Art & Culture

Art and Culture
Table of Contents
Chapter: 1.................................................................................................................................3
ART AND CULTURE..........................................................................................................3
Chapter: 2.................................................................................................................................8
Indian Sculpture...................................................................................................................8
Chapter: 3...............................................................................................................................17
Medieval and Modern School of Sculpture......................................................................17
Chapter: 4...............................................................................................................................28
History and Culture through the Ages: ANCIENT INDIA............................................28
Chapter: 5...............................................................................................................................40
History and Culture through the Ages: MEDIEVAL INDIA.........................................40
Chapter: 6...............................................................................................................................52
History and Culture through the Ages: MODERN INDIA............................................52
Chapter: 7...............................................................................................................................64
Languages and Literature: Indian Languages and mythology......................................64
Chapter: 8...............................................................................................................................75
Languages and Literature: Ancient Indian Literature, The Purana, Classical Sanskrit
Literature,Literature in Pali and Prakrit........................................................................ 75
Chapter: 9...............................................................................................................................85
Languages and Literature: Early Dravidian Literature: Sangam literature...............85
Chapter: 10.............................................................................................................................90
Languages and Literature: Medieval Literature, Modern Indian Literature, the
Literature of Nationalism, Reformism, and.....................................................................90
Revivalism...........................................................................................................................90
Chapter: 11............................................................................................................................. 97
Religion in ancient India (Part 1)......................................................................................97
Chapter: 12...........................................................................................................................106
Religion in ancient India (Part 2)....................................................................................106
Chapter: 13...........................................................................................................................120
Religion in Medieval India.............................................................................................. 120
Chapter: 14...........................................................................................................................132
Religious Reform Movements in MODERN INDIA.....................................................132
Chapter: 15....................................................................................................................... 146
Indian Painting.................................................................................................................146
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 16...........................................................................................................................167
Performing Arts Part1.....................................................................................................167
Chapter: 17...........................................................................................................................195
Indian Performing Arts part 2........................................................................................195
Chapter:18............................................................................................................................221
Indian Performing Arts Part 3........................................................................................221
Chapter: 19...........................................................................................................................230
Indian Architecture Part One......................................................................................... 230
Chapter: 20...........................................................................................................................246
Indian Architecture Part Two......................................................................................... 246
Chapter: 21...........................................................................................................................263
Indian Architecture Part Three...................................................................................... 263
Chapter: 22...........................................................................................................................279
Science and Technology in Ancient India.......................................................................279
Chapter: 23...........................................................................................................................289
Scientists Of Ancient India.............................................................................................. 289
Chapter: 24...........................................................................................................................297
Education system in Ancient and Mediaeval India.......................................................297
Chapter: 25...........................................................................................................................303
Famous universities of ancient India..............................................................................303
Chapter: 26...........................................................................................................................310
Fairs and Festivals India..................................................................................................310
Chapter: 27...........................................................................................................................335
Government Institutions Related to Art and Culture...................................................335
Chapter: 28...........................................................................................................................344
Indian Social Structure. Socio-Cultural Issues in Contemporary India.....................344
Chapter: 29...........................................................................................................................355
Spread of Indian Culture Abroad, Greater Asia in context of Indian culture and
Indian civilisation.............................................................................................................355
Chapter: 30...........................................................................................................................365
UNESCO’s Tangible & Intangible Cultural Heritage in India....................................365
Chapter: 31...........................................................................................................................385
Award and Honours by Government of India...............................................................385
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 1
ART AND CULTURE
࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿t⏖剚 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿uൈൈㅔ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿vᛢ䦍 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿w⼌ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿x测

x ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿
Introduction:
Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or

performing artifacts, expressing the author's imaginative, conceptual idea, or
technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. In
their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the
criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of
art.
Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. Culture is
considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of
phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Some
aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture expressive forms such
as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking,
shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies.
0 CULTURE:
5888 ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or

cultus’ meaning tilling, or cultivating or refining.
23 Culture is the embodiment of the way in which we
think and do things.
o Cultural development is based on the historical
process operating in a local, regional or national
context.
23 Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes
of living and thinking.
5888 Humans are not merely physical beings. They live and act at three levels:
physical, mental and spiritual. So culture is inner refinement of a Human being.
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Art and Culture
23 The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our cultural

heritage. o E.g. Temples, Monuments etc
o Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can
be seen as aspects of culture.
5888 Indian Art and Culture: Relation between Art and Culture
23 Art is one aspect of culture. Art is influenced heavily by culture and is born as a
by-product of culture, reflecting some of its customs, beliefs and values.
5888 Works of art created by a society is a product of the culture that prevails within
that
community and, therefore, one can see that art and culture are definitely
interlinked.
23 Culture is an evolved human capacity to act creatively and imaginatively and
represent and classify experiences with symbols.
5888 Art is nothing but manifestation of Cultural ideas.
23 Categorisation of Art and Culture:
5888 Visual Art: Architecture, Sculpture, Pottery, Paintings
5889 Performing Art: Music, Dance, Puppetry, Circus
5890 Misc (Art and Culture): Language, Religion, Literature, Philosophy, Festivals,
Cinema, Handicrafts
Visual Art Performing Art Misc (Art and culture)
23 Introduction Indian culture:
5888 The culture of India refers collectively to the thousands of distinct and unique
cultures of all religious and communication present in India.
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Art and Culture
23 India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs differs
from place to place within the country, often labeled as an amalgamation of several
cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced by a history
that is several millennia old. Many elements of India's diverse cultures such as
Indian religions, philosophy, cuisine, languages, martial arts, dance, music and
movies have a profound impact across the indoshere, Greater India and world.
5888 Continuity and Change
5889 Variety and Unity
5890 Materialistic and Spiritualistic
5891 Secular Outlook
5892 Cultural Identities
5893 Cultural Influences
5894 Universalism
23 Geographical factors:
5888 India is land of Geo diversity manifested into cultural diversity
23 The absence of a uniform pattern of culture throughout india at any given time.
o The physical features also regulate the communication system, e.g. River
(Attraction)vs tribal regions(retardation)
5888 Coexistence of different levels of cultures in different regions is due to
ecological and geographical conditions.
23 Areas of Isolation (between areas of attraction and retardation)
5888 Influence of Geography on Culture:


Climatic conditions:
Climate shapes what sort of agriculture is possible in a
given area, how people dress, what sort of dwellings they
build and how easily they travel. The food habits,
clothing, immunity against certain kind of diseases.
23 Hills and mountains:
Natural barriers such as mountain ranges, oceans and
large deserts limit human travel and isolate populations,
thus restricting cultural exchanges.
Mountains and rocky plateaus reduce the amount of land
available for agriculture, while level grasslands offer rich soils for raising crops.
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Art and Culture
5888 Natural Resources:
People endowed with agricultural resources would, in all probability, develop into
an agrarian society. Those having abundant supply of industrial raw materials, such
as iron ore, coal or petroleum, would have industrial society.
5889 Distribution of Land Mass and Water Mass:
The people who live in the Himalayas have a worshipful attitude towards high and
the people in South worship the sea which holds for them terror and hope,
problems and promises.
Countries that utilized ships to spread their culture include the colonizing European
nations of Great Britain, Spain and Portugal in the 1500s and 1600s (Cultural
Diffusion) if rivers are swift and hard to navigate, they can isolate populations.
23 INDIAN SUBCONTINENT:
5888 The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly
situated
on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the
Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
23 Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the
land mass that rifted from Gondwanaand merged with
the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago.
5888 Geographically, it is the peninsular region in south-
central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north,
the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the
east. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually
includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
23 Indian diversity and Geography:
5888 Food:
23 Indian food is one of the tastiest and subtlest in the
world. There is no homogeneity of flavour between
North and South or East and West but rather, a wealth of
flavours that is simply staggering. Culinary diversity is
one of India’s treasures.
5888 South Indian cuisines has special place of coconut
and banana due to abundance. Gangetic plain (U.P,
Bihar,
West Bengal) staple diet is Rice because Rice is the
prominent crop grown there.
23 North-West states of India like Punjab, Haryana where Roti, i.e. wheat breads are
more popular since they are primarily wheat producing areas. Coastal parts of
India like Kerala, Konkan staple diet of the people along the coast is fish.
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Art and Culture
5888 Dress:
23 In urban areas, western clothing is common and uniformly
worn by people of all social levels. India also has a great
diversity
5888 The clothing in India also encompasses the wide variety
of Indian embroidery, prints, handwork, embellishment,
styles of wearing cloths. A wide mix of Indian traditional
clothing and western styles can be seen in India.
23 Rajasthan has an arid, desert like climate and thus their
body is more covered to protect it from hot, harsh desert
sands.
5888 Southern part of India and the Bengal region has very humid climate. Thus Men
tend to wear Lungi and women Saree.
23 Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal experiences extreme cold climate most part of
the year that requires proper clothing.
5888 Questionary:
5888 How Does Earth's Surface Affect Culture?

5889 What is the influence of geography?
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 2
Indian Sculpture
23 What is Sculpture?
o The art of making two- or three-dimensional

representative or abstract forms, especially by carving
stone or wood or by casting metal or plaster.
5888 Indian Sculpture:

Pre-historic Sculpture
 
Buddhist Sculpture
Gupta Sculpture

Indus Civilization Sculpture
5889 Pre-historic Sculpture:
23 Prehistoric art is dominated by parietal art, such as cave
painting and cave petro glyphs.
24 Cultural stonework in India - in the form of primitive
art dates back to the era of prehistoric art of the Lower
Paleolithic, around 700,000 BCE
25 Pre-historic means relating to or denoting the period
before written records.
26 Historically - Indian sculptors have focused not on
three-dimensional volume and fullness, but on linear
character (designed on the basis of its outline)
27 By the time of the Bronze Age, sculpture was already the predominant form of artistic
expression throughout the Indian subcontinent.
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Art and Culture
5888 Characteristics:
23 The period of prehistory characterised by the widespread use of stone tools.
o Clay and terracotta were also widely used in Stone
Age figurines.
o During the later Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, as
tools became stronger, Stone Age sculptors began carving
with marble, limestone, porphyry, and granite. o
Sculptors used mammoth bone and ivory in their
carving as well as the more perishable wood.
o Artists also sculpted in stone, especially softer varieties
like limestone, steatite and sandstone, as well as harder
varieties like quartzite and serpentine.
5888 Later they began
casting with bronze,
pewter and zinc.
Venus of Berekhat
Ram (230-700,000
BCE)
Israel (oldest)
23 Indian Pre-historic Sculpture: Bhimbetka (MP)
5888 The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that
spans the prehistoric paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic
period. Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and
the earliest are about 30,000 years old .
Cupules at Darakti chattan Rock Cave Painting

23 Indus Valley Sculpture:
The discovery of statues, figurines of men and
women in terracotta, stone and metal indicate that
people of the area were great artists and sculptors.
5888 Sculpture in Stone
5889 Sculpture in Metal
5890 Sculpture in Terracotta
5891 Pottery and Painting
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Art and Culture
23 The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation, along the Indus river the cities
of Harappa in the north and Mohenjo-Daro in the south showcase one of earliest
examples of civic planning.
5888 Their delineation of human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature ,
since the anatomical details included in them was unique.
23 The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged during the second half of the
third millennium BCE.
5888 Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta found
in Harappa sites are not abundant, but refined.
o The forms of art found from various sites of the
civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery, gold
jewellery, terracotta figures.
23 Indus Valley Sculpture : Seals
5888 Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals,
23 Usually made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and
terracotta,
5888 With beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger,
elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
23 The realistic rendering of these animals in various moods is

remarkable. o Some seals have also been found in gold and ivory.
o Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted.
o Engraved in a pictographic script on both sides which is yet to be deciphered (R to
L).
5888 Objective of the seals:

23 It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of
their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
5888 For jewellery as projections found on seals to hold have a hole for thread,
presumably so the seal can be worn or carried as a necklace.
23 May be tool of education as pie is found on some seals
5888 Mainly commercial also found in Mesopotamia, in Central Asia and on the
coast of the Arabian Peninsula.
23 Symbolic representation of deities.
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Art and Culture
5888 Mohenjo-Daro Seals:

23 The Pashupati Seal is a steatite seal that was discovered at
the Mohenjo-Daro archaeological site of the Indus Valley
Civilization. The seal depicts a seated figure that is possibly
tricephalic.
Bison Seal Unicorn Seal

5888 Pashupati Seal: female diety seated cross leged.
Totem Animal Nude Male Diety
23 Harappa Seals:
The Indus script (also known as the Harappa script) is a corpus of
symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilisation during the Kot Diji and
Mature Harappa periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE.
Faience button seal Unicorn seal Zebu Bull Seal (humped)

5888 Indus Valley Sculpture: Terracotta
23 Terracotta a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic,
where the fired body is porous.
5888 They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
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Art and Culture
23 Terracotta representations of human form are crude in the IndusValley.

o Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles,
o Birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta.
o Famous figures:
Bearded males with coiled
hair Toy Carts
Mother Goddess (Mohenjo-
Daro) Humped Bull
5888 Indus Valley Sculpture : Bronze Sculptures

23 Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny
hole made in the clay cover.
5888 Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the
wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed
to dry.
23 The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal
which took the original shape of the object. Once the metal
cooled, the clay cover was completely removed.
5888 Human as well as animal figures.
23 Human figures of copper and bronze from Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro.
5888 Metal casting appears to be a continuous tradition.
23 Dancing Girl- Found at Mohenjo-Daro: Although it is in a
standing position, it was named "Dancing Girl" with an
assumption of her profession.
5888 The copper dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
Bronze statuette of a girl.

(Mohan)
23 Stone Sculptures:
5888 Bearded man interpreted as a priest, is draped in a shawl coming under the right
arm and covering the left shoulder. The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed
as in meditative concentration.
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Art and Culture
23 Male torso in red sandstone: Head and arms were carved separately. Highlights
physical beauty figure of a male dancer also found at Harappa.
5888 Buddhist Sculpture:
23 Buddha as non human form: During its early stage Buddha
was never used to be represented in human form. Rather in
the form of symbols like Bodhi Tree, Dharm chakra, royal
umbrella, stupa, empty throne, elephant etc. (Hinayan
traditions).
5888 Buddha as human form: With arrival of foreigners in India
Buddhism got influenced and there was start of sculpingBudh as human being.
Greeks during Christian era influenced the most. (Mahayana)
23 Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati :Schools of Sculpture developed in

India:
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Art and Culture
5888 Gandhara school:
23 The Gandhara region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an
important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D. The region
became famous throughout the world since a new school of Indian sculpture
known as the Gandhara School developed during that period. Gandhara School
imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and
Kushan.
5888 In contrast with Mathura School, the Gandhara School images are known for
their anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening.
23 Buddha’s curls were altered into wavy hair. The head of the Buddha matched very
much with Greek God Apollo.
5888 Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist to be precise) is used in Gandhara
School of Art.
23 The legendary interpretation of Buddha is sometimes presented through Roman
motifs like triton.
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Art and Culture
5888 Mathura School:
23 The Mathura School of art flourished at the holy city
of Mathura especially between 1-3 A.D. It established
the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into
human form.
The material used in this school was the spotted red
sandstone.
The Mathura school images include those of Buddha,
Bodhisattvas, Vishnu, Shiva, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Jinas
assimilative character for religions
o The main traditional centre of production in this
school was Mathura, and other important centres were Sarnath and Kosambi.
This art reached its peak during the Gupta period in 6th or 7th century.
Amravati School:
This school of art developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River in modern
Andhra Pradesh. It is the site for the largest Buddhist stupa of South India. Its
construction began in 200 B.C. and was completed in 200 A.D.
The stupas at Amravati are predominantly made of a distinctive white marble. o

The sculptures of Amravati and Nagarjunakonda are fully inspired works and
display a mastery in which detailed ornamentation and elegance of figure
sculpture are joined in a rare harmony.
o The Buddha is mostly represented by symbols.
o There is emphasis on the narrative element with stories from the life of Buddha and
bodhisattva.(Jatakas)
o Numerous scenes of dance and music adorn these reliefs, which are very tender in
conception and bespeak an irrepressible joy of life.
Gupta Sculpture:
In the Gupta period all the trends and tendencies of the artistic pursuits of the
proceeding phases reached their culmination in a unified plastic tradition of
supreme importance in Indian History. Gupta sculpture thus is the logical outcome
of the early classical sculpture of Amravati and Mathura.
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Art and Culture
The sculptures mainly paid attention to themes like the Buddha, or Hindu gods like
Shiva and Vishnu.
In the Gupta images, the Buddhist ideal of serenity finds a noble expression in the
Buddha’s face, the smile suggesting the ultimate harmony achieved by the
enlightened one.
The sculptures made during this period had religious and spiritual themes attached to
them.
Pink sandstone was used to make sculptures in Mathura.
More attention was given to the poses and gesture of the figures.
The sculptures made during this period had religious and spiritual themes attached to
them.
Questionary:
What caused the collapse of the Harappa?

