HISTORY OF THE ISLAMIC PEOPLESHistory of the Islamic Peoples BY CARL BROCKELMANN wit A REVIEW OF EVENTS, 1939-1947, BY MOSHE PERLMANN Translated by Joel Carmichael and Moshe Perlmann ILLUSTRATED WITH 8 MAPS NEW YORK PUBLISHED AND DISTRIBUTED IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST, |OR- ARN ITY OF THE ALIEN PROPERTY CUSTODIAN UNDER Lich@st No.‘ 4From the Preface to the German Edition IT IS still a very risky undertaking to write a history of the Islamic peoples and states from the beginnings down to the present, since the sources for such an account are far from having been made acces- sible, to say nothing of having becn subjected to critical analysis. No individual can dare to solve this problem. But it appears desirable to offer to those interested in questions of world politics a bird’s-eye view of the fortunes of the believers in Islam, which today are inter- woven more intimately than ever with world events in general, and can only be presented in a fragmentary form in works of reference and gencral world histories. In addition to a political history I have also attempted to give a sketch of culture and intellectual life in so far as permitted by the narrow framework at my disposal. The map-sketches cannot, of course, replace a historical atlas for Islamic history, of which we are still in need; they are intended to give the reader only the outlines of the terrain on which this history unfolded. The bibliography indicates only the most important new accounts; here and there individual studics are mentioned directly at the foot of the page. I scarcely need tell my professional colleagues that in this book they need not expect an exhaustive bibliography of Islamic history. They will in any case perccive without difficulty to what scholars I am indebted in detail; nevertheless I should not wish to omit special mention of the works of J. Wellhausen and L, Cae- tani for the history of the Arabs, those of W. Barthold and V. Mi- norsky for Central Asia, and those of P. Wittek for the Ottoman Empire.Copyright 1939, by R. Oldenbourg of Munich in the original German under the title Geschichte der Islamischen Vélker und Staaten. Copyright vested in the Alien Property Custodian, 1934, pursuant to law. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission. CAPRICORN HOOKS EDITION, 1960. Manufactured in the United States of AmericaContents 1. THE ARABS AND THE ARAB EMPIRE 1, Arabia before Islam Geography, 1. Race, 2. South Arabia, 3. Social condi- tions in North Arabia, 3. Mecca, Medina, 5. Syria, Nabatcans, 6, Palmyra, Ghassanids, 7, Lakhmids, 8. Arab paganism, 8, Judaism, Christianity, 10. Poetry, 1 2. The Prophet Muhammad Mecea, 12. Youth, 13. Marriage, 14. Mission, 14, first believers, 15. Persecutions, emigration of believers to Abyssinia, 17. ‘Umar’s conversion, 17. Medina, 18. Hijrah, 20. Attitude toward the Jews, 21. Battle of Badr, 23, expulsion of Banu Qaynugqa‘, Battle at Mt. Uhud, 24; expulsion of Banu Nadir, 25. Prohibition of wine, 25. Medina besieged, 25. Hudaybiyah, 27. Jews beyond Medina subdued, 28. Pilgrimage to Mecca, 28. Relations with Byzantines in Egypt and Syria, 28. Conquest of Mecca, 31. Battle of Hunayn, 31, siege of Taif, 32. Bedouins subdued, 32. Muhammad and the poets, 33. March on Tabuk and ‘Aqabah, 34. Fare- well pilgrimage, 35. The Prophet’s death, 36. 3. Muhammad and His Teachings His theology and eschatology, 36. Cult and ritual, 39. Pilgrimage, 41. Poor-tax, holy war, food laws, mar- riage, 43; slavery, criminal law, 44. 