TP012

Increasing the Reliability of Reciprocating

Compressors on Hydrogen Services
Stephen M. Leonard
Dresser-Rand, Painted Post, NY, USA

Improvements in reciprocating hydrogen compressor reliability in petrochemical, chemical and gas industry services can result in
additional production revenue and significant savings in maintenance related costs. Important findings of a program conducted to
identify and evaluate the factors which contribute to reciprocating compressor reliability are presented.

Increasing the reliability of plant equipment is a current and rapidly growing concern as substantial opportunities to cut operating and
maintenance costs and improve profit margins exist. Reciprocating compressors in hydrogen service (Figure 1) play a major role in
the successful operation of many petrochemical, chemical and gas industry processes.

Key factors which contribute to the need for increased reciprocating hydrogen compressor reliability are:

● New hydrogen plants, continuous catalyst regeneration, and improvements in existing catalysts allow processes to run longer
between scheduled shutdowns. Therefore, the time between plant turnarounds and equipment overhauls is continually being
extended to as long as 3 years (and longer in some cases). Thus, there is a demand for reciprocating compressors which are
capable of running consistently from turnaround to turnaround.
● It is very common for an unscheduled shutdown of a reciprocating compressor on hydrogen service to result in $40,000 to
$100,000 per day in lost production revenue (not including additional maintenance and repair costs).
● Plant processes are being debottlenecked and capacities are being increased. Reciprocating compressors originally used as
spares are now on line and are unspared.
● Maintenance personnel and budgets are being reduced as the industry attempts to save costs by downsizing.

To investigate the factors which support increased reciprocating compressor reliability, a reliability program was initiated. The goal of
the program was to obtain the information to establish design, material, and application requirements necessary for reciprocating
compressors capable of 3 years (25,000 hours) of continuous operation without a shutdown.

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In the first phase of the program (Phase I - Questionnaire), a reliability questionnaire was sent to more than 200 users and
purchasers of process reciprocating compressors. The purpose for the questionnaire was twofold:

1) To identify the systems and component areas causing unscheduled shutdowns of reciprocating compressors and
establish (on average) the percentage of the unscheduled shutdowns caused by those identified system and
component areas.

2) To obtain feedback on the changes and improvements users have made to their existing reciprocating
compressors which has resulted in improved reliability.

Results of Phase I- Questionnaire. Out of 217 questionnaires distributed worldwide, 62 were returned. Participating countries
included: the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Norway, Kuwait, Singapore, China, and the United Arab
Emirates.

Figure 2 illustrates the majority of the reciprocating compressor systems and components identified (as well as the average
percentage attributable to each) to result in unscheduled shutdowns. According to the results of the questionnaire, eight systems
and component areas are responsible for nearly 94 percent of all unscheduled shutdowns of reciprocating compressors.

One interesting result of the questionnaire was the ranking of the cylinder lubrication system as one of the top eight problem areas.
This was determined to be significant as the reliability of this system can directly affect the reliability of three other components also
ranked among the top eight problem areas: pressure packings (#2), piston rings (#4) and rider bands (#5).

Significant questionnaire feedback was also provided on modifications, enhancements, and upgrades which users have
implemented to increase the overall reliability of their reciprocating compressors. Listed below is a summary of some of the user
responses returned:

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Process related improvements

● Add liquid removal / liquid coalescing systems upstream of compressor to remove process-related liquids in the gas stream
from entering the compressor cylinders.
● Add gas inlet filtering systems upstream of the compressor to remove any process debris in the gas stream from entering the
compressor cylinders.

Design related improvements

● Heat trace and insulate inlet gas piping and pulsation vessels (from knockout device to compressor cylinder) to prevent liquid
condensation from forming and being carried into the compressor cylinders.
● Size pulsation vessels properly to control the effects of pulsations inherent in the gas flow into and out of reciprocating
compressor cylinders.

Material related improvements

● Upgrade to non-metallic piston ring, rider band and packing ring materials.
● Add a tungsten carbide piston rod coating.
● Apply materials compatible with actual process gas properties.

Compressor valve and unloader improvements

● Apply improved valve designs and selection technology.

● Convert to non-metallic valve plates/elements.
● Convert from plate type to poppet type compressor valves.
● Apply improved spring designs and materials.
● Remove unnecessary cylinder unloaders and unloading steps.

