SADVIDYA SEMI-RESIDENTIAL P U COLLEGE

#CA16, Damodaram Sanjeevaiah Circle, Vijayanagara 2nd STAGE, MYSURU-570017

II PU PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

2017-18

Prepared Jointly by Members of the Staff

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SADVIDYA COMPOSITE PU COLLEGE & SADVIDYA SEMI-RESIDENTIAL PU COLLEGE
MYSURU

Name: ………………………………………………………………………

Roll No. …………… Combination: ……………... Section: ……………

Some Useful Physical Constants
Speed of light (EMR) in vacuum, c = 2.99794598  108 ms-1 3 108 ms-1
(Universal) Gravitational constant, G=6.674 10-11m3kg-1 s-2
Acceleration due to gravity (at the surface of the earth, at equator) = 9.8 ms-2
Planck’s constant, h=6.626 10-34Js
Reduced Planck’s constant, h/2 =1.055 10-34Js
Avogadro number, NA = 6.022 10 +23mol-1
Boltzmann Constant, k = 1.381  10-23JK-1
Universal Gas Constant, R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1
Permeability of free space, 0 = 4 10-7 NA-2 [or T mA-1] =1.256 10-6NA-2 [or Hm-1]
Magnetic constant, 0/4=10-7 NA-2
Permittivity of the free space, 0 = 8.854  10-12N m2 C-2 [or Fm-1]
Electrostatic constant, 1/40 = 9 109 C2 N-1 m-2 [or F -1m]
Electron (Elementary) charge, e = -1.602  10-19C
Atomic mass unit u = 1.660 10-27kg
Electron (rest) mass me= 9.110 10-31kg =0.00055 u
Proton (rest) mass mp= 1.673 10-27kg =1.007 u
Neutron (rest) mass mn= 1.675 10-27kg =1.009 u
Electron volt, eV = 1.602  10-19J
Energy equivalent of 1 u = 931.5 MeV
Electron rest energy = 0.511 MeV
Proton Rest energy = 935.6 MeV
Neutron rest energy = 937.5 MeV
Bohr Radius a0 = 5.292 10-11 m = 0. 53Å
Rydberg Constant RH = 1.097 10+7 m-1
Some Useful Physical data
Material Resistivity Temp.Coeff. Energy
 (at 00C) Of resistance Gap
in  m 
in 10-4 K-1
Copper 1.7 10-8
Iron 1010-8
Nichrome :  10010-8 2.0
[Alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr and Mn]
Manganin: 4810-8 0.3
[Alloy of Cu, Mn and Ni ]
Silicon 2300 1.12 eV
Germanium 0.46 0.76 eV
Distilled Water 2.5 10+5

EMF of Lechlanche Cell: 1.5 V EMF of Daniel Cell: 1.08 V

Cut-in (knee) Voltage of Si diode  0.7 V Cut-in (knee) Voltage of Ge diode  0.26 V

1
INDEX
Sl.no. Experiment Page Date Signature
Nos.
Resistance per unit length of wire- measurement using
1. 3-4
Ohm’s Law
Resistivity of material- measurement using a Metre
2. 5-6
Bridge
Series Law of combination of resistances-
3. 7-8
verification using a Metre-Bridge
Parallel Law of combination of resistances-
4. 9-10
verification using a Metre-Bridge
5. Comparison of EMF’s of two cells using a Potentiometer 11-12
Internal resistance of a cell- measurement using a
6. 13-14
Potentiometer
7. Figure of Merit of a Galvanometer- measurement 15-16

8. Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter 17-18

9. Frequency of AC supply- measurement using a 19-20

Sonometer
10. Conversion of Galvanometer into a milli-Ammeter 21-22

11. Concave Mirror- focal length determination 23-24

12. Convex Lens- focal length determination 25-26

13. Convex Mirror-focal length determination 27-28

14. Concave Lens-focal length determination 29-30

Angle of minimum deviation in a Prism- measurement by
15. 31-32
δ-i graph
Refractive Index of glass by ‘Normal Shift’ method using
16. 33-34
a Travelling Microscope
17. Refractive Index of water using a Concave Mirror 35-36

18. Refractive Index of water using a Convex Lens 37-38

Semiconductor Junction diode- drawing Forward-bias
19. 39-40
characteristics
20. Zener Diode- drawing Reverse-bias characteristics 41-42

21. Transistor- drawing characteristics 43-44

22. Typical VIVA- Questions / Answers 45-55

2
 _ Rh

I in A
mA Exptal. + C
Wire  ΔI
+ R V
_
A ΔV B

+
E

V in V 

‘Resistance per unit length’ of a uniform wire using a Ohm’s Law Ckt.
Ckt.

Trial Potential Current Resistance

no. difference I V
R
V (in A) I
(in V) (in )

Average Resistance R = ……………… 

BC
Slope of I vs V graph: m   ........... S (or  -1 )
AB

1
Resistance R   ........ 
m

Length of the experimental wire L = ………. m

R
Resistance per unit length    ............ m 1
L

3
Expt. 1: ‘Resistance per unit length’ of a given metallic wire- Ohm’s Law application

Aim: To determine the ‘resistance per unit (m) length’ of a given wire using a graph of Current
(I) versus potential (V) difference

Apparatus required: Variable DC power supply (0-12V) /1A; Metallic wire (50-80 cm); Voltmeter; Milli-
ammeter; Rheostat; Plug / (switch); connecting wires

Principle: Resistance ( ) per unit length (i.e.,  m -1) of a metallic wire of uniform cross section is a
constant. Its resistance ( R ) is the reciprocal of slope of the I versus V (straight line) graph where
current is ( I ) [along Y-axis] passing through it when a potential difference ( V ) [along X-axis]
maintained across its ends.
R
Resistance per unit length (  ) can be calculated using the formula:   m 1
L
Where R  resistance of wire in  , and L length of the wire in m.
I 1
Formula: Slope of I vs V graph: m   -1
V R

Resistance R  Reciprocal slope of I versus V graph 

1
1 in 
 I  m
 V 
 
R
Resistance per unit length   in m 1 where L  length of the wire in m
L
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the given circuit diagram using the ‘experimental wire’ (whose
‘resistance per unit length’ is to be measured) in the circuit.
2. Keeping the supply voltage (E) setting at minimum, the supply is switched on.
3. Voltage is varied so that some suitable current I passes through the wire; current I (in mA =
……. × 10-3 A) on the ammeter and the corresponding potential difference V (in V) across the
ends of the wire on the voltmeter are noted.
4. Experiment is repeated for different values of V across the experimental wire.
5. Results are tabulated. A graph of current I (in A, along the Y-axis) and potential difference V
(in V, along the X-axis) is plotted. [Graph will be a straight line with a ‘positive slope’
corresponding to ‘conductance’ of the wire.]
1
6. The slope ( m ) of the graph is calculated and hence resistance R  is obtained.
m
7. Length ( L ) ( in m ) of the experimental wire is measured.
R
8. Hence, Resistance per unit length   in Ωm -1 is calculated.
L
Results: Resistance of the given wire:
By I-V graph: (reciprocal of the slope) = R = ………….. 
By Calculation: R avg=……………. 
R
Resistance per unit length    ...........  m 1
L

4
 B
G S
R
R S

A G C B

lρ (1-l) ρ A D C
D J
0 l (1- l )

E
Wheatstone’s Bridge Resistivity of material of wire using Meter Bridge Ckt.

Observations:
Length of the experimental wire = L = ……… cm = ………… ×10 - 2 m

[ Given ] Radius of the wire = r = ………… mm =……….  10 - 3m

Trial no. Standard Balancing Length S  l

R
resistance S length (1 - l ) (1  l )
in Right gap l ( in m) (in Ω)
(in ) ( in m)

Average R=

S×l
R= 
(1 - l)

R   r 2 
' Resistivity ' of the material of the wire  =
L

  ................. Ω m  ............... μΩ m

5
Expt. 2: Resistivity measurement
Aim: To determine ‘Resistivity of the material’ of a wire using a metre-bridge
Apparatus required: Metre bridge, 0.30 m to 0.50 m long wire (of material whose resistivity is to be
determined); a resistance box (1-100 Ω); galvanometer; a jockey; Plug key/Tap Key; supply voltage
(1.5 V); thick connecting wires.
Principle: Metre-Bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s network.
Resistance R of a uniform experimental wire (in left gap) of is measured comparing it with a standard resistance
S l
S (in right gap) using a balanced metre-bridge arrangement. When balancing length is l in m, then R 
(1  l )
 where S is in , and l & (1-l) are in m. If L is the length (in m) and r is the radius of the experimental wire

R r
2
 Ωm
(in m), the resistivity  of the wire material is calculated using the relation: Resitivity   in
L
Formula:
S l
(i) R   where S : standard resistance in Right gap in  ; l : balancing length in m
(1  l )

R   r 2 
(ii) Resistivity  =  m where R: resistance in ; r: radius in m;
L
L : length of the exptal. wire in m
Procedure:
1. Length L (in m) of the uniform experimental wire (of material whose resistivity is to be determined)
is measured using a metre scale.
2. Radius (r) of the wire is noted (in m).
3. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram, taking care to connect the experimental
wire R in the left gap and a standard resistance (box) S (in Ω) in the right gap of the metre-bridge.
4. A suitable resistance S Ω unplugged from the box. Key K is closed. Circuit is completed.
5. Sliding contact (J) is alternately placed at (or near) 0th and 100th cm end to verify if deflection in the
galvanometer (G) is on either side of central zero of G. [This ‘confirms’ a correct connection and
experimental set-up.]
6. Sliding contact (J) is moved over the metre-bridge wire until a balance point is found (i.e. where
galvanometer shows NO deflection.) [Value of S is preferably so chosen that the null point lies
close to the mid-point (50 cm mark ) of meter-bridge wire].
7. The standard resistance S , the balancing Length l m, and hence (1-l) m are noted.
8. Experiment is repeated for different S values. Observations are tabulated.
S l
Unknown resistance R is calculated in each case using the formula: R  
(1  l )
9. Average value R average is found out.
10. ‘Resistivity’ ρ of the material of wire is calculated using the formula:
R  r2
 m
L

Results: (1) Resistance of the given wire = R avg= ……………… Ω

(2) Resistivity (or Specific Resistance) ρ of the material of the given wire = ………… x 10 –6 Ω m

6
 G
G
R1 R2 S
Rs B

l
A D C
(1-l)

TK
E= 2V
Verification of ‘Law of Series Combination of Resistances’
using ‘Metre Bridge’ Ckt.

Observations:
Known (Given) Resistance Values of resistors R1 and R2:
R1 = …………..  ; R2 = ……………… 
RS (Theoretical )  R1  R2  

Standard Balancing Length S l Average

RS 
resistance length (1-l) (1  l ) RS
Trial
S l (in ) (Experimental) RS
No. ( theoretical )
(in ) (in m) (in m) Experimental (in )

S l
R 
(1  l )

7
Expt. 3: ‘Series Combination’ of Resistances

Aim: To verify ‘Law of Series Combination of resistances’ using a metre-bridge

Apparatus required:
Metre bridge, two resistors of known resistances (R1 & R2);a resistance box (1-100 Ω); galvanometer;
a jockey; Plug key/Tap key (switch); Supply voltage (1.5 V); thick connecting wires

Principle: In series combination of resistors connected to a supply, same current passes through
each of them, and potential drops across each of them (proportional to their respective resistances)
add up. ‘Effective (Equivalent) Series resistance’ of the combination is equal to sum of the
individual resistances.

