of prostration. The word masjid means a place of

Quran. Masjid Jami is a congregational mosque dedicated to Friday prayers.

The word is used in the Holy Kuran as al-masjid al haram, sura ii.144,
149; v. 2; viii.34; xvii. 1. Referring especially of the Meccan Sanctuary.
According to tradition the term al-masjid al-aksd, Sura xvii.I means the
Jerusalem sanctuary but the reference is rather to a place of prayer in heaven.

In the traditions taught by Prophet Mohammed (SAS) a sanctuary was

not a fundamental necessity. Every place as the same to God, and humility in
the presence of God, of which the ritual prayer was the expression could be
shown anywhere. Hence the saying of the Prophet that he had been given the

13
overtakes thee, thou, shall perform

The following mosques built during early period of Islam have assumed
special status.

13
Gibb.H.A.R and Kramers .J.H, Shorter Encyclopedia of Islaam, Cornell University
Press,Ithaca,New York, 1965. P. 330.

43
 Chapter - II

1. Al- Masjid-al-Haram at Makkah.

This mosque contains the sacred Kaaba. It is also called Baitullah i.e.,
the House of God. The area around the Kaaba is called Masjid-al-Haram.The
foundation of Kaaba was laid by Prophet Ibrahim(Abraham). The area was
extended or changed in every period of history.

Al- Masjid-al-Haram at Makkah

i Nabi

Masj i Nabi, the house of Orophet Mohammed(SAS) built in 622 A.D.

at Medina was also used as Mosque, the first and the oldest mosque of the
Islamic world. Later on this mosque was re-built in 707-709 A.D. by Caliph al-
Walid-I on its original site.

44
 Chapter - II

3. The Dome of Rock

This mosque was built in 705 A.D. and re-built twice in 780 A.D. and
again in the 11th -
Muqaddas).

Dome of Rock

45
 Chapter - II

4.The Earliest mosque in India:

First mosque of India- Cheraman Jumma Masjid- Kodungallu, Kerala

The first mosque in India was constructed at Kodungallur (Kerala) in the

7th century A.D. and Malik Bin Dinar was the first Ghazi of this mosque

Islamic architecture in India had its real beginning with establishment of

the first Muslim power in India under the prince of Ghor, Mohammed-Bin-Sam
in the final years of the 12th century A.D. The first Muslim dynasty was
established as the Delhi Sultanate with Qutub-ud-din Aibek as its founder. He
began a movement in the sphere of architectural designs and its methods of
construction.

The first effort of the Muslim ruler towards architecture was the creation

46
 Chapter - II

Ka- n two and a half day by

Qutub-ud-din Aibek in 1205 A.D.14
The first mosque in the city of Bangalore was constructed during the
reign of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1658-1707 A.D) .It is said that one of
the commander in the Mughal army, Khasim Khan on his way to the military
camp at Sira had a temporary stay in the city. In order to perform his
prayers(Salat), during his stay, he constructed a mosque at the Taramandel
Mohalla(present Cubbonpet and Nagrathpet area). The constructions of the
mosque was done very quickly and was made of atones. The mosque was a
simple one with only two minarets.

In later years in a war between Tippu Sultan (1753-1799 A.D.) and the
British, an indigenous rocket which was an invention of Tipu Sultan
accidentally fell on the mosque damaging a portion of it. The first mosque of
Bangalore at Taramandal was later demolished and a grand new mosque was
constructed in its place in the year 1983 under the president ship of Abdul Huq

Plan showing the essential parts of a typical congregational mosque the

world over. Parts of the Mosque:15

14
Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture(Islamic Period), p.1.
15
Ziyaud DinDesai, Mosque of India ,New Delhi, 2003, p.4.

