MODAL VERBS

Brief overview
The term modal refers to a syntactically defined subset of auxiliary verbs. Features:
a) inversion with the subject
b) negative form with n’t
c) “Code”: He can win and so can he.
d) no –s for third person singular
e) absence of non-finite forms (no infinitive, no past or present participle)
f) no cooccurrence (e.g. * I may will come.)
g) emphatic affirmation (He will be there.)

Two syntactic patterns:

a) EPISTEMIC (rational laws): modals that occur with a progressive aspect and with
the perfect infinitive form and have no selectional restrictions upon the subject. They
introduce the notions of CERTAINTY, PROBABILITY, POSSIBILITY, WEAK
POSSIBILITY.
e.g. He can be singing now.
He must have already gone.//He must have fallen from the tree.

b) DEONTIC (or root) sense: modals that cannot occur with the progressive aspect or
perfect infinitive form and impose selctional restrictions upon the subject (the subject
of the sentence containing the modal must be ANIMATE). They introduce the notions
of DUTY, NECESSITY, VOLITION, PERMISSION, CAPABILITY.
e.g. *I could have swum. // *Can I be going outside?

CAN
1. ability (animate subjects):
e.g. Can you ride a horse?
They can’t speak a word of English but, you know, they can say what
they like.
In these sentences “can” may be replaced by BE ABLE TO, which can be available after other
modal verbs (not the case of “can”): might be able to, should be able to etc. BE ABLE TO is more
formal than “can”, preferred in written language whereas CAN is preferred in spoken language.
BE ABLE TO is preferred to CAN when the subject accomplishes the task (the sense of
actuality).
e.g. In this way we are able to carry out research and not simply to undertake consulting.
- For a past reference and a single accomplished occurrence – ONLY BE ABLE TO
(result + effort):
e.g. I ran and I was able to catch the bus.
Yesterday I was able to visit my mother.
- COULD + all…., the only thing etc.
- COULDN’T = lack of achievement; the event did not take place: I ran but I couldn’t
catch the bus.
- Can + verbs of sensation: hear, see, smell, feel, taste.
Compare: John can hear voices (real) – John hears voices (hallucinations).

- “characteristic” use of CAN – combines with adverbial such as “at times”:

e.g. She can be wicked at times.//He can tell awful lies.
- offer (1st person sg. & plural): Come early and we can have a drink.
 - request: Can you just remind me?
COULD (past time reference)
a) used when an accomplishment is a matter of POTENTIALITY, not a matter of result:
e.g. In the state she was in she could actually kill.
b) habitual, recurrent event:
e.g. I could get up and get in the kitchen whenever I wanted to.
c) in the negative form to point out lack of accomplishment
[could + negative polarity items like “hardly”, + “little”, “almost”, “nearly”]
e.g. He could hardly stand on his feet.
I could almost reach the top. (but I didn’t)
There was very little they could think of that you could do with
German.
Future time reference
- the modal verb marked as future by will/shall be able to + future time reference
- can = future reference (present ability that can accomplish something in the future):
e.g. The next time you can take the exam is in April.
- be able to = future accomplishment

2. permission (informal vs. MAY formal)

 refusal of permission: You cannot leave now.
 COULD – more polite (not the past tense of can): Could we go now?

3. possibility: There can only be one outcome of this affair.//Cigarettes can

seriously
damage your health.//He can’t be working at this hour.
 more frequent in negations and interrogations; MAY preferred in
affirmative.
 when the subject is inanimate: Lighting can be dangerous.
 in passive sentences: This game can be played by young children.
 constructions with impersonal subjects: You can get all sorts of things
here.
 in comparative clauses, indicating “circumstantial possibility”:
e.g. You can travel to England with much more difficulty than you
can travel to Greece.
 IMPOSSIBILITY (with progressive): He can’t be reading now.//She
can’t be your mother.
 with perfect infinitive: He can have been hiding at that time, you know.

MAY

1. permission (deontic): You may go now.//May I come in?

 rules and regulations (imperative use of MAY): You may leave, John.//A
local health authority may, with the approval of the Minister, receive
from persons to which advice is given under this section…such charges
…
 to be allowed to/to be permitted to (+ authority) [might – highly formal]
2. possibility (epistemic) – the sentence is neither true nor false
COMPARE: (1) The pound can be devalued. vs. (2) The pound may be devalued.
(1) can be uttered at any tim; (2) uttered only at a time of financial crisis.
OR
 A friend can betray you. (general observation) – A friend may betray you.
(warning about a particular friend)
MIGHT – strong possibility (perfect infinitive – past reference)/bare infinitive
(future value)
3. to be likely to/ to be unlikely to (see cannot – impossibility)
4. reproach You might have told me that Sue was not coming!

CAN MAY
natural & social laws (ability/permission) rational and social laws
(possibility/permission)
informal formal
focus on current state of circumstances focus on the verifiability of the truth of the
sentence
subject-oriented non-subject-oriented
(e.g. What can you contribute to (What may you contribute to the
discussion?)
the discussion?)
external negation (it is not possible that X do sth.) internal negation (it is possible that X
don’t do sth.)