Formula:
In Series Combination of TWO resistors of resistances R1 and R2 ,
'Effective (Equivalent) resistance' RS is 'sum of the two resistances' , and is given by :
RS  (R1  R2 ) 

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Value of resistances of resistors R1 and R2 (in ) are noted.
3. Theoretical value of RS = [ R1+R2 ] (in ) is calculated.
4. The resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series, and the combination (as a single unit) is
connected in the left gap of the metre-bridge.
5. Suitable resistance is introduced (unplugged) from the standard resistance box S, connected in the
right gap.
6. Sliding contact (J) is alternately placed near 0th and 100thcm end to verify if deflection in the
galvanometer (G) is on either side of central zero of G.
7. With suitable standard resistance S , sliding contact J is moved over the metre-bridge wire until
an exact balance point is found (i.e. where galvanometer shows NO deflection.) [Value of S 
should be such that the around mid-50cm mark of metre-bridge (but within the range 30-70 cm
marks)]. Balancing Length l m, and hence length (1-l) m are noted.
8. Experiment is repeated for other suitable values of S. Readings are tabulated.
9. Series effective resistance RS is calculated using the formula in each case:
S l
RS (experimental)  
(1  l )
10. Average RS ( in ) is calculated.
11. Theoretical and experimental values of series effective resistance Rs (in ) are compared.

Results: Rs (Theoretical) = …………; Rs (Exptal.) = ……….. 

It is found that RS (Theoretical) = RS (Exptal.) within the allowed limits of experimental error,
thus verifying the law.

8
 R1
G
R2
S

RP B

A
l
D C
(1-l)

E =2 V TK

Verification of ‘ Law of Parallel Combination of Resistances’

using ‘Metre Bridge’ Ckt.

Observations:
Known (Given) Resistance Values of resistors R1 and R2:
R1 = ………………  ; R2 = ……………… 
R  R2
RP (theoretical)  1  
R1  R2

Standard Balancing Length S l Average

RP 
resistance length (1-l) (1  l ) RP
Trial (in right l (in m) (in ) (Experimental) RP (theoretical)
No. gap) ( in m) Experimental ( in  )
S
(in )

S l
R 
(1  l )

9
Expt. 4: ‘Parallel Combination’ of Resistances
Aim: To verify ‘Law of Parallel Combination of resistances’ using a metre-bridge

Apparatus required: Metre bridge, two resistors of known resistances; a resistance box (1-100 Ω);
galvanometer; a jockey, Plug (or Tap) key (switch); Supply Voltage (1.5 V); thick connecting wires
Principle: In parallel combination of resistors connected to a single supply, same potential
difference exists across each resistor but the main current divides into branch currents in the
inverse proportion of resistances in the branches. For ‘resistors’ in parallel,
Reciprocal of ‘effective (equivalent) parallel resistance’ of the combination is equal to sum of the
reciprocals of individual resistances.
Formula:
In Parallel Combination of TWO resistances R1 and R2 ,
Effective (Equivalent) resistance
1 1 1
RP is given by :   where Ri ' s are in 
RP R1 R2
R1  R2
For the case of two resistors, RP  
 R1  R2 
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Value of resistances of resistors R1 and R2 (in ) are noted.
R1  R2
3. Theoretical value of RP  (in ) is calculated.
R1  R2
4. The resistors of resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, and the combination (as a single
unit) is connected in the left gap.
5. Suitable resistance is introduced (unplugged) from the standard resistance box S, connected in the
right gap.
6. Sliding contact (J) is alternately placed at 0th and 100th cm end to verify if deflection in the
galvanometer (G) is on either side of central zero of G.
7. With suitable standard resistance S (in ), sliding contact J is moved over the metre-bridge wire
until an exact balance point is found ( where galvanometer shows NO deflection). [The value of S
suitably chosen so that the balance point is around mid-50cm mark of metre-bridge (but within the
range 30-70 cm marks)]. Balancing Length l m, and hence length (1-l) m are noted.
8. Experiment is repeated for other suitable values of S. Readings are tabulated.
9. Parallel effective resistance RP is calculated in each case using the formula:
S l
RP (experimental)  in 
(1  l )
10. Average RP (in ) is calculated.
11. Theoretical and experimental values of RP (in ) are compared.

Results: Rp (Theoretical) =  ; Rp (Exptal.) = 

It is found that RP (Theoretical) = RP (Exptal) within the allowed limits of experimental error,
thus verifying the law.

10
 K2
E2

K1

E1 G

A B
0 l C

E + TK Rh

‘Comparison of EMF’s’ of Cells using a ‘Potentiometer’

Observations:

Balancing length
With Cell E1 With Cell E2
(Lechlanche (Daniel Cell ) E1 l1
Trial Cell) included included 
E2 l2
no [ Key K1 closed; [Key K2 closed;
K2 open ] K1 open]
l1 l2
(in m) (in m)
1

3
Average E1/E2=

Note: Estd>E1 & E2

1) Lechlanche Cell: EMF: 1.5 V
(a) Central Carbon Rod (in Filled Porous Pot): +ve electrode
(b) Zinc Rod (dipped in electrolyte): -ve electrode
(c) NH4Cl (ammonium chloride) solution in distilled water: Electrolyte
2) Daniel Cell: EMF:1.1 V
(a) Outer Copper Pot (terminal): +ve electrode
(b) Zinc rod (dipped in dil. H2SO4 in porous pot)
(c) Copper sulphate (CuSO4): Electrolyte
11
Expt.5: Comparison of emf of two cells.

Aim: To compare the emf’s of two cells (a Lechlanche and a Daniel cell) using a potentiometer
Apparatus required: Potentiometer; Variable regulated power supply (0-12V / 1A); a Lechlanche Cell;
Daniel Cell (or its equivalent); Galvanometer; Jockey; Two way plug key (switch)
Principle: A potentiometer consists of a uniform wire of length L (say, =1 m) across the ends of which a
steady source of emf is connected. Then, potential drop (p.d.) per unit length  (say, 1cm) is
constant.
E std 1
 
(R  r) L
where E std  emf of the cell in primary in V , L  Total length of Potentiometer wire in m

R  external resistance in primary circuit in , r = resistance of the potentiometer wire in 

If cell of emf Esec connected in secondary circuit (with positive terminals of primary and secondary at
the same zero end) is seen balanced (i.e. for null deflection of the galvanometer) for a length l, then,
p.d. across this length is  l and Esec  l  Esec  l
Formula:
For two cells of emf’s E1 and E2, balanced alternately across the same primary supply (settings), if
balancing lengths are l1 and l2 respectively, then:
E1 l1 [Note: E1 and E2 are in V; l1 and l2 are in m; the ratio is just a
 E l
E 2 l2
number.]

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram, taking care to see that +ve terminals of
primary, secondary1 and secondary2 cells are all connected to 0th end of potentiometer.
2. With suitable setting of Primary supply [voltage variable knob set to about 2V [current to 500
mA], Secondary E1 is included [by keeping key K1 alone ‘closed’ (plugged) & key K2 ‘open’].
Jockey is moved over the potentiometer wire until balance point is found. Balancing length l1 (in
m) is measured.
3. With unchanged setting of the primary supply, Secondary E2 is included [by keeping key K1
‘open’ and key K2 alone ‘closed’ (plugged)], balancing length l2 (in m) is similarly measured.
Observations are tabulated.
4. Experiment is repeated for other suitable primary supply voltages (settings).

E1 l1  E1 
5. The ratio  is calculated in each case, and hence its average   is obtained.
E 2 l2  E2  avg

 E1 
Results: The ratio of emf’s of the two given secondary cells is    …………..
 E2  avg

12
 R

E sec
G

B
A 100
0 l C

+
E TK Rh

‘Internal resistance’ of a cell Using a ‘Potentiometer’

Observations:
‘Open circuit’ balancing length for E sec [i.e., when K is ‘open’] = l1 = ………… m

Trial Resistance Corresponding

no. (unplugged) Balancing length
in box- R with K ‘closed’
R  l1  l2 
[i.e. when E Sec is 1 1 r
in ‘closed circuit’ ] R l2
l2
R l2 in  -1 (in )

( in Ω) ( in m) (in S) (in m-1)

R
l1  l2 
 
r 
l2

13
Expt.6: ‘Internal Resistance’ of a cell

Aim: To determine the ‘internal resistance’ of a secondary cell using a potentiometer

Apparatus required: Regulated (variable) Power supply (0-12V/1A); Secondary cell (Lechlanche cell);
Potentiometer; Resistance box (0-100Ω); Galvanometer; Plug key; Jockey; connecting wires.

Principle: A cell, by itself, offers certain opposition for the flow of the current between its ‘electrodes’
(terminals) which is called ‘internal resistance’ of the cell. When a cell of emf E, internal resistance r is
connected with a resistance R, then the terminal potential difference across cell terminals is given by
ER
V  , which is smaller than E. If l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths when the cell is in ‘open’
R  r
and ‘closed’ circuit respectively, then E  l 1 & V  l 2. Using l1 and l2, and knowing E and R,
internal resistance r can be calculated.

Formula:
R  l1  l2 
r  where R  resistance across the cell in 
l2
l1  balancing length (in m) when cell is in ' open circuit ' ( key K ' open ')
l2  balancing length (in m) when cell is in ' closed circuit ' ( key K 'closed')
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. [taking care to see that + terminals of

Standard (primary) and secondary are connected to the same ‘0’ th end & E std> E sec ]
2. With Primary variable supply set at about 2.5 V/500mA, and key K kept open, jockey is moved
over the potentiometer wire until an exact balance point is found (i.e., when galvanometer G shows
zero deflection). Open circuit balancing length l1 is measured.
3. With suitable resistance R (in ) unplugged, and key K is closed. Cell circuit is completed.
Now, a certain current is drawn from the cell and the voltage across the cell drops to V. It is this
voltage which is balanced on the potentiometer wire. The new balance point is found again, and
‘closed circuit balancing length l2 (in m) is noted.
4. Experiment is repeated for different values of R. Observations are tabulated.
5. Internal resistance r of the secondary cell can also be calculated in each case using the formula:
R  l1  l2 
r 
l2

Results: Internal resistance of the secondary cell by calculation:

14
 0 to 100 

SS
K2

K1
+ R > 3000 
E = 1.5V

‘Figure of Merit’ of a Galvanometer Ckt.

Observations:
Emf of the Battery (Fixed Power supply) E= ………. V
Trial Deflection  Resistance in Average
no. Resistance (when K2 is S Galvanometer
R ‘open’ & K1 is for which resistance
E
(in ) closed) deflection G k
( R  G)  
( in divs.) reduces to (in )
(in A div -1)
 /2 divs.
when S = G
( in )

1
Average G =

Average k ……………… A/div

kaverage………………A/div

E
k 
( R  G)  

15
Expt.7: Figure of Merit of a Galvanometer

Aim: To determine the ‘Figure of Merit’ of the given (table) Galvanometer

Apparatus required: Power supply (fixed-1.5V); Sensitive Galvanometer 30-0-30 (20 A/div);
Resistance boxes (0-5000) & (0-100); Plug key; connecting wires

Principle: A deflection ( ) produced on a graduated scale of a moving coil table galvanometer is

proportional to the current (I) passing though it according to the relation I = k, where k is the ‘Figure
of merit’ of the galvanometer. ‘Figure of merit’ is, thus, the current required to produce unit deflection
on the scale. It is a measure of ‘reciprocal current sensitivity’ of the galvanometer.