Explain in brief: What are stone statues made out of?
Describe the main features of Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati ?
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 3
Medieval and Modern School of Sculpture
Development of Medieval School:

The most remarkable achievement of the new artist of
this age was to contribute a dreamy, floating quality
to the figures of the flying gods and freer movement
than in the classical period.
o Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and
simplicity, the sculpture is now more and more
tending towards ornamentation, creating highly
ornate art objects, with strange and unusual
imaginary creatures, such as half human, half
monsters, etc.
Tendency towards increasing elegance and slenderness of form. There is a new beauty
in women. The woman is no longer the mother goddess but a divine
charmer.
Sculptors during this period frequently departed from the texts and rules laid down in
shilpshastra and they took liberties with the bodies of humans and even of gods
and goddesses.
Sun Temple Konark Laxman Temple Khajuraho
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Art and Culture
Medieval Sculpture in different regions:


Central India
 
West India

East India
South India
Central India:
The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D. Vrikshika, or a celestial damsel,
from Gyraspur, in Gwalior, standing in a gracefully flexed pose, against a tree.
Sculpture have been chiselled is not rough, hard and cold stone, but soft, living,
pulsating form.
The Chandellas, who ruled from 950 to 1100 A.D., constructed towering temples in
central India, like the Kandariya Mahadev temple at Khajuraho. These were
sculpted with human representations of endless variety. The sculptor here preferred
the slender taller figures with a considerable accentuation of linear details.
Gyraspur: Maladevi Temple Kandariya Mahadev temple at

Khajuraho

Sculptures of Khajuraho:
o Gods, goddesses, apsaras, men and women
standing or seeming to be in action, with their well
developed and voluptuous bodies, stand liberated
from their frames, to emerge in a living world of
their own.
o Many Hindu temples therefore feature mithun
(embracing couple) sculptures, considered
auspicious.
Laxman Temple, Vishwanath Temple, Kandariya
Mahadev etc…. Magnificient sculpture on exterior walls, entrance, walls between
Mandap and main shrines.
Sculptures are highly stylised with typical features: they are in almost full relief,
cut away from the surrounding stone, with sharp noses, prominent chins, long
slanting eyes and eyebrows.
Extensive erotic sculptures: The erotic expression is given equal importance in
human experience as spiritual pursuit and as a part of a larger cosmic whole.
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Art and Culture
Sculptures of Khajuraho(Hindu Temples)

Dance class -Laxman temple Khajuraho.
Yoginis at Chausanth Yogini Jain temple:
Esoteric devis or goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the
seventh century.
A woman writing a love letter:
Behind her right shoulder are the fingernails marks inflicted by her lover, while
embracing her. Recalling the pleasures of which she had experienced in union
with her lover and longing for another meeting with him she is prompted to write
a love letter. On either side of her stands an attendant.
Woman standing under a stylised mango tree:
Celestial beauty shown. Holding a mirror in her hand, she is applying her make-up
and getting ready to meet her lover. Two diminutive figures stand in attendance,
carrying the toilet requisites in a bag and a satche.
West India:
Modhera Sun Temple (Gujarat): The influence of the woodcarving tradition of
Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and sculpture work.
Sandstone is used and also a grey to black basalt can be seen. Dilwara (Mount
Abu) and Ranakpur JainTemples made of 1444 pillars (Rajasthan): soft white
marble is used, emphasis is more on sculpture than architecture.
West India: Maharashtra
The traditions of the marble sculpture of Gujarat in Western India are seen in the
profusion of intricately carved sculptures which decorate the Jain temples at Mount
Kailasa temple at Ellora (Rashtrakuta): Quarried out of a hill and solid rocks, it is
sculptured on a grand scale. it is considered one of the most remarkable cave
temples in India because of its size, architecture and sculptural treatment. Style of
tall and powerfully built figures, reflecting with spiritual and physical poise.
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Art and Culture
Ravana shaking mount Kailasa:
Ravananugraha or Ravananugraha-murti is a benevolent aspect of the Hindu god
Shiva, depicted seated on his abode Mount Kailas with his consort Parvati, while
the rakshasa-king Ravana of Lanka tries to shake it.
Parvati is shown greatly agitated, turning to Siva, grasping his hand in fear while
her maid takes to flight but the Great God is unmoved and holds on fast, pressing
down the mountain with his foot . The lower half of the composition exhibits
Ravana exerting all the force of his twenty arms against the mountain.
Marriage of Siva and Parvati:
Parvati or Uma s the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion; as well as of
divine strength and power.
Siva holding the hand of the bashful Parvati occupies the centre of the
composition. To the right Brahma, the creator, is actively engaged in stirring up the
flames of the sacred fire. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector,
the destroyer (of evil) and regenerator of the universe and all life. The parents of
Parvati stand behind her to offer their daughter to the great god. With Shiva,
Parvati is a central deity in the Shaiva sect. A number of gods assembled to witness
the function are shown hovering above the principal figures. The dignified grace of
the divine couple and the gentle solemnity of the occasion have been portrayed by
the sculptor with a masterly skill.
Marriage of Siva and Parvati Ravana shaking mount Kailasa.
The cave-shrine at Elephanta contains the famous Mahishamurti. The three heads
emanating from one and the same body represent three different aspects of Lord
Shiva.
A classic panel showing the king of the Naga and his queen, belonging to Ajanta, 5th
century A.D. shows them seated on a throne attended by a hand maiden.
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Art and Culture
King of the Naga and his queen Mahishamurti
East India: Assam

A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal which shows
the development of important regional schools.
o Sculpted door frame from Depravation near Tezpur and another few stray
sculptures from Rang agora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam.
Ahom Style: The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma
mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal. E.g. Kamakhya Temple
Kamakhya Temple Sculptures carved on the temple
East India: Orissa

Sun Temple, Konark: Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century
CE sun temple at Konark about 35 kilometres
(22 mi) northeast from Puri on the coastline of Odisha,
India. Walls covered with detailed ornamental carving.
These include twelve pairs of enormous wheels sculpted
with spokes and hubs, representing the chariot wheels of
the Sun god who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by eight horses, sculpted
here at the entrance staircase.
Dedicated to the Hindu god Surya, what remains of the temple complex has the
appearance of a 100-foot (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all
carved from stone.
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Art and Culture
The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.On the
southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved out of green stone.
Gang dynasty took sensuous delight in the lovely forms of women. Temples contain
representations of young and charming creatures with a seductive smile, luxurious
hair full of jewellery, they are, called Nayikas. E.g.Lingraja Temple Bhuvneshwar.
Temples of Puri also have such sculptures.
Nayika: Ling raja Temple Bhuvneshwar


East India: Bengal
Bangla Roof:
Bamboo huts found in terracotta brick temples
around Bengal is a mixture of Mughal and Pala
style. These can be widely found in and around
Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum.
Pala Style(Bihar and Bengal):
The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful
figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional
decoration. It is greatly encouraged centres of
learning like Nalanda and Vikramasila. The Pala
rulers had intimate relations with Java which are
evident in Hindu-Javanese sculpture, and painting
of Nepal, Kashmir, Burma and Thailand. Their
sculptures from Bihar are somewhat thick set and
heavier in their general proportions of limbs than
those from Bengal.
While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many
Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from Bengal
region are known to express the local Vanga style. o
An excellent specimen from Mahanad in West
Bengal is this lovely figure of the personified river
goddess Ganga.
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Art and Culture
She stands gracefully under a tree, Kalpataru, on a lotus, holding a water-vessel in her
hand, symbolising prosperity and plenty. The ends of her scarf draped around the
arms, trail on either side. She is adorned with profuse jewellery and wears a lower
garment reaching to the ankles.
South India: TamilNadu
Pillars with Horse rider, Meenakshi Sundareshvara Temple, Madurai
An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava
rulers of Kanchi and they are credited with having built the seven monolithic
pagodas, the rathas, in Mahabalipuram.
outstanding sculptures of Mamlapuram:
Girigovardhana panel: A relief on the rock face of Krishna lifting Govardhan
Hill in the Krishna Mandapa.
Mahishasuramardini in relief: Durga engaged in a fierce battle with the buffalo
headed demon aided by their respective armies.
Mahishasuramardini: Mamlapuram Girigovardhana panel

Arjuna 's penance or the Descent of the Ganga:
The celestial world, the temporal world as well as the animal world has been
shown with masterly skill.
Descent of the Ganges is a monument at Mamlapuram, on the Coromandel Coast of
the Bay of Bengal, in the Kancheepuram district of the state of Tamil
Nadu, India.
The story of the descent of the sacred river Ganges to earth from the heavens led by
Bhagirath. The relief was created to celebrate the victory of Narasimhavarma1
over Chalukiya king Pulikesy2.
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Art and Culture
The figure sculpture of the Pallava is natural in pose and modelling.

The Pallava style concerns itself with a tall and slender physiognomical form.
The front of the torso is almost flat, and the ornamentations simple in high relief. Yet
it is infused with a certain amount of vigour and fluid grace.
Varahamandapa :
The hall at the front has two-lion pillars and two pilasters
and beyond this, in the center, is the cell guarded by two
Dwarpalas. urya, Brahma, Rishis and the goddess Prithvi
are shown surrounding and adoring Varaha. The right foot
of Varaha rests on the hoods of the Naga king Sesha. The
delineation of lotus leaves and flowers and ripples
suggests water. Varaha raising the Earth from the ocean,
wherein she was submerged. The snout of the boar has
been modelled with great care and the head of the
animal has been handled with such dexterity that it blends in a natural way with the
human contour of the rest of the figure in the panel.
South India: Karnataka
The Hoysalas built temples at Halebid and Belur:
Belur and Halebidu are the best known temples of the Hoysala dynasty. The Belur and
Halebid temples give a glimpse of Hindu temple art at its glorious best of the 16th
century. The Hoysalas built temples at Halebid and Belur look like lace work in
stone. They are famous for their carvings and splendid architecture. The decoration
is elaborate, the emphasis being more on ornamentation than movement or the
grace of the human body. They followed Dravidian style, vesara style of
architecture. Hoysala sculptures are somewhat squat and short, highly embellished,
or almost over-loaded with ornamentation, but yet are pleasing to behold.
o The human body almost completely disappears under a fantastic mass of
decoration and ornamentation which become more important than the human
figure.
Mohini : Chennakeshava Temple, Belur
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Art and Culture
Halebid : Lord Krishna holding aloft the mountain Goverdhana to save the
inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra, who let loose torrential rains to teach
them a lesson for their insolence, in paying homage to Mount Goverdhana instead
of worshipping him.
South India: Vijayanagar
o Vijayanagar was the capital city of the
historic Vijayanagar Empire. The Vijayanagar
emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by
the sculptors to immortalise them in the vicinity of
their favourite deities. During this period
representations in narrative forms of the Ramayana
and Krishna Bal Lila became favourite themes.
Vijayanagar is in the eastern part of central Karnataka,
close to the Andhra Pradesh border. the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole which is
known for its distinctive sculptural style. Nataraja, surrounded by larger-than-life-
size depictions of the saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.
Hampi is an ancient human settlement, mentioned in Hindu texts and has pre-
Vijayanagara temples and monuments.
Hampi: Capital of Vijaynagar

Modern Indian Sculpture:
o The first known sculpture in the Indian
subcontinent is from the Indus Valley
civilization (3300–1700 BC), found in sites
at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in modern-
day Pakistan. Alienated from the great
Indian tradition and strongly hinged to the
modern, eclectic, international concept.
The basic characteristics and problems of
contemporary Indian Sculpture are very
similar to those of contemporary painting.
If anything, it is even more alienated from the great Indian tradition, though and
even more strongly hinged to the modern, eclectic, international concept.
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Art and Culture
It began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and

smugness, and was a legacy of the British. Story of contemporary Indian sculpture
is the story of a transition from academism to well-defined non-objectivism.
This mannerism was perpetrated in the government art schools and colleges
established around the century in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and elsewhere.
The inane achievement of this so called realist or naturalist school never even
attained the height of real academic excellence and has remained a far cry from the
iconographic, symbolical and religious ideals of Indian sculpture through the ages.
Contemporary Indian sculpture has not shown either the speed or variety.
Master pieces of modern Indian Sculpture:
'Triumph of Labour’:
The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour statue, is a statue at the Marina
Beach, Chennai, India. The statue shows four men toiling to move a rock, depicting
the hard work of the labouring class. It belongs to the expressionistic school. The
strong muscular bodies of the men hauling the work, their very animated postures
make this an extremely expressive work. Erected at the northern end of the beach
at the Anna Square opposite University of Madras, it is an important landmark of
Chennai.
"Triumph of labour' by D.P. Roy

Chowdhury, Delhi
‘The Santal Family’ and Young Girl by Ramkinkar Baij
Altogether in a different vein, but an equally expressive work is a bust of a buoyant

young woman by Ramkinker Baij. The radiant, youthful face and the ample bosom
typify vitality. Sculpturally speaking the texture is highly expressive and full of
energy.
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Art and Culture
Questionary:
What is Medieval Sculpture? Explain Medieval Sculpture in different

regions.
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 4
History and Culture through the Ages:
ANCIENT INDIA
ANCIENT INDIA:
India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithic
habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in
Baluchistan. Indian Culture has gone through many phases of change.
This is because every dynasty, every invader who comes and settles down in the
country leaves their marks on the culture of that country .
Our society, therefore, has a rich heritage of different kinds of people. Because of this
large variety of people, there has been an equally large variety of religions,
languages, and customs in our country.
Life of the people of Ancient India in various stages of ancient Indian history from the
Harappa times through Vedic, Mauryan and Gupta periods kept on changing.
Our knowledge of the life of people in those ancient days comes from the objects
which they left behind, for example their pottery or their weapons, tools and
manuscripts.
o The emphasis is on the changing nature of Indian society Manuscripts are ancient
books, written either on dried palm leaves or the thick bark of the birch tree, or on
paper.
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Art and Culture
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY: Indus Valley Civilisation o

However, the first notable civilization
flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north
western part of the Indian subcontinent,
covering a large area.
o It is the first known urban culture in India. The
Harappa built the earliest cities complete with
town planning, sanitation, drainage system and
broad well-laid roads.
o Most of the sites of this civilization developed on
the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.
o Agriculture was the main occupation of the
Harappa’s rural areas.
o Seals engraved with animal figures like the
humped bull, elephant and rhinocerous suggest
that these animals were considered sacred.
o ‘Peepal’ has been found depicted on many seals. Those living in the cities carried
on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such
as Mesopotamia.
o Harappa knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script.
o A large number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible
trade.
o By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know
the exact reasons why this happened.
o The figures of men and women on various seals found in the excavations reveal
that the people knew the art of spinning and weaving.
o They probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells.
o Harappa’s also had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying.
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY: Vedic Culture
Basically the culture and tradition of a country depends on its historical
background. A new culture flourished in the same region and gradually spread
across the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
Ancient Vedic culture still continues in some aspects in India because the Indians are
the successor of the Vedic inhabitants. The culture was divided in two distinct
groups; Dravidians and Aryans. This culture came to be known as the Aryan
culture.
Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (non existent). o
Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and
honour. Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to
education and were often free to choose their partners through swayamvara.
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Art and Culture
Scholars divide the Vedic period into the earlier