Cylinder lubrication related improvements

● Add continuous monitoring and alarm capability to the cylinder and packing lubrication system.
● Convert from a pump-to-point to a divider block cylinder lubrication system.
● Add cylinder lubrication to non-lubricated compressor cylinders.
● Use the correct cylinder lubrication rates (too much can be as harmful as too little).
● Development and use of improved cylinder lubricating oils.
● Add a spare lubrication system (if one system fails, the other comes on line and the compressor cylinders continue to receive
lubrication).

Instrumentation related improvements

● Add continuous monitoring systems to help predict possible failures.

● Add pre-alarms to help identify and resolve potential problems before they become actual or larger problems.
● Install instrumentation redundancy and upgrades to help prevent nuisance shutdowns.
● Install rod drop devices to identify when rider bands are becoming worn.
● Use transmitters in conjunction with the distributive control system (DCS) instead of local switches.

The results and user feedback obtained from the questionnaire were not specific to process gas. However, this feedback helped to
form the basis for the next stage of the program designed to investigate and obtain specific operational, maintenance and reliability
data for reciprocating compressors on various hydrogen services.

In the second phase of the program (Phase 2 Survey), a team of knowledgeable compressor engineering representatives from the
factory conducted compressor surveys (studies) at refinery and chemical plants in the U.S., Canada, and Europe. The surveys were
normally conducted with the participation of the following compressor user representatives: a) process engineer; b) maintenance or
reliability engineer/technician; and c) compressor operator (or the individual most knowledgeable about the day-to-day details of the
reciprocating compressor). Each of the compressor studies conducted included a review of the following:

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I. The reciprocating compressor application, including a review of the process(es) that generated or supplied the hydrogen gas
stream on which the reciprocating compressors were operating.

2. The process flow diagram (PFD). This was done to determine what systems or components existed upstream of the reciprocating
compressor which could have an effect on the quality or purity of the hydrogen gas stream (e.g. caustic scrubbers, alumina treaters,
water washes, coalescing filters, liquid knock-out drums and separators, etc.).

3. The reciprocating compressor performance, operating pressures, temperatures and actual gas analysis to compare against the
"as sold" design conditions.

4. The operation and maintenance histories for the compressor components and auxiliary systems. This included confirming and
documenting the designs, materials and average operating lives for all the wearing components including (but not limited to) the
cylinder valves, cylinder and valve unloaders, piston rings, rider bands, and pressure packings.

5. The compressor maintenance turnaround schedule, maintenance philosophies and operating practices. This established the
length of time the compressor normally operated between scheduled overhauls, the number of hours the compressor normally
operated per year, and the basis on which the normal wearing components were replaced (ie. after a predetermined run time or after
the components had worn past their normal useful life and/or failed).

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6. After completing the compressor study, the survey team would normally visit the reciprocating compressor operating deck. This
provided the survey team with an opportunity to make some general observations including the overall condition of the compressors
(which provided a some good indications on how well they were being cared for and maintained), the condition of the compressor
foundation and grout, inlet gas piping insulation (if there was any), working order of instrumentation, etc.

In order to obtain the information to establish design, material, and application requirements necessary for hydrogen reciprocating
compressors capable of 3 years of continuous operation, two different categories of reciprocating compressors were studied: 1)
reciprocating hydrogen compressors which were setting the standards for the rest of the industry and obtaining superior run times
and reliability; and 2) reciprocating hydrogen compressors (in similar applications) which were obtaining short run times and poor
reliability. This provided the opportunity to make some direct comparisons and identify the major factors which affect reciprocating
compressor reliability.

Twenty (20) refinery and chemical plant users of reciprocating compressors participated in the surveys. A total of 52 operating
reciprocating compressors ranging from 50 to 13,000 BHP and running at speeds ranging from 300 to 492 rpm were surveyed. The
survey of these reciprocating compressors resulted in the review of 165 lubricated and 6 non-lubricated compressor cylinders on
various hydrogen services. The cylinders ranged from 6.5 to 40.5 inches in diameter with cylinder discharge pressures ranging from
66 to 3700 psig. Figure 3 illustrates a representative compressor cylinder assembly used on the reciprocating hydrogen compressors
surveyed.

