Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Aerodynamics Module 8 PDF
Basic Aerodynamics Module 8 PDF
Basic Aerodynamics Module 8 PDF
1. ATMOSPHERE.................................................................................................1
1.1 nature.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 properties....................................................................................................1
2. AERODYNAMICS............................................................................................1
2.1 mass flow....................................................................................................1
2.2 energy......................................................................................................... 1
3. AEROFOILS.....................................................................................................1
3.1 aerodynamic forces.....................................................................................1
3.2 definitions....................................................................................................2
3.3 aerodynamic resultants...............................................................................2
3.4 lift & drag.....................................................................................................3
3.5 factors affecting forces................................................................................3
3.5.1 Lift & drag coefficient............................................................................4
3.5.2 Angle of attack......................................................................................5
3.6 centre of pressure.......................................................................................6
3.6.1 Pitching moment coefficient..................................................................7
3.7 aerodynamic centre.....................................................................................8
3.8 downwash...................................................................................................8
4. DRAG............................................................................................................... 1
4.1 drag equation..............................................................................................1
4.2 drag coefficient............................................................................................1
4.3 drag components.........................................................................................1
4.4 flow characteristics......................................................................................1
4.5 form drag.....................................................................................................1
4.6 boundary layers...........................................................................................2
4.7 skin friction..................................................................................................3
4.7.1 Transition point.....................................................................................3
4.7.2 Reynolds number..................................................................................4
4.7.3 Adverse pressure gradient....................................................................4
4.8 separation....................................................................................................4
4.9 interference drag.........................................................................................5
4.10 induced drag..............................................................................................5
4.10.1 Vortex drag.........................................................................................6
4.11 total drag...................................................................................................8
4.11.1 Drag polar...........................................................................................8
5. FORCES IN FLIGHT........................................................................................1
5.1 four forces...................................................................................................1
5.2 straight & level.............................................................................................1
5.3 forces in climb ............................................................................................2
5.4 forces in glide & descent............................................................................3
5.5 rate of climb (performance).........................................................................3
5.5.1 Power curves........................................................................................4
5.5.2 Effect of altitude....................................................................................5
6. FORCES & MANOEUVRE...............................................................................1
6.1 centripetal force...........................................................................................1
6.2 looping.........................................................................................................1
6.3 load factor....................................................................................................2
6.4 level turns....................................................................................................2
6.5 stalling ........................................................................................................3
6.5.1 Stalling speed.......................................................................................3
Basic Aerodynamics by COBC - Issue 1 - 28 May 2013 Page 1
6.5.2 Effect of weight / load factor..................................................................3
6.5.3 Aerofoil Contamination..........................................................................3
6.6 flight envelopes...........................................................................................4
7. STABILITY.......................................................................................................1
7.1 basic concept & definition............................................................................1
7.2 static stability...............................................................................................1
7.3 dynamic stability..........................................................................................2
7.4 aircraft stability............................................................................................2
7.5 design features............................................................................................3
7.6 control......................................................................................................... 7
7.7 control about 3 axes....................................................................................8
7.8 aerodynamic balancing................................................................................9
7.9 balance of tabs..........................................................................................10
7.10 fixed & trim tabs......................................................................................11
7.11 balance tabs............................................................................................12
7.12 lift augmentation......................................................................................13
7.13 use of high lift devices.............................................................................14