and later Vedic period. Scholars divide the
Vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic
period.
o Their compositions were compiled in four
Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda
and Atharva Veda. The word Veda means the
sacred spiritual knowledge.
o Chaturashrama or the division of life span into four distinct stages i.e.
brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and disciplined life in guru’s ashram),
grihastha (a period of family life), vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment and
sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life).
Vedic Culture: Society
Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas –
Brahmans
Kshatriyas
Vaishyas
Shudras
The family was the smallest social unit; o
Social Structure : kula–grama-vis-jana
o The Purohita performed religious functions while the
senani looked after military activities. He was assisted
by the members of two councils: Sabha and
samiti. Although the post of Rajan had become
hereditary, he could be removed from power if found
weak and inefficient or cruel. To begin with it denoted
categories of people doing different kinds of functions but with the passage of time
this division became hereditary and rigid.
Vedic Culture: Religion
The historical Vedic religion was the religion of the Indo-Aryans in ancient Indian
during the Vedic period. The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and
personified them as gods and goddesses.
The prominent Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra, Agni and Varuna lost their
prominence and popularity. Their place was taken by a new trinity of Gods where
Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while Vishnu became the preserver
and Shiva completed the trinity.
o The religion became extremely ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras, which were the
monopoly of Brahmins This made the Brahmins very powerful and the Yajnas
expensive.
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Art and Culture
People prayed individually and collectively for th welfare of the Jana. Participation in
them was restricted to the upper three classes. The kings performed
Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya scarifies to establish their position.
By the end of the latter Vedic age changes started occurring in the society. For the first
time people started discussing certain beliefs such as creation of the universe, life
after death and essence of life. These were questions which were dealt with in great
detail in the Upanishads.
Material life and economy:
The Aryans were primarily pastoral and agricultural
people. Iron tools resulted in varied crafts and
technology. Use of iron weapons and horses enabled
them to fight wars and defend themselves
better against enemies.
o They domesticated animals like cows, horses,
sheeps, goats and dogs.
They ate simple food consisting of cereals, pulses,
fruits, vegetables, milk and various milk products.
Cows were the measure of wealth. Bali or voluntary
donation was prevalent.
o Games of chess, chariot racing etc. were their modes
of entertainment.
In the early period there was no money transaction
or taxes. As the time passed, extensive use of iron brought great changes in their
material life. Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of
agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains.
Increasing number of crafts, availability of surplus food and growth of population led
to specialisation of skills and urbanisation.
Coins came into circulation. By sixth century BC sixteen large territorial states in
North India and upper Deccan known as Mahajanapadas. Important among them
were Anga, Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, and Panchala.
o High quality earthenware called ‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished
Ware’ has been found in many areas.
POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS:
The Brahmins had developed a vested interest demanding large charities at the end of
the scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices became very costly. Moreover, the
Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant.
This led to the unpopularity of Brahmanism and a need for reforms was felt.
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Art and Culture
Rise of two very important religions, Jainism and Buddhism which left a lasting
influence on Indian life and culture.
The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by the poorer masses who could not
afford the high cost of sacrifices, resulted in the emergence of Jainism and
Buddhism around sixth century BC.
The Jains lay great emphasis on severe penance and asceticism. Lord Mahavira
asked them to take five vows - not to tell lies; not to injure life; not to own
property; not to steal; and to maintain chastity (celibacy). The other movement was
led by Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC), a younger contemporary of Mahavira.
Hinduism gave rise to several religious sects within itself with varying beliefs and
practices. Like Buddhism, some sects of Hinduism also spread outside India,
particularly in the countries of South East Asia. Later Hindu tradition even
accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.
He taught the Four Noble Truths. His path was the middle path. He believed that there
is sorrow in this world and that desire is the cause of that sorrow and it can be
conquered by following the Eight Fold Path (ashtangika marga).
THE PERSIAN INVASION:
The Achaemenid rulers of Persia or Iran took
advantage of the political disunity of this region.
Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and
his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab
and Sindh.
In the first half of sixth century BC, there were a
number of small tribal states in North West India.
There was no sovereign power to unite these warring tribes. It was believed to be
the most fertile and populous part of the Achaemenid empire. Indian subjects were
also enrolled in the Achaemenid army.
The Mauryan art and architecture were also greatly influenced by the Persian art.
Many of Asoka’s inscriptions found in north western India are Witten in
kharoshthi. This script continued to be used in north western India till about third
century AD. The Persian influence may also be traced in the preamble of Asokan
edicts.
The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced that the Persian title
of satrapa (governor) continued to be used by the Indian provincial governors as
kshtrapa for quite a long time. Darius entered India through Mountain passes for the
first time. Alexander’s army traversed the same route, when he invaded Punjab.
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Art and Culture
Cultural Influence:
A new style of writing kharoshthi. This was written from right to left (Asoka’s
inscriptions).
The preamble of Asokan edicts.
Bell-shaped Capitals of Pillar Chandragupta Maurya’s court ceremonial hair bath
taken by the emperor on his birthday.
It is mentioned in the Arthashastra that whenever the king consults the physician or
the ascetic, he should sit in a room where the sacred fire was kept. This indicates
the influence of Zoroastrianism
THE GREEK INVASION:
During the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for supremacy over
West Asia. The Achaemenid empire was destroyed by the Greeks under the
leadership of Alexander of Macedon. On the eve of Alexander’s invasion, north
western India was divided into a number of small principalities.
o He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then marched towards India.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus. Most of the conquered states were
restored to their rulers, who had submitted to his authority.
He divided his territorial possessions covering parts of eastern Europe and a large area
in western Asia into three parts and placed them under three Greek governors.
However, Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when they heard about the vast
army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha. Alexander had to return.
GREEK Influence:
The Greek writers have left many valuable
geographical accounts of this region for us.
Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the
first time, in close contact with India, as
routes, by sea and by land, was opened
between India and the West. A close
commercial relation was also established.
Alexander’s adventure also helped the West
to know something about the Indian life and thinking. Alexander asked his friend
Nearchus to explore the sea coast from the mouth of the Indus to the Euphrates in
search of harbours
Alexander’s invasion paved the way for political unification of north western India by
conquering the warring tribes of this region. Date of Alexander’s invasion – 326
BC provides a definite ‘marker’ for arranging the sequence of historical events in
India
Soon after Alexander’s departure, Chandragupta defeated one of his generals,
Seleucus Nikator and brought the hole of north western India upto Afghanistan
under his control.
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Art and Culture
Indians also learnt the art of making well-shaped and

beautifully designed gold and silver coins from the
Greeks.
The combination of the Greek and the Indian style formed
the Gandhara School of art. Many valuable
information about the social and economic condition
of northern and north western India of that time are
known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian,
admiral Nearchus, and Megasthenes.
The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well. They tell us about the
developed condition of many crafts, trade with the outside world, and prosperous
condition of the country.
Much has also been said in these accounts of carpentary as a flourishing trade in India.
It seems the fleet which Alexander sent along the western coast of India under
Nearchus was built in India.
ASOKA THE GREAT:
o Asoka stands out as a monarch who combined
successful kingship with idealism and philosophy.
Ashoka proved to be a tolerant monarch who, although
himself a Buddhist, never sought to impose his
personal religion on his subjects.
In his thirteenth major Rock Edict, Asoka states that true
conquest is by piety and virtue. Ashoka was a true
humanist. His policies were oriented towards the
welfare of his people. His dhamma was based on social
responsibility.
Dhamma Vijaya that is conquest through dhamma he adopted . In his thirteenth major
Rock Edict, Asoka states that true conquest is by piety and virtue. Dhamma also asked
people to live in religious harmony. It combined in itself the good points
of all sects.
Like other rulers, Ashoka too began his reign with war - the conquest of Kalinga.
However, the mindless destruction of life and property in this war shattered him so
greatly that he vowed never to wage any war again.
Such a decision taken by a king, who lived in an era where military might was the
measure of power, earned him a unique place in history.
Ashoka was a true humanist. His policies were oriented towards the welfare of his
people. His dhamma was based on social responsibility.
As a king, Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself. He saw himself as a father and the
subjects as his children.
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Art and Culture
Ashoka attempted to educate his subjects by

pointing out the wastefulness of expensive
rituals. He asked people to practice
ahimsa. He himself gave up the practices
of the royal hunt and pleasure tours and
instead began Dhamma Yattas
tours for the furtherance ofDhamma. He
communicated his thoughts and
philosophy to his people by inscribing them on stone pillars and rock surfaces.
Asoka unified the entire country under one empire and renounced the use of war as
state policy. He made gifts and grants to non Buddhist as well as anti-Buddhist.He
sent ambassadors to the Greek kingdoms and the West. Indian culture spread to far-
away lands. According to a Buddhist tradition,Asoka sent Buddhist missions to
regions such as Sri Lanka and Central Asia.
By giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically one
script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification.
India has been a secular country since the Buddhist age. Asoka unified the entire
country under one empire and renounced the use of war as state policy.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS o The

Mauryan contribution to art and
architecture was significant. Mauryan
figures well known of is the Yakshi from
Didarganj. Exactness in the workmanship
and monolithic. These figures are
polished with a unique surface gloss (now
called Mauryan polish).despite all these
centuries this gloss has not lost its shine.
o Ashoka Is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various events of
Buddha’s life.
o According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra’s grandeur matched that of the cities of
Persia.Ashokan edicts were inscribed on stone pillars that were made of single
columns of polished sandstone and had capitals on their top..
o Mauryan architecture had the rock cut caves. E.g. The LomashRishi (with its
impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves at Gaya. Prakrit became the lingua
franca of the country and the Brahmi script is the earliest known Indian script.
o Prakrit became the lingua franca of the country and the Brahmi script is the
earliest known Indian script.
o These caves cut from solid rock were provided by Ashoka for non-Buddhist
monks.These caves marked the beginning of the rock cut architecture which
waspatronised by later rulers too. His rock edicts were inscribed in the local
language and the local script.
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Art and Culture
POST MAURYAN CULTURE:
From about 200 BC to about 3rd century A.D. profound
changes took place in the economic and political life
and vital developments in different
aspects of cultural life of our country i.e. religion,
art and science as well as technology.
Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism. In the
Besnagar Pillar incription, Heliodorus (the Greek
ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as a Bhagavata
i.e. worshipper of Vishnu. There was a significant advancement in foreign trade
both by land and by sea, besides emergence of various crafts.
Although the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners, they were
slowly absorbed into the local population. Since they were warriors, the law givers
assigned them the status of Kshatriyas. Large scale assimilation of foreigners into
the Indian society took place in the post-Mauryan time.
Similarly some coins of Kanishka also show the figure of Siva on them. one of the
Kushan rulers was called Vasudeva, clearly indicating his vaishnava faith.
Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78 A.D. marks the beginning of the Saka era.
Some foreign rulers also turned to Buddhism, as this did not create the problems of
fitting into the caste system. Menander converted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is
remembered for his services to this religion.
The former believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of
Buddha) while the latter continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism.
Around the same time Buddhism split into two schools: the Mahayana or the Great
Wheel and the Hinayana or the Small Wheel.
POST MAURYAN ART AND SCULPTURE:
The most significant development was the growth of the
Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed features
from both the Greek and Roman art forms.
Central Asian invasions led to further development of Indian
art and sculpture. Close contacts with the western world
introduced many new forms in Indian art.
Mathura, which was the centre of the indigenous school of art,
was also influenced by the invasions. A number of images
from here of terracotta and red sandstone, which
havedefinite Saka-Kushan influence, have survived.
The most famous is the headless statue of Kanishka from Mathura. While the earlier
Buddhists had used only symbols to depict the Buddha, the Mathura school became
the first to make faces and figures of the Buddha.This assimilation of artistic
features was probably because many artisans from different countries trained in
different schools came together under the Kushan rule.
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Art and Culture
Folklores such as the Jatakas were drawn out in long panels on rock faces. Besides
theimages of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira
were also produced.
POST MAURYAN EMPIRES: Deccen
The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important
position under the Mauryas. After thedeath of
Ashoka, they assumed total independence. They
became very powerful andmade their capital at
Paithan or Pratisthan on the river Godavari.
They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made
roads and administered their State well. New towns
came up and trade was carried on with far off
countries like Persia, Iraq and Combodia.
After their decline, many small kingdoms came up
in the Deccan. The first one among them was that of
the Vakatakas, who tried to build a strong state, but
they did not last long
The Satavahanas soon entered into conflict with the
foreign satraps, especially the Shakas. It was under
Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni
that the Satavahanas became very powerful.
After the Vakatakas came the Chalukyas of Vatapi
and Kalyani. Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The
Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards the north) and the Pallavas
(towards the south).
The Chalukya rule came to an end in 753 A.D. when the Rashtrakutas defeated
them.The capital city of Vatapi was a prosperous one. There were trade relations
with Arabia,Iran and the Red Sea port to the west, as well as with South-East Asia.
The They build temples and cave shrines in the deccan hills. Many of the sculptures of
the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and
the Rashtrakutas.
POST MAURYAN EMPIRES: South India
The area which lies to the south of the river Krishna

and Tungabhadra is called South India.
This period from the beginning of the Iast century B.C.
to the end of 2nd century A.D. is called the
Sangam period of the history of South India.
It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas
who were constantly at war with each other.
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Art and Culture
o Karikala was the most important ruler of Chola kingdom. He defeated the
combined forces of the Cheras and the Pandays. He succeeded in pushing back an
invasion from Ceylon.He got may canals dug so that water from the river Cauvery
could be used for irrigation purposes.
Most of the people lived in valleys and a majority of them were farmers. Others were
herdsmenThere were merchants specially in the coastal areas and trade was
carried on by sea.
The people during this period lived a simple life. They were fond of music, dancing
and poetry. Many musical instruments like drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.

POST MAURYAN EMPIRES: East India
The Age of Harshvardhana:
King Harshvardhana decided that he must subdue the petty warring rulers and bring
them under his domain. Harsha built many hospitals and rest houses.He also gave
grants to many religions especially Buddhism and Hindu Religion. Later in
his life Harsha became more inclined towards Buddhism.
Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller and Bana Bhat, his court poet, have given
detailed accounts of Harsha’s reign.
According to Hiuen Tang, King Harshvardhana had an efficient government.
Families were not registered and there was no forced labour. He devoted six
important years of his life to do so.
Harsha’s literary activities had some important plays e.g. Nagananda Ratnavali and
Priyadarsita. He collected learned men around him. Bana wrote Harsha’s famous
biography, Harshcharita as well as the literary piece Kadambari.
Kharavela of Kalinga:
Kalinga included modern Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra. Its most important
ruler was Kharavela.
The Hathigumpha Inscription in a Jain cave at Udaigiri hills would give us a detailed
account of his
He was a graet administrator as well as a brave warrior. He carried out works of piety
and public utility, like building roads and gardens.
Another kingdom which rose to a position of importance after the Mauryas was
Kalinga.
Gupt Period:The artistic achievement of the age is
exhibited in the delicate workmanship and the variety
of designs shown in different kinds of Gupta coins.
Portrait of the king on one side of the coin or an
appropriate.
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Art and Culture
Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression in

monuments and sculptures. They decorated even
the niches and corners of religious places with
statues of gods and goddessesStone, terracotta, and
other materials were used to construct. E,g,
dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the cave
temples in Udaigiri hills.
The school of art that thrived at Sarnath provides us with some of the most pleasing
andgraceful images of the Buddha. Besides stone, Gupta artists were also skilled in
bronze. Numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
Cultural activities increased manifold.During the Gupta period art became more
creative and Hindu gods and goddesses also came to be portrayed.
The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near
Gwalior) bear evidence of this.
NALANDA A GREAT CENTRE OF LEARNING:
Nalanda became a great centre of learning during

Harsha’s reign. According to Hiuen Tsang,
Nalanda housed as many as 10,000 students. It
was supported by the revenues of 200 villages.
Although this huge monastic-educational
establishment was primarily a centre for learning.
Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from
the writings of pilgrim monks from Asia such as Xuanzang and Yijing who
travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century.
Although this huge monastic-educational establishment was primarily a centre for
learning of Mahayana Buddhism, yet the curriculum included secular subjects as
well. Active discussions and debates were taking place.
Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here. Students were
encouraged to develop a spirit of enquiry and reasoning. Active discussions and
debates were taking place.
Harsha is said to have invited a thousand learned monks of Nalanda to take part in the
philosophical assembly at Kanauj.
Questionary:
Where were the most of the sites of Harappa civilization found?

What change did the later Vedic period practice in their religious
ceremonies?
What is Dhamma vijaya according to King Asoka?
Describe the uniqueness of Mathura school of art?
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 5

MEDIEVAL INDIA
MEDIEVAL INDIA:
o Medieval India refers to a long period of the history of the Indian subcontinent
between the "ancient period" and "modern period". Definitions of the period itself
vary widely, and partly for this reason, many historians now prefer to avoid the
term completely.
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the
medieval times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite
culture of India. New religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with
Bhakti movement contributed to this process.
Monuments like Taj Mahal stand as the symbols of the composite nature of Indo-
Islamic culture in India.
Every region in India is famous for giving shape to some folk art or the other.
Development of folk arts through which the common people display their
creativity.
o The various regional languages that we speak today
too have an interesting history which evolved
during this period. There was a mutual exchange in
ideas and customs. In dress, speech, manners and
intellectual outlook, the two influenced each other
very profoundly.
When the Muslim invaders came to India they decided to make it their home. They
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Art and Culture
intermarried and took to the culture of the Indians.
Objective:
Describe the political situation of India in medieval

times;
Examine the influence of Islam on Indian religion;
Examine the development of folk arts, painting and
music during the medieval period;
Trace the rise of modern Indian languages;
Understand society during medieval times;
Trace the rise of Islam and Sufism;
Discuss the rise of Sikhism and the Sikh power in India;
Trace the developments in South India.
Understand society during medieval times;
Society under Medieval Times:
The Indian society was divided into four major groups : the aristrocats, the priests, the
towns people and the peasants.
Aristocrats:
The aristocrats included the Sultan and his relatives,
nobility and the landholders. They lived in great style
and luxury.
o There were also the Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu
merchants and bankers
They concentrated all the wealth as well as the power in
their hands. Needless to say that they were a group of
very powerful people.
o Whenever a new sultan came to the throne, the
Khutba or sermon was read out in his name in the Friday prayers at the mosques
and coins were issued in his name.
This established the new ruler on the throne. To maintain his distincion as the ruler, he
was provided with many officers and servants at the royal household where he
lived in great luxury.
The Priests:
The Priests were another important class of people in
the society.
They were given grants of tax-free land for their
maintenance and were often very powerful.
The Ulemas wielded great influence on the Muslim
Sultans and often influcenced their policies.
Sometimes the priests were not interested in religious
affairs but were more interested in worldly affair s.
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Art and Culture
The Town People:

In the town lived the wealthy merchants, traders and artisans. In fact, the weavers
lived in the weaver’s colony; the goldsmith lived in a colony inhabited by
goldsmiths and so on.
The nobility, the officers and the soldiers also stayed in the towns that were the
administrative and military centres. The artisans lived in their own special quarters.
These people supplied luxury goods were also sent abroad for trade.
The royal karkhanas or workshops employed these workers for producing beautiful
goods which were often used as gifts to be given away by the Sultans.
The Peasants:
The peasants, of course, lived in the villages and were often the worst off. The caste
system was very rigid and intercaste marriages and intercaste dining was totally
prohibited. But exchange of ideas did take place on a large scale.
Those who converted themselves to Islam did not forget their old customs. Thus,
exchange of ideas and customs took place.
Many Hindu customs were adopted by the Muslims while many Muslim customs were
adopted by the Hindus, like those concerning food, dress, clothing and music,
besides many others.
Trade:
Trade involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another,
often in exchange for money. A system or network that allows trade is called a
market. There was rice from the East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the Doab
and fine silks from the South.
Some communities like the Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special
vocation. The banjaras traded in caravans and were continuously on the move
carrying goods from one place to another.
An early form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange of goods and services for other
goods and services.
Even the system of weights that were used at that time continued to be in use until the
recent adoption of the metric system.
Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing goods, Delhi at that time
was a magnificent city.
Religious Condition:
Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. India
is a secular state with no state religion.
The coming of Islam did not bring in many changes in the political structure of the
country. On the other hand, it challenged the social pattern of society.
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Art and Culture
There were superstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices. Brahmans had become very
powerful and the caste system was very rigid. The people, especially the lower
classes, were ill-treated.
The people, especially the lower classes, were ill-treated. Islam was the opposite of
what was in practise among the Hindus. It talked of equality, brotherhood and
oneness of God.
When Islam came to India, Hinduism was in vogue. Brahmans had become very
powerful and the caste system was very rigid. But by this time Hinduism had
degenerated itself.
Rise of Islam and Sufism:
o Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly
important part of Islam" and "one of the most
widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim
life" in Islamic civilization from the early medieval
period onwards, when it began to permeate nearly
all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions
stretching from India and Iraq to the Balkans and
Senegal.
o The Muslims first came to India in the eighth
century AD mainly as traders. They were fascinated
by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make India their
home. They disseminated cultural knowledge to the Islamic world and from there
to Europe.
The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them
traces of Indian science and culture. As a result they became cultural ambassadors
of India by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to
Europe. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to
Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel.
It has been translated into several languages. Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are
preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees.
The rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements contributed immensely in this
regard. Both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements believed that all humans are
equal, God is supreme and devotion to God is the only way to achieve salvation.
Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one God. Its arrival
particularly made a profound impact on the traditional pattern of Indian society.
After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs.
Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia. He migrated
to Madina from Mecca in AD 622a and this marked the beginning of the Hijira
Era.
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Art and Culture
The five fundamental principles of Islam are:

Tauhid (belief in Allah)
Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
Zakat (giving of alms)
Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca) Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are
Rise of Sufism:
o Sufism is popular in such African countries
as Morocco and Senegal, where it is seen
as a mystical expression of Islam.
Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan
(now in Pakistan) developed as important
centres of Sufism.
Sufism is a common term used for Islamic
mysticism. The Sufis were very liberal in
their religious outlook.
They preached spirituality through music and doctrines that professed union with God.
Sufism originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the
Turkish rule.
According to Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain-i-Akbari, there were as many as
fourteen silsilahs in India during the sixteenth century.
The Sufis were organised into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahs were named
after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. and Naqshbandis.
In order to attain a state of mystical ecstasy, the Sufis listened to poetry and music
(sama) which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or
Hindustani.
Music attracts everybody, irrespective of language. Slowly such music attracted the
Hindus who started visiting the dargahs in large number.
The Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas and yogic
postures.
The sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the
establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs . Khanqah the institutions (abode of
Sufis) set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam deeper into the countryside.
Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the
centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT:
Art and architecture:
The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their
time building beautiful forts and gardens.
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Art and Culture
The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are
important elements of our cultural heritage.
It was in the field of art and architecture that the
rulers of this period took a keen interest. A new
style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic
style was born out of the fusion.
The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on
marble became very popular in the days of Shah
Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work
are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj
Mahal at Agra.
Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore
and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an important part of our heritage.
During this period mosque, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate the
landscape.
Coinage:
Another aspect of art, which is of great importance to
us, is connected with Numismatics (the study of
coins) which is a major source of information for
any period in history. The coins of Muslim kings
are valuable in history.
Some of the legends found on the coins are quite
interesting. The warrior in the cause of God’ and
‘he who obeys the Sultan obeys the
Compassionate’, are a few examples.
Place of minting we can find out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his
status.
BHAKTI DEVELOPMENT
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in
Medieval Hinduism and later revolutionised
in Sikhism. The Sufis were not the only popular
religious teacher of the time. There were also the
Bhakti saints. They were popular among the
artisans, craftsmen and traders in the towns.
The people in the villages also flocked to listen to them.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and
practices in common.
Their essential belief was in the need to unite with God.
They laid stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship with God. To
achieve all this Guru or a Pir was needed.
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Art and Culture
The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. They
disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings.
The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share,
partake, participate, to belong to".
The Bhakti saints did their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it
comprehensible even to simple minds and it’s belonged to various backgrounds but
mainly from the lower castes.
BHAKTI DEVELOPMENT: SAINTS

List of Bhakti Saints
Ramanuja
Sant Dnyaneshwar
Sant Namdev
Ramananda
Kabir
Guru Nanak
Vallabhacharya
Chaitanya Maha Prabhu
Mira Bai
Dadu
Sant Eknath
Sant Tukaram
Samarth Guru Ramdas
All the Bhakti saints emphasised oneness of God. They said that the path to God lay in
devotion and Bhakti to Him and not in any rituals. They condemned rituals
and sacrifies.
In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti. o
The nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God e.g. Kabir and Nanak
o The saguna bhaktas were devotees of Rama or Krishna e.g. Tulsidas
Important feature of bhakti movement:
Unity of God or one God though known by different names.
Concept of oneness of God and brotherhood of all human
beings. It did not discriminate against anyone on the
basis of caste or gender
Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation.
Repetition of the True Name.
A true devotee does not want heaven or moksha. He only wants to chant the Lord’s name
and be born again and again to sing His praise.
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Self-Surrender.
Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.
A system of pahul, Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or
shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee on his march to godliness.
DEVELOPMENT OF FOLK ARTS:
The rural masses got opportunities to display
their creative skills in many fields.
o The advent of rains became occasions for
dancing and merry-making. The gods were
invoked and special pujas offered in the temples.
o Folk Art encompasses art produced from
an indigenous culture or by peasants or other
labouring trade’s people. Several occasions associated with agricultural operations,
for example the tilling of soil, sowing of saplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the
weeds and many other social functions provided opportunities for singing and
dancing.
Folk Art is characterized by a naive style, in which traditional rules of proportion and
perspective are not employed. The advent of rains became occasions for dancing
and merry-making. The gods were invoked and special pujas offered in
the temples. It was also an occasion for enjoying the swings.
It is important to note that almost every region developed its own peculiar dance
form with a local flavour. Thus Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance,
Lavani and innumerable other dance forms, came into existence.
In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts and ghagras.
Formal education was not considered very important for women but this did not
prevent them from showing their talent in various other fields. They displayed their
creativity in needlework.
In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris. In and around Lucknow, came up the
chikan work on shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees. In and around
Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees.
The tamasha and the lavani forms of dance drama were developed in Maharashtra; the
Pandavanis in central India and Merasis in northern India applied such art
forms with slight modifications.
So also the puppeteer, the bard and the mime moved from place to place, entertaining
people in various ways.
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Art and Culture
PAINTINGS:
o Another area which was influenced by Islamic
culture was painting. Humayun had spent more than
twelve years in Persia as a refugee.
The period also witnessed the flowering of portrait and
miniature paintings. Humayun brought painters with
him to India when he became the ruler of Delhi
once again in 1555.He nurtured the tradition of
painting manuscript.
Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued to give
patronage to these artists and as a result, the Mughal
School of painting continued to flourish. However,
what is amazing is that some of these painters tried to paint the classical ragas,
thereby giving form and colour to such abstract conceptions as music.
The Mughal School of painting reached its zenith under Jahangir who was a
famous painter. His court was adorned with famous painters like Ustad and Abul
Hasan.
Signing on the miniatures as a tradition also started. Artists were now employed on
monthly salaries. They illustrated such important works as the Changeznama,
Zafarnama and the Ramayana.
The Mughal court painters introduced landscapes together with human figures and
costumes. When they came in touch with the traditional Indian styles, they became
more natural.
MUSIC:
o During the Mughal rule, it developed further. It is interesting to note that
Aurangzeb was against music, but the largest number of books on classical Indian
music in Persian was written during his time and also the Turko-Afghan rule in
India, a synthesis of Indo Iranian music had started. During the Mughal rule, it
developed further.
o The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, patronised several
musicians. Tansen, who adorned the court of Akbar, not only sang the classical
ragas but also composed new ones. It is said that Shah Jahan himself was quite a
good singer. These musicians entertained the emperors at different times of the day
and in different seasons with appropriate ragas.
In the North, a distinct school known as the Hindustani school of music came into
being and its speciality lay in producing sweet and rapturous melodies to suit
different moods of life.
Similarly, in the south, the Carnatic School of music developed. However, ordinary
people retained the flair for folk music and folk songs to commemorate their local
chiefs like
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Indo-Mughal Culture:
They also encouraged the court practice of sijda (low prostration before the kings)
and concentrated religious and political power more firmly in their hands.
The Mughal rulers discarded the Afghan titles of Sultan and styled themselves as
Badshah (emperor) and Din-e-Panah (protector of faith). Further, to evoke
reverence among the subject for the emperor, they started the practice of jharokha
darshan or making public appearances through specially built windows.
RISE OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES:
Urdu perhaps originated around Delhi. It developed as a camp language in the army of
Allauddin Khilji when they were stationed in the Deccan around
fourteenth century AD. Another important development during this period was the
emergence of several modern Indian languages
As time passed, it came to be used by the elite as well. In fact, the states of Bijapur
and the Golconda in the Deccan became the cradles of Urdu literature. The
language soon developed its own grammar and became a distinct language.
Besides poetry, beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written in Urdu
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Along with Urdu, nearly all other
modern Indian languages like Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,Khari Boli, Punjabi,
Gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi, Kashmiri as well as the four South Indianlanguages -
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam – came to acquire their present form and
developed during this period.
The famous poet Amir Khusrau, who composed poetry in this language, also played
some part in making it popular.
In the first half of the nineteenth century Urdu journalism played a very important role
during the struggle for independence.
NEW FAITHS:
During this period, two new religious faiths flourished in India. They were Sikhism
and Zoroastrianism. To bring the established reforms within religion various
reform movements also started in India, Sikhism The Sikhs, who mostly belong
Sikhism:
Sometimes, the gurudom was conferred on the
son and sometimes on the best disciple The
fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs
three things. The first was in the shape of the
Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of
five gurus and other allied saints. The second
was the standardised script for Gurmukhi in
which the Adi Granth was first written.
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Art and Culture
The Sikhs, who mostly belong to Punjab, form a sizable group of our population. The
orthodox Sikhs believe that their religion was revealed by God to Guru Nanak,
whose spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru.
Guru Gobind Singh, ordained the Sikhs to treat the Adi Granth, popularly known as
the Guru Granth Sahib, as their Guru. But the students of history and religion think
that the seeds for the birth and growth of this religion were present in the
Bhakti movement, in its nirguna branch.
The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in
1699. He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long
hair and a beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and
kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the knees).
Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing marks of a Sikh. He further
added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and they
have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism and they believed that through
music one can attain ecstacy or samadhi.
Zoroastrianism the Ages:
The Zorastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant
religion till the eighth century AD when Muslims conquered this region. The Parsi
or Zoroastrian religion was founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth
century BC. He preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia.
They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on spread to
almost all parts of India. They have contributed a lot to Indian culture.
o It was Dadabhai Naoroji, the famous nationalist
leader and a Parsi, who exposed the hollowness of
the British claim of civilizing India and not
exploiting it. The Parsees also established a large
number of public charities.
o Jamshedji Tata, a pioneering Indian industrialist
established an iron and steel industry in India in the
face of the toughest competition posed by the British
steel mills and yet continued to prosper.
He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of
Ahura Mazda and Ahura Man. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness and
charity. These doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
Zorastrianism is not a proselytising religion and no new entrants are accepted into its
fold under any circumstances.
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SOUTH INDIA:
In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was
popular. In Karnataka, Kannada, in Andhra, Telegu
and in Kerala, Malyalam flourished, all
having different scripts. The Bahamani and
Vijayanagara kingdoms were pitted against each
other over the rich Raichur Doab.
They also developed democratic institutions at the
village level. Even Buddhism and Jainism
flourished in this region. Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings of the
highest order flourished under their patronage.
The Cholas developed a strong army, besides a powerful navy. Between the ninth and
eleventh centuries AD, a dynasty known as the Cholas was ruling the
The fourteenth century saw the rise of a new state called Vijayanagara now called
Karnataka. To the north of this state across the Tungabhadra River rose a new
Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known as Andhra Pradesh. However,
between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries, Vijayanagara achieved great
heights.
It is just possible that originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old
language. But by the middle ages, the four languages had come to have distinct
identities.
During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning. The Vijayanagara
kings also became great patrons of art and leaming.
Questionary:
Who brought Hindu followers to Islam by their attitude of piety,

tolerance concept of equality and sympathy?
Explain Bhakti movement and its main streams.
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Chapter: 6
MODERN INDIA
Morden India:
Historians consider India's modern age to have
begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The
appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as
Governor General of the East India Company
set the stage for changes essential to a modern
state.
Those who came to India from outside such as the
Turks, the Afghans and the Mughal made
India their home. But the British colonial rulers
always remained foreigners to this land.
Nonetheless they brought profound social, economic and political changes to suit their
interests and in the process left deep imprints on many aspects of Indian
culture.
Modern literature in Indian languages were all deeply influenced by the spread of
English education and through it India’s intimate contact with the ideas and
institutions of the West.
During the last two periods you must have found the society, economy, polity and
culture very different from each other. Apart from these architectural remains(E.g.
Rashtrapti Bhavan), the colonial state also left behind a uniform system of
government, a system of education based on Western ideas, science and
philosophies.
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After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,[104] a new
period began. The social and religious reform movements begun in the nineteenth
century helped to build a modern India as well. Modern literature in Indian
languages were all deeply influenced by the spread of English education and
through it India’s intimate contact with the ideas and institutions of the West.
Objective:
Trace the events that were taking place in the West
during the eighteenth century and their impact on
India;
Examine the social conditions of the Hindus and
Muslims during this period;
Describe the closing years of eighteenth century India;
List the contributions of social and religious reformers
like Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
British Contribution to Indian Social Change.
Appreciate the role of press and newspapers in generating nationalism among the people;
and Appreciate India’s struggle for independence.
West during the eighteenth century:
o A history of human community is a book by
University Chicago historian William H. McNeill,
first published in 1963 and enlarged with a
retrospective preface in 1991. From 1450 onwards,
three important developments had changed the shape
of Europe:
The invention of printing press,
The beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the
Reformation movements and
The discovery of new trade routes.
Scientific education began to spread. Logic and reason thus became the touchstone on
which the old dogmas and learning were tested. Europe made great progress in the
fields of science, exploration and gunnery. Soon, their armies and navies became
the best in the world. Scientific education began to spread.
The British domination of India was built upon successive phases. Among these
European countries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch, the French and finally, the
British entered into a race to control the trade from India.
Though Tipu Sultan of Mysore tried to use the same principle as used by the British
that is making use of the rivalry between the French and the British he could not
match the superior diplomacy and fire power of the British.
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Where a large number of states had cropped up after the decline of the Mughal
Empire. The British took advantage of this situation and had one ruler fight against
the other or supported a usurper to the throne. To further their interest the British
used the prevailing social and political situation in India.
India under British Rule:
The history of the British Raj refers to the period
of British rule on the Indian subcontinent
between 1858 and 1947. The British domination
of India was built upon successive phases.
The system of governance was instituted in 1858

when the rule of the East India Company was
transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen
Victoria.
In the latter half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the
British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial
revolution,In the second phase, the British took control of the production activities
in a manner that suit their export objectives. In the process they successfully
destroyed the Indian industries. This was because India was a potential buyer of
their goods.
The third phase was an intensified phase of British Imperialism and colonial
exploitation when India was ruled by the British for fulfilling British economic
interests.
The British came to India for making profits through trade. Slowly they gained
political and economic control of the country. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757
A.D., they had become the real masters of Bengal.
British Rule’s Impact:
o Indian in the eighteenth century was a picture of many contrasts and contradictions.
With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe, the Indian industries were
hit very hard. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the
foreign market. Indian goods could not compete with the British factory made
products, where machines were used.
On the other hand, the English merchants had accumulated a lot of wealth which they
now invested in setting up industries and trade. During this time there was a class
of manufacturers in England who benefitted more from manufacturing than
trading.
The East India Company helped in financing and expanding their industrial base.
British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade
monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed.
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Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in abolishing the