4. The First Four Caliphs Abu Bakr; defection of the Bedouins, 45. Battle of Buzakha, 46. Musaylimah and Sajah, 46, battle of ix 12 36 45x CONTENTS ‘Aqrabah, 47. Conquest of Bahrayn, ‘Uman, Hadra- maut, and Yemen, 48. Persia under the Sassanids, 50. Hirah attacked, 51. Invasion of Palestine, battle of Ajnadayn, capture of Damascus, 52, battle of Yar- muk, 53. ‘Umar's caliphate, 53. Conquest of lower Mesopotamia, 54. of Syria and upper Mesopotamia, 55, of Egypt, 56, of Persia, 58. ‘Umar's reign, 60, and his assassination, 63. ‘Uthman and the civil war, 63. ‘Ali in ‘Iraq, 67. Muawiyah in Syria, 68; battle of Siffin, 68. Kharijites; ‘Ali assassinated, 70. 5. The Umayyads va Murawiyah and his governors in ‘Teag, 71. Lis rule in Syria, 72, and the struggle with the F Intines, 73. Conquest of North Africa, 74. Yazid 1. 75, and Hu- sayn’s death at Kerbela, 76. The pretender ‘Abdallah ibn-az-Zubayr in Mecca, 76. Marwan I, fights be- tween Kalb and Qays, 77. ‘Abd-al-Malik, Mukhrar's rebellion in ‘Iraq 78. Defcat of ibn-az-Zubayr, Hajjaj in ‘Traq, So, War against Byzantium, 8o, Conquests under al-Walid in central Asia and in Spain, 82. The Umayyad mosque in Damascus, 84. Hajjaj against the Kharijites and ibn-al-Ash‘ath, 88. Sulayman, go. “Umar ibn-"Abd-al-‘Aziz, and his reform of taxation, 92. Yazid II, 93, the desert castles of the Umayyads, 94- Hisham, 96. Revolt of Zayd ibn-‘Ali, 973 Arab raids in France, battle between Tours and Poitiers, 97; Berber revolt, 98. Walid II, 98, poets, 99. Marwan Il, dissolution of the empire, 100. Rise of the ‘Abba- sids in Khorasan, 102. They conquer ‘Iraq, 104. Umayyads destroyed, 105. Ii. THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE AND ITS DISSOLUTION 1. The First ‘Abbasids 107 Saffah and Mansur, 107. ‘Alids put down, 108.CONTENTS xi Founding Baghdad, 109. Administration, 109. Re- volts in Persia, al-Muqanna‘, 111. Mahdi fighting herctics, 112. Harun ar-Rashid and the Barmakids, 114. Aghlabids in North Africa, 115. Poetry, philol- ogy, and historiography in ‘Iraq, 116. The struggle between Amin and Ma’mun, 121. The Tahirids, 123. Progress of science under Ma’mun, 124. Theological controversi 126, Mu'‘tasim and the rise of slave guards, 129. Foundation of Samarra, 130. 2. The Decay of the Caliphate and the Rise of Minor Dynasties 131 Wathiq and Mutrawakkil pawns in hands of Turks; dogmatic reaction, 131, Mu'tamid and Muwaffaq; servile war in ‘Iraq, 134. Tahirids and Saffarids in Persia, 135. Tulunids in “pt. 137. Rise of Zaydites in South Arabia, 141. Qarmatians, 143. Struggle for the caliphate, 144. Finances under Mugtadir, 145. Mysticism, 148, Hallaj, 149. Rivalries among wazirs, 150. Office of anzir al-umara’ created, 151. Hamdanids under Sayf-ad-Dawlah in the war against the Byzan- tines, 152. The Buyids in Persia and ‘Iraq, 154. Aghla- bids in Africa and Sicily, 156. Idrisids of Morocco, 157. The Fatimids in North Africa and Egypt, 158. Hakim, 160, the Druzes, 161. 3. Persians and ‘Turks 163 Origin of the Turks; the old Turkish kingdoms in central and castern Asia, 163. The Samanids in Khora- san, 165. Persian poetry; beginnings of geography, 166. The Turks in Khorasan, 168. Mahmud of Ghaz- nah, 168; conquests in India, 169. Biruni, 169, Fir- dawsi, 170. The Seljugs, 171. Malikshah and the wazir Nizam-al-Mulk, 173. Ghazzali, 174, ‘Umar al-Khay- yam, 175, Hariri, 177. The Assassins, 178.sii CONTENTS 4. Islam in Spain and in North Africa Umayyad emirate founded by ‘Abd-ar-Rahman in Spain, 181. Struggle with the Christians in northern Spain, 182. Disturbances caused by Christian martyrs and converts, 183. The flourishing realm of ‘Abd-ar- Rahman III, first Spanish caliph, 185. Culture, espe- cially literature, in Islamic Spain, 187. ‘Amirids of Cordova, 193. Petty states, 195. Literary develop- ment, 196. Jews in Spain, 200. ‘The Berbers, 202; rise of the Almoravids, 203. They conquer Spain, 204. Almohads, 207. Last Muslim principalities in Spain, 209; Nasrids, 211. Ibn-‘Arabi, the mystic, 214. The historians Ibn-al-Khatib, 214, and Ibn-Khaldun, 215. The travelers Ibn-Jubayr, 217, and Ibn-Battutah, 218. Alhambra, 219. Fall of the Nasrids and the expulsion of the Muslims from Spain, 220. 