Schools of Indian Philosophy

and Vedic Literature

RELIGIONS IN INDIA
1. Religion in India is characterized
by a diversity of religious beliefs &
practices.
2. Secularism in India means
treatment of all religions equally
by the state. India is a Secular State
by the 42nd amendment act of
Constitution in 1976.
3. The Indian subcontinent is the
birthplace of four of the world’s
major religions; namely Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
धर्मनिरपेक्षता
 Judaism originated in Israel

एकेश्वरवादी धर्म

Islam first came to the western coast of India when

Arab traders as early as the 7th century CE came to
coastal Malabar and Konkan-Gujarat.
Christianity is the monotheistic religion that is based on the life
and teaching of Jesus. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a
Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman
world.
The first Zoroastrians to enter India arrived on the
Gujarat coast in the 10th century and by the 17th
century, most of them had settled in Bombay.
HINDUISM
4 stages of life :
1. Brahmachari celibate.
2. Grihasta (householder)
3. Vanaprasta (retired)
4. Sanyasi (ascetic)
What’s more important is that:
• Hindu as a religion is based upon the principles of Vedas.
• Vedas are also the holy books of the Hindu religion. known as Shruti (to hear)
or revelation
• There are four Vedas:-
1. the Rigveda, Rig-Veda is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the
time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion.
2. the Yajurveda, “Yajus” means “sacrificial formula” and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It contains
the rituals of the Yajnas.
3. the Samaveda “Saman” means melody and it contains the Rhythmic compilation of Hymns of Rigveda.
Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing
4. the Atharvaveda. and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures.
❑ The most important source is the Vedas. Veda means "knowledge".
❑ The Vedas are neither any individual religious work nor a collection of definite number of
books compiled at a particular time.
❑ The Vedic literature had grown in the course of many centuries and was handed down from
generation to generation by word of mouth.
❑ It consists of three successive classes of literary creations. Some of these still exist, but
many have been completely lost forever.
• Academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into 3 major denominations:
1. Vaishnavism,
2. Shaivism,
3. Shaktism.
• The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One
and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.
1. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God;
2. Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme;
3. Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or
Mother Goddess, Devi;
 Samkhya philosophy includes a theory
of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche)

Knowledge and liberation are achievable by

complete understanding of the world of
experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school.

Nyaya - It holds that human suffering results

from mistakes/defects produced by activity
under wrong knowledge (notions and
ignorance).

Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of philology -

the philosophy of language.

भाषाशास्त्र

रूढ़िवादी
a) Mimansa means investigation or enquiry. The primary enquiry is into the nature
of dharma based on close theology of the Vedas. It has two divisions, Purva Mimansa
and Uttar Mimansa. Poorva Mimansa is ancient.
b) The Mimansa philosophy says that the dharma is not accessible to reason or observation,
instead, it must be inferred from the authority of the Vedas, which are considered
eternal, authorless, and infallible. This implies that rather than paying attention to God
exists not, this philosophy focuses on the character of the Dharma. The Pūrva Mīmāṃsā
explains the Dharma as a “virtue”, “morality” or “duty”.
c) The Purva Mimansa was postulated by Jamini. The ideology of Poorva Mimansa was to
counteract the challenge by Buddhism which marginalized the Vedic supremacy and
sacrifices.
d) Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta)
Vedanta says that the world is unreal, Maya. In other words, it says that there is only one
reality, Brahman.
Sankhya Philosophy
Sankhya is the oldest philosphy. It was put forward by Kapila.
It is generally believed that Sankhya Philosophy is dualistic and not monistic because it has two entities, purush (spirit)
and prakriti (nature) in it. Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of self by means of concentration and
meditation.

Yoga Philosophy
Yoga presents a method of physical and mental discipline.
The Yoga presents a practical path for the realization of the self whereas the Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge
of self by means of concentration and meditation.
Founder of Yoga is Pathanjai.