East India Company’s monopoly of Indian
trade. With this India became an economic
colony of industrial England. These goods either
had a free entry or paid very low tariff rates to
enter India.
o The Indian industries suffered as a result of
exploitation at the hands of the British, who did
not at all care about Indian trade interests. As a
result, Indian hand made goods faced extinction as British machine made goods
were cheaper.
India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw
materials by the year 1813 A.D. They introduced steam ships and Railways.
They did not protect Indian trade nor did they introduce any advanced technology in
the country during this period. Indian handicrafts suffered when foreign goods
were given free entry. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily
when they entered Britain.
The railways connected the raw material producing areas with the exporting ports. As
a result British goods flooded the Indian market.
INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND
CULTURE:
o Economically agriculture was the main
occupation of the people. Foreign trade was
flourishing under the Mughal.
Since the rulers were constantly at war, they did not
have the time to improve agricultural conditions
of the land. India imported pearls, raw silk, wool,
dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf region;
Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from
Arabia; tea, porcelain and silk came into India from China; luxury goods were also
brought in from Tibet, Singapore, Indonesian Islands, Africa and Europe.
Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things.
India’s cotton textiles were famous all over the world.
By the eighteenth century European countries like France, England, Portugal and
Spain were interested in trading with India. Within the country, there were revolts
and from outside, foreign invasions, like that of Nadir shah (1739 A.D.) and
Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761), were common.
European countries were interested in trading with India. They helped in creating
more political and economic instability in the country and ultimately they
destroyed its economy. But, by this time, India’s fame had spread all over the
world as a land of beautiful handicrafts.
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o India, had by now neglected her mathematics and sciences. They remained
ignorant of the advances made in the field of science by the West.
Teachers were respected in society during those times. Education was steeped in
tradition. The students were taught reading and writing along with arithmetic. Girls
seldom went to school. Education was not patronised by the State, but by local
rulers, members of the aristocracy and benevolent contributors.
Hindu-Muslim Relations:
Religious tolerance was practised. The wars were political and fought for selfish
reasons rather than for religion. Friendly relations existed between the people of
the two religions.
Many Hindus had faith in Muslim saints while many Muslims showed an equal
respect for Hindu gods and saints.
Besides, the Muslims had adopted the Indian style and culture so well that it was
difficult to distinguish one from the other.
In fact, the upper class Hindus and Muslims had many more things in common with
each other than with the lower classes of their own community.
Social Conditions:
o The birth of a girl child was considered to be
unfortunate. Girls were married off in their
childhood. As child marriages were common in such
occasions sometimes even the infant girls became
widows and were condemned to perpetual
widowhood.
By the turn of the century, the condition of women had
little to be happy about. Inter-caste marriages were
not allowed. Even the prevailing social system did
not permit a person from a lower caste to eat with
a person of a higher caste.
The condition of Muslim women was much the same.
They faced immense hardship due to the practice of
purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to
property.
o Perpetual widowhood was the injunction of the
society, especially amongst the upper castes. These
widows could not wear coloured clothes, or attend
marriages since their presence was considered
inauspicious. They faced immense hardship due to
the practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to property.
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Social and Religious Reforms:
The urgent need for social and religious reform that began to manifest itself from the
early decades of the 19th century arose in response to the contact with Western
culture and education. Christian priests came to India along with the employees of
the East India Company to perform their religious rituals. But these priests soon
started preaching Christianity to the non-Christian employees of the Company
as well. Slowly they started opening schools that were attended by the Indian
children.
They were no longer willing to accept the traditions, beliefs and practices of Hindu
society simply because they had been observed for centuries. Along with Christian
propaganda, English education was introduced which had a great impact on the
society and economy of India. Though the purpose of introducing English
education was to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it opened the
windows for Indians to the West.
They imbibed new ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and
freedom. Soon English language also became the lingua franca of the educated
Indians.
REFORMERS:
Raja Rammohan Roy:
The central figure of this cultural awakening was Raja
Rammohan Roy. In 1814, Rammohan Roy settled in
Calcutta and dedicated his life to the cause of social and
religious reform.
o He mastered several languages including Greek and
Latin. Significant role in reforming the Hindu society
and the reawakening of India is important.
o Raja Ram Mohan Roy cited extensively from the
religious texts to show that this was not true As a large number of social practices
prevalent amongst the Hindus at that time claimed to have religious sanctions. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy cited extensively from the religious texts to show that this was
not true. E.g. Sati
He founded the Brahmo Samaj, which carried his message of rationalism and the
principle of social equality, one supreme god (monotheism) and opposed idol
worship, polytheism and ritualism.
Prarthana Samaj and Ranade:
The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by
Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1867. According to
Ranade, rigidity in religion would not permit
success in social, economic and political spheres.
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They tried to introduce social reforms like inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage,
widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes.
Ramakrishna Paramhansa:
o Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami
Vivekananda to regenerate Indian society. Ramakrishna
was given to spiritual ecstacies from a young age, and
was influenced by several religious traditions, including
devotion toward the goddess Kali Tantra, Vaishnava
bhakti, and Advaita Vedanta.
He emphasised oneness of all religions. He promoted the
vedanta philosophy, which he considered to be the most
rational system of thought
o Vivekananda gave final shape to the teachings of
Ramakrishna Paramhansa. He advocated liberty, free thinking and equality.
Theosophical Society and Annie Besant:
o The Theosophical Society founded by Madame H.P.
Blavatsky (1837-91) and Colonel H.S. Olcott along with
others.
Annie Besant promoted studies of ancient Indian religions,
philosophies and doctrine.
She also established the Central Hindu School to
encourage education.
Narayana Guru:
Narayana Guru was a social reformer of India. On his journey
in quest of true knowledge. He came in contact with
Chattambi Swamigal. They became great associates. He led
a reform movement in Kerala, rejected casteism, and
promoted new values of spiritual freedom and social
equality.
He lived a life of an ascetic and did much to improve the
spiritual as well as the social life of the people of Kerala.
Both Swamigal and Narayana realised that the all round progress of Kerala
depended on the goodwill and co-operation among the Nayar and the Ezhava
communities, in which they were born respectively. They decided to work to bring
the two communities together.
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Muslim Reform Movement:
The Aligarh Movement helped in the Muslim revival. It gave them a common
langauge Urdu. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the most prominent social reformer
among the Muslims. He realised that Muslims could only make progress if they
took to modern education.
o The Muslim Reform Movement is an organization dedicated to reform in Islam
based on values of peace, human rights, and secular governance. SyedAhmad Khan
was against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationalism. He denounced
purdah, polygamy and easy divorce. Syed Ahmad Khan started the Aligarh
movement. He established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. It
was meant to be a centre for spreadng Sciences and Culture. It later grew into
Aligarh Muslim University.
A Muslim press was also developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.
Unfortunately, in his later years he encouraged the forces of communalism and
separatism at this stage.
Social Reform:
A reform movement is a kind of social
movement that aims to make gradual change, or
change in certain aspects of society, rather than
rapid or fundamental changes. A reform
movement is distinguished from more radical
social movements such as revolutionary
movements.
There were two main objectives of the social reform movements.
These were: (a) emancipation of women and giving them equality with men, (b)
removal of caste rigidities, especially the abolition of untouchability and the
upliftment of the depressed classes.
Champions of the backward classes were B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi.
Ambedkar opened many schools and colleges for their benefit. Mahatma Gandhi,
on the other hand, championed the cause of untouchables whom he called Harijans.
He asked for temples to be thrown open to them.
Immense work has been done in this field by the Ramakrishna Mission and the Arya
Samaj. The Arya Samaj especially has contributed a lot towards it by their
Shuddhi Movement, that is, a form of purification by which those Hindus who had
converted to Islam or Christianity could come back to their own religion.
As well as for equal treatment to them Even the Constitution of Free India has
given the legal and constitutional support to this movement.
Untouchability was declared a punishable offence. But we still have a long way to go to
achieve our cherished goal of a society based on complete equality and equity
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Press and the growth of modern indian languages and literature: o In

1798, lithography was invented. It used the
specially prepared surface of a stone for printing a
script, a picture, or drawing. A large number of
copies of the same text could be printed in this way.
Since the new printing presses were not costly, their
number grew at a fast pace.
o It was the biggest boon which the West had
conferred on India. As a result, by the end of the
nineteenth century, the press had become a powerful tool for influencing public
opinion. From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and books were
printed, which catered to the needs of the growing literate population of India.
o This, in turn, encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in
different Indian languages. Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers
were published almost in every language. Although the total number of readers of
newspapers was small as compared to their number in the European countries, a
whole new set of national literature in the form ofnovels, essays and poems played
a significant role in generating nationalism.
o Bankim Chandra’s Anandamatha, Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu
Harish Chandra’s Bharat Durdasha, Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese,
Subramaniam Bharti’s writing in Tamil and Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu stirred
the minds of the Indians.
o The newspapers played a significant role in the dissemination of anti-British
feelings by discussing, criticizing and commenting on government policies and on
major social and economic issues.
o This helped in promoting a pan-Indian consciousness and in giving important
political education to the people of India.E.g The Hindoo Patriot (English), The
Amrita Bazar Patrika (English).
Contribution Of British to India:
Rule of Law:
The multiplicity of governmental functions gave rise to
an organised bureaucracy which eclipsed the self-
governing village Panchayat. The new concept of
India introduced by the British authorities was
‘Equality before Law’. This idea was definitely in
variance with the Hindu thought The insistence of
British courts on dealing equally with a Brahmin
and an outcaste was at first resented by the Indians
and accepted in the long run.
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The political instability of India was put an end to by the

establishment of an orderly and centralized
government by the British. It demolished the
traditional personal rule and later brought about the
development of ‘Rule of Law’. A Brahmin, a Muslim,
a Christian and a member of any sect – all became
equal before the law. A hierarchy of judicial officers
was created to impart justice to one and all.
Constitutional Development:
Even the Indians could criticize the activities of the
British government. The Government Acts of 1919
and 1935 were pointers in these directions.In the
sphere of constitution, the idea of human equality,
human rights and liberty were the gifts of British
influence. It leased a nation coughed, chocked and
groaned under the British hegemony which got
soothing balm in the form of liberty in speech,
action, and religion and so on and so forth.
Reorganization of Indian Civil Service:

The Indian Civil Service was carefully built up during the British rule into a powerful
and efficient bureaucratic force. In the last decade of Eighteenth Century,
Cornwallis set himself to purity and reorganized the administration and filled all
the key posts with men from Britain. Thus, the British authorities undertook the
process of converting India into a modem state. The present Indian administrative
system is a legacy of the British rule.
With the gradual march of time, other more specialized services were established and
the Public Works Department, Indian Police Service, Indian Forest Service, Indian
Medical Service followed each other in succession .
Social Sphere:
In the social sphere British impact proved to be
beneficial. Thus, many social evils had come to
their logical end long before India became
independent. Thus, catholicity was introduced to
Indian society by the British authorities.
o The prohibition of Sati, abolition of child-
marriage, introduction of widow remarriage,
checking of infanticide, polygamy, untouchabihty
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etc. eradicated age old social evils from the Indian society.
o Further, the undermining of caste and sex distinctions were certain other
commendable measures of the British which encouraged the Indians to incorporate
all these ideas while framing their constitution.
Modern Transport and Communication System:
Rapid industrialization brought modem system of transport and communication.
During Lord Dalhousie’s period, the first railway line was built and the train ran
between Bombay and Thane in 1853. Then the Calcutta-Raniganj railway line was
built and later on the Madras-Arcot railway. Similarly, right from the time of Lord
William Bentinck, the highway building activities were carried on.
Lord Dalhousie also galvanized the activity of Postal Department by introducing
Penny Postage System in India.
In 1839, the Grand Trunk Road was built, that connected Delhi and Calcutta Later on
it was connected with Lahore and Peshawar.
Further, he was instrumental in bringing the telegraph system in India All these
modem systems of transport and communication, all in a sudden, took India to a
modem world. The impact of this modernisation was largely felt on every walk of
Indian life. This acted as a boomerang for the British authorities in India
Education:
The lasting impact of the West on Indian culture was the introduction of English
system of education in this country. In the Eighteenth century, India was
intellectually stagnant. She was untouched by the new scientific development of
the west.
The ‘Downward Filtration Theory’ of Macaulay, ‘Woods Despatch’ in 1854 and
‘Hunter Commission’ in 1882 expanded the intellectual horizons of Indians. It
eradicated the spell of mythical geography, legendary history and pseudo science
from the Indian mind and acquainted them with new scientific knowledge of the
west. This was really a lasting impact of the west of Indian culture.
The historic decision taken by Lord Macaulay in 1835 was a turning point in India
history which opened the flood-gates of European thought and literature for Indian
intellectuals. This broke the intellectual isolation of the Indian mind and brought it
into contact with Western science, literature, philosophy, history and so on.
Nationalism:
The Western impact on Indians was responsible for arousing nationalism in them. By
going through the high ideals of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” of the
French Revolution of 1789, Proletarian Revolution of Russia in 1917, and
American War of Independence of 1776… the Indians were surcharged with the
spirit of nationalism.
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That nationalism, on the other hand, gave birth to Indian National Congress which
carried on protracted struggle against the British Raj till it was evacuated from
Indian soil. The fairy call of Bal Gangadhar Tilak – ‘Freedom is my birth right and
I shall have it’ inspired millions of Indians to carry on their freedom struggle
against the British Raj.
Art and Architecture:
The Western impact had spread into every sphere of Indian life. The same was also
extended to the sphere of art and architecture. No doubt, Indian artists retained
their traditional value but they could not remain uninfluenced from the British
mode of architectural designs.
The British people built many forts, buildings, cathedrals, factories and bungalows.
Fort William, St. George, Bombay government office, Lahore railway station,
Victoria Memorial in Calcutta were but a few examples of European architectural
style. Later on, the Indian artists made a novel blend of Hindu, Mughal and
Victorian style which were reflected in their architectural designs.
Questionary:
Describe the impact of Renaissance and Reformation Movement in

Europe on India?
Examine the role of Arya Samaj in the reform movement.
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Chapter: 7
Languages and Literature:
Indian Languages and mythology
Indian Languages and mythology:

 
Language families in India
Official Languages
 
scheduled languages

Classical languages

Indian Mythology
Main Vedic Gods
 
Hindu Gods and Concepts

Different ages in Mythology
Curse in Mythology

Creation of World
Language Families in India
The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages is the dominant language family of the Indian
subcontinent. The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of
speakers, is the Indo-Aryan language family, a branch of the Indo-Iranian family,
itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the Indo-European language family.
The most widely spoken languages of this group are Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati,
Punjabi, Kashmiri, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Assamese, Maithili and Odia. . Aside from
the Indo-Aryan languages, other Indo-European languages are also spoken in India,
the most prominent of which is English, as a lingua franca.
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Dravidian language family:
o The second largest language family is
the Dravidian language family. The Dravidian
family has defied all of the attempts to show a
connection with other languages including
Indo-European, Hurrian, Basque, Sumerian,
Korean and Japanese.
o Dravidian languages are spoken mainly
in southern India and parts of
eastern and central India as well as in parts of north eastern Sri Lanka,
Dravidian languages display typological similarities with the Uralic language group,
suggesting to some a prolonged period of contact in the past. The Dravidian
languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam.
Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small
scheduled tribe communities.
Austroasiatic language family:
The Austroasiatic languages, formerly known as Mon–Khmer, are a large language
family of Mainland Southeast Asia also scattered throughout India, Bangladesh,
Nepal and the southern border of China, with around 117 million speakers.
Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austroasiatic and numerous small
Sino-Tibetan languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively,
together 5% of the population.
Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh, Nepal
and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. The
languages of the Nicobar islands also form part of this language family. With the
exceptions of Khasi and Santhali, all Austroasiatic languages on
Indian Territory are endangered.
o Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the Khasi and Munda, including
Santhali. The Austroasiatic language family is the autochthonous language in South
Asia and Southeast Asia, other language families having arrived by migration.
Sino-Tibetan language family:
The Sino-Tibetan languages, in a few sources also known as Trans-Himalayan, are
a family of more than 400 languages spoken in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South
Asia. The Sino-Tibetan language family are well represented in India. However,
their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a
patch of leaves on the forest floor" rather than with the conventional metaphor of a
"family tree".
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o Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of Ladakh,
Himachalpradesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, and also in the
Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, (hills and autonomous councils)
Tai-Kadai language family:
The Kra–Dai language is a language family of tonal languages found in southern
China, Northeast India and Southeast Asia. Ahom language belonging to South-
western Tai language had been once the dominant language of Ahom Kingdom in
modern-day Assam but had been replaced later by Assamese language (known as
Kamrupi in ancient era which is the pre-form of the kamrupia dialect of today).
o Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh together with Sino-Tibetans, e.g. Tai Phake, Tai Aiton and Tai
Khamti language, which are similar to Shan language of Shan state of Myanmar,
Dai language in Yunnan of china, Lao language of Laos, Thai language of Thailand
and Zhuang language in Guangxi of China.
Great Andamanese language family:
The Great Andamanese languages are a near-extinct language family once spoken
by the Great Andamanese peoples of the Andaman Islands (India), in the Indian
Ocean. The extinct and endangered languages of the Andaman Islands form a fifth
family- the Great Andamanese language family, comprising two families, namely
The Great Andamanese, comprising a number of extinct languages apart from one highly
endangered language with a dwindling number of speakers.
The Ongan family of the southern Andaman Islands, comprising two extant languages,
Onge and Jarawa, and one extinct tongue, Jangil.
o In addition, Sentinelese, an unattested language of the Andaman Islands, is
generally considered to be related and part of the language family.
Official Languages:
o The Constitution of India designates the official language
of the Government of India as Hindi written in the
Devanagari script, as well as English. Constitution of
India designates the official language of the Government
of India as Hindi written in the Devanagari script, as well
as English.
States within India have the liberty and powers to specify
their own official language through legislation and
therefore there are 22 officially recognized languages in
India of which Hindi is the most used.
The number of native Hindi speakers is about 25% of the total Indian population;
however, including dialects of Hindi termed as Hindi languages, the total is around
44% of Indians, mostly accounted from the states falling under the Hindi belt.
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There is no national language as declared by the Constitution of India.[3] Hindi is used