47
 Chapter - II

1. LIWAN(PRAYER-HALL)
2. RIWAQ(CLOISTERS)
3. SAHN(PRAYER NICHE)
4. HAUD(TANK)
5. MIHRAB(PRAYER NICHE)
6. MIMBAR(PULPIT)
7. MINAR(MINARET)

In the history of Muslim architecture and of all the Muslim institutions,

the mosque (Masjid) is the most important place for the public expression of
Islamic religiosity and community identity. A mosque is a physical
manifestation of the public presence of Muslims and serves as a point of
convergence for Islamic social and intellectual activity.16

16
Islamset, The Mosque , Islamic Art and Architecture,p.1.

48
 Chapter - II

The mosque was as novel conception , of which the first example was
17

Despite the borrowings from diverse civilizations, certain common

features become the elements of most mosques and thus serve to distinguish
them from the sacred spaces of other religions and cultures.18

The form of some of the earliest mosques appear to have been derived
almost accidentally. The main elements comprising the mosque structure are

1.MIHRAB AND QIBLA

Etymological origin of the word in Islamic religions practice and in

the station of the Imam in a

Mihrab is an Arabic word meaning a niche in the wall of mosque that

direction that Muslimshould face while praying. The wall in which a Mihrab
19
ap

simply denotes a special room in a house, or the throne room in a palace.

17
Fletcher, History of Architecture, C.B.S Publishers & Distributors,New
Delhi, 1986, p . 411.
18
Encyclopedia of Islamic World.p.1.
19
Wikipedia- free Encyclopedia, p.1.

49
 Chapter - II

Mihrab at Jamia Mosque, Fathepur Sikri.

The term was subsequently used by the Prophet Mohammed(SAS) to

denote his own private prayer room through which he had the access to enter
the adjacent mosque.20

Mihrab is a semi-circular recess in plan and having a semi-circular arch

on the top. Initially the Qibla wall in a mosque at Medina was on the north i.e.,
facing Jerusalem, but in 628A.D Prophet Mohammed (SAS) acting on divine
instructiosns shifted its location from north to south facing Kaaba in Makkah.It
is believed that Prophet Mohammed(SAS)has offered prayers from both
directions i -I-
in the noon prayers.

During the reigh of Al-Wajid- I(705-715) the mosque of the

ordered that a niche be made to designate the Qibla wall (direction of Makkah).

20
Ibid. p.1.

50
 Chapter - II

-Al-

Mosque of Amr(Fustat) in Egypt (641 A.D), the Great Mosque of

Damascus(715 A.D.)21

Eventually the Mihrab came to be universally understood to identify the

qibla wall, the place where the Imam leads the prayers and came to be adopted
as a feature in other mosques.

Today Mihrabs vary in size, they are ornately decorated with Quranic
verses and often designed to give the impression of an arched doorway or a
passage to Makkah.22

Architectural Origin of Mihrab:

As an architectural feature, the mihrab made up of three basic elements :

1)An arch 2)The support columns and capital 3)The space between them

Whether in a flat or a recessed form, a mihrab gives the impression of a

door or a doorway.23

In India the earliest known and reported mihrab in India which survives
is in the so called Arhai din-ka- Jhompra Mosque at Ajmer, completed in
1199-1200. Three mihrabs in the tomb of Shams al- Din Iltumish are more in
the traditional Islamic styles and in a way serve as models for later Indian

21
Sharma, Pradhuman K, Mughal Architecture of Delhi, Sudeep Prakashan,
New Delhi 2000, p.34.
22
Wikepedia, Free Encyclopedia. p. 1.
23
Gibb H.A.R., and Kramers J.H., Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, Cornell
University Press, New York, 1961. P.340

51
 Chapter - II

prayer niches. The central mihrab here is a combination of a rectangular and a

flat mihrab.

The frame filled by an epigraphic band. The pair of polygonal and richly
decorated columns and capitals support the cusped arch. The canopy of the
recess just like that of the mihrab panel at the back panel there is a rosette in
relief. Such patterns can be observed in the centers of several Indian mihrabs. It
is possible that the architects tried to imitate, either consciously or not, the
black meteorite stone which is in the center of the mihrab of Sulayman in
Jerusalem.24

One of the characteristics of Indo-Muslim architecture was to place three

tomb, where this principle was applied perhaps for the first time. The lotus
flower, a hanging mosque-lamp or a vase from which a scroll emerges, become
permanent decorative features of the back panels of later prayer niches. Such
decorations appear in the five maharib of the Royal Mosque, the Kila-yi Kuhna
in Delhi, Which was built by Sher Shah Sur in about 1542. The maharib of the
Kila-yi Kuhna are enormous in size. They are multi-recessed, with a cusped
arch over the outer recesses, and a mihrab panel at the back of each one
decorated with a hanging mosque lamp.