Nyaya Philosophy
Nyaya Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and experience (scientific approach).
Founder of this philosophy is Gautam and the principles are mentioned in Nyaya Sutras. Nyaya says that the world is real and
the philosophy does not follow a monist view.

Vaisheshik Philosophy
The classical Indian philosophy Vaisheshik was the physics of ancient times. It propounded the atomic theory of its founder
Kannada.
BUDDHISM
• Siddhārtha Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE,
and raised in Kapilavastu.
• In a series of encounters, known in Buddhist literature as the four sights, he learned of the
suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an
ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world.
These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest.
• For six years, Siddhartha submitted himself to rigorous ascetic practices, studying and
following different methods of meditation with various religious teachers. But he was never
fully satisfied.
• One day, however, he was offered a bowl of rice from a young girl and he accepted it. In that
moment, he realised that physical austerities were not the means to achieve liberation.
From then on, he encouraged people to follow a path of balance rather than extremism. He
called this The Middle Way. शारीररक तपस्त्या र्ुक्तत हासिल करने के िाधन नहीीं
थे
worldly pleasures<————-MIDDLE PATH——————–>painful asceticism.

According to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in

the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma.
1. At the age of 35, Siddhartha sat under the Bodhi tree, in the town of Bodh Gaya
in India, and meditated.
2. He purified his mind of all defilements and attained enlightenment after many
days, thus earning the title Buddha, or “Enlightened One”.
PRINCIPLES of BUDDHISM

a) Samsara is “the cycle of ❖ Rebirth refers to a process whereby

▪ Karma in Buddhism is the
birth and death”. beings go through a succession of
force that drives saṃsāra. lifetimes as one of many possible
b) Sentient beings crave
Good, skillful deeds (kusala) forms of sentient life, each running
pleasure and are averse
and bad, unskillful (akusala) from conception to death.
to pain from birth to
actions produce “seeds” in ❖ Buddhism rejects the concepts of a
death.
the mind that come to fruition permanent self or an unchanging,
c) Buddhists strive to end
either in this life or in a eternal soul, as it is called in
the sufferings by Hinduism and Christianity.
subsequent rebirth.
eradicating the causes ❖ Each rebirth takes place within one of
▪ The avoidance of
and conditions, applying five realms according to Theravadins,
unwholesome actions and
the methods laid out by or six according to other schools.
the cultivation of positive ❖ These are further subdivided into 31
the Buddha and
actions is called śīla. planes of existence.
subsequent Buddhists.
 The Four Noble Truths
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism.
These four truths explain the nature of dukkha, its causes, and how it can be overcome. They
can be summarized as follows:
✓ The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction): explains the nature of dukkha.
✓ The truth of the origin of dukkha: It says that the origin of dukkha can be known. The
origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving conditioned by ignorance. On a deeper
level, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance.
✓ The truth of the cessation of dukkha: It says that the complete cessation of dukkha is
possible.
✓ The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha: It identifies a path to cessation of
dukkha.
Buddha – Founder / Teacher