The majority of the reciprocating compressors surveyed were operating on hydrogen gas streams produced from the following two
sources:

● Catalytic Reformer - Net hydrogen produced by the catalytic reforming of naphtha. The hydrogen net gas stream from the
catalytic reformer was typically 80 to 90% hydrogen with the remaining percentage consisting of C2 to C6 hydrocarbons.
● Hydrogen Plant - Hydrogen produced by a steam methane reforming (SMR) process. A pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
process was commonly used to purify the hydrogen gas stream to a purity of 99.9%.

In the majority of cases, the reciprocating compressors surveyed compressed make-up hydrogen for refinery hydrotreating and
hydrocracking processes. In addition to hydrogen from the sources listed above, hydrogen sources also included: steam naphtha
reforming (96% hydrogen), ethylene plant hydrogen off-gas (80% hydrogen), syn gas (50% hydrogen, 50% carbon monoxide) and
methyl ethyl ketone plant hydrogen off-gas (96% hydrogen).

Results of Phase 2- Survey. The surveys conducted resulted in the collection of data and information to assist in better defining the
variables affecting reciprocating compressor reliability. Following is a summary of some of the key variables identified:

Process effects
The process(es) used to produce and/or supply the hydrogen gas stream(s) had a vital impact on the reliability of the reciprocating
compressors surveyed. Reciprocating compressors applied on hydrogen services from stable processes which supplied clean, dry
hydrogen gas streams were more likely to be reliable. Reciprocating compressors applied on hydrogen services from unstable
processes or processes which supplied hydrogen gas streams which were "wet" or "dirty" (or both) had a tendency of being much
less reliable.

Some of the reciprocating compressors operating on hydrogen produced in a catalytic reforming hydrogen net gas service (Figure 4)
were also very reliable. However, there were a few key factors identified that if not properly controlled, significantly reduced the
reliability of the reciprocating compressors on this type of hydrogen supply. These include:

● Catalytic reforming processes are normally stable. However, off-design operation can result in condensed hydrocarbons or
liquid reformate (reformed naphtha) in the hydrogen net gas stream. Significant quantities of hydrocarbon liquids can (and
have) carried over into reciprocating compressor cylinders. This can result in damage to the compressor valves and lubricant
being washed from the compressor cylinder bores.

Typically, there are liquid separators or knockout drums upstream of the reciprocating compressor cylinders to remove any
"normal" quantities of condensed liquid which may be present in the gas. However, excessive quantities of hydrocarbon
liquids may carry through the liquid knock-out devices if they are not properly sized for current operation, if there is no means
of automatically draining off the liquid that quickly collects in the knock-out vessels, or if the knockout vessels are not
performing efficiently and require servicing.
● As illustrated in Figure 4, organic chlorides are purposely injected into the naphtha feed upstream of the reformer reactor.

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This is done to maintain the proper chloride level on the catalyst to control catalyst reactivity. If the organic chloride addition
rates are not properly monitored, or if there is a process upset, excessive ammonium chloride salts (NH4Cl) in the net gas
hydrogen stream can result. Ammonium chloride salts can carry into the reciprocating compressor cylinders and collect on
the compressor valves and unloaders. If present in sufficient quantities, the salts can hinder the proper operation of
compressor valves and unloaders resulting in a significant reduction in compressor reliability Many users who have had
excessive ammonium chloride salt carryover problems have installed dry bed chloride removal systems downstream of the
reformer. Users who installed these dry bed systems (e.g. alumina treater) to remove the chloride salts before they enter the
compressor cylinders have had good success improving the reliability of their reciprocating compressor valves and
unloaders.

Users who have attempted to remove the chloride salts by injecting water into the gas stream to dissolve them were less
successful in some cases. This method requires that effective liquid removal systems exist to remove the chloride solution
before it enters the compressor cylinders. If the chloride solution is not properly separated from the gas stream, it can be just
as detrimental to compressor cylinder reliability, or even more than the chloride salts themselves.
● Corrosives such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and hydrogen chloride (HCI) can be present in the net hydrogen gas stream from
a catalytic reformer. If proper materials are not used for critical compressor cylinder components, even a few parts per million
(ppm) of these corrosives under certain conditions can be sufficient to cause corrosion related problems or failures.