5. The Near East in the Age of the Crusades and the Rise of the Mamluks in Egypt The Crusaders in Syria, 221. Zengids in Mosul and Damascus, 222. The Avyubids, 224. Saladin over- throws the Fatimids in Egypt, 225, fights the Cru- saders, conquers Jerusalem, 228. Ayyubids in Syria and Egypt, 231. Frederick II in Palestine, 232. Louis IX at Damietta, 233. Bahri Mamluks; Baybars victori- ous «ver Mongols at ‘Ayn Jalut (1259), 234. Burji Mamluks, 236. Intellectual life and architecture under the Mamluks, 237. 6. Turks and Mongols: the End of the Caliphate Khwarizm shahs, 240, Ghorids, 241, Ghuzz, 242. The ‘Abbasid an-Nasir, 243. Origin of the Mongols; Te- muchin-Chinghiz Khan, 244. His conquest of China and Persia; end of the last Khwarizm shah, 246. Chinghiz’s successors, 248. Hulagu destroys the ‘Ab- basids in Baghdad, 250. The ilkhans of Persia; Ghazan 181 221 240CONTENTS xi and his wazir Rashid-ad-Din, 251. Beginnings of Turkish literature, 253. The Persian classics Sa‘di and Hafiz, 254, and Jalal-ad-Din ar-Rumi, 255. Ill, THE OTTOMAN TURKS AS THE LEADING POWER IN ISLAM 1, The Origins of the Ottoman Empire and its Expan- sion down to the time of Suleyman I 256 Ghazis and akritoi; battle of Manzikert, 260. The Scl- juq Suleyman in Anatolia and his successors as sultans of Rum, 257. Ghazi principalities of western Ana- tolia, 259. Rise of the Osmanlis, 260. Their adminis- tration under Orkhan and his wazir Jandarli, 262. Murad’s conquests in the Balkans, 268; battle of Kos- sovo Polye, 269. Bayezid at war with Timur's Mon- gols, 270. The Timurids, 272. Struggle among Baye- zid’s sons, 273. The rebellion of Badr-ad-Din of Simawna and Biirkliije Mustafa, 274. Murad II, war with the Hungarians, 275. Muhammad II, conquest of Constantinople (1453), 277. His structures, 278. The Turkoman chief Uzun Hasan and the fall of the Com- neni of Trebizond, 281. War with Venice, 282. Turk- ish literature under Muhammad II, 284. Bayezid IT and the pretender Jem, 285. Sclim Yavuz conquers Egypt, 289. Suleyman the Great, war in Hungary, 290, and Persia, 291. Khayr-ad-Din Barbarossa creates Turkish sea power, 291. Hungary conquered, 293. Suleyman’s buildings, 293. His death at Szigeth, 294. 2. The Civilization of the Osmanlis at the Zenith of the Empire 295 The Ottoman system of fiefs; the army, 296. The Janizaries, 299. The fleet, 303. The sultan and the wazirs, 305. The Diwan and the Erkani Devlet, 308. Law and justice, 309. Clergy, 310. Scholarship, literaxiv CONTENTS ture, 312. Raya: Greck, 315; Jews, 316; Armenians, Albanians, and Slavs, 317. 3. The Rise of the New Persian Empire and the ‘Turkish- Persian Conflict The monk state of Ardabil and the Sufi Ishaq Safi-ad- Din; his grandson Junayd and the latter's son Hay- dar, leaders of the Kizilbash, 318. Flaydar's son Isma‘il subjugates Persia, 320, and the Uzb of Khorasan, 321. Shitism as state religion, 321. Tahmasp, 322. Ismail II, 323. Persia’s efflorescence under ‘Abbas the Great, 324. The decline of the empire under his successors, 326. 