for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications
between the Central Government and a State Government.
Official Language: Issue
In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the
proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India, specifically what should be the
language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken
during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national".
This was not agreed to by the drafting Committee on the grounds that English was
much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects.
The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the
members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively.
Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be
drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English.
Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states "The Official Language of the
Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script Unless Parliament decided
otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the
constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.
Official Languages Act, 1963 provided that English "may" still be used with
Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965. The Act was amended in 1967 to
provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect
was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its
official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament
Classical Language:
o In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain
requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language in India".
Languages thus far declared to be Classical: Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, and
Malayalam Odia.
Over the next few years, several other languages were granted the Classical status, and
similar demands have been made for other languages, including Marathi.
Criteria that determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for
classification as a "Classical Language“:
High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500–2000 years;
A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations
of speakers;
The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a
discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
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Benefits:
Two major international awards for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages
are awarded annually.
A Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages is set up.
The University Grants Commission will be requested to create, to start with at least in
the Central Universities, a certain number of Professional Chairs for Classical
Languages for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages
Scheduled Language:
Until the Twenty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1967, the country
recognised 14 official regional languages. Schedule 8 of Indian Constitution
defines 22 languages called as Scheduled Language. Of the 22 official languages,
are Indo-Aryan, four are Dravidian, two are Tibeto-Burman, and one is Munda. o
The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically
significant languages spoken in that state.
o Telangana, with a sizeable Urdu-speaking Muslim population, has two languages,
Telugu and Urdu, as its official languages. Certain states having a linguistically
defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its
official language, examples being Karnataka and Gujarat, which have Kannada and
Gujarati as their sole official language respectively.
o Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages.
Jammu and Kashmir uses Urdu, which is spoken by fewer than 1% of the
population.
o Meghalaya uses English spoken by 0.01% of the population.This phenomenon has
turned majority languages into "minority languages" in a functional sense.
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Indian Mythology:
It is our endeavour to bring forth the different
elements of Indian mythology by a myriad of
articles and stories which not only make
educational reading but also make a good
source of recreational reading. Indian
Mythology is one of the richest elements of
Indian Culture, which enriches it further and
makes it a unique one in the world.
o Through generations, different stories in
Indian mythology have been passed from generation to generation either by word
of mouth or through carefully stored scriptures. The stories form the backbone of
Indian mythology.
The stories in Indian mythology vary from subtle maxim conveying tales of
Panchatantra and Jataka-tales to subtle life paradigm defining stories from the
Bhagavad-Gita, Ramayana and Mahabharata. They are usually meant to convey
subtle facts, rules and maxims to guide our daily lives. The interesting aspect of the
stories in Indian Mythology is that they are usually meant to convey subtle facts,
rules and maxims to guide our daily lives.
A key point to note is that there are usually multiple stories explaining the same
fact or occasion or festival. So each version is right in its own merit.
In Indian Mythology, particularly Hindu stories, almost all stories related to gods and
demons are based on certain basic premises and are usually filled with some
common concepts and ideas which some of which shall be explained below.
The Vedic religion was materialistic, devoted to obtaining power, prosperity,
health, and other blessings by means of ritual and sacrifice.
By the time of Buddha around 500 B.C., the old Vedic religion had been transformed
by Brahmin priests into a fantastical hodgepodge, with the priests claiming godlike
powers for themselves. Buddha gained so many followers that the Brahmins were
forced to incorporate his ideas into their teachings. The result was Hinduism, a
modified polytheism with three major gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva.
Main Vedic Gods:
The Vedic religion was materialistic, devoted to obtaining power, prosperity,
health, and other blessings by means of ritual and sacrifice.
Mitra and Varuna maintain the cosmic order. Mitra, the sun, presides over contracts
and friendship, while Varuna, the moon, supervises oaths. Like Indra,
these gods reflect the values of the warrior caste.
Soma is both a narcotic plant and a god who gives inspiration, liberates men, and
represents the principle of life.
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Ushas is the beautiful, charming goddess of the dawn, a source of delight to all
living creatures.
Indra is the main god of the Vedas, a hard-drinking, swaggering warrior who rides
his solar chariot across the sky and wields the thunderbolt. As a storm god he
brings the rain to fertilize India's parched soil.
Brihaspati is the god of incantation and ritual, the personification of priestly magic.
Savitar is the god of motion, and whatever moves or acts is dependent on this deity
with golden eyes, hands, and tongues.
Puchan brings all things into relationship, blessing marriage, providing food,
guiding travelers, and ushering the dead.
Kali is Siva's wife, a bloodthirsty fertility goddess decorated with emblems of
death.
Prajapati is the master of created beings, the father of gods and demons, and the
protector of those who procreate.
The Devas and Asuras are gods and demons, respectively, and battle each other
with magical powers.
The Rakshas are evil semi-divine creatures that practice black magic and afflict men
with misfortune.
Hindu Gods and Concepts:
Brahma refers to the spiritual reality underlying all phenomena, and is sometimes
personified as a god. Brahma emerged from the golden egg created by the waters
of chaos and established every universe.
Karma refers to the debt of sin incurred in the past and in this present life, a debt that
must be paid before the soul is to reach perfection.
Maya is the veil of illusion, the sensuous appearances that delude human beings
into materialism.
The Transmigration of Souls refers to the propensity of souls to incarnate themselves
in various material forms, from the mineral to the superhuman. Since soul matter is
indestructible, each soul lives innumerable lives.
Siva is an extremely important Hindu god, the dancing deity of creation and
destruction. He has four arms and has a third eye on his forehead with which he
destroys. His worship is marked by asceticism.
Vishnu is the supreme Hindu god. He rests on the cosmic waters between creations,
or universes; and in each creation he takes on some avatar or material
form such as a fish, a wild boar, a turtle, a lion, a dwarf, a man. His worship is
marked by affectionate piety and devotion.
Parvati is Siva's wife, a goddess symbolic of his power and ruthless in her battles
against demons under her various names and aspects.
Ganesa is the popular god of prosperity, a son of Siva and Parvati with four arms and
an elephant's head.
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Different ages in Mythology:

The Hindu mythology clearly states that all living beings pass through a continuous
cycle of creation and destruction. This cycle reiterates itself in four different
epochs or Yugas.
Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four-age cycle. A complete Yuga
starts with the Satya Yuga, via Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga into a Kali Yuga
Satya Yuga: The Satya Yuga, also called Satyug or Kṛta Yuga in Hinduism, is the first
of the four Yugas, the "Yuga of Truth", when humanity is governed by gods, and
every manifestation or work is close to the purest ideal and humanity will allow
intrinsic goodness to rule supreme. Humans were gigantic, powerfully built,
honest, youthful, vigorous, erudite and virtuous. The Vedas were one. All mankind
could attain to supreme blessedness. There was no agriculture or mining as the
earth yielded those riches on its own. Weather was pleasant and everyone was
happy. There were no religious sects. There was no disease, decrepitude or fear of
anything.
Treta Yuga: Treta Yuga is the second out of the

four yugas, or ages of mankind, in the religion
of Hinduism. Treta means 'a collection of three
arousing things' in Sanskrit. Is considered to be
the second Yuga in order, however Treta means
the "Third". In this age, virtue diminishes
slightly. At the beginning of the age, many
emperors rise to dominance and conquer the
world. Wars become frequent and weather
begins to change to extremities. Oceans and
desserts are formed. People become slightly
diminished compared to their predecessors.
Agriculture, labour and mining become existent.
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Dvapara Yuga: The Dvapara Yuga, also

spelled as Dvapara Yuga, is the third out of four
Yugas, or ages, described in the scriptures of
Hinduism. The Dvapara Yuga follows
the Treta Yuga and precedes the Kali
Yuga.Dvapara means "two pair" or "after two".
In this age, people become tainted with Tamasic
qualities and aren't as strong as their ancestors.
Diseases become rampant. Humans are
discontent and fight each other. Vedas are
divided into four parts. People still possess characteristics of youth in old age.
Average lifespan of humans is around a few centuries.
Kali Yuga: Kali Yuga is the last of the four stages

the world goes through as part of a 'cycle of
yugas’ described in the Sanskrit scriptures. It is
the age of darkness and ignorance. People
become sinners and lack virtue. They become
slaves to their passions and are barely as
powerful as their earliest ancestors in the Satya
Yuga. Society falls into disuse and people
become liars and hypocrites. Knowledge is lost
and scriptures are diminished. Humans eat
forbidden and dirty food. The environment is polluted, water and food become
scarce. Wealth is heavily diminished. Families become non-existent. By the end of
Kali Yuga the average lifespan of humans will be as low as 70 years.
The curses in Mythology:
The Hindu religion is the oldest religion whose
origin can be traced back to the prehistoric time
around 5000-10000 BC. The Hindu gods rarely
cursed for they wielded power mighty enough to
inflict whatever suffering they wished upon
others. But still, there were many instances.
Mahabharata is the longest epic ever written and
gives an in-depth insight on the rise of
Hinduism between 400 BCE and 200 CE. In the
epic of Mahabharata, the Pandavas were hit my
immense sorrow on realizing Karna was their half-brother all along. They had only
just killed him in the battle. An enraged Yudhisthara could not believe their mother
Kunti would keep such personal information from them. So, he cursed that no
woman there on, shall be able to keep any secrets from others.
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Then, there is the curse on Pandu that if he ever approaches a woman with feelings of
desire, he shall die on the spot. Probably, the most notable of them is when
Gandhari cursed Lord Krishna in the aftermath of Mahabharata.
After having defeated the Kauravas he went to console a distraught mother. On seeing
Krishna, Gandhari cursed that no one in Krishna’s bloodline shall live to see future
generations. And just like the Kauravas bloodline was terminated, all of
Krishna’s family killed each other in due time. Krishna died an untimely death
with no one left to continue his bloodline.
Theory of creation:
Hinduism follows a polytheistic tradition. The Hindu
mythology provides several accounts on how
exactly the creation of the universe took
place.
Perhaps the most popular of approach states that the
highest of deities were oblivious to their own
presence before the existence of time itself.
Before the creation, there was no time, no heaven
or earth or the space in between. There
was the dark ocean that washed into the shores of nothingness.
In another depiction, it all started with the enunciation of a sacred sound Oom the
ancient Hindu scriptures state that the ultimate reality (Brahman) has three main
functions.
These three characteristics are inhibited by the trinity of gods – Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva. That is why we can see images where the heads of the trinity are merged
together into a single body – the Trimurti. In the Trimurti, Brahma is the creator of
everything. Vishnu is the preserver of nature. Shiva is ultimate destroyer who
brings about change whenever it becomes necessary.
Theory of creation:
Shesha Naga:
In Hinduism, Shesha also known as Sheshanaga or Adishesha, is the nagaraja or king
of all nagas and one of the primal beings of
creation. Shesha Naga is a cosmic serpent who is
believed to support all the planets of the universe
on its thousand heads. Lord Vishnu, protector of
the universe, is often pictured lying down on
Shesha’s body. It is said that every time the
divine serpent uncoils, the creation of life takes
place but when he finally coils back, the world will cease to exist.
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Shesha, which means ‘the one who remains’, is the only one who will continue to
abide when everything else in the universe is annihilated. This is why Shesha is
also known as Ananta, which translates to infinite.
Madhavi:
Madhavi is a female character in Indian mythology who only bears male children, all
of whom go on to become warriors. She also has the power to restore her virginity
after every birth.
As gurudakshina, Galava has to find 800 white horses with black ears for his guru,
Vishwamitra.
This brings him to King Yayati, who hands over his daughter, Madhavi, to Galava
instead. The latter then gives Madhavi to three different kings, who in turn furnish
him with 200 horses each. Finally, he offers these 600 horses to guru Vishwamitra
along with Madhavi.
Goddess Durga (Mahishasuramardini):
o Mahishasura is a buffalo demon
in Hindu mythology, known for deception and
who pursued his evil ways by shape shifting into
different forms. He was ultimately killed
by Durga in her Mahishasuramardini form.
At the same time, Indian mythology also has fierce
warrior goddesses, like Durga, who is the
destroyer of evil. But Durga is also known to be
kind and nurturing like a mother figure when she
needs to be.
In the eastern states of India, like West Bengal, the Hindu festival of Dussehra is
centred around a legend surrounding Durga. The celebrations commemorate the
homecoming of the goddess after defeating the buffalo demon Mahishasura, who
was blessed with a gift that no male could ever kill him.
Questionary:
What is the most amazing fact in Hindu mythology?

What is the meaning of Krita Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, Treta Yuga and
Kali Yuga?
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Chapter: 8
Languages and Literature: Ancient

Indian Literature, The Purana,
Classical Sanskrit Literature,Literature
in Pali and Prakrit
Language and Literature:

Ancient Indian Literature: Vedas, Upnishada, Ramayana and Mahabharata
The Purana,
Classical Sanskrit Literature,
Literature in Pali and Prakrit
Ancient Indian Literature:
Indian literature refers to the literature produced on

the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and in the
Republic of India thereafter. The Republic of India
has 22 officially recognized languages. Indian
literature includes everything which is included in
the word ‘literature’ in its broadest, sense:
religious and mundane, epic and lyric, dramatic
and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose,
as well as oral poetry and song.
The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted. In the Vedas (3000 BC-
1000 BC), when one finds such expressions, “I am standing in water but I am very
thirsty”, one marvels at the continuity of a rich heritage which is both modern and
traditional.
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It is, therefore, not very correct to say that ancient Indian literature includes only the
religious classics of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Jain narrative literature in
the Prakrit language is full of realism.
Vedas:
The Vedas are the earliest known literature in
India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and
were handed down orally from one generation to
the other.
The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. In
Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal
and divine revelations.
To be able to keep such a literary wealth as the
Vedas intact when the art of writing was not
there and there was a paucity of writing material is unprecedented in world history.
There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva
Veda.
They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam. o
Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
o The Vedas are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They are
mythical in nature and their language is symbolic.
o Being mythical, they have multiple meanings, and, therefore, the theologian
moulds his rites, the preacher seeks his belief, the philosopher finds the clues for
his intellectual speculation and the law-makers work out the social and political
life-style in accordance with the archetypal truths of the Vedas.
o The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known a Traji. In
later years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.
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Rig Veda:
The Rig-Veda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns along with
associated commentaries on liturgy, ritual and mystical exegesis. It is one of the
four canonical sacred texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Rig Veda is the
earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit. Many of
these are beautiful descriptions of nature. The prayers are largely for seeking
worldly prosperity
The prayers are largely for seeking worldly prosperity. It is believed that these
recitations are the natural outpouring of Vedic rishis experiencing a mentally
transcendental stage.
Some of the well-known rishis are Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva,
Vishwamitra and Atri. Most of the hymns spoke of universally recognised higher
values of life such as truthfulness, honesty, dedication, sacrifice, politeness and
culture.
The prayers are for the development of a highly cultured society. Along with religion
Rig Veda provides us knowledge about social, political and economic condition of
ancient India.Purusa sukta of the Rig-Veda (10.90) describes the whole creation as
a yajna extended by the divine forces of nature
Yajur Veda:
The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras. It is a compilation of ritual offering
formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions
such as those before the yajna fire. Yajur means sacrifice or worship. This Veda is
concerned mostly with rites and mantras of different sacrifices. It gives
directions for the performance of the yajnas. Being a treatise on rituals, it is the
most popular of the four Vedas.
Yajna, is not just sacrifice, but also means creative reality.
There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda
i.e. Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. This text reflects on the social and
religious condition of India at that time
Sama Veda:
The Samaveda Samhita[86] consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for
75 mantras) from the Rigveda. Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of
16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes.
The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody
collections and the second part three verse “books”. Out of total 1875 verses only
75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda.
The Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig
Veda. It may be called the book of Chants (Saman).
This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.
Atharva Veda:
The Atharva Veda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",[106] an epithet
declared to be incorrect by other scholars. Also known as the Brahma Veda. It deals
with the peace and prosperity of human society and is concerned with the daily life
of man.
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It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases. The source of this Veda is traced to
two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras.
The Atharva Veda is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an early
period of civilisation.
It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka. This book gives detailed
information about the family, social and political life of later Vedic period.
Vedanga:
In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to
learn the Vedanga or the limbs of the Vedas.
o A good deal of literature grew around these
subjects
o The Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines
in Vedic culture that developed in ancient times,
and has been connected with the study of
the Vedas. These are: education (siksha),
grammar (vyakarana), ritual (kalpa), etymology
(nirukta), metrics (chhanda) and astronomy
(Jyotisha).
The Vedanga likely developed towards the end of the Vedic period, around or after
the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. It was written in the form of precepts in the
sutra style. A precept was called sutra because of its brevity.
The most famous example of this is Panini’s grammar, Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates
the rules of grammar and also throws light on society, economy and culture of
those times.
Brahmanas and Aranyakas:
After the four Vedas, a number of works called the
Brahmanas were developed. Vedic ritual is preserved
in the Brahmanas.
o The Aranyakas constitutes the philosophy behind
ritual sacrifice of the ancient Indian sacred texts,
the Vedas. The Brahmanas are a collection of
ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns
of the four Vedas. These books gave a detailed
explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science of sacrifice
and discussions on the meaning of Vedic ritual and all that is related to it.
o With the passage of time, the newer generations found the mantras of
the Samhita difficult to understand. The latter portions of the Brahmanas were
called the Aranyakas while the final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books
named Upanishads which belong to the later stage of the Brahmana literature.
The Aranyakas were developed by the hermits, living in the forests.
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They present secret explanations of the ritual, have their origin in the philosophical
discussions of the Brahmanas, find their culmination in the Upanishads and
represent the transitional phase between the ritualistic symbolism of the
Brahmanas and the philosophical doctrines of the Upanishads.
The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it. Each of the four
Vedas has their own Brahmana books. Rig Veda had Kaushitaki and Aitreya.
Taitteriya belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpath belongs to Shukla Yajur
Veda. Tandav, Panchvish and Jaimaniya belong to Atharva Veda. It is through them
that we get detailed information of the social, political and religious life of the
people.
These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants
living inside the forests. All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially they were
handed down orally and were put to writing much later.
THE UPANISHADS:
The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the