Cylinder lubrication
Cylinder lubrication is truly the "lifeblood" of the wearing components inside the reciprocating compressor cylinder. Using the proper
type of lubricant as well as establishing the proper lubrication rates to the cylinder and packing can be one of the most significant
changes made for improving the overall reliability of the reciprocating compressor. The life of the compressor valves, piston rings,
rider bands, and pressure packings, can all be significantly affected by the type and quantity of lubrication used. For example, it is
common in hydrogen service for a non-lubricated compressor cylinder obtaining 6 months to a year (4,000 to 8,000 hours) on piston
rings, rider bands, and pressure packings to obtain 3 years (25,000 hours) or longer if the proper cylinder and packing lubricant and
lube rates are implemented.

Based on the compressor surveys conducted it became very, evident that the old phrase "it is better to have too much cylinder
lubrication rather than too little" is a serious and widely applied misconception. Excessive amounts of cylinder lubrication can be
just as detrimental to the reliability of the reciprocating compressor cylinder components as having insufficient cylinder lubrication.
Too much of the wrong type of lubrication can increase the effects of compressor valve stiction (viscous adhesion) causing

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compressor valves to open and close late. This results in the valve elements "slamming" open and closed resulting in a significant
reduction in compressor valve reliability.

In two notable cases studied, excessive lubrication was assessed to be a contributor to non-metallic piston ring breakage and
erosion. By cutting back to the proper cylinder lubrication rates, the ring breakage and erosion problems in those cases were
significantly reduced.

Insufficient lubrication can result in premature wear of the wearing components of a reciprocating compressor cylinder. In cases
where a typical carbon filled polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) based material is used for piston rings, rider bands and pressure
packing rings, insufficient cylinder lubrication is evident when a black oily residue (a mixture of lubricating oil and ring material wear
debris) is visible on the piston, piston rod, and cylinder bore. This black oily residue acts much like a lapping compound and results
in premature wear of the rings and eventually the cylinder liner.

The experimentation and substitution of more advanced (and expensive) non-metallic ring materials commonly occurs when the ring
life of the current material(s) is not meeting the users' expectations. In many cases, the wearing characteristics of the non-metallic
ring materials is not the problem. The surveys helped confirm that when the correct amount of the proper type of lubrication is used,
the life of PTFE based piston rings, rider bands and pressure packings can commonly meet, and in many cases exceed, 3 years
(25,000 hours) of operation in hydrogen service.

Cylinder lubrication system design

The reliability of the system used to distribute the cylinder lubrication is Just as critical to the overall reliability of the reciprocating
compressor as using the proper lubrication and lubrication rates.

The results of the questionnaire (Figure 2) ranked the cylinder lubrication system as the seventh most common problem resulting in
unscheduled reciprocating compressor shutdowns. However, after completing the compressor surveys, it became clear that the real
magnitude of the problems associated with cylinder lubrication systems were more significant.

Out of the 20 users surveyed, 46 percent had completely changed out the original lubrication system, made significant modifications
to upgrade their existing system, or added a cylinder lubrication system where the cylinders were non-lubricated. Of the remaining
54 percent, 18 percent of the users were experiencing problems substantial enough to consider changing out their lubrication
system.

The reliability of the cylinder lubrication system is as important to the wearing cylinder components as the reliability of the frame oil
system is to the compressor frame and running gear. To put things in perspective. one user surveyed had a spare reciprocating
compressor and still had production losses and maintenance costs of more than $100,000 per year directly attributable to the
performance of the cylinder and packing lubrication system. If the user had not had a spare reciprocating compressor, it is estimated
that the costs due to maintenance and lost production could have been as much as 10 times higher.

Many users are recognizing the importance of the cylinder and packing lubrication system and have spent millions of dollars
retrofitting their existing reciprocating compressors with new state-of-the-art lubrication systems. The trend in the United States and
Canada has been to convert from the self-priming vacuum style pump-to-point type system (one pump for each point of lubrication
on the compressor) to a divider block system where lubrication is properly proportioned and distributed by positive displacement
series flow valves.

While there are some limitations to the divider block system, there are several reasons why this system is preferred over pump-to-
point type systems. Two of the most common reasons are: 1) the divider block system can be easily automated to alarm (or
shutdown) in the event of a lubrication system failure. The same level of protection for a pump-to-point style lubrication system is
cost prohibitive and is not currently practical; and 2) the oil pump(s) typically used with divider block systems operate using a gravity
or pressurized suction. This significantly reduces or completely eliminates many of the problems associated with the self priming
vacuum style pump-to-point style pumps.