Formula:
E
k A div -1
( R  G)  
where E  Emf of the Cell (in V )
R  Resistance in series with the Galvanometer (in )
G  Resistance of Galvanometer (in )
  deflection in the galvanometer (in divisions )

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. As a precautionary measure, a certain high resistance  3000 is unplugged from resistance (R)
box in series with the battery supply. Plug key K2 (in the ckt. of S parallel circuit with G) is kept
open.
3. Battery Supply is switched on. K1 is closed. Resistance in the box R is gradually adjusted so as to
get a deflection, preferably an even number of division, in the range of 20-25 divisions (on one side
of central zero) on the galvanometer dial.
4. Actual Resistance R ( in  ) unplugged and deflection ( in divisions) are noted.
5. Key K2 is closed so as to pass a part of the current through S. Resistance S ( in  ) is adjusted

until deflection on galvanometer is reduced exactly to divisions. This value of S equals the
2
resistance G of the galvanometer.
6. Experiment is repeated for different  settings (with different R values). Observations are tabulated.
7. Emf (E) of the supply is noted and Figure of merit (k) is calculated using the formula
E
k A div 1
( R  G) 
Results: (1) Average Resistance of the Galvanometer = G =…………….
(2) Figure of merit of the given galvanometer = k =…………… A div -1
k = ………….. A div -1

16
 K3 K2

Rh
G +
R V
H
H

+
Regular (Std.)
Constructed Voltmeter
Voltmeter

K1
Conversion of given ‘Galvanometer’ (G) into ‘Voltmeter’ (V)
Observations:
(Given) Figure of merit of the given galvanometer k = ………………. A div -1

(Given) Resistance of the galvanometer G = ………… 

Maximum no. of divisions on the galvanometer (on one-side of central zero)

N = …………… divisions

Full scale Deflection Current I g= k  N = …………………….. = ……….. A

The range of voltage to be measured: 0 to Vmax volts: V max =……………. V

V
The value of high resistance required H   G = …………………….. 
Ig

Trial no. Set Voltage Deflection Calculated

V n voltage
(as read on ( in n ∆𝑽 = 𝑽 − 𝑽′
V '     Vmax
standard divisions ) N (in V)
Voltmeter) (in V)
(in V)

17
Expt. 8: Conversion of a ‘Galvanometer’ into a ‘Voltmeter’

Aim: To convert a given ‘galvanometer’ into a ‘voltmeter’ to measure up to a chosen maximum

voltage

Apparatus required: Fixed power supply (1.5V); A sensitive galvanometer; a voltmeter; a resistance
Box (R) [0-100]; a high resistance Box (H) [0-10,000 range]

Principle: A galvanometer G of known resistance can be converted into a voltmeter V to

measure up to a maximum (Vmax ) by connecting a suitable high resistance (H) in series with the
galvanometer.

Formula:
V 
H   G 
 I g 
Where k  figure of merit of the galvanometer in A div -1
Ig is full-scale deflection current = k N in A
V= Vmax needed in V, HHigh Resistance in series with G to be unplugged in ;
G galvanometer resistance in 
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Figure of merit (k in A div -1) and galvanometer resistance (G in ), maximum number of
divisions (on one side) N of the galvanometer are noted.
3. Suitable Vmax [ in V] is chosen and the corresponding high resistance H (in ) required is
calculated using the relation:
V 
H   G 
 I g 
4. Resistance H (in ) is unplugged from the resistance box.
5. Keys K1 and K2 are closed and K3 is kept ‘open’. [Note: Now, the ‘standard voltmeter’ is
included and the ‘converted voltmeter’ is excluded]. The Voltage is set (Vset ≤ Vmax) for
suitable value on the standard voltmeter by adjusting the rheostat Rh. Set voltage V is noted.
6. Keys K1 and K3 are closed and K2 is kept ‘open’. [Note: Now, the ‘converted voltmeter’ is
included and the ‘standard voltmeter’ is excluded]. The Galvanometer needle shows some
divisions of deflection. Number (n) of divisions of deflection is read.
n
7. Voltage , as per the converted voltmeter, is calculated using the relation: V '     Vmax
N
8. Experiment is repeated for different voltage settings (by varying Rh) and observations are
tabulated.
9. V set and V’=V Calculated (in V) are compared.

Results: V= (Vset - Vcal) ≈ 0 verifies the accuracy of conversion a galvanometer into a voltmeter

18
Electro
magnet AC Supply;
8V, 2A & 50 HZ
C

l2in m2
l2
l
A
T B

T in N 

Frequency of AC using a ‘sonometer’

Observations:
(Given) Mass / length of sonometer wire = m =……………… kg m-1

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 ms-2

Trial Mass (M ) Tension Resonating

no. attached T  M g length
at the end (in N ) l l2
of the ( in m) (in m2)
sonometer
wire
(in kg)
1

Note: Ratio T/l2 is a constant in each case

Slope of (l2 vs T ) graph = ………..

1 1
f AC   Hz
4 m  slope

19
Expt.9: ‘Frequency of AC’ by Sonometer
Aim: To determine the frequency of AC using a sonometer
Apparatus required: Sonometer (with iron wire); electromagnet unit; AC Power supply (8 V/2A/ 50
Hz); slotted weights with hanger
Principle: Suitable length of a uniform iron wire of a sonometer, stretched under a certain tension is
made to vibrate in resonance with an electromagnet connected to AC mains. Knowing the ‘linear
density’ ( i.e. mass/unit length m) , and finding out the ‘resonating lengths’ (l) for a set of
‘stretching tensions’(T) of the wire, frequency f wire of the wire can be calculated using the l2 vs T
graph. The frequency fac of AC (which is half of f wire ) can be calculated .
Formula:
1 1
f AC   Hz
4 m  slope of (l 2 vs T graph )
where m = mass/unit length of experimental sonometer wire, l  resonating length
corresponding to Tension T

Procedure:
1. Mass per unit length m of the experimental (sonometer) wire is noted.
2. Experimental setup is made as shown in the figure, taking care to set the electromagnet vertically
above the (iron) wire at a certain distance, almost midway between the moveable bridges.
3. To start with, a certain minimum load (say, 1.5 kg) is applied at the hanger.
4. AC Power supply is turned on; with electromagnet placed at suitable height of the w.r.t. wire,
distance between the bridges is gradually increased from a certain minimum length (about 5 cm)
until resonance condition is achieved in which case, wire portion between bridges vibrate with
maximum amplitude with a single loop.
5. Resonating length l in m (=distance between bridges] is measured. Corresponding load M(in kg)
and Tension T= M  g (in N) are noted.
6. Experiment is repeated for different loads and observations are tabulated.
7. A graph of l2 vs T is plotted and its slope is calculated.
8. Frequency (f AC) of the AC is calculated using the formula:
1 1
f AC   Hz
4 m slope

Results: Frequency of AC by l2 vs T graph : f AC = ……….. Hz

20
 +
mA K2
Rh
Regular
(Std.) mA
R

Exptl. Wire
used as
shunt s K3
+ G

Constructed
K1 mA

Conversion of given Galvanometer (G) into an Ammeter (A)

Observations:

Data Given:
Resistance per unit length of the specimen wire:  = ……………  m-1
Figure of merit of the (analog 30-0-30) galvanometer: k = 20 A/div
Maximum number of divisions on (one side of central zero) of galvanometer:
N = 30 divisions
Resistance of the galvanometer: G =………… 

Full scale deflection current = I fsd  k  N   A = ……………. mA

Maximum current required to be measured with converted ammeter:
I max=…………. mA
Shunt resistance(S) required for conversion:
 I fsd 
S G   .......... 
 I max  I fsd 
Length (X) of specimen wire required (by calculation) for making shunt resistance (S) :

X   .............. m
S

Trial no. Set current Deflection Measured I=I-Ical

Iset (in mA) n current (in mA)
(as read on (in n
I cal     I fsd
standard divisions) N
ammeter) (in mA)
1
2
3

21
Expt. 10 : Conversion of ‘Galvanometer’ into a ‘milli-Ammeter’ [ or an ammeter ]
Aim: To convert the given (analog) galvanometer G into a (milli-) ammeter mA of required
range
Apparatus required: Sensitive (analog) galvanometer (30-0-30/ 20A/div); DC power supply
(1.5V/1A); (digital) ammeter; specimen wire (of copper) (about 25 cm length); rheostat (Rh).

Principle: A sensitive galvanometer [of known ‘figure of merit’ / full-scale deflection (fsd) current (Ifsd)
and resistance (G)] can be converted into an ammeter (or milli-ammeter) of larger current (strength)
measuring capacity by connecting an appropriate shunt S (small resistance) across the galvanometer.

Formula:
(1) I fsd  k  N in A

where k  Figure of merit in A div & 1

N  total no. of divisions on one side of G

 I fsd 
(2) shunt resistance : S (in )  G    where I fsd & I max in mA
 I max  I fsd 

(3)length of specimen wire required : X  in m
S
where:   resistance per unit length in m 1;
S  shunt resistance required in 
Procedure:
1. Using the given data of galvanometer [figure of merit of galvanometer k, Galvanometer resistance
G, Total no. of divisions N on galvanometer) & the required (specified) range of current I max], the
value of shunt resistance S required is calculated. (using the formulae 1 &2)
2. Using the given data of resistance per unit length  in m-1 of the specimen wire, the length(X)
of the specimen wire required to make Shunt resistance S is calculated (formula: 3).
3. The specimen wire of this exact length X of the specimen wire is connected between two binding
terminals.
4. Rest of the connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. To start with, Rheostat Rh in the circuit is set at its maximum resistance (i.e. minimum current)
setting. Supply voltage is turned on. (K1 closed).
6. Keeping K2 ‘open’ and K3 ‘closed’, the Rh is gradually varied for suitable current on the
‘standard ammeter’. Current Iset read on the ammeter is noted.
7. Keeping K3 ‘open’ and K2 ‘closed’, number of divisions ‘n’ of deflections (on one side of
central zero) on galvanometer is noted.
8. Current through the ‘converted ammeter’ is calculated using the formula :
n
I cal     I fsd in mA
N
9. Experiment is repeated for different set currents. Observations are noted.
10. Deviations, if any, is calculated for each case using the relation:I=I set -Ical

Results: I  0 verify the accuracy of the conversion of a galvanometer into a milliammete

22
 v

I
O Object
(wire gauge / pin )
F P
f
I Real, inverted image of O
O
u

‘f’ of Concave mirror- by u-v method

Note: According to ‘Cartesian Sign Convention’, both ‘u’ and ‘v’ in this case are taken
‘negative’ (-); ‘f’ turns out to be ‘negative’.

u  v
Trial u v f 
(u  v )
No. (in m) ( in m)
(in m)

1 _ _
2 _ _
3 _ _
4 _ _
f average =

u  v
f  
(u  v )

23
Expt .11: ‘Focal Length’ of Concave Mirror

Aim: To find the focal length (f) of the given concave mirror by u-v (graphical) method

Apparatus required: Concave mirror, Object and image pins, lens holder, metre scale.

Principle: A concave mirror produces an inverted real image of an erect object placed at any point
beyond its principal focus.
Locating the position of the real image, and measuring the object distance (u) and image distance (v),
the focal length (f) can be calculated.