LORD BUDDHA’s
TEACHINGS has THREE Dhamma – Teaching
pillars ( 3 Jewels –
Triratnas) Sangha – Order of Buddhist monks/ Nuns (who acts as
torch bearers of Dhamma worshippers or Upasakas )
Branches of Buddhism
Two branches of Buddhism are generally recognized:
1. Mahayana (“The Great Vehicle”) and {र्हान वाहन } Hinayana
2. Theravada (“The School of the Elders”) {द स्त्कूल ऑफ द एल्डर}
िावमभौसर्क र्ोक्ष
Mahayana
1. The followers of Mahayana believe that Buddha taught universal salvation. One should not aim at personal
nirvana and should help ease the suffering of humanity. Mahayana Buddhism is found throughout East Asia
(China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore, Taiwan etc.) .
2. In India, this form of Buddhism is followed in Ladakh, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh.
Theravada
a) The Theravada Buddhism is better known as the earliest form of Buddhism.
b) The ‘Thera’ means old and ‘Vada’ means school.
c) The aim of this form of Buddhism is to attain personal nirvana through the triple recourse to ethical conduct,
mental discipline and higher knowledge or wisdom.
d) It has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar etc.).
e) In India, this strain of Buddhism is represented by the followers of Dr B.R.Ambedkar known as the Ambedkar
Buddhists, who are exclusive to India.
❑ In some classifications, Vajrayana practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent
parts of China and Russia is recognized as a third branch.
 Different Schools of Buddhism
Hinayana (Theravada)
1. Means ‘ the Lesser Path’ and
signifies ‘Doctrines of the
Elders.
2. Considered the orthodox
school and to be truer to
Budhha’s teachings than
Mahayana . It was the original
school of Buddhist philosophy.
3. Scriptures are written in Pali
– the language that Buddha
taught in .
Mahayana
Means ‘the Greater Path’ . These terms
Mahayana , Hinayana were coined by
the Mahayana school .
ववधसर्मक , freethinking
It is the heterodox school of Buddhist
philosophy . It originated later than
Hinayana.
Scriptures are written in Sanskrit .
Vajrayana
Means ‘Vehicle of Thunderbolt’.
Also called ‘Diamond School is
also reffered to as Tantric or
esoteric Buddhism.
The period of Vajrayana
Buddhism has been classified
as the final period of Buddhism
in India . पारीं पररक
परर्
Philosophical basis : TWO
TRUTHS DOCTRINE – identifies
conventional and ultimate truths.
Vajrayana texts use a highly
symbolic language ‘Samdhya-
Bhasha’ or “Twilight
Language”
 Different Schools of Buddhism
Hinayana (Theravada)
4. A school of Buddhism which
treats Buddha as nothing more
than a human being . Does not
believe in idol worship and
tries to attain individual
salvation through self discipline
and meditation . Ultimate aim is
nirvana. The extinction of
the flame of desire
5. Found in Sri Lanka , main
bastion in Myanmar , Thailand
and other parts of South East
Asia . Ashoka patronised it .
Mahayana
Treats Buddha as god and worships
idols of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
embodying Buddha Nature . Mahayana
believes in universal liberation from
suffering for all beings . Ultimate aim of
Mahayana is ‘spiritual upliftment’ .
Found in Japan , China , other Asian
countries . Kanishka patronised it and
later Harsh Vardhana supported it as
well .
Ruler of Kushan
Dynasty
Vajrayana
Its followers believed that
salvation can be best attained
by acquiring the magical power
, which they called Vajra .
Vajrayana rituals and devotion
employs mantras , mandalas (
diagrams and paintings used in
visualisation practices) . Focus
is put on the role of Guru ( Lama
in Tibetan translation).
Became popular in Eastern
India , particularly in Bengal
and Bihar and is predominant in
the Himalayan nations of Tibet ,
Nepal , Bhutan and Mongolia.
 Noble Eightfold Path The concept of 8-Fold path forms the theme of
The Noble Eightfold Path consists of a set of eight : Dharma-Chakra Pravartana Sutta
interconnected factors or conditions, that when
developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.
The Eight factors are:
1. Right View (or Right Understanding): Viewing Right View
reality as it is, not just as it appears to be Right Right Intention
2. Right Intention (or Right Thought): Intention Concentration
of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
3. Right Speech: Speaking in a truthful and non- Right 8 Fold Right Speech
Mindfulness
hurtful way
4. Right Action: Acting in a non-harmful way
Path Right Action
5. Right Livelihood: A non-harmful livelihood
6. Right Effort: Making an effort to improve
7. Right Mindfulness: Awareness to see things for Right Effort
Right
what they are with clear consciousness
Livelihood
8. Right Concentration: Correct meditation or
concentration, explained as the first four jhānas
 The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained
Jainism by Universal Law

• Jainism lays heavy emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) and the believers of this religion,
whether a monk or a householder, follow a very strict, well disciplined life.
• The first Tirthankar is Rishabhdev .
• The ancient Indian script, Brahmi, is believed to be named after his (Rishabhdev's)
daughter. He was followed by 23 other Tirthankars.
• The Jains believe that the Indus Valley Civilization fiourished during the times between the
third and the ninth Tirthankaras .

saviour and spiritual teacher of the dharma.

