ALOKASI

Dr. Elisa Susanti

Fungsi alokasi adalah fungsi penentuan dan
penyediaan barang-barang publik.

Tujuan dari fungsi alokasi ini adalah penggunaan
sumber daya secara efisien (efisiensi ekonomi)

Fungsi ini dapat diistilahkan sebagai fungsi alokasi
kebijakan anggaran. Fungsi alokasi hanya yang
terkait dengan masalah kebijakan anggaran

 Alokasi - Efisiensi
Efisiensi ekonomi diartikan dengan, apabila
alokasi sumber daya tidak mungkin dialokasikan
kembali sedemikian rupa sehingga satu orang
dapat dibuat lebih baik tanpa membuat orang
lain menjadi lebih buruk. Artinya, pemerintah
harus melakukan kegiatan alokasi (penyediaan
barang-barang publik), yang membuat
setidaknya satu orang lebih baik tanpa membuat
orang lain menjadi lebih buruk.

THEORIES OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES
In recent time, public expenditure has been
increased enormously. The main reason is
that the functions of governments have
been increased manifold. The modern states
are no more police states but welfare states

Adolph Wagner : Law of Increasing State
Activity

as a percapita income and output increase in industrialized
counties, the public expenditure of those counties
necessarily grows as a proportion to total economic
activity.

“comprehensive comparisons of different countries and
different times shows that among progressive people,
with which alone we are concerned, an increase
regularly takes place in the activity of both central and
local governments. The increase is both extensive and
intensive, the central and local governments. Constantly
undertake new functions, while they perform both old
and new functions more effectively and completely.”

 Conclusions :
1) As the national income increases in
amount, the percentage of government
supplied goods is greater.
2) Increased public expenditure was the natural
result of economic growth and continued
pressure for social progress.
 SAVAS
Three Major factor have been contributed to
the growth of government spending :
1.  Increased demand for government service
2.  Inceased supply of government service, by
service producers
3.  Increased inefficiency
 (1) Increased demand for government service

1.  Demographic changes
2.  Income Growth
3.  Income redistribution
4.  Satisfying special interest

 (2) Increased supply of government
service, by service producers


1.  Budgetary imperialism : more government
work, the larger the organization
2.  Enlarging campaign staffs
3.  Government monopolies
4.  Demand for government jobs
 (3) Increased inefficiency
1.  Overstaffing
2.  Overpaying
3.  Overbuilding
 Peacock and Wiseman : permanent
influences on government expenditure
from the changing nature of society
1)  Population size and the age composition of the
population
2)  Increased output per capita and increasing
population lead to growth of urbanisation
3)  Social insurance
4)  Increased mobility of society can be seen as part
of the same process
5)  Effects of war, war-related and defence
expenditure

Musgrave and Rostow's Development
Model

The growth of public expenditure might be
related to the pattern of economic growth and
development in societies. Three stages in the
development process could be distinguished:
(a) The early development stage where
considerable expenditure is required on
education and on the infrastructure of the
economy (also known as social overhead capital)


(b) The phase of rapid growth in which there are
large increases in private saving and public
investment falls proportionately; and
(c) High income societies with increased
demand for private goods which need
complementary public investment (e.g. the
motor car and urbanisation).

 Peacock and Wiseman : the
displacement effect
(a) societies not subject to unusual pressures have fairly
stable ideas about the tax burden which they regard as
tolerable. These ideas dominate those of desirable
government expenditure and hence limit the extent to
which government expenditure can grow.
(b) however, large scale social disturbances weaken these
ideas of tolerable tax burdens. Emergency government
expenditure is accepted and so too are the higher rates
of taxes needed to pay for it. People become used to
the higher tax rates and their notions of the tolerable
tax burden are displaced upwards. After the
disturbance, there is thus increased scope for
government expenditure and this does not fall back to
its old level.

(c) as well as the taxation constraint being eased
by the social crisis, there is also an `inspection
effect' of the crisis - people observe social
needs during the crisis and accept that there is
a case for greater social spending.