7.14 flaps, slots & slats....................................................................................15
7.15 Drag devices..........................................................................................17
8. HIGH SPEED FLIGHT......................................................................................1
8.1 high speed airflow.......................................................................................1
8.2 shock waves................................................................................................1
8.2.1 Mach angle & Mach cone......................................................................2
8.3 growth of a shockwave system....................................................................3
8.4 speed of sound............................................................................................3
8.5 mach number..............................................................................................4
8.6 effects of a shockwave................................................................................6
8.7 shock induced separation............................................................................8
8.8 shock induced drag.....................................................................................8
8.8.1 Buffet....................................................................................................8
8.8.2 High speed / low incidence stall ( shock stall).......................................9
8.9 centre of pressure changes.........................................................................9
8.10 controlled separation - conical vortex lift................................................10
8.11 transonic flight.........................................................................................10
8.12 Critical mach (mcrit).................................................................................11
8.12.1 Transonic wing planform...................................................................11
8.13 sweep back.............................................................................................11
8.14 instability..................................................................................................13
8.15 the super critical wing..............................................................................14
8.16 shock-free compression..........................................................................15
8.17 the transonic area rule ............................................................................16
8.18 buffet boundary.......................................................................................17
8.19 airflow through an oblique shockwave.....................................................18
8.20 supersonic aerofoil sections....................................................................18
8.20.1 Flat plate aerofoil..............................................................................19
8.20.2 Generation of lift................................................................................19
8.20.3 Double wedge aerofoil section..........................................................20
8.20.4 Bi-convex aerofoil section.................................................................21
8.20.5 Pressure distribution.........................................................................21
8.21 supersonic wing planforms......................................................................22
8.21.1 The unswept supersonic wing...........................................................22
8.21.2 The swept supersonic wing...............................................................23
8.21.3 Subsonic & supersonic trailing edges...............................................24
8.21.4 Supersonic engine intakes................................................................25
9. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS.....................................................................1
9.1 cyclic & collective controls...........................................................................3
Basic Aerodynamics by COBC - Issue 1 - 28 May 2013 Page 2
9.2 Anti-torque control.......................................................................................4
9.3 effect of the tail rotor....................................................................................5
9.4 main rotor head configuration & movement.................................................5
1.1 NATURE
The atmosphere is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% of other
gases (e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, Neon etc). These percentages are
volumetric.
1.2 PROPERTIES
Any gas will have the physical properties such as pressure, density and
temperature, which can vary (as in an air-breathing engine). Study of the above
diagram will show how these properties vary within the atmosphere. Because of
these variations, the performance of an aircraft will vary. If meaningful
comparisons between measured performance are to be made, some standard or
datum conditions must be established. This standard is termed as the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
An ISA is based on the following SL criteria.
• SL Pressure 1013.2 millibars / hecto pascals
• SL Density 1.225 kg/m3
• SL Temperature 15ºC / 288 K
• SL Lapse rate 1.98ºC / 1000 feet (6.5k/km)
Study of the diagram will highlight a particular characteristic of the lapse rate. It
is initially 1.98°C/1000 feet and virtually constant up to approximately 36,000 feet,
and then the lapse rate is zero. This feature is used in order to establish different
regions. The lowest region is the Troposphere and the next region is the
Stratosphere. The boundary between the two is known as the Tropopause.
(The upper regions need not be seriously considered for our purposes).
Air also contains varying amounts of water vapour. This presence is known as
humidity. It is a fact that air is most dense when it is perfectly dry, and vice
versa.
2.2 ENERGY
This change in velocity implies a corresponding change in kinetic energy
(KE = ½ mv2). The principle known as Conservation of Energy suggests that
unless extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream (such as fuel) the
overall energy content must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form decreases.
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship between pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
P + ½ρv2 = Constant
pressure kinetic total
(static) (dynamic) ("Pitot")
Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these aerodynamic pressures acting
on the areas of the aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand the
effect of these pressures by studying the diagram below. On this, the pressures
have been plotted, using the chord line as a datum. Note that negative (suction)
pressure has been plotted upwards. The difference (or area enclosed) between
the two curves is proportional to the overall lifting - effect of the aerofoil.
• Relative AirFlow (RAF) is the movement of the air relative to the aircraft (or
aerofoil). (In practice, it is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but in
aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel experiment, it is the air which is
considered to be in motion).
• Leading Edge is the foremost point on the aerofoil.
• Trailing Edge is the rear-most point on the aerofoil.
• Chord Line is the straight line joining leading and trailing edges.
• Chord Length (C) is the length of the chord line.