1 1 1 uv
Formula:    f  (using cartesian sign convention) in m
f u v (u  v )
where u object distance (negative) in m; v real image distance (negative) in m
f focal length of the concave mirror (negative) in m
Procedure:
1. The reflecting surface of the given concave mirror is kept facing a suitable ‘distant object’ (such as a
tree, window or grill etc.,). A ‘screen’ is placed (slightly off its principal axis) on the ‘object side’
itself. The distance between the mirror and the screen is adjusted until a clear inverted (real) image
of the distant object is obtained on the screen. Image distance [in m] is measured. This gives the
approximate focal length (f approx) of the given concave mirror. [This method is called ‘distant object
method’.]
2. An illuminated ‘object’ ( pointed pin) O is placed with its tip slightly off the principal axis at a
suitable distance (greater than the fapprox obtained in step 1 above) from the mirror. This is the
‘object distance’ ‘u’ [in m].
[Note: u > f approx.; preferably u ≈ 2  fapprox ].
3. An ‘image screen’ is placed on the same side of the mirror as the object itself, but slightly off on
the other side of the principal axis. The distance of the ‘image screen’ with respect to the mirror is
adjusted until a clear, inverted, ‘real image (I) of the object’ is obtained on the screen. Then, the
distance of the image screen from the mirror is ‘image distance’ v.
4. Object distance (u) and the corresponding clear, real and inverted Image distance (v) are
measured [in m].
5. Focal length (magnitude) f [in m] is then calculated using the formula:

1 1 1 u v
  f  [in m]
f u v (u  v)
6. Experiment is repeated for different u values (preferably around 2f, changing u by ±1 or ±2 cm).
Readings are tabulated. Focal length f is calculated in each case.
7. Average f avg is calculated.

Results: Average (magnitude) focal length of the concave mirror is f avg = ………….. m

24
O O  Object (wire gauge)
P
F
I I Real, inverted image of
f O
u v

‘f’ of Convex lens by u-v (graphical)method

methodmethod

[Note: In ‘Cartesian sign convention’, u is negative, while v and f are positive.]

Observations:

Object Image
Trial distance distance
no. u v x
(in m) ( in m ) x
P
1 _ x B(0,2f)
x
x 450

v
2 _
A(2f,0) O(0,0)
_ u
3
Note:
(1) v-u Plot is in the
4 _ ‘II quandrant’.
(2) Scaling on both u and v
5 _ axes MUST be same, and
origin should be (0,0)

uv
f  
uv

25
Expt. 12: ‘Focal Length’ of Convex Lens
Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex lens by u-v method.

Apparatus required: Convex lens, Object and image pins, lens holder, metre scale

Principle: A convex lens produces real, inverted images of an erect object placed in front of it when
object distance is larger than the focal length of the lens.
Measuring the object distance ( u ) and its ‘real’ image distance ( v ), the focal length ( f )of the lens
can be calculated.

1 1 1 uv
Formula:    f  in m (using cartesian sign convention)
f v u (u  v )
Where: u object distance (negative) in m; v  real image distance (positive) in m;
f focal length of the convex lens (positive) in m

Procedure:
1. The given lens is kept facing a suitable ‘distant object’ (such as a tree, window or grill etc.,). A screen
is placed on the other side of the lens. The distance between the lens and the screen is adjusted
until a clear, inverted (real) image is obtained on the screen. Image distance [in m] is measured.
This gives an approximate focal length f approx of the lens. [This method is called ‘distant object
method’.]
2. An illuminated ‘object’ ( wire gauge)’ O is placed at a suitable distance u [in m] in front of the
lens such that its ‘tip /centre’ of the object is along the ‘principal axis’ of the lens. [ note: u > f
approx. as measured in step 1. above, preferably ≈2f ].

3. The image of the object is observed through the lens from the other side. An ‘image’ screen is
placed on the other side of the lens. Its distance from the lens is adjusted until a clear, real,
inverted image ( of the pin) I is obtained on the screen.
4. ‘Object distance’ ( u ) and the corresponding real ‘Image distance’ ( v ) [in m] are measured.
5. Experiment is repeated for different u values (preferably ±1 or ±2 cm around 2f ) and readings are
tabulated.
7. A v-u graph [with origin at (0,0) & X- and Y- axes scale units same] is drawn as shown in the
figure. An angle bisector (450 w.r.t. both U & V axes) line OP is drawn which cuts the graph at (2f,
2f). i.e. OA = 2f & OB=2f. Focal length ( f ) can also be calculated:

f 
 OA  OB  [in m]
4

Result: Focal length of the Convex Lens by u-v graph, f = ..……….. m

26
 I′
F C Oilluminated
O P
u =2flens± 2cm object (wire
X
gauge);

I′ real,
inverted image
Fig-1. by convex lens
on the
Y
I′ screenvirtual
object for
I convex mirror
O P P′ C
I clear,
R inverted final
image on
u =flens± 2cm
object screen
X itself
Fig-2.

‘f’ of Convex Mirror- using a convex lens

Note: According to ‘Cartesian Sign Convention’, ‘ u’ is ‘negative’; X , Y and R are

‘positive’; f is ‘positive’.
Observations:

Distance X Distance Y Focal length

( =PI′ ) ( = PP′) (X-Y) = Average R
f 
Trial no. [Fig.-1] [Fig.-2] P′I′(=P′C)=R R 2
( in m ) ( in m ) ( in m ) (in m )  in m 

27
Expt.13: ‘Focal Length’ of Convex Mirror

Aim: To determine the focal length of convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus required: Convex lens, Convex mirror, Object and image pins, Lens and Mirror stands,
Metre-scale.

Principle: A convex mirror, on its own, can produce only a virtual image of a real object for all object
distances. However, using a virtual object (obtained using a convex lens), a real image can be
produced. Further, if this virtual object happens to be at the ‘ centre of curvature’ of the convex mirror, a
final image would be obtained at the same location as of the object of convex lens. Using R=2f for the
mirror, focal length (f) can be calculated.

R
Formula: ‘Focal length’ of the convex mirror f convex mirror  in m
2
where R ‘radius of curvature’ in m
Note: by ‘Cartesian sign convention’, both f and R are +ve for convex mirror.

Procedure:

1. Approximate focal length ( f lens ) [in m] of the given convex lens is found out by ‘distant object
method’.
2. An illuminated object (wire gauge) O is placed on one side of the convex lens with its centre
along the principal axis of the lens, at (or around) a distance 2 f lens. An ‘image screen’ is
placed on the other side of the lens. Position of the ‘image screen’ is adjusted until a clear,
inverted (diminished) real image I′ (at C) is obtained on the screen..
3. Position (C) of Image screen is ‘noted’ on the work- table. Distance PC=X is measured[in m].
[Ref. ray diagram]
4. The given convex mirror, whose focal length ( f ) is to be determined, is placed between the
‘convex lens’ and this ‘image screen’ position. Without disturbing the positions of ‘object pin’
and the ‘lens’, the position of convex mirror w.r.t. lens alone is adjusted until again a clear,
final image is obtained on the object screen itself. Distance Y =PP′ is measured [in m]. [Ref.
ray diagram]
5. Distance (R=X-Y) between mirror pole (P′) and marked position (C), i.e., (P′C), is calculated [in
m]. This gives the ‘radius of curvature’ R of the ‘convex mirror’. Then, its focal length ‘ f ’ is given
R
by f convex mirror  [in m]
2
6. Observations are tabulated.
7. Experiment is repeated for different positions of the ‘object’.[ i.e. u around 2 f lens values.], each
time noting the X and Y values, and calculating the value of f convex mirror.
8. Then, average f convex mirror [in m] is calculated.

Results: Focal length of the given Convex Mirror = ……………….. m

28
 O object (wire
gauge) for Convex
lens
O I1real image of
object O produced by
P1 F1 I1 convex lens 
virtual object for
Concave lens
X
Fig. -1 I Final image on
screen

I1I ‘displacement’
of image screen
O P1 P2
I1 I2
P1I1=X; P1I2=Y
P1P2=Z;
Z Y
Fig.-2 u u=X-Z; v=Y-Z
v

‘f’ of Concave lens –using a convex lens

Note: According to ‘Cartesian Sign Convention’, in this case ‘u’, ’v’ are positive;
f concave turns out to be –ve.

Observations:

Distance (Virtual ) (Real)

Distance Distance
Z= P1P2 object image
Trial X= P1I1 Y=P1I2 uv
(see distance distance f 
no. (see fig-1) (see fig-2) u v
Fig.2) u =X-Z v=Y-Z
(in m) (in m) (in m)
(in m) (in m) (in m)

3
(fconcave lens) average =

uv
f  
u  v 

29
Expt. 14: Focal length of Concave lens

Aim: To determine the focal length of a given concave lens using a convex lens by u-v method

Apparatus required: Concave lens, convex lens, object and image pins, lens holders, meter scale

Principle: A concave lens produces only a virtual image of a (real) object placed in front of it for all
positions of the object. However, if a virtual object is made available, (say by using a convex lens),
then a real image be obtained. Measuring object and its) image distances for the concave lens, its focal
length can be calculated using the usual lens formula.

Formula:
uv
f concave  in m
(u  v)
where {in 'Cartesian sign convention} u  (virtual ) object distance(  ve) in m
v  (real ) image distance( ve) in m; fconcavelens turns out to be ' ve '

Procedure:
1. Approximate focal length (f lens) [in m] of the given convex lens is found out by ‘distant object
method’.
2. A brightly illuminated object (wire gauge) is placed on one side of the convex lens with its
centre along the principal axis of the lens at (or around) a distance u′ =2  f convex lens.
3. An Image screen pin, placed on the other side of the lens, is adjusted in its position (distance w.r.t
the lens) until it’s a clear, inverted, real image of object is obtained on it
4. Distance X (=P1I1) of Image screen from the convex lens is measured [in m]. [Ref. ray
diagram.]
5. The given concave lens [ f concave > f convex] whose focal length is to be determined, is placed
between the convex lens and the image screen at a suitable distance. [Z= P1P2]
6. Without disturbing the positions of object pin and the convex lens, the distance of image
screen alone is adjusted (moved backwards) until a clear, ‘final, enlarged’ image of the
object is obtained on the screen.
7. Distance Y [=P1I] between Convex lens and (altered) final image screen position is measured
[in m]. [Ref. ray diagram.]
8. Observations are tabulated.
9. Experiment is repeated for different u (around 2flens) values and observations tabulated.
10. u = X-Z (in m) and v =Y-Z (in m) are calculated in each case. f concave lens (in m) is
uv
calculated using the formula: f concave lens  m
u v
11. Average f concave lens [in m] is calculated.

Results: Focal length of concave lens: f concave lens =………………………m

30
 P1
I1 P2 N1
P3
i1
B P A
X R Y

 in 0
N2
Q
Q1 OD=δ min
δ1
C Q2
i1=i2
Q3
E1 i in0

Prism- ‘angle of minimum deviation’

Observations:

Angle of Angle of
incidence deviation
Trial
no.
 I PN 
1 1  ORE 
i 
(in degrees) (in degrees)

1 30
2 35
3 40
4 45
5 50
6 55
7 60
8 65

From δ versus i graph: Angle of minimum deviation δmin= D=………………0

Refracting Angle of the prism  A  600 [Given]
Angle of minimum deviation( from  vs i graph )   min  D  .........0
Refractive index of the material ( glass ) of the prism :

 A D
sin 
ng   2  
 A
sin  
2

31
Expt.: 15: ‘Angle of minimum deviation’ in a prism
Aim: To plot a graph of angle of incidence (i) versus angle of deviation () to find angle of
minimum deviation
Apparatus required: Glass triangular prism; sharp pointed pins; sheet of paper; Protractor (to measure
angle); scale (0-15 cm)
Principle: A ray of light in air, incident on a triangular glass prism of angle A, due to refraction under goes deviation
when it emerges. The angle of deviation =i1 +i2-A, where i1and i2 are angles of incidence and emergence respectively.
As the angle of incidence i1 is gradually increased from a small angle (say 300), angle of deviation first decreases
(nonlinearly), reaches a minimum, and then increases. At the angle when deviation is minimum, i.e., min=D, incident and
emergent rays are symmetrical w.r.t. prism, and i1=i2, 1=2 (deviations at the two faces), r1=r2 (angle of refraction and
incidence at the two surfaces), the refracted ray inside the prism being parallel to the base.