Compressor Valves
Compressor valves are literally the heart of the reciprocating compressor. In many cases the reliability of reciprocating compressors
is dictated by the reliability of the inlet (suction) and outlet (discharge) compressor valves (see Figure 3). As was illustrated in Figure
2, compressor valves can be the largest single cause of unscheduled reciprocating compressor shutdowns. The compressor surveys

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conducted confirmed this.

The surveyed compressors used several different manufacturers and types of compressor valves. However, the valves studied can
be classified into four general types concentric ring, ported plate, channel, and poppet.

Under ideal circumstances, all types of compressor valves have the potential to be reliable. However, in the real world, pulsations,
process effects (liquids, solids and corrosives in the gas stream), and cylinder lubrication can all play a role in reducing the service
life and reliability of compressor valves.

Currently there is no such thing as an indestructible compressor valve. However, some designs and types are more tolerant than
others of the actual service conditions. Based on the results of the surveys, valve reliability (based on the type of valve) for hydrogen
service has been ranked as follows:

Poppet valves Best

Ported plate valves Good
Concentric ring valves Good
Channel valves Fair to Good

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The basis for the valve ranking was the investigation of valve life and reliability of 1,414 compressor valves of various designs
operating in a total of 171 compressor cylinders surveyed. The ranking of the poppet valve (Figure 5) is based on the increased
valve life and reliability users experienced over their prior experience with ported plate, concentric ring and channel type valves in
the same applications. Ported plate and concentric ring type valves (on average) yielded similar run times. While operating very
reliably on clean, dry hydrogen services, channel valves tended to be much less reliable in wet dirty hydrogen gas applications. A
study of the data on compressor valve life yielded a significant trend between compressor valve lift and the corresponding valve life
obtained. The valve life trend in Figure 6 is based on various manufacturers of ported plate and concentric ring valves on hydrogen
service (ranging in mole weights from 2 to 9). The valves utilized a variety of element materials including 17-7 PH stainless steel,
410 stainless steel, nylon and PEEK. Valve springs were made from 17-7 PH stainless steel, Nimonic 90, Hastelloy-C. and chrome
silicon steel. Valves applied at a lift of .080 inches tended to experience one years' (8,000 hours) life where similar type valves
applied at .040 inches lift experienced as long as 3 years' (25,000 hours) life. The compressor valves included in the comparison
were on reciprocating compressors surveyed because of their good to superior valve reliability. This was important as the variables
which tend to reduce compressor valve reliability such as excessive liquid carryover, process related "debris" and the effects of
cylinder lubricating oil tended to be less significant.

Piston Rods
A relatively recent advancement rapidly increasing in use over the last 10 years is the application of tungsten carbide coatings to
reciprocating compressor piston rods. The surveys illustrated that a tungsten carbide coating on the piston rod in the packing travel
areas has made significant contributions towards increasing the reliability of reciprocating compressors.

Normal alloy steel piston rods that have been induction hardened will typically have a minimum case hardness of 50 Rockwell C. For
corrosive gas applications, more exotic stainless steel alloys are used. Depending on the application and stainless steel alloy used,
the piston rod surface hardness can range from as low as 26 to 40 Rockwell C. The application of a tungsten carbide piston rod
coating can raise the surface hardness of the piston rod up to 70 Rockwell C. The excellent wear characteristics, chemical
resistance, and hardness of the tungsten carbide coating can result in a significant improvement in both the service life of the piston
rod, and more importantly, an increase in the continuous operating service life of the cylinder pressure packing. Surveys identified
that piston rod and packing life on higher pressure applications (approaching 2,000 psig) could be improved two to three times by
adding the proper tungsten carbide piston rod coating.

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Gas discharge temperature

API 618 4th Edition (June 1995) states that for hydrogen rich services (molecular weight 12 or less) the discharge temperature shall
not exceed 275°F. The trend of the data collected for compressor cylinders with various discharge temperatures was notable. Figure
7 illustrates the observed trend for piston ring, rider band and packing ring life for reciprocating compressors based on the hydrogen
gas discharge temperature. This relationship is applicable to those reciprocating compressor cylinders studied which used filled
PTFE piston rings, rider bands and pressure packing sealing rings. Compressor cylinders with gas discharge temperatures of 245°F
or less tended to experience ring life as long as 3 years. In a few notable cases, the observed ring life for cylinders whose discharge
temperatures were less than 245°F extended out to as long as 7 to 10 years.