• Camber Line is the line drawn through points equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line; the greater the
curvature, the greater will be the aerodynamic forces generated).
• Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the upper and
lower surfaces. (It is generally between and way back along the chord line).
Thickness / chord ratio = thickness ÷ chord, normally expressed as a
percentage.
• Angle of Attack (α) - the angle formed between the chord-line and relative
airflow.
• Span (b) is the distance from tip to tip, measured perpendicular to the chord
line.
• Aspect Ratio (AR) is Span ÷ chord .
If the wing is tapered, i.e. it has a varying chord, then the AR may be
expressed as span2 ÷ wing area = .
• Wing Area (S) is the area projected onto a plane perpendicular to the normal
axis.
• Stagnation Point is a point on the surface of the aerofoil where the RAF has
been brought to rest.
3.8 DOWNWASH
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds and pressures that
result in the creation of lift. Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newton’s 3rd Law, there must be an
opposite force applied to the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’. (There may well be an
‘upwash’ effect ahead of the leading-edge).
On the diagram, the length of the arrows indicates the flow velocity at that point.
The (parabolic) pattern is termed the velocity distribution or profile.
The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness (it is fairly thin!) The layer
is considered to be the region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)
varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.
4.7.1TRANSITION POINT
Note that the flow is initially laminar, but changes to turbulence at the transition
point. Comparing the velocity profiles reveals that the turbulent layer has a
greater rate of change of velocity near the surface. This will cause greater
friction, which introduces a random (unsteady) element into the flow resulting in a
greater degree of mixing with the free-stream. This thickens the turbulent layer
and introduces greater kinetic energy. Note the laminar sub-layer whose
presence is important, but detailed study is beyond the scope of this module.
The transition point depends on:
• Surface condition
• Speed of flow
• Size of object
• Adverse pressure gradient
4.8 SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow
within the boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an
APG, as with a curved or cambered body. This effect can be shown at several
successive points within the boundary-layer. As shown on the following diagram,
the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent wake.
Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may occur.
The total drag, is a minimum at the point at which the two curves intersect.
Here, ZLD = ID and this point gives the minimum - drag speed.
Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. The analysis then begins
by resolving the weight force into two components, perpendicular and parallel
to the flight path. The forces in these directions can now be equated.
L = W cosθ
T = W sinθ + D
Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the aircraft is climbing, θ > O and
cosθ < 1
therefore Lift is less than Weight.
Similarly, sinθ > O and Thrust is greater than Drag.
We can therefore deduce that aircraft climb because of increased thrust, and
not increased lift. (Theoretically, this makes sense, because the aircraft gains
height and therefore potential energy. The energy input is through the increase
in thrust, itself resulting from the 'burning' or expenditure of fuel (chemical
energy).
distance (difference) between the power available and power required curves.
Study of the diagram shows that this difference is dependent on the aircraft
speed. So to achieve the best rate of climb, a particular speed must be selected,
i.e. the best climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb represents a useful measure of
aircraft performance (and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced thrust or
increased drag will both have the effect of reducing the vertical distance which
represents excess power. If an aircraft on test fails to achieve the scheduled
ROC, then an investigation as to the possible cause should be made. Note the
importance of operating at the best climb speed.
6.2 LOOPING
Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At some point, the pilot wishes to
stop the descent and position the aircraft to climb away from the ground.
Note that if the flight path is as shown, the lift force (and CPF) is considered as
negative and hence the Load Factor is also negative.
Because of the increased stresses, aircraft are designed with 'g' limits. Because
violent manoeuvres could result in over-stressing, aircraft are operated within 'g'
limits, both positive and negative. Combat aircraft are designed to be more
manoeuvrable and therefore have higher 'g' limits than transport aircraft.
Similarly, pilots are provided with 'g' suits to increase their personal 'g' thresholds.
CPF =
So increased weight, high speed and "tight" radius of turn all impose high load
factors on aircraft.