Formula: Angle of deviation =i1 +i2-A, where i1 and i2 are angles (in 0) of incidence and emergence respectively .
 A D 
sin  
At min= D (in 0), with A (in 0), Refractive index of the material of the prism:  2 
n
 A
sin  
2
Procedure:
1. A sheet of white paper (drawing sheet) is fixed on a horizontal Drawing Board [/Work-table] using cellophane
(tape) strips. A horizontal line XY is drawn parallel to broader edge of the paper. (Refer diagram)
2. A triangular prism ABC [with base BC (marked), and refracting angle vertex A (marked)] is placed on the
drawing sheet, almost near the centre of the page width, with one of its edges (say BA) along the line XY
drawn. The boundary lines along the edges of the prism ABC are marked [for future reference].
3. A normal (perpendicular) N1PN2 is drawn to BA at P (almost near the centre of the edge), and an incident
ray (I1P) is drawn at an angle 300, and sharp-ended straight round pins (2-3 cm in height) P1 and P2
(preferably P3,also ) are fixed along the incident line [I1P] at separation(s) of about 2cm so that they are all
vertical and their heads are at the same height. Angle of incidence ‘i’ is noted.
4. Observing image of the pins P1, P2 (and P3) through the other face [AC], another set of sharp-ended straight
round pins (2-3 cm in height) Q1 and Q2 [preferably Q3, also] are placed so that these pins lie along the
same straight line as the images of the object pins P1, P2 (and P3) seen through the prism.
5. The prism and the pins are gently removed. A straight line (emergent line) is drawn joining the pin-fix
markings of Q1 and Q2 [ Q3] on the paper . This line then corresponds to emergent ray QE1.
6. The incident line [I1P] and emergent line [ QE1] are extrapolated (as shown in the diagram) so as to meet at
 
a point R. Angle of deviation  = ORE1 is measured.

7. The prism is placed back at its initial position in the same way [i.e., taking care to see that the refracting
edge A and base BC are in the same place] along the boundary trace of the prism.
8. Experiment is repeated for angles of incidence 350, 400, 500…. 650. Each time, Angles of deviation  ‘s are
measured and tabulated against the corresponding angles of incidence ‘i’s.
9. A graph of i versus  is plotted. Angle of minimum deviation mjn=D is found out.
10. Refractive index of the material of the prism ng may be calculated using the formula: [A=600 given]
 A D 
sin  
ng   2 
 A
sin  
2

Results: Angle of minimum deviation from the i- graph: D=……………0

Refractive index of the material of prism = ng=………………..

32
 R3
Real depth Apparent depth
R2
R1

TM in vertical motion
set-up

Glass I
Slab O

Refractive index of glass – by ‘normal shift method’ using a Travelling Microscope

Observations:
Determination of Least count of Travelling Microscope(T.M.):
No. of divisions/cm on main scale = N = ……….. cm-1
Total no. of vernier scale divisions = n = …………
Least count of the linear scale of T.M.:
1
L.C.   ............ cm
N n

Trial Reading M.S.R. T.R= M.S.R. + (C.V.D. x L.C.)

C.V.D.
no. on (in cm) (in cm)
Object
1 R1 =
(O)
Image
2 (I) R2 =
Top
Surface
3 (T) R3 =

ng 
 R3  R1  
 R3  R2 

33
Expt.16:’ Refractive Index of glass’by ‘Normal Shift’ method

Aim: To determine refractive index of glass slab using a travelling microscope

Apparatus required: Glass slab; Travelling Microscope; Sheet of paper with an ink-dot; Chalk dust

Principle: The distance through which an object appears to be shifted along the normal when object in
one medium and viewed ‘normally’ from another optical medium is called ‘normal shift’.
When an ink dot (object) on a sheet of paper is observed through a glass slab placed over the
sheet, the ‘actual depth’ and ‘apparent depth’ of the object may be measured using a ‘travelling
microscope’.
The refractive index of the material of the slab (glass) can then be calculated using the formula:
real depth
ng 
apparent depth

Formula:
real depth R  R1
ng   3
apparent depth R3  R2
where R1 = reading of T . M . (in cm ) when object is focussed directly
R2  reading of T . M . (in cm ) when object is focussed thro ' the slab
R3  reading of T . M . (in cm ) when it is focussed on the top - surface of the slab

Procedure:
1. Least count (L.C.) (in cm) of the linear scale of Travelling Microscope (T.M.) is found out. The
T.M. is kept with its axis vertical.
2. A small ink dot (object ‘O’) is made on a sheet of paper placed (firmly) on the horizontal platform.
The T.M. is focused (by adjusting rack and pinion arrangement) on to the object. The T.M. is fixed
in this position Reading R1 (in cm) is obtained. [Note: The rack and pinion arrangement is NOT
disturbed hence forth.]
3. The given glass-slab is placed over the ink dot object, and looked through the T.M. The upright of
T.M. is slowly moved upwards until the apparent object (refracted image ‘I’) comes to a clear
focus. Reading R2 (in cm) is obtained.
4. A small amount of saw (or chalk) dust is spread over the top surface of the slab, just above the ink
dot. The upright of T.M. is slowly moved upwards until the ‘dust’ on the ‘top surface’ ( T ) comes to
a clear focus. Reading R3 (in cm) is obtained.
5. Refractive index of glass is calculated using the formula:

ng 
real depth  R  R1 
 3
apparent depth  R3  R2 

Results: Refractive Index of Glass ng = …………….

34
 I O
In air:
[Fig.-1]
O object pin
I’ O’
I  image of O
at O itself

With water
lens:
[Fig.-2]
u=Rair O’ object pin
u’= Rwater
I’ image of
O’ at O’ itself

Concave Concave Mirror

Fig.-1 Mirror Fig.-2 filled with water

Refractive index of water- using ‘concave mirror’

(Note: The focal length, and radius of curvature of concave mirror are both negative in
‘Cartesian sign convention’)

Observations:
Approximate focal length of the given concave mirror (by distant object method)
f = ………. m

“Object to concave mirror distance” when the image of object coincides with object itself
(Fig-1:) u = ……… m

Radius of curvature of concave mirror R air= u = ……… m

“Object to ‘concave mirror-Plano-convex water lens system’ distance” when the image
of object coincides with object itself (Fig-2:) = u’= ………. m

Radius of curvature of ‘concave mirror –plano-convex water-lens system’ =

R water=u’ = …….. m

Refractive index of water = n w

Rair u
nw   
Rwater u'

35
Expt.17 : ‘Refractive index of water’ using Concave mirror

Aim: To determine Refractive index of water using Concave mirror

Apparatus required: Concave mirror; object/image pin; vertical stand with clamp; Water

Principle: An object placed at the centre of curvature (i.e., u=R air =2f) of a concave mirror produces
a real, inverted, same sized image at the same distance (u=v= R air =2f) as of object. A concave
mirror with water filled in its curved surface is a combination of a ‘Plano-convex water lens’ in contact
with ‘concave mirror’. It behaves as a concave mirror of reduced radius of curvature . Thus, for any
object placed at its centre of curvature a real, inverted, same sized image is formed at the same
distance(u’=R’ water=2Fwater as of this object. Then, from the ‘lens formula’ it follows:
R
R. I .of water  nw  air
Rwater

Rair
nw  where R  radius of curvature of the concave mirror in m
Formula :
air
Rwater
Rwater  radius of curvature of ' concave mirror  Plano  convex waterlens system ' in m

Procedure:
1. Approximate focal length (f) [in m] of concave mirror is determined by ‘distant object method’.
Then, the radius of curvature of the mirror is R air≈ 2f is estimated.
2. The given concave mirror is placed over a horizontal table. An illuminated pointed pin /wire gauge
cross wire object, clamped horizontally on a stand with its tip along the axis of the mirror, is
adjusted until the tip of object pin and its inverted image are obtained side by side on the object
screen itself.
3. Then this distance (u) between object pin and pole of the mirror is measured. u=R air [in m]
corresponds to ‘radius of curvature’, of the concave mirror in air.
4. The curved concave surface of the mirror is filled (Usually, 4-5 drops) with water so as to form a
Plano-convex water lens as shown in the diagram.
5. With this arrangement, experiment is repeated to measure distance (u’) . Then, u’=R water [in
m] corresponds to the radius of curvature of an equivalent combination concave mirror [consisting
of ‘Plano-convex water lens’ in contact with ‘concave mirror’].
6. Refractive index of water (nw) is calculated using the relation: nw = Rair
Rwater

Results: Refractive index of water n w =…………….

36
 I’ O’
In air:
I [Fig.-1]
O O object
I  image
of O at O
itself

Plane With water

mirror lens:
[Fig.-2]
u’=F ’ O’
u=f object

I’ image
of O’ at O’
itself
Fig.-1 Water b/n lens and mirror Fig.-2

Refractive index of water – ‘using a ‘convex lens and a ‘plane mirror’

Note: In Cartesian sign convention: focal length f is ‘positive’, and radius of curvature
of the farther surface of convex lens R2 is negative;

Observations:
Focal length of convex lens by distant object method: f approximate= + ………………… m
“Object to plane-mirror distance” when the image of lens-mirror-lens system coincides
with object itself [Fig.-1]  u = ………. m

Focal length of ‘convex lens’ using a ‘plane mirror in contact’ method: f = u =………. m

For equi-convex lens of glass of ng=1.5,

Radii of curvature of either surface of convex lens=R1=R2=R equiconvex= f =…………… m

“Object to plane-mirror distance” when the image of Combined system coincides with object
itself [Fig.-2] u’ = …………. m

Focal length of ‘convex lens in contact with plano-concave liquid lens’ using plane mirror:
F combined = u' = +………… m
Focal length of ‘plano-concave water lens’:
f  Fcombined
fw   ........... m
 f  Fcombined 
Radii of curvature of ‘plano-concave water lens’:
R plane= , & R Concave = - R equiconvex = - ………. m
R planoconcave
nw  1  =
fw
37
Expt. 18: ‘Refractive index of water’ using convex lens
Aim: To determine the refractive index of water using convex lens and plane mirror
Apparatus required: Convex lens; plane-mirror; object/image pin; vertical stand with clamp; Water
Principle:(1) When an object is placed at the focus of a convex lens, emergent rays from the lens are rendered
parallel and if these rays are made to incident normally on a plane-mirror, an inverted real, same sized image is
produced at the same distance as of object i.e. u = f convex
(2) When a convex lens is placed on a plane mirror with a liquid (such as water) spread between the mirror and
the curved surface of the lens, a combination lens consisting of convex lens in contact with Plano-concave
liquid lens which, in turn, is in contact with the plane-mirror gets formed. Focal length of such a combined
1 1 1
lens can be obtained as in case (1) above. i.e., u’= f combined where  
Fcombined f fl
(3) Using lens makers’ formula: 1   nw  1  1  1  , the value of nw can be calculated.
fw  R

Formula:(1) For convex len s in contact with plane  mirror :

1 1 1 1 1
    u f in m
f convex v u  u
(2) For 'combinationlens ' of 'convex '& ' plano  concave liquid lens ' :
1 1 1 f f
   f l  combined
 
in m
Fcombined f f l ff combined

(3)
R planoconcave
nw  1 
fw
Procedure:
1. Approximate focal length (f) [in m] of a given equi-convex lens is determined by ‘distant object method’.
Then, Radii of curvature of the lens surfaces R air≈ f , assuming lens to be of glass of ng=1.5 is estimated.
2. The given (equi-) convex lens is placed on a plane mirror over a horizontal table. An illuminated pointed
pin/wire gauge object screen is clamped on a stand so as to remain horizontal with its tip/centre touching the
principal axis of the lens. Its position is adjusted until the tip of object-pin and its clear, real, inverted image
are formed side-by side on the object screen itself.[Fig.-1]
3. Then, this distance (u) between object (image) screen and plane mirror is measured [in m].
4. Then,u  corresponds to f convex lens in m
5. 4-5 drops of water is placed between the lens and the mirror. The ‘system’ now forms the ‘combination lens’
of ‘concave lens' and ‘plano-concave water lens’ as shown in the Fig.-2..
6. With this ‘combination-lens’ system, the experiment is repeated as above and distance (u’) between object
(image) screen and plane mirror is measured [in m].
7. Then, this ‘revised object (image) screen’ and plane mirror’ distance u’ corresponds tof combined [in m].