Vedas. The Upanishads are at the end of the
Vedas. The word Upanishad is derived from upa
(nearby), and nishad (to sit-down), that is, “sitting
down near”. Groups of pupil sit near the Guru to
learn from him in the Guru-shishya parampara or
tradition.
The Upanishads are referred to as the Vedanta. They mark the culmination of Indian
thought and are the final parts of the Vedas.
Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. As
the Upanishads contain abstract and difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical
problems, they were taught to the pupils at the end. That is why they are called the
end of Vedas.
There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktika, gives a
list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponds to the holy number of beads on a
mala or Hindu rosary.
o The word Vedanta is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘Veda’ and
‘Anta’. The word ‘anta’ means an end. Vedas start with the worship of the manifest,
as that is obvious and then slowly transform to the knowledge of the unmanifest.
The Upanishads form an important part of our literary legacy. They deal with
questions like the origin of the universe, life and death, the material and spiritual
world, nature of knowledge and many other questions.
The earliest Upanishads are the Brihadaranyaka which belongs to the Sukla Yajur
Veda and Chand yogya which belongs to the Sama Veda. Some of the other
important Upanishads are the Aitareya, Kena, and Katha Upanishad.
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THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHABHARATA: o The

stories were written to create ideals for
people to follow. The better known of these
are poems called the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. The Ramayana of Valmiki is
the original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya
and Maharishi Valmiki is known as Adi Kavi.
The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal
society.
Ramayana translates as the Story of Rama. It
is believed to have been written by a Brahmin named Valmiki, a man whose style
of poetry was new and a style to be copied thereafter. It is said to have appeared
between 400 and 200 BCE.
The Mahabharata, meaning Great India, is said to have been written by a Brahmin
named ved vyas, between 400 and 100 BCE, It contains narrative, descriptive and
didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
The Gita is an account of the origins, course and aftermath of a great war between
royalty. In the Bhagvat Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and
prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with examples
and analogies. This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a
parochial, self-contained guide to life. Contained in Mahabharata.
The Ramayana tells us about how a man can achieve divineness, as Rama achieves
divinity through righteous action. In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many used the text to help inspire the
Indian independence movement. This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke
of positivity in human actions. It also spoke of duty towards God and human
beings alike forgetting.
Both are epics of the people, and as such, reflect the ethos and the psyche of a group
of people, not only in a given temporal frame, but have a universal human
context.
It also tells us about how to achieve the fourfold objectives (Purushartha) of human
life, Dharma (righteousness, or loosely, religion), Artha (worldly achievement,
mainly wealth and prosperity), Kama (fulfilment of all desires), and Moksha
(liberation).
Mahabharata consists of a 1, 00,000 verses divided into 10 books, parvas, with many
interpolations, known an Itihasa Purana (mythical history). Both are long,
continuous narratives and deal with war. Inwardly it is a quest to know oneself.
The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses and is divided into seven books, called
Kandas, and known as Kavya (poetry), which means that it instructs while it
entertains.
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o The king Rama fights a battle with the

demon king Ravana, who steals his wife,
Sita, and holds her captive in his palace at
Lanka (now Sri Lanka). Rama, with the help
of the monkey army and Hanuman, rescues
Sita. His triumph over Ravana symbolises
the victory of virtue over evil. This pattern,
at the individual level, is a fight going on
within the self between vice and virtue.
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian
languages. With the change in the social structure at the time of the Mahabharata,
the fight now takes place between the human beings between Pandavas and the
Kauravas, family members of the same royal clan, over succession to the throne.
The Pandavas are assisted by Lord Krishna, who is metamorphosed into a
Godhead, and is shown as descending into the cycles of cosmic history to assist
man in his struggle against the forces of evil. He recites the Bhagavad Gita (the
song of the lord) just before the war to the Pandava Prince Arjuna, who is
unwilling to fight because he feels that victory in the battle is not desirable. Thus
begins the debate on an epic scale regarding the problems of action versus non-
action, of violence versus non-violence, and ultimately about Dharma.. The
survivors of the epic war discover that public esteem and power are no more than
hollow victories in an illusory struggle. It is not bravery but knowledge which is
the key to the mystery of life.
These two epics of ancient India are practically transcreated in almost in all Indian
languages, and have also crossed the borders of this sub-continent and became
popular in foreign lands, where they eventually get more or less recreated.
PURANAS:
The word Purana means ‘that which renews the old’ and is almost always mentioned
along with Itihasa. The Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred literature of
the Hindus. They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas
and the Epics.
The Purana were written to illustrate and expound the truth of the Vedas. They are
regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics. The fundamental
abstruse philosophical and religious truths are expounded through popular legends
or mythological stories Together with the two epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata; they are the origins of many of the stories and anecdotes of the
social, religious and cultural history of India.
o The main Purana are 18 and about the same number of Upapuranas. The
phenomenal popularity of these Mahapuranas gave rise to yet another sub-genre
known as the Upapuranas or minor Puranas. They are also 19 in number.
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
The Mahapuranas have five subjects. These are :
Sarga, the original creation of the universe,
 
Pratisarga, the periodical process of destruction and re-creation,
Manvantara, the different eras or cosmic cycles,

Surya Vamsha and Chandra Vamsa, the histories of the solar and lunar dynasties of Gods
and sages,

Vamshanucharita, the genealogies of kings.
Some of the well known Puranas are - Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni,
Matsya and Garuda. Their origin can be traced as far back as the time when
Buddhism was gaining importance and was a major opponent of the Brahmanic
culture. Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious
Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables. They have a potent influence in the development of
the religious lives of the people. These Puranas contain important geographical
information/histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and
dynastic genealogies.
Classical Sanskrit Literature:
o The Sanskrit language is divided into the
Vedic and the classical. The great epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the
Puranas are part of the classical period, but are
discussed separately because of their enormity
and importance, and are undoubtedly the
precursors of Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry),
nataka (drama) and other literature.
Classical Sanskrit literature is on the whole
secular in character. During the classical period, language was regulated by the
rigid rules of Panini, one of the greatest Sanskrit grammarians.
The largest collection of literary works is attributed to Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. Hindu Sanskrit texts are manuscripts and historical literature related to
any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. The tallest figure in the sphere of
epic poetry is Kalidasa (between A.D. 380-A.D. 415). He wrote two great epics,
Kumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar), and Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the
Raghus).
The overall purpose of such a poem is to bring out the efficacy of a religious and
cultured way of life, without flouting any ethical norms. His wonderful skill is
exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusambara and plays Abhijan Shakuntalam,
Vikramorvashi and Malvikaganimithram.
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Other distinguished poets, like Bharavi (550 A.D.), wrote Kiratarjuniyam (Kirat and
Arjun) and Magha (65-700 A.D.) wrote Sishupalavadha (the killing of
Shishupal). There are several other poets like Sriharsha and Bhatti who are of great
merit.
The drama is, therefore, stylized and is packed with poetry and descriptive prose. It
moves on a level of worldliness as well as on another level of other-worldiness.
The main purpose of Kavya or even Nataka (drama) is to offer the reader or spectator
diversion or entertainment, (Lokaranjana), and also stimulate his feelings, and
ultimately give him a perspective to illuminate his vision of life.
Therefore, the symbolism of Sanskrit drama reveals that man’s journey is complete
when he moves from attachment to non-attachment, from temporality to eternity,
or from flux to timelessness.
Kalidasa is the most distinguished dramatist and his treatment of the rasa of love in all
its possible manifestations in the three plays Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and
Agnimitra), Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi) and Abhigyana Shakuntala (the
recognition of Shakuntala) is unparalleled.
Vishakhdutta was another great play writer of this period. He wrote two great
historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Dev Chandra Gupta.
The Mricchakatika (the clay-cart) by Sudraka (248 A.D.) presents a remarkable social
drama with touches of grim reality. The characters are drawn from all stratas of
society, which include thieves and gamblers, rogues and idlers, courtesans and
their associates, police constables, mendicants and politicians.
Literature in Pali and Prakrit:
Around 6th century BC, people of India were
speaking and writing languages that were
much simpler than classical Sanskrit. Pali and
Prakrit were the spoken languages of Indians
after the Vedic period. Prakrit in the widest
sense of the term, was indicative of any
language that in any manner deviated from
the standard one, i.e. Sanskrit.
o In fact, Pali is a combination of various
dialects. lord Buddha (500 B.C.) used Pali to
give his sermons. All the Buddhist canonical
literature is in Pali which includes Tipitaka
(threefold basket). The first basket, Vinaya
Pitaka, contains the monastic rules of the
Order of Buddhist monks. The second basket, Sutta Pitaka, is the collection of the
speeches and dialogues of the Buddha. The third basket, the Abhidhamma Pitaka,
elucidates the various topics dealing with ethics, psychology or theory of
knowledge.
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The sacred texts (Siddhanta or Agama ) of the two

main sects of the Jains employed three types of
Prakrit. The jataka Kathas are non-canonical
Buddhist literature in which stories relating to
the former births of the Buddha (Bodhi-sattva or
the would-be Buddha) are
narrated. These stories propagate Buddhist
religious doctrines and are available in both
Sanskrit and Pali.
As the jataka tales grew in bulk, they assimilated popular tales, ancient mythology,
stories from older religious traditions, etc. Jatakas are, in fact, based on the
common heritage of the Indian masses. Buddhist literature is also abundantly
available in Sanskrit, which includes the great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha
(78 A.D.). He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit
poetry.
The nature of literature in Pali language is basically religious and philosophical. Like
the Buddhist stories, the Jain tales in general are didactic in character. Jain
canonical literature by Jain saints, as well as a large number of works on
lexicography and grammar by Hemachandra (1088 A.D.), is well known.
They are written in some forms of Prakrit. The word Jain is derived from the root ji (to
conquer) and signifies the religion of those who have conquered the lust for life.
It is a compilation of 700 verses along with his own contribution of 44 poems. It is
interesting to note that quite a few poetesses like Pahai, Mahavi, Reva, Roha and
Sasippaha are included in the anthology.
Jain literature is available in Sanskrit too, like the Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of
Siddharasi (906 A.D.).The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally
compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are
known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
The author of the Vasudevahindi ascribes this changed approach of the Jain authors to
the fact that it is easy to teach religion cloaked by erotic episodes, like sugar-coated
medicine. The characteristic of Prakrit poetry is its subtlety; the inner
meaning (Hiyaali) is its soul.
These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political history
of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and
traders.
Questionary:
Write a short note on the following: The Vedas

Discuss the importance of the Upanishads.
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Chapter: 9
Early Dravidian Literature: Sangam literature
Early Dravidian Literature:

The Dravidian languages with most Speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and
Malayalam. The Indian people speak languages belonging to major four distinct
speech families: the Austric, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Indo-European.
The Dravidian languages are spoken by more than 215 million people in India,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. In spite of these four different language groups, there is an
Indian characteristic running through these language groups, which forms one of
the bases of that certain underlying uniformity of life described by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru as unity in the midst of diversity.
The Dravidian languages cannot easily be connected to any other language family, and
they could well be indigenous to India. Dravidian literature mainly consists of the
four languages, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Out of these, Tamil is
the oldest language which preserved its Dravidian character the most.
Kannada, as a cultured language, is almost as old as Tamil. All these languages
have borrowed many words from Sanskrit and vice versa.
Tamil is the only modern Indian language which is recognizably continuous with a
classical past.
Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these
assemblies was called “Sangama literature” Poets, bards and writers, authors came
from various parts of South India to Madurai under the patron of Pandyas.
Indicating mainly two schools of poets, aham (subjective love poems), and puram
(objective, public poetry and heroic).
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Aham deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover, and Puram with all
kinds of emotions, mainly the valour and glory of kings, and about good and evil.
Chola, Chera and Pandya were at war during this time and hence their wars and
themes are reflected in Sangam Literature.
Three such sangams were held. The poems collected in the first sangam have been
lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been collected.
They are secular in nature and of a very high quality. The Sangama literature is a
collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of
numerous heroes and heroines.
Second and third Sangam poems have been collected.
There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called
Ettuttokoi.
There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eight lyrics collections) and
Pattupattu (the ten songs) are well known for their directness of expression.
These were written by 473 poets, among whom 30 were women, the famous poetess
Avvaiyar being one of them. In the case of 102 poems, the authors are
unknown.
Tolkappiyam indicates five landscapes or types of love, and outlines their symbolic
conventions.
Most of these anthologies are of the 3rd century B.C. During this time, a Tamil
grammar Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiyam, to understand early Tamil
poetry.
The famous Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, in the 6th century A.D., serves as a manual
of precepts to guide one to noble living. It expounds a secular, moral and practical
attitude towards life. It is divided into three parts. The first part deals with
the epics, the second part with polity and government and the third part with love.
The twin epics, Silappadhikaram (the story of the anklet, Love Story), written by
Ilango-Adigal, and Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar(a grain
merchant of Madurai) in A.D. 200-300 . In Manimekalai there is an elaborate
exposition of the doctrines of Buddhism.
They give vivid accounts of Tamil society during that period. These are valuable
storehouses and epics of dignity and sublimity, laying stress on the cardinal virtues
of life.
Vaishnava (pertaining to Vishnu) Bhakti (devotional) literature:
Vaishnava is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism,
Shaktism and Smartism. In Indian literature the effort has been to find out how a
man can achieve divinity. The secret behind a tendency for hero worship is love
and regard for humanity.
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If one were to identify another striking feature of ancient Tamil literature, the obvious
choice would be Vaishnava (pertaining to Vishnu) bhakti (devotional) literature. In
Vaishnava bhakti poetry, God descends on this earth as a human
being, to share with us our suffereing and turmoil, our happiness and prosperity.
The tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of
many distinct incarnations. Vaishanava bhakti literature was an all-India
phenomenon, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking
region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who
wrote devotional songs(in praise of Vishnu).
Devotional songs in praise of the Hindu god Shiva were also written by Tamil saint
poet Nayanar (leader, master) in the 6th-8th Century A.D. They revitalized
Hinduism and checked the spread of Buddhism and Jainism, while absorbing some
of their features.
Besides its importance as poetry of emotional bhakti, it guides us into the world of
classical Tamil civilization and explains to us the ethnic-national consciousness of
the Tamils as a whole.
Other Dravidian Literature:
Telugu Literature:
The four Dravadan languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam developed their
own literature. The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu
literature. Nachana Samantha, a court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work
titled Uttaraharivamsam.
Nannaya (A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet. In ancient times, Tamil and Telugu
spread to distant places.
o Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the
Krishnadevaraya’s court. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the
Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is
regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature.
Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. He
was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha. Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly
known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court.
Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam.
Early Telugu literature is predominantly religious in subject matter. Dhurjati, a
devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam.
o Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the
Krishnadevaraya’s court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are
recounted with pleasure even today.
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Pingali Surana composed two works Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam.

In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata simultaneously.
Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which was considered one
of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as
Bhattumurti. His other works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra
Nalopakhyanam. It is a poetical work on the model of Raghavapandaviyam. One
can read in it stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra.
Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a prabandha dealing with the
wars and loves of Rajashekhara, king of Avanti.
o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam and
Sakalakathasara Sangraham.
Kannada Literature:
Kannada literature is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member
of the Dravidian family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written
in the Kannada script. Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers
extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit writers as well.
Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.
Madhava wrote Dhamanathapurana on the fifteen tirthankara(Dharmnath)
The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old, Middle
and Modern.
Another Jain scholar Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe
The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and
Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
Malayalam Literature:
Malayalam literature comprises those literary texts written in Malayalam, a South-
Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala. Malayalam is spoken in
Kerala and the adjoining areas.
The earliest known extant literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an epic poem
written by Cheeraman in 1198 CE. The language of Malayalam emerged around
the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised
as an independent language.
Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Malayalam
absorbed a rich treasure contained in the Sanskrit language.
Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages,
Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression.
Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayam literature.
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Questionary:
What is the importance of Sangam literature?
Which are the Dravidian languages?
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Chapter: 10
Languages and Literature: Medieval
Literature, Modern Indian Literature,
the Literature of Nationalism,
Reformism, and Revivalism

Medieval Literature

Modern Indian Literature
 
The Literature of Nationalism
Reformism

Revivalism
Medieval Literature:
Medieval literature is a broad subject, encompassing
essentially all written works available in Europe and
beyond during the middle Ages. Around 1000 A.D.
local differences in Prakrit grew more and more
pronounced, which later came to be known as
Apabhramsa, and this led to the new Indian languages
taking shape and being born. These languages,
conditioned by the regional, linguistic and ethnic
environment, assumed different linguistic
characteristics.
Bhakti literature is the most important development of the medieval period. It is love
poetry. Love for one’s Lord, Krishna or Rama, the two main incarnations of the
great God Vishnu. This love is depicted as love between husband and wife, or
between lovers, or between servant and master, or between parents and child.
The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and 1800 A.D. is
devotional (bhakti) poetry which dominates almost all the major languages of the
country.
Unlike the dark middle ages of Europe, India’s middle ages brought about a very
rich tradition of devotional literature of remarkable merit.
The dominating note in bhakti is ecstasy and total identity with God. This is
personalisation of the godhood, which means a truthful perception of God residing
in you, and also harmony in life which only love can bring.
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The conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the
more acceptable language of the common man. Worldly love is Kama (Eros)
and divine love is Prema (mystic Eros). The dominating note in bhakti is ecstasy
and total identity with God. It is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic
approach to poetry.
The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages (Bhasa). The conception
of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the more
acceptable language of the common man.
It is poetry of connections – connecting the worldly with the divine, and as a result,
the old form of secular love poetry began to have a new meaning in all languages.
Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship of
humanity, because the catch-word of bhakti is that God is there in every human
being.
After Tamil, Pampa’s great court epics were composed in Kannada in the 10th century.
The power of ancient bhakti poetry in Tamil set in motion what might
well be considered a pan-Indian efflorescence.
Basavanna was a famous Kannada poet, a Shiva devotee and a great social reformer.
Devotional literature in Kannada, the Vachanas (sayings) of the various saints of
the Krishna, Rama and Shiva cults, is well known. . Allama Prabhu
(Kannada) wrote great poetry under the garb of religion.
bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity. Kabir (Hindi) is the foremost
among the poets of the sant tradition Chronologically, Marathi, the close successor
of Kannada, became the next venue for bhakti. Gyaneswar (1275 A.D.)
is the first and foremost bhakti poet in Marathi. In his teens (he died at the age of
21) he became famous for his poetic contribution to bhakti for Vithal (Vishnu).
Afterwards, the sequential order is as follows: Kashmiri, Bengali, Assamese,
Manipuri, Oriya, Maithili, Braj, Avadhi (the last three languages come under the
umbrella language, Hindi) and other languages of India.
Eknath wrote his short poetic narratives and devotional abhangas (a literary form), and
after him it was Tukarram (1608-1649 A.D.) whose songs cast a spell all over
Maharashtra. And then it is Gujarati in the 12th century.
Gujarati poets like Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a prominent place in the
galaxy of the Vaishnava poets.
Similarly, Jagannath Das is a legendary devotional poet in Oriya who wrote Bhagavat
(the story of Krishna), which has spiritually united all the people of
Orissa and created a living consciousness.
Chandidas, a Bengali poet, is acclaimed as a great genius for the lucidity and
sweetness of his poems. Similarly, Vidyapati in Maithili created a new poetic
language. Lal Ded, a Kashmiri Muslim poetess, gave a new dimension to mystical
bhakti. Jayadeva, a Sanskrit lyric poet of the 12th century, influenced a large
number of devotional Bengali poets like Govinda Das (16th century), Balaram Das
and others.
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Sankardev (1449-1568), an Assamese devotional