6.5 STALLING
Recalling the graphs showing variation of CL and CD which accompany changes
in α, it was stated that the wing stalled beyond a certain α. This is known as the
stalling angle.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust is reduced, the aircraft will
reduce speed (drag is exceeding thrust). The pilot can maintain lift, by raising the
nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point (speed), however, the aircraft will
reach the stalling angle, the CL reduces and the aircraft stalls, suddenly losing
altitude.
L (=W) = ½ρv2S CL
6.5.1STALLING SPEED
But it is important to appreciate that the stall is primarily dependent on angle of
attack (α), not speed (v). An aircraft can in fact stall at any speed, if the critical
stalling angle is exceeded. This may happen during a manoeuvre when the
maximum CL is exceeded. The new (higher) stalling speed can be deduced from;
Manoeuvre stall speed = basic stall speed
6.5.3AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
Aerofoil performance is fundamentally influenced by shape and surface
characteristics, which determine flow-pattern and degree of separation. Any
surface irregularity can cause a marked change, which may include changes in
stall behaviour. Such irregularities may result from contamination by ice and
snow accretion. Several accidents have been the result, and for this reason,
careful inspection and rectification is essential before aircraft operation in adverse
weather conditions.
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in the new position and is
described as having neutral stability.
In the third diagram, it will move further away from the initial position, it has
negative stability, or is unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering stability, the immediate
reaction or tendency to movement following initial displacement is used to
determine the static stability of the system.
The easiest one to consider is displacement (yaw) about the normal axis. The
diagram shows that this will cause an angle of attack to be created between the
fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative airflow, such that an aerodynamic force /
moment will be created that restores the aircraft towards its original heading /
direction. (As the displacement reduces, the moment reduces and the aircraft will
again 'heads' towards the relative airflow - just like a weathercock heads into
wind).
The fin gives an aircraft directional stability (about the normal axis).
The manner in which the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) acts is similar in
principle but somewhat more complicated in detail. The diagram below shows
the aircraft displaced in the pitching plane. Now two aerofoils are involved, the
mainplane and tailplane.
The next diagram shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the centre of gravity.
This will also 'right' the aircraft (similar to a yacht-keel). Note that if the keel-area
is mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then an additional effect is to yaw the aircraft
towards the dropped-wing.
In the second diagram, the aircraft has dropped the left wing and is side-slipping.
Due to the angle of sweep-back, the RAF now meets the leading-edges at
different angles, and now has different components in respect of each wing. It
will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or normal) component that creates lift
and reference to the diagram shows that greater chordwise component occurring
over the dropped-wing will therefore generate more lift, so as to create a rolling
moment that restores the aircraft to (straight) and level flight.
Several design features have been considered which result in lateral stability.
But an aircraft that is very stable will be unresponsive to control movements.
Stability requirements have to complement control requirements. An aircraft
that has excessive stability is as undesirable as one that lacks stability. The right
'balance' between stability and control is often dictated by the intended role of the
aircraft. An aircraft that possessed all the features described would probably be
too stable. So a swept-wing, high-wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the
opposite to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which create a moment so as to
restore the aircraft towards its undisturbed or original position. They contribute
static stability. Dynamic stability in the manner in which the aircraft moves or
oscillates towards / about that position. This will depend on the variation of the
forces in respect of displacement / time and is too complex for this module.
7.6 CONTROL
The previous section has considered stability, where design features have been
included in order to maintain or regain a desired flight path.
If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path is to be changed) it will be
necessary to de-stabilise the aircraft. So it appears that stability and
manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements - increasing one characteristic
decreases the other.
The effect of the air-flow acting on the horn is to produce a moment assisting
control movement.
The sealed-hinge maintains a pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces. This results in a net pressure force acting forward of the hinge,
creating a moment assisting deflection.
If the tab is operated directly by the pilot, the tab is termed a servo tab. A servo
tab is considered to lack effectiveness at low speeds. The main control surface is
not connected to the control system, it "floats". If a large deflection is required,
the servo tab must be able to generate a sufficient moment to cause this. At low
speed this is difficult.