By the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Persian influence becomes
stronger and more apparent in Indo-Muslim architecture. It was perhaps most
obvious in the decoration of prayer niches. Most of the Indian elements were
omitted and were replaced by Persian motifs. The cusped arch, however,
remains. A good example for this strong Persian influence is the mihrab of the

24
Ibid.

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 Chapter - II

Djami Masjid in Fathpur Sikri which is decorated with polychrome inlaid

stonework and which reminds us of contemporary Safawid faience- titled
maharib. Later prayer niches in Agra and Dihli are built of marble and
decorated in polychrome in the pitra dura technique.25

Wooden and portable meharab either as large niches or small portable

wooden panels appeared during the Fatimid period in Egypt. They were found
in excavation in Fustat, but several others are known from later periods and are
preserved in the Museum of Islamic art in Cairo. Large mehribs were also
introduced and these were popular all over the Islamic world. One of the
earliest of these large wooden mahrib is from Masjid-I Maydan in Abyana in
Idan, dated 1108.

Qibla is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a
Muslim prays during Salat(i.e. towards kaba). Islamic tradition believes that
kaba is situated in the middle of the universe and praying facing kaba is like
turning all Muslims to one single direction that the Allah has stipulated.The
Qibla has importance to more than just the Salat and plays an important role in
everyday ceremonies. After the death, Muslim are buried with their faces in the
direction of qibla.

Minbara:

The Arabic world Minbara

the mosque from where the Imam (leader of Prayer) delivers the
sermons(Khuthbah) especially on Friday and Eid days. A Minbar is usally
shaped like a small tower with a pointed roof and stairs leading up to it. It is

25
Ibid.,p.343

53
 Chapter - II

often richly ornamented, though in the simplest form the minar is just a small
platform with only three steps. It is located to the right of the Minbar, the nich
which indicates the direction of prayer.26

In the mosque of Medina, the Prophet(SAS) had a particular place beside

one of the palm tree trunk used as pillar in the mosque. He delivered his
Khutbas(sermons) while leaning to this tree-trunk. After sometime a wooden
frame was made for reciting Khutbah from it. During the rule of Caliph Al-
Walid-I, the minbar resumed its present form.

such minbar being raised above the ground, it allows the Imam to see all the
worshipers in case of a large crowd. Thus the minbar is an indispensable and
essential feature of mosque architecture where Friday prayers are also
performed.27

Minbar, Jamia Mosque, Fathepur Sikri.

26
Wikepedia, Free Encyclopedia. p.1.
27
Encyclopedia , op. cit., vol.3.

54
 Chapter - II

In various building styles of India the typology of the minbar is very

variable, from a crude construction of three simple stone steps to elaborately
carved canopied structure stood nine steps or more. Stone is always the
preferred material, even in the brick- building region of Bengal. However, the
absence of any structural minbar in many well- preserved old mosques may
suggest that wooden minbars were also known, although no early examples
have survived.

During Delhi Sultanate period in the Jamaat Khana at Nizamuddin, the

oldest mosque still in worship, is a modern replacement; old photographs,
however, show a simple minbar of three stone slabs. This pattern is maintained
upto the Lodhi period, to judge by a very few extent examples in Dihli.
Significant mention can be made about mosque at Bara gumbad; mosque at
the baoli known as Radjon ki bain.. Only in the special case of the ldgah
attributed to Mulla Ikbal Khan is there a more elaborate structure, a tall stone
platform level with the top of the mihrab arch whence the voice of the khatib
might reach the great concourse gathered for the id assembly. Outside Delhi
itself, the minbar of the Jami mosque of Iric, 1412, is a massive stone platform
supported on pillars.

Among the regional styles, Bengal Shows excellent early examples of

canopied minbars; the earliest, in carved basalt, in the Bari masjid in Chota
th
century, has nine steps leading to a domed upper
chamber, with arched openings on three sides and what appears to be a mihrab
representation against the western wall of the prayer-chamber.