(d) finally, the crisis also leads to an increase in
the concentration of power in the hands of
central government and this is also not
reversed after the crisis.

 –  Kebijakan pemerintah untuk menaikkan pengeluaran
negara tidak disukai oleh masyarakat, karena hal itu
berarti masyarakat harus membayar pajak lebih besar
–  Masyarakat mempunyai sikap toleran untuk
membayar pajak sampai pada suatu tingkat tertentu.
Apabila pemerintah menetapkan jumlah pajak di atas
batas toleransi masyarakat, ada kecenderungan
masyarakat untuk menghindar dari kewajiban
membayar pajak. Sikap ini mengakibatkan pemerintah
tidak bisa semena-mena menaikkan pajak yang harus
dibayar masyarakat
–  Dalam kondisi normal, dengan berkembangnya
perekonomian suatu negara akan semakin
berkembang pula penerimaan negara tersebut,
walaupun pemerintah tidak menaikkan tarif pajak.
Peningkatan penerimaan negara akan memicu
peningkatan pengeluaran dari negara tersebut.

–  Dalam kondisi tidak normal, misalnya dalam
keadaan perang, pemerintah memerlukan
pengeluaran negara yang lebih besar. Keadaan ini
membuat pemerintah cenderung meningkatkan
pungutan pajak kepada masyarakat. Peningkatan
pungutan pajak dapat mengakibatkan investasi
swasta berkurang, dan perkembangan
perekonomian menjadi terkendala.
–  Perang tidak bisa dibiayai dari pajak saja.
Pemerintah terpaksa cari pinjaman untuk biaya
perang. Setelah perang selesai pemerintah harus
membayar angsuran pinjaman dan bunga. Oleh
karenanya pajak tidak akan turun ke tingkat
semula walaupun perang sudah selesai.
–  Setelah perang selesai, pengeluaran negara akan
turun dari tingkat pengeluaran negara saat
perang, namun masih lebih tinggi dari tingkat
pengeluaran negara sebelum perang.
CANONS (PRINCIPLES) OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE
Alfred G.Buchler
a)  Public expenditure should promote the welfare of the
society.
b) Careful judgement should be exercised by the
public authority and the electorate to ensure that
the advantages of the public expenditure should
exceed the costs and that the fund utilized by the
governments will be moreconducive to social welfare
than the same funds would, if privately utilized.
c) Public expenditure should be utilized in the order of
priority of welfare. That is, the services which will
bring about maximum welfare should be
undertaken first.
CANON OF BENEFIT

That is, public expenditure should be planned so

as to yield maximum social advantage and
social welfare of the community as a whole
and not of a particular group. Public
expenditure must be spent in those directions
which will maximise utility. The public
authorities should distribute resources so as to
increase production, reduce inequalities of
income distribution, preserve social life of the
people, and improve the quality of social life
etc
CANON OF ECONOMY

This implies that the state should be

economical in spending money.It should not
spend more than the necessary amount on
items of expenditure. The sole aim is to avoid
extravagance and corruption. Social benefit
can be maximised when resources are not
wasted. To satisfy this canon, Project
Appraisal and Cost Benefit Analysis are to be
adopted.
CANON OF SANCTION

According to this canon, no expenditure

should be incurred without the proper
approval of the sanctioning authority. It also
implies that the spending authorities should
spend the amount for which it has been
sanctioned and to see that the sanctioned
amount is properly utilized. Public accounts
are to be audited at the end of financial
year.
CANON OF SURPLUS

This canon believes in the avoidance of deficit in

public expenditure. (Findlay Shirras)
BUT, Modern governments does not consider
balanced budget a virtue always. In an
inflationary condition a surplus budget is
desirable as it reduces purchasing power of the
individuals. Similarly, in the time of
depression a deficit budget is recommended in
order to enhance the purchasing power of the
people.The canon of surplus is not relevant in
modern public finance.