At low speeds, no assistance is needed and the pilot moves the control surface
without tab deflection. If the speed rises, the increasing air resistance requires
the pilot to apply an increasing hinge moment via the control system. At some
stage, the forces in the control system overcome the spring forces, which allows
the link to pivot and create a movement of the tab. The greater the force, the
more the link and tab will move, the greater will be the assistance to the pilot.
Effect on:-
Flap Setting Lift Coefficient Drag Coefficient Lift / drag
Up (cruise) - - Maximum
Intermediate (t/o) Large Increase Small Increase Decrease
(e.g. 10 and 22)
Full (landing) Small Increase Large Increase Large Decrease
(e.g. 27 and 30)
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
High-Lift Devices aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
max. lift
Increase camber.
Much drag when fully
50% 12°
lowered. Nose-down
Plain or Camber Flap pitching moment.
Increase camber.
Even more drag than
60% 14°
plain flap. Nose-down
Split Flap pitching moment.
Control of boundary
layer. Increase camber.
65% 16°
Stalling delayed. Not
Slotted Flap so much drag.
Same as single-slotted
flap only more so.
70% 18
Treble slots sometimes
Double-slotted Flap used.
table continue….
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
High-Lift Devices max. lift
Nose-flap hinging about
leading edge. Reduces
50% 20° lift at small deflections.
Nose-up pitching
Krueger Flap moment.
Controls boundary
40% 20° layer. Slight extra drag
at high speeds.
Slotted Wing
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
50% 20° camber and area.
Nose-up pitching
Fixed Slat moment.
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
60% 22° camber and area.
Greater angles of
attack. Nose-up
Movable Slat
pitching moment.
More control of
boundary layer.
75% 25° Increased camber and
area. Pitching moment
Slat and Slotted Flap can be neutralised.
Complicated
mechanisms. The best
120% 28° combination for lift;
treble slots may be
Slat and Double-Slotted used. Pitching moment
Fowler Flap can be neutralised.
The effect of the irregularity can only be felt within the 3-D Mach
cone which has a surface made up of Mach lines.
The mach cone could be considered as being made up of a series of mach lines
and so the included angle of a mach cone will be 2α.
The Mach Angle only holds true for a weak shock wave at some distance from
the point (or aircraft) where is may be referred to as a Mach Wave, see diagram
below. Nearer the aircraft, where the shock wave is stronger, the shock wave
progressively becomes a 'normal' shock wave, i.e. at 90º to the airflow.
The bow shock wave becomes progressively weaker further out from the
Aircraft eventually becoming a very weak 'Mach Wave'.
(a) = 330
(Note that the actual flight speed is the True Airspeed (TAS) which is Indicated
Airspeed (IAS) corrected for density at altitude.)
The speed of sound is adjusted according to the ‘local’ (actual) air temperature.
i. An area forward of the shock wave (inside the dotted lines) is now
supersonic, caused by the increase of airspeed over the cambered
surface.
ii. Aft of the shockwave the air is,
Subsonic
Higher in density (compressed
Higher in pressure
Higher in temperature
iii. As the shockwave develops and strengthens, the 'transition point'
moves forward to near the shockwave causing the boundary layer to
separate from the aerofoil surface. This is called Shock Induced
Separation which causes a large, turbulent subsonic wake.
• Supersonic - The diagram (d) below shows the position with the free-
stream airflow supersonic in which:
This drag reduces from its peak as speed further increase, but never returns to
it's subsonic levels.
The two components of shock-induced drag are:
• Wave Drag - The changes in speed, pressure, density and temperature of
the airflow which happen in the shockwave require energy. This dissipation of
energy is observed as an increase in drag.
• Boundary Layer Drag (Viscous Drag) - This is always present at any
speed of flight, but as shock-induced separation occurs, the much larger
turbulent wake produces a correspondingly high drag.