This design was followed in the great Adina masjid of Hazarat Pandua
of 1374-1375, where the minbar like decoration on the western wall is carved

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 Chapter - II

with the representation of a hanging lamp, and the outer surface carved with
geometrical patterns. Similar but plainer is the minbar of the nearby Kutb Shah
mosque,1565. Further instances of this type occur; but there are also many
simple minbars, in the mosque of Muhammad b. Tipu Sultan, 1842, consists of
three polished stone steps occupy half of the central minbar, space having been
severely limited by the neo-Palladian design of the building.

In the Deccan, however, the minbar is usually in the plain pattern of

three modest stone steps founded at the first Ruhanni mosque, the Jama
mosque of Gulbarga dated 1567 and others in Bidar. In the massive Idgah at
Bijapur, certainly of Bahamani period, the minbar has nine stone steps leading
to an open platform in the arched opening of the west wall behind it is a flight
of smaller steps leading to the top of the wall. In the buildings at Bijapur of the
Adil Shahis, the most ornate of the Deccan styles, the minbar remains of the
simple pattern of three stone steps, and the same is found in the Kutb Shahi
mosques of Hydarabad.

Through out the Mughals period, the minbar is of the stepped uncovered
type. Sometimes, as at the Jami mosque in Fathpur Sikri, the massive red
sandstone steps have small pierced screens at their sides in the time of
Shahjahan, when many changes were also made to earlier buildings, the minbar
is often a simple structure of three steps but built of polished, sometimes also
inlaid, marble, and a few have a chair-like back slab which may carry a
inscription.

The Jamia mosques of Delhi and Agra each have a central platform,
approached by steps, in the sahn, outside the prayer chamber, which may fulfill
the functional purpose of the minbar when there is a vast concourse of

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worshippers to be addressed, even though there is a minbar in its normal

position within the prayer chamber.28

MINARETS/MINAR:

Minar of Masjid HBK,Doha

The minaret or the minar is the most commonly used word in literature.
The minaret in Islamic religious architecture is a tower from which the faithful
are called for prayers five each by a Muezzin (person calling for prayer). The
minarets were introduced in Egypt as a corner tower which was made of bricks.

28
Gibb H.A.R., and Kramers J.H., Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam.p.80.

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 Chapter - II

Always connected with a mosque, such a tower has one or more balconies or
open galleries.29

The earliest primitive mosques had no minaret. When the Azan call was
introduced, Hazarat Bilal is said to have summoned the faithful in madina to
the early salat from the roof of the highest house in the vicinity of the mosque.
According to al-Azraki, on the day of the conquest of Mecca, the Prophet
Muhammad(SAS) instructed Hazarat Bilal to utter the call to prayer from the
Kaba, from the roof. During the early days of Islam, the Muadhdhin did not
however, utter his summons from an elevated position. It is doubtful to say
exactly when the minaret was introduced and whether it was adopted into Islam
expressly for the call to prayer.

The Umaiyad caliph al-walid(705-715) undoubtedly had considerable

importance for the history of the minret, although even before his reign

minaret . There was also a minaret in the Umaiyad mosque in Damascus. At

the present day, the mosque has 3 minarets as was the case in the timeof Ibn
Jubair, and Ibn Battutu. One of the earliest authorities, Ibn al-Fakin 902,

Greeks it gad been a watch-tower(natur) , which belonged to the church of

St.John and was left standing by al-Walid.

Today minarets are distinctive architectural features of any mosque, they

are generally tall, graceful, stripes, rod-shaped, thick or concave, crown affixed
to the roof of the minaret, usually either free standing or much taller than any
surrounding support structure. They are often square at base, it is attached to

29
Ibid.,341.

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the mosque from there. Above this square base it may rise in a series of
circular, hexagonal, or octagonal stages, each marked by a projecting balcony.
The upper part of the minarets is usually richly decorated with carvings. Its
steps may be exterior or interior. The number of minarets in a mosque also
varies from one to as many as six,30 but while the Kaaba at Makkah is a unique
with seven.31

4. SAHN/COURTYARD:

Entrance Sahn (courtyard) Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque

A Sahn in Islamic architecture is a courtyard Almost every mosque has a
sahn, which is surrounded by an arcade from all sides. In Persian architecture,
the sahn usually contains a howz, a symmetrical pool, where ablutions are
performed.32