The notable ring reliability at lower discharge temperatures was attributed to three major factors: 1) as the discharge temperature of
the cylinder increases, the scaling rings lose their strength and wearing characteristics resulting in lower life; 2) as the discharge
temperature inside the cylinder increases, the viscosity of the cylinder lubricating oil decreases. This reduction causes a loss of the
lubricating properties resulting in an increase in wear of' the piston, rider and pressure packing rings; and 3) at lower discharge
temperatures there is a Iarger margin between the temperature at which ring damage will occur and the normal operating
performance temperature.

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One example where a large margin can be helpful is when there is a compressor valve failure. Compressor valve failures can result
in a significant rise in the gas temperature inside the compressor cylinder. If the compressor continues to operate for a significant
period of time, the gas temperature can cause cylinder overheating resulting in ring extrusion and failure.

The compressor cylinders included in the comparison were on reciprocating compressors surveyed because of their good to superior
ring life. This was important as the variables which can tend to reduce ring life such as excessive liquid carryover (which washes
away the cylinder lubricant), process related debris (which tends to promote cylinder liner and ring wear), and valve reliability (for the
reasons mentioned above) tended to be less significant.

Gas discharge pressure

For filled PTFE piston rings, rider bands, and pressure packing rings applied at pressures below 1,900 psig, ring life tended to follow
the life curve illustrated in Figure 7. At much lower pressures, the rings were observed to be less affected by temperature and
tended to fall above the curve. At higher pressures, the life of filled PTFE rings tended to decrease even at the lower discharge
temperatures. In some of the reciprocating compressors surveyed, metallic or more advanced nonmetallic ring materials were
utilized (or being tested) to obtain the ring and pressure packing life being experienced in the lower pressure (stage) cylinders. One
material used for the sealing rings which has demonstrated increased life at higher pressures is polyetheretheretherkeytone (PEEK).
This material has significantly better physical properties and higher temperature resistance than does filled PTFE materials.

It should be clearly noted that filled PTFE ring materials are being successfully applied at pressures above 1,900 psig. However, the
rings tend to be much more sensitive to the type and quantity of cylinder lubricant, as well as the reliability of the cylinder lubrication
system.

Bolting and bolted joints

Bolting/bolted joints subject to dynamic loads do have a natural tendency to loosen over time. Therefore, periodic equipment
shutdowns are normally recommended by the OEM to verify and tighten bolting important to safe and reliable equipment operation.
The surveys identified this can be especially important to distance piece bolting (bolting which connects the compressor cylinder to

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the compressor frame as illustrated in Figure 3).

Over long-term operation, two primary factors can contribute to the loosening experienced by distance piece bolting: 1) the bolting
has not been properly tightened; or 2) the bolting has a limited amount of free stretch length. The primary benefit of having a bolt
with ample free stretch length is its ability to retain a high percentage of the original preload (prestress) when some normal bolt
loosening occurs. Figure 8 helps illustrate this principle. Curve A represents bolt stretch versus bolt stress for a 1.00 inch diameter
steel bolt with a free stretch length of 2.50 inches. Curve B represents bolt stretch versus bolt stress for a 1.00 inch diameter steel
bolt with a free stretch length of 1.0 inch. Both bolts have been tightened (prestressed) to 30,000 pounds per square inch (psi).
Depending on their available free stretch length, bolts with the same diameters tightened to the same prestress values will
experience different magnitudes of stretch. As illustrated by Curve A, a loss of 0.0005 inches in stretch (representing bolt loosening)
results in a loss of bolt stress of 6,000 psi. However, the bolt is still able to retain 80% (24,000 psi) of its original prestress. As
illustrated by Curve B. a loss of 0.0005 inches in stretch (representing bolt loosening) results in a loss of bolt stress of 15,000 psi.
Thus, the bolt only retains 50% (15,000 psi) of its original prestress. In addition to the importance of properly tightened bolting, this
example helps illustrate the influence of bolting designs on achieving longer run times between scheduled shutdowns.

Compressor maintenance
While very difficult to quantify, the quality and craftsmanship of regular maintenance was observed to play a critical role in the overall
reliability of reciprocating compressors.