f combined  f
Focal length fw [in m] of the plano-concave water-lens is calculated using the formula f w 
 f  fcombined 
[in m ]

R plano concave
8. Refractive index of water nw is calculated using the formula: nw  1 
fw

Results: Refractive index of water= nw=……………

38
 Rh
SW1

mA

I in mA 
E= 0-5V

N P
SC Vknee
junction V V in V
diode

Junction (SC) Diode Ckt. & Forward Bias (I_V) Characteristics

Observations:

Trial Voltage Current

No. V I
( in V) (in mA)
1 0 0
2 0.1
3 0.2
4 0.3
5
6
7
8
9
10

Vknee voltage  (intercept of tangent to I - V graph at the sharp bend onVoltage axis)
=........... V

39
Expt. 19: ‘Characteristics’ of Semiconductor Junction Diode

Aim: To draw the Forward Bias Characteristics of the given semiconductor junction diode

Apparatus required: Variable D.C. Power supply (0-2 V); rheostat (as potential divider);
Semiconductor junction diode; voltmeter (digital), milliammeter (digital); connecting wires

Principle: A semiconductor diode (p-n junction diode) is said to be ‘forward biased’ when its ‘p’ side is
connected to positive terminal and ‘n’ side is connected to a negative terminal of a DC supply. It is said
to be ‘reverse biased’ when its ‘p’ side is connected to negative and ‘n’ side is connected to positive of
a DC supply. The diode starts conducing heavily once the FB exceeds a certain potential ( Vknee) and
virtually not conducting when reverse biased. It thus, acts as a current ‘valve’. Such characteristic
behavior can be graphically represented by Current I – along Y-axis versus Voltage V- along X-axis
graph. These graphs are called ‘forward bias’ and ‘reverse bias’ characteristics.

Formula: V knee = Knee voltage [in V] = Intercept on Voltage-axis (X-axis) by the tangent drawn
on I-V graph at the point where current starts to shoot up suddenly.

Procedure:
Forward Bias characteristics:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit, taking care to connect p-side to +ve side of the
supply, milliammeter in series with the supply and Voltmeter across the diode are connected with
proper polarity ( w.r.t. the supply).
2. Starting from zero voltage, the supply voltage is varied gradually so that the p.d. across the junction
diode varies in small steps(*) of 0.1 V. For each setting of the voltage (V) [in V] across the diode,
current (I) [in mA] is noted.
[(*)Note: During heavy conduction of diode, the voltage is varied in still smaller steps of 0.02V]
3. Observations are tabulated. [Note: voltage is varied to limit the maximum current to  20 mA]
4. It is observed that current starts flowing only after the p.d. reaches a certain minimum value [i.e.,
≈0.3 V for Germanium diode and ≈ 0.7 V for Si diode], but once started, the current rises very
sharply.
5. Forward-biased diode characteristic graph of I (in mA) [+Y –axis] versus V [in V] [along + X-
axis] is drawn. A tangent is drawn at the sharp bend of the I-V graph and its intercept on V-axis is
noted. This gives ‘knee [ ‘take-off’] voltage’ V knee [in V] of the diode.

Results: From forward-bias characteristics graph: V knee =…………. V

40
  V in V
VZ 

 I in mA
SW1 Rh
+
+ mA
E (0-12V)

P N

Zener Note: I-V plot of Zener Diode

Diode V is in ‘III Quandrant’
+

Zener diode Ckt.& its (usual) Reverse-Bias Characteristics of the ZenerDiode

Observations:

Trial Voltage Current

No. V I
settings *readings
(in V) (in mA) *Note: Current starts at definite –ve bias voltage VZ and shoots up
1 0 0 immediately for a small change VZ. Measurement of current is
2 -1 0 limited to a maximum of 20 mA
3 -2 0
4 -3 0
5 -4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 Zener Breakdown voltage VZ (from the graph) = - ……………. V

41
Expt.20: ‘Characteristics’ of Zener Diode

Aim: To draw the Reverse Bias Characteristics of the given Zener diode, and to find its Zener
break voltage VZ

Apparatus required: Variable D.C. Power supply (0-12 V); Rheostat (as potential divider); Zener diode
(with a series safety resistor); Voltmeter (digital); milli-ammeter (digital); connecting wires

Principle: A Zener diode is a typical heavily doped p-n junction diode operated under reverse- bias,
where heavy conduction due to minority carriers (holes on n-side & electrons on p-side) takes place at
a certain voltage called ‘Zener voltage’ VZ. Voltage across the junction remains practically constant at
VZ while the current shoots up.

Formula: On Reverse biased I-V graph:

Zener Break down voltage =Intercept on V-axis by the tangent drawn at the point where current
starts to shoot up suddenly= V Zener

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit -1, taking care to connect to -ve side of potential
divider of the supply to P-side of the given Zener diode. Milliammeter in series with the supply
and Voltmeter across the Zener diode are, as usual, connected with proper polarity w.r.t. the
supply. [Usually, a current limiting resistor Rs is connected in series with Zener diode to protect it
from heavy current.]
2. The supply voltage is varied (i.e. variable setting adjusted) gradually so that the p.d. across the
Zener diode varies, initially, in small steps of 1 or 2 V. For each setting of the voltage (V) [ in V ]
across the diode, current (I) [ in mA] is noted.
3. It is observed that current starts shooting up at a certain value of voltage across Zener diode , and
this voltage virtually remains unchanged after the shoot up of current.
4. Observations are tabulated.
[Note: The voltage variations are so limited that maximum current through diode does not exceed
20 mA]
5. A Zener diode characteristic graph of I (in mA) [along -ve Y –axis] vs V (in V) [along –ve X-
axis] is drawn. A tangent is drawn at the sharp bend of the I-V graph and its intercept on Voltage
axis (X-axis) noted. This gives ‘break-down voltage’ VZ [ in V ] of the Zener diode.

Results: Zener Breakdown voltage VZ (from the graph) = - ……………. V

42
 IC
mA +

R1
+ IB
μA NPN
V CC
+
+
V BB V V CE Rh 2
V V BE
Rh 1

Transistor (NPN) Characteristics Ckt. sistor

Characteristics
Observations:
Input Characteristics: VCE = Constant = ……….. V
VBE
(in V)
IB
(in μA)

IB in μA
VBE
input resistance  ri   ........... 
I B
Output Characteristics: IB = Constant = ……….. μA
VBE in V
VCE
(in V)
IC
(in mA)
ICin mA

VCE
output resistance  ro   .......... 
I C

Transfer Characteristics: VCE = Constant = ………… V VCE in V

IB
(in μA)
IC
(in mA)
I C
Current gain     ...........
I B
IBin μA

r 
Voltage gain  AV     O   ...........
 ri 
IC in mA

43
Expt.21: Transistor Characteristics
Aim: TO draw (1) input (2) Output and (3) Transfer Characteristics of a given npn transistor in
CE configuration

Apparatus required: Transistor characteristics Built-in board (with power supplies VCC & VBB); milli-
ammeter; micro ammeter; Voltmeters (VCE & VBE); patch cords

Principle: A npn transistor in CE configuration has small input resistance (ri) (a few ohms), high output
resistance (ro) ( a few kΩ) and high current gain β and voltage gain.

Formula:
VBE
input resistance  ri  in  with VCE being constant
I B
V
output resistance  ro  CE in  with VBE being constant
IC
I
Current gain    C with VCE being constant
I B
r 
Voltage gain  AV     O 
 ri 
Procedure:
1. Using the circuit board, connections are made as in the circuit diagram.
2. For input characteristics: (IB vs VBE at VCE = const.):
Keeping VCE = 6V constant, input power supply (VBB) is varied in small steps (about 0.1V) and
corresponding V BE (in V), IB( in μA) are tabulated. Graph of IB vs VBE is plotted. Input
VBE
resistance ri  is calculated as the reciprocal slope of the straight line region of the graph.
I B
3. For output characteristics: (IC vs VCE at IB = const.):
Keeping IB= 40μA constant, output power supply (VCC) is varied in steps of about 1V and
corresponding V CE (in V), IC (in mA) are noted. Readings are tabulated. Graph of IC vs VCE is
V
plotted. Output resistance ro  CE is calculated as the reciprocal slope of the straight line region
I C
( almost parallel to VCE axis) of the graph.
4. For transfer characteristics: IB vs IC graph at constant = VCE
Keeping VCE = 6V constant, input current IB is varied in steps (about 10μA) and corresponding IC
IC
are noted. Readings are tabulated. Graph of IB vs IC is plotted. Current gain    is
I B
calculated .
5. Using ri, ro and β, the Voltage gain AV is calculated: AV     ro 
 ri 
Results: Input resistance ri = ………… Ω ; Output resistance rO = ……. Ω
Current gain β = …………… ; Voltage gain A V = ………

44
TYPICAL VIVA QUESTIONs & ANSWERS
Note: The list is ONLY a MODEL Q/A BANK and NOT EXHAUSTIVE; Actual questions can be
BEYOND this listing ALSO.

Expt.1: Determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.

1. What is the nature of a typical graph of I-V graph [current I (along Y axis) versus p.d. V
graph] for a uniform metallic wire?
 The graph is a straight line.
2. What does this indicate?
 Current through metallic conductors (wire) follows ohm’s law.
3. What does the slope of I-V graph represent?
 Slope gives the (electrical) ‘conductance’ [or Reciprocal of resistance].
4. What is the SI unit of electrical ‘conductance’?
 SI unit of (electrical) conductance is Siemens(S) {or mhos or -1}
5. 20 cm length of a uniform metal wire is 5 Ω. What length of this wire is required to construct
a 1 Ω coil?
 20 cm / 5 Ω =4cm=0.04m length of the given wire is required.
6. What is the linear resistance [= resistance / m length] of such a wire?
 The linear resistance is5 Ω / 0.20 m=25 Ω / m [or 25 m-1]

Expt.2: Determine the resistance of a given wire using metre-bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of its material.

7. Define: specific resistance?

 It is the resistance for flow of current between opposite faces of a cube of 1m side of the
material it is made up of. { or it is the resistance of wire of that material of length 1m & area of
cross-section 1m2 for the flow of current across the two opposite faces}
8. On what factors does the resistance of a metal wire depend?
 Resistance depends on (1) the nature of material (2) length directly (3) area of cross-section
inversely & (4) temperature linearly.
9. In the ‘balanced condition’ of a metre-bridge, if resistors in the left and right gap are
interchanged, what happens to the ‘balance point’?
 Balance point shifts such that the balancing length l metre in the first case becomes (1-l) metre
in the second case.
10. In the ‘balanced Wheatstone’s Bridge’, if the ‘galvanometer’ and ‘voltage supply’ are
interchanged, what happens to the ‘balance point’?
 Balance point remains same. (ideally).
11. How does resistivity of a conductor vary with temperature?
 Resistivity ρ varies linearly with tempr. t according to the relation ρt=ρ0 (1+αt) : temp. Co-
efficient of resistance

45
12. With unknown resistance X in left gap & standard resistance of Y [say, 5 Ω ] in the right gap,
balance point is less than / equal to /larger than 50 cm mark on a metre bridge. What is the
value of X?
 X is less than /equal to /larger than Y [=5 Ω].