30
Encyclopedia Britannica, India, Vol.3.
31
Fletcher, History of Architecture,p.413.
32
Wikipedia, op.cit. p.2.

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 Chapter - II

Originally, a sahn was used for residential buildings, mainly houses and
palaces, as a private internal garden. This sahn was partly covered and partly
open. The covered area is called a sanctuary hall which is surrounded by the
enclosed chambers for accommodating the ruler and his family members to
protect them from any hostile attacks. The use of sahn in mosques has been
exported to almost all Islamic countries. The howz in the sahn of the mosque
was used for wazu(Ablution) until mosques started to have separated toilets
and washrooms in the 12 th century. The sahn in the mosque is not a religious
necessity, hence some mosques do not have a sahn.33

The courtyard was sahn. The open spsce around the kaaba is called find
al-kaaba. Find is also the name given to the open space around the mosque.

for courtyard. In Medina , at the present day there are still trees in the rawab

refined style of architecture. Frequently, as in Rarula, the halls were covered

with marble and the courtyard with flat stone. In the hall and couch the ground

entirely covered with marble in the Mamluk period. But in the mosque of
Mecca, the sahn is still covered with little stones. In Medina also little pebbles
were used.

The old mosque consisted of the courtyard and the open halls running
along the walls these were called almuthtta because they were roofed over. The
halls were particularly extensive on the kibla side because the congregations
gathered here. The space between two rows of pillars was called riwa.

33
Ibid.

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 Chapter - II

Extension often took the form of increasing the number of the arwika . In some
districts a sail cloth was spread over the open space as a protection from the
sun at the time of the service.

They were not at first enclosed chambers in the halls. A change in this
respect came with the introduction of the maksura a box or compartment for
the ruler near the mihrab. Al-Sambudi gives the history of the maksura in
Medina. This much seems to be certain , that the maksura was at any rate
introduced in the beginning of the Ummiyad period and it was an arrangement
so much in keeping with the increasing dignity of the ruler that, as Ibn Khaldan
says, it spread throught all the lands of Islam. 34

5. IWAN/PORTAL:

Southern Iwan Portal - Tomb - Akbar Mausoleum - Sikandra - Agra

34
Gibb H.A.R., and Kramers J.H., Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam.p.341.

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 Chapter - II

Iwan or eyvan in Persian is defined as a vaulted hall or space, walled on

three sides, with one end entirely open. Originally Iwans belonged to Sassanid
architecture of Persian, later incorporated in to Islamic architecture.35

Typically Iwans open on to a central courtyard and have been used in

both public and residential architecture. Iwan mosques are most notable for
their doomed chamber and Iwans which are vaulted spaces open out on one
end. It is borrowed from pre-Iranian architecture. The big size of the Iwan,
which is recessed making different angles and designs, shows the powerful
psychological importance which is augmented by sumptuous ornamentation. It
is believed that the area surrounding the big portal of the monument shall
always be found airy and cool, whether the monument is erected in a busy city
or a desert.36

6.GUMBAD OR THE DOME:

Dome Of Jamia Majid, Delhi

35
Wikepedia, Free Encyclopedia.
36
Sharma, Pradhuman K, Mughal Architecture of Delhi, p.36.

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 Chapter - II

Domes are common in many mosques in the Middle East and Turkey.
They are often decorated on the outside and inside with beautiful tiles in
geometric designs. Domes give a building a spiritual feeling in that they bring

of God).37

Dome acts as a culmination of different components of the Islamic world

and signifies the universe to which the monument is an integral part. Dome
shows the supremacy of the Almighty, particularly in the case of the mosque
and a tomb.38

As per the historical evidence, the first dome over an Islamic structure

dome in Islamic architecture, this was subsequently adopted in almost on every

mosque and tomb structure found in Persia, central Asia as well as in India.39

7. ARCHES:

Arches of the prayer hall, Jamia Mosque ,Delhi.