The surveys clearly illustrated that users with well followed and structured maintenance procedures carried out by knowledgeable,
well trained maintenance/reliability personnel tended to have more reliable compressors than those who used lesser trained and
experienced personnel. This was attributed to: 1) informed and knowledgeable maintenance is less likely to result in the introduction
of new problems into the "compression system"; and 2) experienced maintenance personnel are better able to ascertain both the
apparent and not-so-apparent problems. The following example illustrates why this is important.

In some cases, a compressor valve failure can result in creating other mechanical related problems. These can include: 1) damage
to adjacent compressor valves; 2) heat damage/extrusion of the non-metallic piston rings, rider bands and packing rings; and 3)
overheating of the crosshead wrist pin bushing (due to a non-reversing load which restricts or eliminates oil distribution in the
crosshead bushing). Less experienced or rushed maintenance personnel may only repair the obvious valve problem. Not identifying
and evaluating the possible piston ring, rider band and crosshead wrist pin bushing damage could result in another unscheduled
shutdown a few minutes to a few days after the reciprocating compressor is put back in service.

The surveys also identified that users who faithfully used a well-organized maintenance documentation system tended to have more
reliable compressors. This was attributed to the users' ability to better identify common problems and establish the justification and
basis for the necessary corrective action to resolve the problems.

The use of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts can play a major role in reciprocating compressor reliability. While this may
seem like a sales ploy, it is not intended to be. Many compressor surveys were conducted on reciprocating compressors which used
non-OEM parts. In some notable cases where lesser quality and grade parts were used, a significant reduction in compressor
reliability as well as expensive failures and downtime were experienced.

Operations - Maintenance Relationships

Users who had good working relationships between the maintenance/reliability group and the production group tended to have more
reliable reciprocating compressors. Operations engineers who worked in conjunction with the reliability or maintenance engineers
were able to make more informed decisions on whether to shut the compressor down or allow it to continue to run when problems
were identified. As previously outlined, the effects and cleanliness of the hydrogen process gas can significantly impact the reliability
of reciprocating compressors. Maintenance/reliability engineers who understand the process can make better recommendations for
maintaining or improving the reliability of the reciprocating compressor.

The ultimate decision to take a cut in production is based on both economic and safety concerns. In addition to questions regarding
safety, one of the more important questions that should be asked is, "In the long run, which will cost more, taking a short term cut in
production and fixing the problem(s), or letting the compressor run even though there is the potential for further equipment damage
and a longer term shutdown?" The response to this question can be answered properly only by the operations department working
closely with the maintenance/reliability department to fully evaluate all the facts to make the most informed decision possible.

Conclusion
The purpose for this overview was to address some of the major factors which contribute to the reliability of reciprocating hydrogen

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compressors. There are many more areas which were not addressed which are just as important and should be considered
carefully. These include:

● Compressor foundations and grout

● Instrumentation and monitoring
● Capacity control
● Specific lubrication requirements
● Distance piece purging and venting
● Compressor cylinder fugitive emissions

In summary, there are many considerations which must be made to be successful in improving the reliability of reciprocating
compressors. Some of the considerations should include:

● Evaluating the hydrogen process(es) to identify, and resolve "off-design" conditions which result in preventable liquids and
particulates in the hydrogen gas stream(s).
● Involving the equipment manufacturer early on when a new project is initiated. The equipment manufacturer will be able to
make recommendations on sizing, selection, installation and maintenance-related issues that could save millions of dollars in
maintenance and lost production costs in as few as 5 to 10 years.
● Consulting the compressor manufacturer before any design, material or operational changes are made to existing
reciprocating compressors. Some perceived changes for the better could actually result in a reduction, rather than an
increase in reciprocating compressor reliability.

In many cases a joint effort on the part of the user and the manufacturer using the most accurate operational information and the
best compressor and material technology available is necessary to make significant improvements in reciprocating compressor
reliability.

References
1. Woollatt, D. "Reciprocating Compressor Valve Design: Optimizing Valve Life and Reliability." Dresser-Rand Technology Journal, Volume 1, 1995, pp. 44-51.

2. American Petroleum Institute Standard 618, "Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services." American Petroleum
Institute, Washington. D.C., Fourth Edition, June 1995.

3. Catalytic Reforming (UOP)." Hydrocarbon Processing - Refining Processes '94, November 1994. p. 94.

Acknowledgment
This paper is based on an article originally published in Hydrocarbon Processing, January 1996 entitled "Increase reliability of
reciprocating hydrogen compressors." pp. 67-74.

Refer questions to:

Contact D-R

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