8.8.1 BUFFET
This is caused by the turbulent wake striking the airframe (fuselage, wings
tailplane etc) with considerable force causing a high amplitude 'vibration' which
physically shakes the whole aircraft.
However, once the shockwaves form, this situation will change. As we saw
earlier as the air passes through the shockwave it is slowed down. More
important when we are considering lift is the effect on pressure and density.
These both rise.
The pressure over the top surface reduces rapidly up to the shockwave where
pressure and density instantly rise. This may contribute to shock stall. The
pressure then continues to rise toward the trailing edge. This has the effect of
moving the centre of pressure forward producing a nose up pitching moment on
the aircraft. This effect is only apparent in the transonic range. As the
shockwave moves to the trailing edge the centre of pressure returns to
approximately its original position. This effect may be cancelled or reversed by
similar effects on the lower surface.
As shock induced separation occurs the shock wave may also rapidly oscillate
back and fore over the wing. This causes a rapid up and down movement of the
nose accentuating buffet.
The movement of the centre of pressure associated with shock-wave
development results in trim changes throughout the transonic speed-range.
This requires an automatic response or correction input to the pitch control
system, which is termed Mach Trim.
This is possible because when the air separates it rolls up into conical vortices
over the wing, see diagram below. As these vortices are rotating at high speed,
the pressure within them is low and therefore lift is produced.
Whilst Concorde is designed to fly with separated flow at all speeds, other aircraft
such as the F16 are designed to fly with attached flow at low angles of attack and
separated flow at high angles of attack.
8.14 INSTABILITY
Another disadvantage is the common-tendency to demonstrate a degree of
dynamic instability, particularly with respect to lateral and directional stability.
There instabilities are often ‘coupled’ and produce a phenomenon called ‘Dutch
Roll’. This is overcome by sensing the resultant motion and then generating an
automatic response or correction to the rudder. Such a system is commonly
found on swept-wing aircraft and is termed ‘yaw damping’.
The velocity vector V1, can be divided into two. A vector normal (at 90º) to the
shockwave Vn and one Tangential (parallel) to the wave Vt. The wave only has
an effect on the normal vector, reducing it.
Therefore Vt behind the wave is unchanged but Vn2 is shortened (speed
component reduced). So V2 must be inclined outward in relation to V1.
Being a flat plate, it has sharp leading edge which encourages the bow
shockwave to attach itself readily.
A feature of many designs of supersonic aerofoil is a razor sharp leading edge
which is employed for that purpose.
This bi-convex aerofoil acts in a similar way to the double wedge. The airflow
under the aerofoil first encounters a shockwave which raises its density and
pressure. These steadily reduce to original values as the airflow passes through
a 'field' of expansion waves.
Over the top surface, the airflow first passes through a 'field' of expansion waves
which gradually reduces its pressure and density to a minimum. These are
returned to their original values as they encounter the trailing-edge shockwave
which re-compresses the air.
If the trailing edge is supersonic, see diagram below, a trailing edge shockwave
will form.
• Rotor thrust and drag - equivalent to Lift and Drag and expressed relative
to the plane of rotation.
• Coning angle - rise of blade due to thrust, thus the blade forms an angle
with the plane of rotation.
Horizontal movement is achieved by 'tilting' the rotor disc in the direction of the
required movement. This tilting of the disc provides a horizontal component in
addition to the vertical force. Tilting is achieved by increasing the blade pitch on
one side whilst decreasing the pitch on the opposite side. This requires each
blade to alternately increase then decrease its pitch during 360º of disc rotation.
This represents a cyclical change in pitch and therefore leads to the term cyclic
pitch being applied to the lever which corresponds to the control column found on
fixed wing aircraft.
As a result of these changes, the blades will also tend to rise or fall (remember
the tip path is not the same as the plane of rotation, but creates a coning angle).
To reduce bending stresses, blades are often allowed to 'flap' upwards or
downwards by a flapping-hinge.