37
Ibid., p.36.
38
Sharma, op. cit., p. 36.
39
Ibid.

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 Chapter - II

The most important form of opening was the pointed arches, which is
principally two and four centered arches. It is apparent that the use of two
centered was established both in Syria and Mesopotamia in the 6th century A.D.
and that its use in Islam represents a continuation of an evolutionary trend
already under way at the time of Arab invasion. In later stages different forms
of arches came into existence like, pointed, horseshoe, cusped, foliated and
ogee.40

8. ARABESQUE:

An element of Islamic art usually found decorating the walls of mosque,

Muslim homes and buildings, the arabesque is an elaborate application of
repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants, shapes and
sometimes animals(specially birds). The choice of which geometric forms are
to be used and how they are to be formatted is based upon the Islamic view of
the world. To many in the Islamic world, they in fact symbolize the infinite and
therefore decentralized, nature of the creation of the one God (Allah).
Arabesque is used in mosques and building around the Muslim world, and it is
a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art
instead of using pictures of humans and animals, which are forbidden(Harrram)
in Islam.41

40
Fletcher, History of Architecture,p.413.
41
Wikipedia, op. cit., p. 3.

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 Chapter - II

ARABIC CALLIGRAPHY:

Façade of the Qutb Mosque, Delhi.

Arabic calligraphy is a primary art of Islamic visual expression and

creativity. Through out the vast geography of Islamic world, Arabic
Calligraphy is a symbol representing unity, beauty and power. The aesthetic
principles of Arabic Calligraphy are a reflection of the cultural values of the
Muslim world.

Arabic calligraphy is not merely an art form but involves divine and
moral representation from which it acquires its sublime reputation.

While many religions have made use of figural images to convey their
core conviction, Islam has instead used the shapes and sizes of words and
letters because Islamic leaders saw in figural arts a possible implication of

religious expression. In Islamic and Arabic cultures, calligraphy become highly

respected as an art of writing.

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II. Dargah/Maqbarah:

Tomb of Khawaja Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra.

The second category of Islamic Architecture is the tomb or the

A Tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead. The term generally
refers to any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber of varying
sizes. The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types
of places of interment or burial.

Tomb architecture is also another feature of Islamic architecture, as the

practice of burial of the dead is adopted. The general pattern of tomb
architecture consists of a doomed chambers (Hujra) , a cenotaph. To this
general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing
gardens all around the tomb.42

42
Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia.p.1.

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 Chapter - II

Although Islam does not encourage building of tombs on grave, the

Prophet Mohammed (pbuh) after his death was buried in his own house which
. In later years tombs were
constructed to sufi saints and also to great rulers in especially the eastern
countries of the world. Example he tomb of Khawaja Mounuddin Chisti at
Ajmer, Khawaj Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya at
Delhi etc.

Islamic tomb architecture in India developed on parallel line with that of

the mosque. The tomb consists usually of a square building with one chamber,
the hujra, standing on a raised platform, and crowned by dome or gumbad. In
the centre of the hujra stands the cenotaph or zarih (possibly more than one, if a
number of people are buried below).This is always a rectangular, raised coffin-
like structure, placed exactly above the actual grave or qabr, in the chamber
below, called the maqbara. The western wall of the hujra usually contains a
mihrab. The tombs of Muslim saints or ziaratgah are often surrounded by
mosques, pilgrim-halls and other tombs, forminga place of pilgrimage called
Dargah.

-Din Tughlaq resembled

fortress build of red sandstone, surrounded as they often were high, solid walls;
but in the Mughal period they were set in splendid gardens, and became much
more refined structure.Finally marbel came to be used in place of sandstone.
Notableamong the tombs of the early Mughal period is that of Humayun in
Delhi, while among the later marble edifices, the most outstanding is the Taj
Mahal at Arga.

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III. Idgah:

Idgah at Sira.

The third most important category of Islamic Architecture is found in the

form of Idgah. It is also called Namazgah in the local languages in India.

As the name implies, the Idgah is an open place where prayers are
offered on eid days. The Idgah is common all over the Islamic world. It is
understood in Islam that the responsibility of Imam(Leader of the prayer or
Salat) is not limited to the mosque and five times prayers, but have to
investigate other important Islamic, religious and social activities as well. To
offer eid prayer in a Idgah is sunnat. The beloved Prophet Mohammed (pbuh)
-Ul-Fitr and Eid-Ul_Adha to offer prayers(Salat) in
Masjid Idgah, a spot on the south western outskirts of prayers (Salat) . In fact
that 50,000 benefits are acquired by a person when he offers prayers in
42
according to established tradition and existing beliefs.