Expt.3 & 4 Verify the laws of combination (series/parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.

13. State Ohm’s Law?

 At constant temperature, for a metallic conductor, current (I) through it is directly potential
difference (V) across it. Or V/I is constant called ‘resistance’.
14. What is an ohmic device? Give an example.
 Device obeying Ohm’s Law (V/I= constant R) is a ‘ohmic’ device. R value is independent of
direction of flow of current. E.g., metal wire
15. What is a non-ohmic device? Give an example.
 Device that does NOT obey Ohm’s Law is a non-ohmic device. (V/I constant R) & the R
value depends on the direction of flow E.g., semiconductor, diode, thermistor and transistor
16. What is a series combination of resistances?
 Combination of resistances where same current passes through all, and potential divides in
proportion to the resistances
17. If N identical resistors of resistance R are connected in series, what will be their effective
resistance?
 R effective= N  R
18. In what way are resistance coils connected in a typical resistance box?
 They are connected in series.
19. What is the use of plug key connected in series with a battery circuit?
 When plug key is ‘open’ (unplugged), it adds infinite resistance to the circuit & flow of current
stops. But when ‘closed’ (plugged), it adds NO extra resistance [=zero resistance] and the
current flow in the circuit is unaffected.
20. What is a parallel combination of resistances?
 Combination of resistances where same p.d. exists across all current divides in inverse
proportion to the resistances
21. If N identical resistors of resistance R are connected in parallel, what will be their effective
resistance?
 R effective= R/N
22. When resistances are connected in series/ in parallel, how will be the ‘effective resistance’
as compared with the ‘individual’ resistances?
 In series, R effective is LARGER than the largest.
 In parallel combination, R effective is SMALLER than the smallest.

Expt. 5: Compare the emfs of two given primary cells using potentiometer.

23. What is emf of a cell?

 It is the p.d. across its terminals when NO current is drawn from the cell (Or when cell is in
‘OPEN’ circuit).

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24. On what factors does the emf of a primary cell depend?
 Emf of a cell depends on (1) electrodes (positive & negative), and (2) the electrolyte used.
25. What are the positive & negative electrodes, and the electrolyte used in a LECHLANCHE
cell?
 Carbon rod (in filled central porous pot) is Positive (higher potential) electrode& Zinc rod in
ammonium chloride (electrolyte) is negative (lower potential) electrode in Lechlanche cell
26. What is the typical value of emf of a LECHLANCHE cell?
 E Lechlanche Cell= 1.5 V

27. What are the positive & negative electrodes, and the electrolyte used in a DANIEL cell?
 Copper (outer pot) with copper sulphate solution is Positive (higher potential) electrode& Zinc
rod in hydro chloric / sulphuric acid (electrolyte) is negative (lower potential) electrode in
DANIEL cell
28. What is the typical value of emf of a DANIEL cell?
 E Daniel Cell 1.08 V
29. What is a potentiometer used for?
 To (i) measure emf’ of a cell (ii) compare emf’s of cells (iii) determine internal resistance of a
cell
30. Why is potentiometer preferred to ordinary voltmeter to measure emf of a cell?
 Potentiometer uses null balance condition, and hence measures emf while an ordinary
voltmeter measures only terminal p.d. (because a small current has to necessarily flow through
the Voltmeter).
31. What is the principle of potentiometer?
 When a source of steady emf (battery) is connected across the ends of a uniform wire, p.d. per
unit length ρ is a constant. If another source is balanced across this wire for a length X then,
emf of this source will be E= ρ × X.

Expt. 6: Determine internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.

32. What is internal resistance of a cell?

 It is the resistance offered by the cell itself between its terminals for the flow of electrons when
current is drawn from the cell ( i.e., is connected to external resistance).
33. What is terminal p.d. of a cell?
 When current is drawn from the cell through an external resistance R (load), then the p.d.
across terminals of the cell is called ‘terminal potential difference’.
34. How are terminal p.d., and emf of the cell related?
Er
 It is given by the equation V  where Eemf and r internal resistance of the
(R e xt  r )
cell, R extExternal resistance. V is always smaller than E, as r 0.
35. On what factor does internal resistance of a cell depend?
 The internal resistance of a cell depends on the freshness (shelf –life) and purity of the
electrolyte used. Larger the usage [chemical reaction] time, larger will be the resistance.

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Expt. 7: Determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and find its figure of
merit.

36. What is a galvanometer meant for?

 Galvanometer is used to (meant for) ‘detect the direction and flow’ of current; Deflection
produced in it is a measure of current through it.
37. What is principle of a table (analog) galvanometer?
 It works on the principle that a coil placed between magnetic pole pieces of a cylindrical
magnet deflects when a current is passed through the coil, and is counterbalanced by the
(restoring) elastic couple of a spring. The deflection θ is proportional to the current (I) passing
through it.
38. What is the figure of merit of a galvanometer?
 It is the current required to produce unit division of deflection in the galvanometer.
39. What do you mean by the figure of merit of a galvanometer is 20 μA/div?
 It means that a current of 20 μA passed through the galvanometer produces 1 division of
deflection.
40. If a 30-0-30 divisions galvanometer has a figure of merit of 20 μA/div, what is the full-scale
deflection [f.s.d.] current Ifsd of the galvanometer?
i
 Ifsd   n   20  A / div    30 div   600  A

41. What is the principle of half-deflection method?
 When deflection is θ with galvanometer resistance G alone, and deflection is θ/2 with a parallel
(shunt) resistance R across the galvanometer, then R=G because the current gets equally
divided between equal resistances connected in parallel.
42. What is meant by ‘current sensitivity’ of a moving coil galvanometer?
 ‘Current sensitivity’ of a moving coil galvanometer is the deflection (no. of divisions) produced
when unit current (1A) is passed through it.

Expt.8: Convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) voltmeter of 0-
3Vrange and verify the same.

43. How do you convert a given galvanometer of resistance G, full-scale deflection current Ifsd
into a voltmeter to measure up to V volts?
 By connecting a high resistance R in series with G where
Vmax
R  G  [ n  1] & n  , a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter.
[ I fsd  G ]

44. How do you convert a given galvanometer of resistance G, full-scale deflection current Ifsd
into an ammeter to measure up to I ampere?
G I max
By connecting a low shunt resistance S in parallel with G where S  & n
 n  1 I fsd


a galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter.

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45. What is the principle used in the circuit arrangement that uses a ‘standard voltmeter’ and
the ‘converted voltmeter’?
 When a standard voltmeter and the voltmeter-converted galvanometer are connected [one at a
time] between the same points of a potential divider arrangement (using a rheostat), voltages
(p.d.’s) are equal (same).
46. If a 30-0-30 G is converted into 3V max voltmeter, what is the voltage when G shows a
deflection of 1 div? 5 divisions? 15 divisions?
 x   1 
 V     Vmax     3  0.1 V etc., = 0.1 V for x=1 div;
 30   30 
=0.5 V for x=5 div’ & 1.5 V for x=15 divs’.

Expt.9: Determine the frequency of the AC mains with a sonometer and an electromagnet

47. What is the basic principle used in expt. to ‘determine the frequency of the AC mains with a
sonometer and an electromagnet ‘?
 When an alternating voltage is applied to the coil enclosing Iron Rod (Core), the iron core gets
magnetized, attracting the ‘iron wire’ stretched below on the bridges of sonometer. When the
stretched wire between the bridges vibrates with maximum amplitude, the wire will be in
resonance in both peaks of half cycles of AC. Thus frequency of the string is TWICE the
frequency of AC. Finding the frequency of the wire, frequency of the AC is calculated using the
relation fAC = ½  fwire
48. What is the frequency of AC supply in India?
 50 Hz.
49. What is the frequency of the vibrating sonometer string in the expt.?
 50 Hz x 2= 100Hz.
50. How are frequency and period of vibration related?
 f=1/T  Frequency = 1/period of vibration  if frequency (f) of vibration is 100Hz, time period
(T) for vibration is 1/100 =0.01 s
51. How are tension T and resonating length L of the sonometer related?
 T α L2 or T/L2 =constant; larger the Tension , larger will be the resonating length.
52. For a given tension, how are resonating length L and linear density m of the sonometer
related?
1
 l ; thicker the wire, smaller will be the resonating length and vice-versa.
m

Expt.11: Determine the focal length of a concave mirror by u-v method.

53. What is the pole of the concave/convex mirror?

 It is the geometrical centre point [a point on the symmetry (principal) axis perpendicular to
reflecting surface] of the given mirror.
54. What is the focus of concave mirror?
 It is a point on the principal axis where paraxial incident rays actually get focused (converge
at) after reflection.

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55. What is the focal length of a concave mirror?
 It is the distance between the principal focus (F) and the pole (P) of the mirror.
56. What is the centre of curvature of the concave mirror?
 It is the centre of that sphere of which the given mirror is a part.
57. What is the radius of curvature of the concave mirror?
 It is the radius of that sphere of which the given mirror is a part. It is the distance between ‘pole’
and ‘centre of curvature’ of the spherical mirror.
58. How are focal length and radius of curvature of the concave mirror related?
 Radius of curvature = twice the focal length; R=2 f for the spherical mirrors.
59. What types of images are produced of a real erect object by a concave mirror?
 Concave mirror: (1) real & inverted & magnified, when object is between f and 2f

(2) real & inverted & same-sized, when object is at 2f

(3) real & inverted & diminished, when object is beyond 2f
(4) virtual, erect & magnified, when object is within f.
60. What types of images are produced by a plane mirror?
 ONLY virtual, erect, same sized at the distance equal to object distance.
61. For a distant object (such as a tree), where is the image formed in case of concave mirror?
 At the principal focus. [ when u  , then v  f ]

62. What is parallax?

 When two objects at different distances are viewed by an observer with eyes moved across
from one-side to the other, they appear to move with different speeds. This differential speed is
called parallax.
63. How do you remove parallax error between two objects?
 By adjusting the positions of two objects ( or an object and its image) so that they are
equal (same) distances when viewed by an observer. In this case, with eyes moved across
from one-side to the other, the two objects appear to move together with same speeds and will
always remain in parallel [keeping their separation same]..

Expt. 12: Determine the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v [or
between 1/u and1/v].

64. What is the ‘optic centre’ of the convex lens?

 It is a point on the axis where an incident ray and the corresponding parallel emergent ray
meet.
65. What is the principal ‘focus’ of convex lens?
 It is a point on the axis where paraxial incident rays actually get ‘focused’.
66. What is the ‘focal length’ of a thin convex lens?
 It is the distance between the focus and optic centre of the lens.
67. Why a ‘convex lens’ is also called ‘converging lens’ ?
 It is because incident rays after refraction at the convex lens bend towards and converge at a
point on the axis.