The different Tirthankaras are:
Rishabha; Supaarshva Vimala;
Ajita; Chandraprabha Ananta; Munisuvrata;
Sambhava; Pushpadanta Dharma; Nami;
Abhinandana; Shitalnatha
Shanti; Nemi;
Kuntha; Paarshvanath
Sumati; Shreyaamsha Aara;
Padmaprabha Vaasupujya Mahavira
Mallinaatha
❑ Lord Mahavira was born at Vaishali in a Kshatriya nobel family. He was a contemporary
of Lord Buddha. वह भगवाि बद्ु ध के सर्कालीि थे।
❑ He was the 24th and the last of the Tirthankars. Mahavira was given a name –
Vardhamana, which means rising or growing, by his parents .
❑ After leaving home at age of 30, for twelve years, he devoted himself to self discipline and
practiced severest penance and austerities.
❑ He gave his first sermon on the Vipula Peak at Rajgir.
❑ His first disciple was Indrabhuti Gautama (female). He preached for the next 30 years, i.e.
until the age of 72 when he obtained nirvana.

3 jewels of Jainism In his teachings, women had equal role to play

and were not looked down upon.
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge LANGUAGE = Prakrit
3. Right conduct Though religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi,
and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D
in Gujarat at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of
education. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the
growth of this language and its literature.
 दार्मनिक
The philosophical principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavir
1. Rejected the authority of Vedas & Vedic rituals
2. Did not believe in the existence of god.
3. Believed in karma & the transmigration of soul. आत्र्ा का स्थािाांतरण
4. Lead great infancies on equality
The cardinal principles of Jainism
जैन धर्म के र्ुख्य सिदधाींत are: fundamental
हैं: 1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
1. अढहींिा (अढहींिा) 2. Anekantvada (multiplicity of views)
2. अनेंतवडा (ववचारों की 3. Aparigraha (non-possessiveness)
बहुतायत) 4. Non-stealing
3. अपररग्रा (गैर-स्त्वासर्त्व) 5. Brahmacharya (Chastity)
4. गैर चोरी 5. ब्रह्र्चयम
(शुदधता) Transmigration is the movement of a soul into another body
after death. Transmigration is related to reincarnation.
 THE JAIN RITUAL-- SANTHARA
✓ According to Jainism, it is a means for self-realization.
What is Santhara?
• Santhara also called as Sallekhana, Samadhi-marana, Sanyasana-marana, is the Jain ritual
practice of facing death voluntarily at the end of one’s life.
What’s so significant about this practice?
• From Jain community, Santhara, is believed to have been practised since the foundation of Jainism
and finds mention in its agams (religious texts).
• The Pratikramana Sutra in Shravaka Anuvrata (the code of conduct for Jains) clearly explains
santhara, saying that when all purposes of life have been served, or when the body is unable to
serve any more purpose, a person can opt for it.
Then, why do some people oppose it?
o Human rights activists alleged that it’s a social evil, and old people are made to undertake
Santhara by family members who don’t want to look after them for a variety of reasons.
o The petition in the High Court compared the practice with that of Sati.
❖ Relief from SC judgement?
The Supreme Court restored the Jain religious practice of a ritualistic fast unto death by staying an
order of the Rajasthan High Court, which compared it to an act of suicide.
 Jains

Digambaras ( naked or Sky- Svetambaras ( clothed in

Clad) white)

1. Digambars believe that because of certain

deformities peculiar to their sex, women
cannot attain Mukti in the present life, but can
do so in a future birth.
2. The Digambar Jains does not recognize
Sabastra Guru. They hold that Mahavira Swami
was a Bal Brahmachari and he had never
married, nor did he have any raj.
1. Swetambars believe in Sabastra Mukti, that
women can attain salvation.
2. The Swetambar Jains holds that Mahavira Swami
married and ruled and had a daughter. They are
also of the view that the 19th Tirthankara was a
lady Mallahkumari.