4. The Decline of the Ottoman Power down to the End of the Eighteenth Century Selim H, war with Venice, Turks’ naval defeat at Lepanto, 327. Wars with Persia and Austria under Murad IIL, 328. Peace of Sitvatorok under Ahmed; Revolts in Anatolia and Syria, 329. The Druze prince Fakhr-ad-Din, 330. War with Venice on Crete; em- pire re-organized by Muhammad Képriilii, 332. Crete captured; wars with Poland, 334. Turks defeated be- fore Vienna and driven out of Hungary, 335. Peace of Karlowitz; Peter the Great and Charles XII, 336. War with Venice and Austria; peace of Passarowitz, 337- End of the Safavids, rise of the Afghans in Persia, 337- The Russians in the Caucasus, 337. Persia under Nadir Shah, 338. Turkey’s war with Russia, loss of Crimea, 341. IV. ISLAM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 1. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt Age of Tanzimat (Reforms), 344. Serbian uprising, 345. Janizaries destroyed by Mahmud Il, 346. Mu- hammad ‘Ali, governor of Egypt, 348. His son Ibra-CONTENTS xv him conquers Syria, 350. Wahhabis in Arabia, 352; subdued by Ibrahim, 355. Mahmud’s attempt to re- ja, 358. His army routed at Nasibin, 359. ‘Abd-al-Majid I promulgates the Hatti-sherif of Giilhane, 360. Ibrahim ousted from Syria by the four- pewer alliance, 362. Reorganization in Sy Maro- nites and Druzes, 363. Holy Places controversy, 364. Montenegro, 365. Crimean war, 366. Hatti Humayun, 367. Massacre of Christians in Syria, 368, Kingdom of Rumania founded, 369. Suez canal constructed under Said, 370. Khedive Isma‘il, 371. Egyptians defeated in Abyssinia; state bankruptcy in Fgypt, 372, and in Turkey, 373. Uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria, 374. Midhat Pasha raises ‘Abd-al-Hamid to the throne, 375; the first Turkish constitution, 375. Russia’s Balkan war, 377; The Berlin Congress, 378. ‘Abd-al- Hamid's despotism, 378. ‘Arabi’s revolt in Egypt leads to British occupation, 379. Railroads in Anatolia, 380, and in Hijaz, 381. Armenians and Kurds, 381. War with Greece, Young ‘Turks in Macedonia, 383. March on Istanbul, restitution of the constitution, 384. The Sultan deposed; Italy seizes Tripolitania; the Balkan war, 385. Policy of the Young Turks, 386. Turkey in World War I, 387. 2, Intellectual Life in the Ottoman Empire and in Egypt in the Nincteenth Century 389 Shinasi, 389, and Namik Kemal, 390, founders of modern Turkish literature. ‘Abd-al-Haqq Hamid, 390, Ahmad Midhat, Mehmed Tawfiq, Husayn Rahmi, Mahmud Ekrem, Mehmed Emin, 391. Khalid Ziya, 392. Turkish nationalism, 392. Arabic literature in Syria and Egypt, 393. Feminism and Islamic mod- ernism, 395. 3- North Africa 396 Tripolitania, 396. The French conquer Algeria, 397,xvi CONTENTS and occupy Tunisia, 402. The sharifs of Morocco, 403. Their regime, 4o4. Sultan Hasan and Bu Ham- arah; Algeciras conference; pénétration pacifique, 406. Abd-el-Krim, 407. Intellectual life in North Af- rica and stirrings for liberation, 407. 4. The Sudan Islamization, 408. Mahdi in the Egyptian Sudan, 4o9. His khalifah’s wars in Abyssinia, 413. His state de- stroyed by Kitchener, 414. The “Mad Mullah” in Somaliland, 415. Zubayr Pasha in Bahr al-Ghazal; Sanusis, 416. Rabih and the expansion of the French colonial empire, 417. 5. Persia and Afghanistan Kajars; Fath ‘Ali struggling against Russia and Af- ghanistan, 419. Muhammad Shah’s clash with Britain in Afghanistan, 423. Shah Nasir-ad-Din, 424. Babism, 424, and Bahaism, 427. Russian advance in central Asia; the British in Afghanistan, 428, Nasir-ad-Din’s reform plans, 429. Conflict with Jamal-ad-Din al- Afghani, 430. Assassination of the Shah; growing financial difficulties under Muzaffar-ad-Din, 431. Revolution; parliamentarism, 432. Persia divided into spheres of influence—Russian and British, 433. Bakhti- yari tribesmen depose the Shah, 434. Morgan Shuster, financial adviser; northern Persia in Russian hands, 435. Persia in World War I, 436. Vv. THE ISLAMIC STATES AFTER THE WORLD WAR 1. Turkey Istanbul occupied by the Allies, Smyrna by the Greeks, 438. Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia, 439. The National Pact of Sivas; Kemal becomes president of the National Assembly at Ankara, 440, Ghazi after his 408 419 438CONTENTS xv victory over the Greeks on R. Sakarya, 441. Treaties with France and Soviet Russia, 441. Expulsion of the Greeks from Smyrna, peace of Lausanne, 442. The republic; abolition of the caliphate; Kurdish uprising, 443. Religious and social reforms, 444. Latin script in- troduced, 445. Neo-Turkish nationalism and its ex- cesses, 446, Art and literature, 448. Parties; the Smyrna conspiracy, 449. Foreign policy; Mosul, 450, and Alexandretta, 451; treatics with Balkan nations, 451. Aratiirk’s death, 452. 2. Egypt 452 Under Cromer, 453. ‘Abbas Hilmi’s conflict with Kitchener, 455. The question of ‘Aqabah; Mustafa Kamil and the National party; the events of Din- shaway, 456. Cromer resigns, 457. Kitchener and the five-faddan law, 458. The first parliament of Egypt; Egypt in World War I, British protectorate; Sultan Husayn Kamil, 458. Sultan Fu'ad, 459. Sa‘d Zaghlul and the Wafd, 460. His exile; disorders; Allenby and the Milner Mission, 461. Negotiations for a treaty with Britain, 462. Zaghlul in the Seychelles; protec- torate abolished; Fu’ad as king; Zaghlul’s return, 463. Sir Lee Stack assassinated; Isma‘i] Sidqi Pasha’s cabi- net, 464. Sarwat’s negotiations in London, 465. The King rules without parliament with Mahmud Pasha as premier, 466. Resurgence of the Wafd, 467. Italians in Ethiopia, the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, 468. King Farug against the Wafd, 469. 3. Arabia 470 Sharif Husayn in Mecca; The Houses of Rashid and Sa‘ud in Najd, 470. ‘Asir and Yemen, 471. Petty rulers on the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, 472. Husayn’s negotiations with McMahon in Egypt, 472. His son Faysal in Syria, 473. Faysal and Lawrence fighting the Turks, 474. Husayn, defeatedXViii CONTENTS by Ibn-Sa‘ud, abandoned by Britain, 476. ‘Abd-al- ‘Aziz ibn-Sa‘ud against the house of Rashid and against Husayn, 477. Ibn-Sa'ud king of of Hijaz, 478. Muslim congress in Mecca, 47 with the emir of *Asir and the imam Yahya of Yemen, 479. Ibn-Sa'ud’s home policy, 479. 4. Syria, Palestine, Transjordan, and ‘Iraq 480 Secret Arab socictics and Arab nationalism in World War I, 481. The Sykes-Picot agreement, 482. The King-Crane Commission; Faysal king of Syria, 483. French mandated area in Syria forms a federal state, 484. Uprising in Syria (1925), 485. Republican con- stitution; efforts towards a treaty with France, 486. The Balfour Declaration: national home for the Jew- ish people in Palestine; Palestine’s regime under the British mandate, 487. Jewish immigration, 488. Con- flict between Arabs and Jews; partition schemes, 489. Palestine conference in London (193y), 4g0. T'rans- jordan under ‘Abdallah ibn-Husayn, 490. Zionist at- tempts to get a foothold there, and the Arabs’ re- action, 492. ‘Iraq conquered by Anglo-Indian forces; civilian administration on Indian pattern, 493. The Mosul vilayct and the region of the Upper Euphrates, 494. Sir Percy Cox as Commissioner of the Manda- tary, 496 I king of Iraq, 497. ‘Treaty with Brit- ain, 498. Nestorian uprising, 499. Ghazi (September 8, 1933-April 4, 1939), 500. Political and cultural de- velopment of ‘Iraq, 501. 5. Persia and Afghanistan 501 Russians and British in Persia after World War I, so1. Riza Khan, minister of war, commander in the fight against gangs, 502. Parliamentary struggles on the po- litical form of Persia, 503. Khuzistan subdued; Kajars expelled; Riza Shah Pehlevi, shah of Persia, 504. Rail- roads, financial policy, agriculture, women’s cmanci-