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68. What is the minimum distance (D) between object and its real image produced by a convex
lens of focal length f?
 D ≥ 4f
69. What is the minimum object distance (u) for a convex lens for obtaining a (real) image on a
screen?
 u >f [i.e., object must be beyond the principal focus]
70. How are focal length (f) and radii of curvature(R) of the surface of an equi-convex lens of
glass of R.I. 1.5 related?
 Radius of curvature R = f
71. When does a lens considered ‘convex’ [/ ‘concave’] in air behave as ‘concave’ [/‘convex’]
lens?
 When a lens considered ‘convex’ [/ ‘concave’] in air is immersed in a transparent liquid of
refractive index larger than that of lens material, it behaves as concave’ [/‘convex’] lens.
72. What is the ‘power’ of a lens? What is its SI unit?
 It is a measure of ‘convergence at / divergence from’ a point on the ‘principal axis’ when
paraxial rays are incident on the lens. It is numerically equal to the reciprocal of focal length.
P=1/f ; Dioptre (D) is SI unit of power. 1D= 1/1m
73. What is the principle of ‘shift method’ used in determining the focal length of a convex lens?
 When ‘object to its real image (screen) distance D is greater than 4 times the focal length f of a
convex lens, two real images get produced at two conjugate positions separated S apart.
Measuring D and S, the focallength f can be calculated using the formula: f  
D2  S 2 
Expt.
4D
13: Determine the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
74. What is the pole of the convex mirror?
 It is the geometrical centre point of the given reflecting surface of the mirror.
75. What is the focus of convex mirror?
 It is a point on the principal axis where paraxial incident rays appear to get focused (appear to
diverge from) after reflection.
76. What is the focal length of a convex mirror?
 It is the distance between the focus and pole of the mirror.
77. What is the centre of curvature of the convex mirror?
 It is the centre of the sphere of which the given mirror is a part.
78. What is the radius of curvature of the convex mirror?
 It is the distance between ‘pole’ and ‘centre of curvature’ of the spherical mirror.
79. How are focal length and radius of curvature of the convex mirror related?
 Radius of curvature = twice the focal length ; R=2 f
80. What types of images are produced of a real erect object by a CONVEX mirror?
 CONVEX mirror: ONLY virtual, erect & diminished, for ALL distances of object.
81. Why can’t you use ‘distant object method’ for finding focal length of convex mirror?
 As the image produced by convex mirror is always VIRTUAL and that CANNOT be got on a
screen, we cannot use distant object method for finding focal length of convex mirror

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82. Why do you (need to) use a convex lens in the experiment to find the focal length of a
convex mirror?
 Convex lens is used to produce a ‘real image’ which can serve as ‘virtual object’ for the
CONVEX mirror. Then, the ‘final’ image obtained by the system is ‘real’.
83. When object and its final image in the convex lens-convex mirror system coincide, how are
the incident rays on the mirror? What is the significance of the arrangement?
 In this case, ‘emergent’ rays from the convex lens are incident NORMALLY on the convex
mirror , the ‘rays’ retrace and final image that get formed coincides with the object itself. The
point where refracted rays from the convex lens would have converged (in the absence of the
mirror) is located at the centre of curvature of the convex MIRROR. Distance between the
mirror and the initial (lens) image position gives R [=2f ].

Expt.15: Determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

84. What is a prism?

 It is a dispersing medium used to separate composite light into its constituents ( i.e study
spectrum)
85. What is angle of deviation in a prism-refraction?
 It is the angle between incident and emergent rays.
86. What is angle of minimum deviation?
 As angle of incidence (i) on a prism is gradually increased, angle of deviation () first
decreases, reaches a minimum and then starts increasing. The least of angles of deviation is
called ‘angle of minimum deviation’.
87. Mention any two special features at ‘minimum deviation setting’ of a prism.
At minimum deviation settings:
(1) Angles of incidence and emergence are equal.
(2) Angles of deviations at the two surfaces are equal.
(3) Refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to base.
(4) Incident and emergent rays are symmetrical to prism.
(5) Angle of refraction at the first face and angle of incidence on the second face are same
ANY TWO of the above
88. How is refractive index n of the prism material related to angle of the prism A and angle of
minimum deviation D?
sin
 A  D
 n 2
A
sin  
2

Expt.16: Determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

89. What is ‘normal shift’ in refraction?

 An object placed in a denser medium, seen normally (vertically) from above appears to be
raised along the normal. This shift along the normal is ‘normal shift’.

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90. What is the principle of this experiment?
 Experiment is based on the principle of ‘normal shift’ in refraction
91. How is refractive index n of the glass slab related to actual (real) and apparent depth of an
object placed below at the bottom surface?
 They are related by the relation:

actual depth
n
apparent depth
92. On what factors normal shift in a glass-slab case depends?
 Normal shift depends on (1) actual thickness (2) refractive index of the glass.[ relative refractive
index b/n glass and air]

Expt.17 & 18 Determine refractive index of water by using (i) concave mirror, (ii) convex lens and
plane mirror.

93. When do an object and its real image produced by a concave mirror coincide?
 When object is at the centre of curvature of the mirror [Or object to mirror distance is equal to
radius of curvature R= 2f of the mirror], object and its real image produced by the concave
mirror coincide.
94. When water is filled in the concave surface of the mirror, how does the optical system
behave?
 System behaves as a plano-convex water lens in contact with a concave mirror.
95. When would an object and its real image in this system of Plano-convex lens & concave
mirror (combined mirror system) coincide?
 When rays after refraction at the Plano-convex lens are incident normally on concave reflecting
surface i.e. when object is at the centre of curvature of the combined mirror system.
96. When do an object and its real image produced by a convex lens placed over a plane mirror
coincide?
 When an object is at the FOCUS of the CONVEX lens placed over a plane mirror, the object
and its ‘real image’ coincide [Because , object to lens distance is equal to the focal length of
the lens, the emergent rays are parallel and incident normally on the plane mirror and retrace]
97. When a thin water layer is placed between the curved surface of the convex lens and a plane
mirror, how does the optical system behave?
 System behaves as a ‘combination lens’ consisting of ‘a convex lens’ in contact with ‘Plano-
concave liquid lens’.
98. What is equation for focal length of such a system?
1 1 1
 It is given by:  
Fcombn f planoconcave liquid lens f convex lens
99. Give lens makers formula for the plano- concave liquid lens?
1  1 1
 (nliquid  1)   
 f planoconcave liquid lens  Rconcave  

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Expt.19: Draw I-V characteristics curves of a p-n junction in forward bias.

100. What is a semiconductor?

 Material whose electrical resistivity is of the order of 10-2 to 103m [which is intermediate to
those of metal (conductors) and insulators].
101. What is an ’intrinsic semiconductor’?
 Semiconductor in the pure elemental form without any impurity is an ’intrinsic semiconductor’.
102. Name some of the commonly used ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.
 Germanium [Ge] and Silicon [Si] are commonly used elemental ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.
103. What is ‘doping’ in semiconductors?
 Intentional addition of a small quantity of [‘trivalent’ or ‘penta-valent’] impurities to ‘intrinsic
semiconductors’ so as to enhance the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor is called
‘doping’.
104. What is an ‘extrinsic semiconductor’?
 A ‘doped’ intrinsic semiconductor is an ‘extrinsic semiconductor’.
105. What is a p-type semiconductor?
 Semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity; positive ‘holes’ are majority carriers and
‘negative’ electrons are in minority..
106. What is a ’donor impurity’? Give an example.
 A pentavalent impurity that donates an extra ‘negatively charged’ electron to tetravalent
intrinsic semiconductor lattice is called ’donor impurity’. E.g., Phosphorous [P].
107. What is an ’acceptor impurity’? Give an example.
 A trivalent impurity that accepts an electron from tetravalent intrinsic semiconductor lattice [
equivalently donates an extra ‘positively charged’ hole to the lattice] is called ’donor impurity’.
E.g., Phosphorous [Al].
108. What is a n-type semiconductor?
 Semiconductor doped with penta-valent impurity; ‘negative’ electrons are majority carriers
and positive ‘holes’ are in minority
109. What is a junction diode?
 Two elemental (part) semiconductor device with p-type and n-type semiconductor developed
(from out of intrinsic semiconductor) with a common junction between them.
110. What do you mean by biasing of a junction diode?
 Maintaining a certain potential difference between two points ( p – and n– parts) of the diode is
called ‘biasing’.
111. What is a forward –bias [FB] in a p-n junction diode?
 It is a type of bias across the p-n junction where p-side is maintained at positive (higher)
potential and n-side is maintained at negative (lower) potential.
112. What is a reverse –bias [RB] in a p-n junction diode?
 It is a type of bias across the p-n junction where p-side is maintained at negative (lower)
potential and n-side is maintained at positive (higher) potential.

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113. What does the curved I-V graph signify?
 The ‘curved part’ of the graph signifies that the device is a non-ohmic (i.e., it does NOT obey
Ohm’s Law).
114. What does the slope in the linear part of graph represent?
 Slope in the linear part of graph represents ‘reciprocal of forward bias resistance’ ( i.e.,
‘conductance’).
115. What is meant by ‘barrier potential’ of a p-n junction diode?
 It is the potential developed [due to immobile + ions on n-side and –ve ions on p-side in the
depletion region] around the junction, when ‘equilibrium condition’ is reached [ i.e. when
junction gets formed]. Majority carriers have to overcome this barrier potential in order that the
diode conducts.
116. What is ‘knee (cut-in) voltage’ of a junction diode?
 It is the forward biasing voltage at which suddenly (sharply) forward current shoots up. (usually
obtained as voltage intercept by extrapolation of straight portion of I-V graph)
117. What is the order of knee-voltage of silicon (or germanium) p-n junction diode?
 For silicon: ~0.7 V; for germanium: ~0.3 V
118. Mention an application of p-n junction diode.
 p-n junction diodes are used in half/ full wave rectifiers.
119. What is ‘rectifier’?
 A device that converts AC into DC is called a ‘rectifier’.
120. What is the working principle of a semiconductor rectifier?
 A p-n junction diode conducts [offers low resistance ~ 10 ohms] when forward biased and
does NOT conduct [i.e., offers very large resistance ( ~ 10 k Ω to MΩ)] when it is reverse
biased. These features [conditions] are used in ‘rectifiers’.
121. What are the Forward-bias & Reverse-bias resistances for an ideal junction diode?
 For an ideal p-n junction diode, R FB=0 & RRB= [i.e., Ideal p-n junction diode behaves as a
‘short’ (R FB=0) under FB condition and as an ‘open’ under RB condition (RRB=.)]

Expt. 20: Draw the characteristics curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse break
down voltage.

122. What is a zener diode?

 It is a specially designed p-n junction diode with heavy doping on both p- and n- sides, and
normally operated under reverse bias condition.
123. How does doping in Zener diode differ from ordinary p-n junction diode?
 While in Junction diode both P and N sides are lightly doped, in Zener Diode both of them are
heavily doped.
124. How do normal operations differ in the case of Junction diode and Zener diode?
 While junction diode normally operates (i.e. conducts) under forward bias, the Zener diode is
operated normally under reverse bias condition.
125. What is ‘reverse current’ in diode operation?
 Current due to minority carriers (electrons from P-side & holes from N-side) is ‘reverse current’.

55
126. What is ‘reverse break down’ in Zener Diode?
 At large reverse bias voltage, (P side connected to –ve terminal and N-side connected to +ve
terminal of the supply), reverse current suddenly shoots up due to rupture (breaking) of
covalent bonds. This condition is called ‘reverse breakdown’.
127. What is Zener breakdown voltage?
 Reverse bias voltage at the reverse breakdown ( i.e when suddenly reverse current shoots up)
of a Zener diode is called its ‘Reverse break down voltage’.
128. What is ‘Zener current’?
 Reverse current (due to minority carriers) after Zener breakdown voltage applied is ‘zener
current’.
129. Mention an application of a Zener diode.
 It is used in voltage regulators.
130. How does Zener diode act as ‘voltage regulator’?
 At and beyond Zener breakdown, voltage remains constant (though the current keeps
increasing) even when input (reverse) voltage is increased. This forms the basis of voltage
regulation [constant value voltage].

Note: The above set of questions could be quite useful for 1 mark/ 2 mark questions in THEORY
Examinations also.
BEST OF LUCK

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