# they are allowed to have 14 possessions

# they must renounce all possessions ,
including lion-cloth , shoulder-cloth , etc..
including clothes and is allowed only 2
possessions : Rajoharana ( small peacock-
feather broom for brushing insects away) and a
Kamandalu ( wooden water pot for toilet
hygiene)
 Jains

Digambaras ( naked or Sky- Svetambaras ( clothed in

Clad) white)

3. After Mahavira , they lived under the 3. During the famous Magadha Famine ,
leadership of Bhadrabahu and they under the leadership of Sthalabahu
migrated south and lived in the old had stayed back at Magadha .
traditional way .

4. On attaining enlightenment , 4. Svetambaras tradition holds that

an omniscient is freed from the even the omniscient requires food.
needs of ordinary existence .
 थथथंकरों की र्ूनतमयों के बारे र्ें ,
ददगांबरबार परां परा तीथंकरों की र्नू तमयों को Jains
िग्ि, अिौपचाररक और थचांतिर्ील र्ूड
र्ें कर्जोर आांखों के रूप र्ें दर्ामती ह।

Digambaras ( naked or Sky- Svetambaras ( clothed in

Clad) white)

5. Regarding idols of Thirthankaras , 5. Svetambaras tradition depicts the idols

digamabaras tradition represents the
idols of tirthankaras as nude ,
unadorned and with downcast eyes in
the contemplative mood.
6. They use the term ‘Purana’ for the
hagiographies .
of Tirthankaras as wearing a lion-cloth ,
bedecked with jewels and with glass eyes
inserted in the marble .
6. They use the term ‘Charita’.

the writing of the

lives of saints.
• The Ashtadhyayi is the
oldest surviving complete
linguistic and grammar
text of Sanskrit.
• The Aṣṭādhyāyī became
the foundation of
Vyākaraṇa, a Vedanga.
Mahavastu – Early
Buddhist Text
Lalitavastu – Story of
Gautam Buddha.
Other great literacy works,
which marked the golden
era of Indian literature
include ‘Abhijanam
Shakuntalam’ and
‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa,
‘Mricchakatika’ by
Shudraka, ‘Swapna
Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa,
and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri
Harsha. Some other famous
works are Chanakya’s
‘Arthashastra’ and
PRELIMS FACT :
1. The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and were handed
down orally from one generation to the other.
2. The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine
revelations. They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
3. There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. Each Veda
consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
4. The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. In later years the Atharava
Veda was incorporated in this group.

Rig Veda –
✓ earliest of the Vedas
✓ collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
✓ Many of these are beautiful descriptions of nature
✓ prayers are largely for seeking worldly prosperity.
✓ Some of the well-known rishis are Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri.
✓ The prominent gods of the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi and the Ashwini
twins.
✓ Some of the prominent goddesses are Usha - the goddess of dawn, Vak - the goddess of speech and Prithvi -
the goddess of earth
Yajur Veda
✓ Yajur means sacrifice or worship.
✓ This Veda is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of different sacrifices. It
gives directions for the performance of the yajnas.
✓ It has both poetic and prose renderings.
✓ Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most popular of the four Vedas.
✓ There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur
Veda i.e. Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. This text reflects on the
social and religious condition Samhita
of India– Collections
at that time.
. Treatise – Written Work , Essay ,
Report
Sama Veda
✓ Sama means melody or songs.
✓ This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes. Out of total 1875
verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda.
✓ The Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig
Veda.
✓ It may be called the book of Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the
development of Indian music during this period.
Atharva Veda
✓ The Atharva Veda is also known as the Brahma Veda.
✓ It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases. The source of this Veda is traced to
two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras.
✓ The Atharva Veda represents the religious ideas at an early period of
civilisation.
✓ It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka. This book gives detailed
information about the family, social and political life of later Vedic period.