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 Chapter - II

The Arabic definition for Idgah is Mussalah Eid. We cannot come to a

conclusion here that idgah or Mussalah were developed completely during the
life of Prophet Mohammed(SAS) himself. There is no account to suggest that
there was any kind of wall with any religious significance in front of the open
space in those days.

The mosque, the Qibla wall of the mosque and the Idgah developed
simultaneously and just as all the components of the mosque more especially
the mihrab, were not evolved during the life-time of Prophet
Mohammed(SAS), so also the musalla or idgah was partially developed. The
adaptation of the mihrab to signify the direction of the prayer took place
simultaneously in the mosque and the idgah.

From the point of view of architectural evolution, one can visualize a

plain wall with a mihrab and a minbar attached on its side that faces the open
space. The idgahs were further decorated with bastions tapering upwards,
heavy minarets on both ends of the walls, arched niches etc. A number of these
arched niches often with double or more recesses flank the mihrab. In addition
to these, a feature, not decorative but which somehow creates the effect is the
se leads up. This in a way is the
enlargement of the minbar in a Idgah for the Imam to deliver his sermons.43

The madarasa is a school or collage for the teaching of Islamic doctrine,

and is similar in design to the mosque from which it originates, except that the
central hall and most of the entrances are replaced by lecture-halls.

43
Mate, M.S,Islamic Achitecture of Deccan, Bulletin of the Deccan College
Research Institute, 1961-62, p.14.

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2.4.3. Military Architecture

Military architecture was developed by the rulers for security or

military purposes example, forts and fortifications, watchtowers, gateways etc.
The different forms of towers which the word burj signifies in its usual sense
have always formed the principal elements in the fortifications which were
erected in Islamic territories from the years following the Conquest and which
were to remain of real importance until changes gradually arose in military
ideas as a result of the development of heavy and field artillery.

The importance of the protective role played, in the middle ages proper,
by these lofty and massive edifices in defending town and citadel ramparts, in
serving as defensive strongholds, or on occasion standing as isolated defensive
works, should not distract attention from the fact that towers less strictly
military in their functions had long existed in the same regions, the buttress-
towers which have sometimes happened to be confused with simple
architectural devices. To this category- disregarding the minars of mosques,
which have a separate evolution of their own-belong the first specimen of
Muslim towers preserved in the Middle East in the ruins of the Ummayyad
residences, which have a rectangular plan and have their exterior wall
appointed with semicircular salient.

These castle-towers, and the towers of fortifications enclosures (hayr),

most frequently of mode dimensions, are disposed symmetrically so as to
lend rhythm to the blind facades and to give height by a bulge in the trace with
several small counter fort towers. Most of the standing fortification is probably
of the period of Ala-ud-Din Khilji c.1304 probably following the trace of the

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Hindu work; the towers are for the most part counter forts of shallow
projection.

Section of angle bastion at Tughlukabad

These are the section of angle bastion
A-Gattlements,
B-Mural Gallery,
C-Exterior gallery,
D-Inner vaulted corridor,
E-Bolster plinth,
F-Rock Scarp

The walls of Al-

remains, with semicircular battered bastions spaced about a bow-shot apart;

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capped like the walls with merinos, and with a continuous chemin de roude
supported on an arched gallery. The principle employed are similar in the new
capital, Tughlukabad built in 1321-23 by Ghiyaz al-Din Tughluk, and its
appendage Adil-abad built by Muhammad bin Tughluk in 1325 the walls of
both , of rubble core faced with rough quartzite ashlar, are punctuated with
strongly projecting semicircular bastions, and these and the walls, both of
which are strongly battered, have three tiers of defense consisting of external
gallery, main mural gallery, and battlements and latter with two ranks of
loopholes.

2.4.3 Recreational Architecture

Recreational architecture arose out of interest of the rulers in art, games

etc. It was purely created for pleasure seeking or for the leisure of the rulers.
Open air theaters, stadiums, concert stages or halls. Recreational architecture
could be temporary or permanent in nature.

72