Vedangas
• In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the
limbs of the Vedas.
• These supplements of the Vedas provide education (siksha), grammar
(vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology (nirukta) and astronomy (Jyotisha).

It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they
were written. Max Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000
B.C. While according to Lokmanya Tilak it appeared before 6000 B.C.
1. Shiksha (Phonetics)
Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras.

2. Kalpa (Ritual Canon)

It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras.

3. Vyakaran (Grammar)
Vyakaran includes the Aṣṭadhyayi, of Panini. Most of the work of very early Indian grammarians ranging to 8th
century BC is lost.

4. Nirukta (explanation)
It is traditionally attributed to Yaska, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian. It deals with etymology, particularly of
obscure words, especially those occurring in the Veda.

5. Chhanda (Vedic meter)

It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a verse. Number of padas divides each verse,
hymn, or mantra and number of syllables divides each pada.

6. Jyotisha (Astrology)
It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish.
 The Brahmanas are a collection of ancient Indian texts with
commentaries on the hymns of the four Vedas.

Brahmanas and Aranyakas

• After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed.
• These books gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions
and deal with the science of sacrifice.
• The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the Aranyakas while the final
parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads which belong
to the later stage of the Brahmana literature.
Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana books.
a) Rig Veda had Kaushitaki , Samkhyana and Aitreya
b) Sama Veda had Panchvisha , Shadvisha and Jaiminiya
c) Taitteriya belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpath belongs to Shukla Yajur
Veda.
d) Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belongs to Atharva Veda.
❖ It is through them that we get a detailed information of the social, political and
religious life of the people.
Aranyakas

a) The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the
Brahmans.
b) Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have
philosophy and mysticism. So they have moral science and philosophy. It also
provides the details of the Rishis who lived in jungles.
c) Aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the
jungles.
d) Aranyakas are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas or their appendices.
They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed
to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values.
e) They form a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole
concern of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the
Upanishads advocated.
 THE UPANISHADS
❑ The word Upanishad is derived from upa (nearby), and nishad (to sit-down),
that is, “sitting down near”. Groups of pupil sit near the Guru to learn from him
in the Guru-shishya parampara or tradition.
❑ The Upanishads mark the culmination of Indian thought and are the final parts
of the Vedas. As the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of
ultimate philosophical problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end.
That is why they are called the end of Vedas.
❑ There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktika, gives a
list of 108 Upanishads.
❑ The earliest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the
Sukla Yajur Veda and Chand yogya which belongs to the Sama Veda.
PURANAS
1. The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of the Hindus.
They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics.
2. There are said to be eighteen Puranas.
3. Some of the well known Puranas are - Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu,
Agni, Matsya and Garuda.
4. Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when Buddhism was gaining
importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic culture.
5. Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual
messages through parables and fables.
6. The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were
compiled in the Gupta period. They are full of myths, stories, legends and
sermons that were meant for the education of the common people.
Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five
topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa
(Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic
history) Person who compiles
dictionaries
BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE IN PALI, PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents.
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar.
Buddhist works
गैर ववढहत
ववढहत
Canonical ( included non-canonical
in sacred books) ( not included in sacred books)
• Canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka
and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
1. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life.
2. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma .
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
• The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the
previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha
practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth
story is called a Jataka.

▪ The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat.
The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
▪ Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and
Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Tripitaka
Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures.
The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
1. Sutta Pitaka:
It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close companions. This also
deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha's death, dated by the
majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk
Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir

2. Vinaya Pitaka
The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also be called as
Book of Discipline. Its three books are Suttavibhanga, Khandaka and Parivara.

3. Abhidhammapitaka
Abhidhammapitaka deals with the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas.
However, it does not contain the systematic philosophical treatises.

❑ Jatakas
Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and they contain the tales of previous births of
Buddha in poems.