poet, used plays (Ankiya-Nat) and Kirtan
(devotional songs) to propagate Vaishnavism
and became a legend.
Medieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi
and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century A.D.) wrote
narrative poems based on Sufistic philosophy,
betraying a happy cultural and religious synthesis of Islam and Hinduism. In fact,
bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity.
Muslim and Hindu saint-poets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created
oral poetry of divine intoxication under the influence of both Vaishnava and Sufi
(Islamic mysticism which enunciates the doctrine of divine love)
philosophy.
Kabir (Hindi) is the foremost among the poets of the sant tradition (faith in one
omnipresent god and not in many gods like Rama and Krishna). Kabir’s poetry
touches upon the various aspects of devotion, mysticism and social reforms.
Tulsidas (1532 A.D.) was the greatest of the Rama-bhakti poets who wrote his famous
epic, the Ramacharit Manas (the lake of the deeds of Rama). In fact, epics like the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata received a rebirth in the new languages.
o These languages gave a fresh life, a renewed relevance, and a meaningful
reincarnation to the great Sanskrit epics, and these epics in their turn provided
substance and style to the new languages too.
Hindi literature, with its supra-regional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and
Guru Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had developed
into a conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an
umbrella language. The centrality of Hindi and its vast geographical area was the
reason for it.
Muslim poets like Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Rahim and other wrote Sufi
and Vaishnava poetry. The religious and cultural synthesis that was a special
feature of medieval India finds abundant expression in its literature.
Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, wrote in many languages, but mostly in Punjabi, and was a
great poet of inter-religious communication. Nanak says truth is supreme, but
above truth is truthful living. Guru Nanak and other Sikh Gurus belong to the
sant tradition, which believes in one omnipresent God, and not in many gods like
Rama and Krishna.
Surdas, Tulsidas and Meera Bai (15th to 16th Century A.D.) point to the great heights
of Vaishnavite lyricism achieved by Hindi.
Bulleh Shah, the most famous Muslim Punjabi poet, popularised Sufism through
Punjabi Kafi (verse-form). Kafi is a small poem in stanzas followed by refrain and
is sung in a dramatic way. Shah Latif, the famous Sindhi Muslim poet (1689 A.D.)
in his sacred work Risalo explained Sufi mystic love as the divine truth.
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The poetry of the Sikh Gurus is collected in the Guru Granth Sahib (the Revered
Book), a multilingual text which talks about the unchanging one reality (Sat) the
cosmic law (Hukum), meditation (Satnam), compassion and harmony (Daya and
Santosh).
Other Trends in Medieval Literature:
During the medieval period, Urdu, as a language, came into being. Bhakti was not
the only aspect of medieval literature. Love ballads and heroic poetry in Punjabi,
known as Kissa and Var, were popular Punjabi medieval forms.
Var is the most popular form of Punjabi poetry, music and drama, all rolled into one,
and has been in vogue since the earliest times. The most famous Punjabi love
ballad is Hir Ranjha, an immortal book by a Muslim poet called Warris Shah. A
popular Punjabi heroic ballad, sung by village bards orally, is Najabat’s Var of
Nadir Shah. Var is the most popular form of Punjabi poetry, music and drama, all
rolled into one, and has been in vogue since the earliest times.
In Hindi, between 1700 and 1800 A.D., many poets like Bihari Lal and Keshav Das
created secular poetry of Sringara (erotic sentiment), and a large number of other
poets, wrote academic accounts of the entire range of poetry, in verse form.
Urdu has largely followed Persian forms and metres in poetry, but it has adopted some
of the purely Indian forms also. Ghazals (lyrical couplets), marsia (elegy) and
qasidah (ode of praise) are of Iranian origin.
Sauda (1706-1781) was the first among the late medieval poets who gave vigour and
versatility to Urdu poetry, which his predecessors had been struggling to
accomplish. Then, it was Dard (1720-1785) and Mir Taqi Mir (1722-1810) who
gave Urdu maturity and class, and ushered it into the modern period.
Modern Indian Literature: The 19th Century Indian Renaissance o The

period of the late 19th century in
Maharashtra is the period of colonial modernity.
In almost all the Indian languages, the modern
age begins with the first struggle for
India’s freedom in 1857, or near that time. The
impact of western civilization, the rise of
political consciousness, and the change in
society could be seen in what was written during
that time.
o The corresponding periods in the other Indian languages, this was the period
dominated by the English educated intellectuals. It was the age of prose and reason.
A large number of writers opted for a synthesis between Indenisation and
westernization, in their search for a national ideology. All these attitudes were
combined to bring about the renaissance in 19th century India.
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The most important literary event that revolutionaries literature was the emergence of
literary prose in all the modern Indian languages, and the advent of the printing
press, under the patronage of an Englishman, William Carey (1761-1834), at
Serampore, Bengal.
Contact with the western world resulted in India’s acceptance of western thought on
the one hand, and rejection of it on the other, and resulted in an effort made to
revive her ancient glory and Indian consciousness.
But it was a renaissance in a country which was under foreign domination. So it was
not that kind of renaissance which had spread in 14th-15th century Europe, where
scientific reasoning, individual freedom and humanism were the dominant
characteristics.
The birth of newspapers and periodicals in Indian languages between 1800 and
1850 was extremely important for the development of prose. and the missionaries
of Serampore started off Bengali Journalism on its career. The emergence of prose
as a powerful medium brought a kind of change that coincided with the process of
modernization.
The Indian renaissance took a different shape, in the context of the Indian race,
moment and milieu, and as a result, nationalistic, reformist and revivalist thinking
found its way into literature, which slowly turned itself into a pan-Indian
movement, spearheaded in different parts of the country by renaissance leaders like
Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833), Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda, etc
It is true that Sanskrit and Persian had a vast body of prose, but the necessity for prose
in modern Indian languages, for use in administration and higher education, led to
the emergence of prose in different languages at the beginning of the modern
period.
The Emergence of Nationalism:
Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence
movement fought against the colonial British Raj. It is true that the idea of a
modern state took root in Indian society because of India’s contact with western
ideas, but very soon, Indian writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali,
1838-1894) and others made use of this newly acquired concept of nationalism
to attack colonial rule, and in the process created their own brand of nationalism,
rooted in the soil.
Indian nationalism is an instance of territorial nationalism, inclusive of all people,
despite their diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Bankim Chandra wrote
many historical novels like Durgesh Nandini(1965), and Anand Math (1882),
acquired a pan-Indian popularity and made nationalism and patriotism a part of
dharma.
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Rabindra Nath Tagore (Bengali, 1861-1942), the greatest name in modern Indian
literature, made federalism an important part of his concept of national ideology.
He said that the unity of India has been and shall always be a unity in diversity.
The foundation for this tradition had been laid in India at the social level, not the
political, by saints like Nanak, Kabir, Chaitanya and others. It is this solution-unity
through acknowledgement of differences-that India has to offer to the world.
As a result, India’s nationalism is mingled with its spiritual tradition, with truth and
tolerance preached by Mahatma Gandhi, and non-alignment advocated by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru, showing India’s concern for its pluralism. Modern Indian
pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural, secular, national-state concept.
The Literature of Nationalism, Reformism and Revivalism
The birth of the novel is associated with the social reform-oriented movement of the
19th century. This new genre, borrowed from the West, is characterized by a spirit
of revolt, right from its adoption into the Indian system. Patriotic writings
proliferated almost spontaneously in different languages, as the resistance of a
community against foreign rule. Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib in Urdu and
Bharatendu Harishchandra in Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of
that era. This voice was, on the one hand, against colonial rule, and on the other,
for the glorification of India.
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-73) wrote the first modern epic in an Indian
language, and naturalised blank verse in Bengali.
Besides, Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869) wrote Ghazals in Urdu, about love, with unusual
imagery and metaphors. He accepted life both as a joyous existence and as
a dark and painful experience.
Historical novels were written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali), Hari Narayan
Apte (Marathi), and others, to describe the glorious past of India, and to
instill nationalist fervour in her people.
Subramanian Bharati (1882-1921) was the great Tamil patriot-poet, who
revolutionized the poetic tradition in Tamil. Themes from mythology or history
were taken to write epics, by Maithili Saran Gupta (Hindi, 1886-1964), Bhai Vir
Singh (Punjabi, 1872-1957), and others, with the express purpose of fulfilling the
needs of the patriotic reader.
The first Tamil novel, Pratap Mudaliyar Charitram (1879) by Samuel V. Pillai, the first
Telugu novel, Sri Ranga Raja Charitra (1872) by Krishnamma Chetty, and the first
Malayalam novel, Indu Lekha (1889) by Chandu Menon were written with didactic
intentions and to re-examine evil social customs and practices like untouchability,
caste distinctions, denial of remarriage of widows, etc.
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In other first novels, like the Bengali novel, Phulmani O Karunar Bibaran (1852), by
an Englishwoman, H. Catherine Mullens, or the Hindi novel, Pariksha Guru (1882)
by Lala Sriniwas Das, one can discover shared patterns of response and
articulation towards social problems.
In fact, in the 19th century, the idea of national identity emerged from literature, and
most Indian writings turned into the voice of enlightment.
Novels were found to be the most appropriate medium to eulogize the intellectual and
physical richness of the past, and reminded Indians about their obligations and
rights.
It was during this time that Tagore started writing the novel Gora (1910), to
challenge colonial rule, colonial criteria and colonial authority, and to give new
meaning to Indian nationalism.
Historical novels were written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali), Hari
Narayan Apte (Marathi), and others, to describe the glorious past of India, and to
instil nationalist fervour in her peopl e.
Questionary:
What is Medieval Literature?

Explain in detail: Revivalism and reformism were natural corollaries of
the newly emerging idea of nationalism in colonial India.
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Chapter: 11
Religion in ancient India
(Part 1)
Religion:
Religious diversity and religious tolerance are

both established in the country by the law and
custom;
Religion in India was never static in character but
was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.
Throughout India’s history, religion has been an
important part of the country’s culture.
Morality and ethics have their foundation on
religion.
The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world’s major religions;
namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
Secularism in India means treatment and Protection of all religions equally by the
state. It is way different from Western secularism which us strict separation of state
and church. The Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion
to be a fundamental right. (Art 25-Art28 of Constitution).
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Spirituality and Philosophy:

Religion is the science of soul. Indian spirituality is
deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and
religious traditions of the land. Philosophy arose
in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and
existence.
Religion plays a central and definitive role in the
life of the country and most of its people.
The faith of more than 80% of the people is
Hinduism, considered the world's oldest religious
and philosophical system. Islam is practiced by
around 13% of all Indians.
Indian sages called Rishis or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the
sense and the ordinary mind, collectively called yoga. With the help of these
techniques, they delved deep into the depths of consciousness and discovered
important truths about the true nature of human being and the universe.
India has long been known as a very spiritual, religious heavy area of the world. In
India, religion is a way of life. It is an integral part of the entire Indian tradition.
For the majority of Indians, religion permeates every aspect of life, from common-
place daily chores to education and politics.
The rishis further found that all individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness
which they called Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ultimate cause of
the universe.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind,
which are ever changing and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging,
immortal and pure consciousness. They called it the Atman.
The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power.
Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics are also visible
influences.
By gaining correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free from
suffering and bondage and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and
fulfilment known as Moksha.
Thus philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the
correct way of life and also provided the vision, while religion brought about the
fulfilment.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his
true nature and attain Moksha.
Philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus in ancient India,
philosophy and religion complemented each other.
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Pre-Vedic Religion :
o The Pre-Vedic Religion (also known as Vedism,
Brahmanism and ancient Hinduism were the religion of the
Indo-Aryans in ancient Indian during the Vedic period
(~1500-500 BCE). From the archaeological findings in the
pre and proto-historic sites it seems that these people
believed in the sanctity of the creative force and venerated
the male and female aspects of divinity.
It appears that they were worshippers of the forces of nature
like the sun and the moon.Very little is known about the
religion of the Indus civilization because no written records
exit. There is, however, an assumption that parts of
the Harappa tradition were held in common by ancient
religions of the Middle East as well as the later Hinduism.
The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from the
Rig Veda, They believed in many gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
Some of the seals clearly indicate the sacredness of the bull which later became a
common tradition in Hinduism.
Deity on Pashupatinath god is most likely a proto-Shiva. Representative of the Great
Mother or nature, through Mother Goddess were common among early agricultural
societies.
Lack of temples and statuary has resulted in the belief that the focus of religious
life was primarily centred in the home.
Anthropologists are relatively certain that the peoples of the Indus civilization
emphasized ritual purity.
It appears that the Indus religion recognized some type of life after death. Unlike later
Indians, who practiced cremation, this civilization carefully buried their dead with
their heads facing north and the feet pointing south. Included in the graves were
pottery jars containing food and weapons for use in the afterlife.
Vedic Religion:
Aryans were worshippers of the forces of nature
like the sun and the moon. This belief is also
partly substantiated by the early literature of the
Aryans. The nature of the religious beliefs and
practices of the Aryans is also known from the
Rig Veda, They believed in many gods like
Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
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The Atharva Veda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs. The seers entertained
doubts about the utility and efficacy of the Vedic ritualism. The Sama Veda and
the Yajur Veda elaborated the different aspects of the sacrificial acts and this
ritualism was further elaborated in the Brahmanas.
o The Aranyakas and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a
progressive outlook. The Upanishads represent the early stage in the origin and
development of the religions’ metaphysical concepts which were used later by the
religious leaders and reformers of ancient and medieval India.
Unorthodox and Theistic Religion:
o The religious movements associated with
persons like Mahavira and the Buddha in
about the middle of the first Millennium BC
fall under this category. Some of them
contained elements that were not in keeping
with the Vedic tradition.
There were many other creeds during this time
as well. The creeds preached by some of
them contained elements that were not in
keeping with the Vedic tradition.
They ignored the infallibility and supernatural origin of the Vedas. Unlike the Vedic
seers who were Brahmin sages, many of these new teachers were Kshatriya.
Unlike the Vedic seers who were Brahmin sages, many of these new teachers were
Kshatriya. Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the beginning.
However, they endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma and upheld the belief in
rebirths.
Many of these view points are also found in the major Upanishads.
Creeds of theistic character evolved almost simultaneously with the non-theistic
religions.
However, Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma and upheld the belief
in rebirths of the embodied skandhas and the inevitability of suffering in the very
existence of beings.
The important deities of these religions were not primarily Vedic ones but those that
came from unorthodox sources. Influence of pre-vedic and post-vedic folk
elements was most conspicuous in their origin.
This led to the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism, which came to be regarded as components of orthodox Brahmanism.
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Different Sects in Hinduism:

Hindu denominations are traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or
goddesses, such as Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma.
Vasudev (Krishna):
A Sutra in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to the worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna). o
The Chhandogya Upanishad also speaks of Krishna, the son of Devaki, a pupil of
the sage Ghora Angirasa who was a sun-worshipping priest.
o A large number of people worshipped Vasudeva Krishna exclusively as their
personal God and they were at first known as Bhagavatas.
o The Vasudeva-Bhagavata cult. Grew steadily, absorbing within its fold other Vedic
and Brahminic divinities like Vishnu (primarily an aspect of the sun) and Narayana
(a cosmic God).
Vaishnava:
o Vaishnava dharma is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with
Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called
Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, and it
considers Vishnu as the Supreme Lord. The history of the
Vaishnava movement from the end of the Gupta period
till the first decade of the thirteenth century AD is
concerned mainly with South India.
The tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein
Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations.
Shaivism:
o Shaivism is one of the major traditions
within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme
Being. The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites"
or "Saivites". Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had its
origin in antiquity. Panini refers to a group of Shiva
worshippers as Shiva-Bhagavatas, who were
characterised by the iron lances and clubs they carried
and their skin garments.
Shaiva Movement in the South: The Shaiva movement in
the South flourished at the beginning through the activities of many of the 63 saints
known in Tamil as Nayanars (Siva-bhaktas).
Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE,
but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra.
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Their appealing emotional songs in Tamil were called Tevaram Stotras, also
known as Dravida Veda and ceremonially sung in the local Shiva temples. The
Nayanars hailed from all castes.
This was supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva
o Intellectuals whose names were associated with several forms of Shaiva
movements like Agamanta, Shudha and Vira-shaivism.
Philosophy in India:
Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical
traditions of the Indian subcontinent. India down
the ages attempted to grapple with the fundamental
problems of life and thought.
o When we are concerned with philosophy as a
science, it means a set of thoughts put into a
system, such that one of them does not contradict
another in the set and the entire set as a whole is
coherent.
Philosophy in India began with a quest after the highest truth- truth not as mere
objective certitude, but as being closely linked with the development of personality
and leading to the attainment of the highest freedom, bliss and wisdom.
The philosophy must give a theory which will be simplest in its nature and, at the
same time, will explain all the principles which are left as insoluble by science.
The synthesis between deep philosophical analysis and lofty spiritual discipline is an
abiding feature of Indian philosophy and its outlook is entirely different from that
of western philosophy.
It serves not only to make plain the spiritual aspirations of an ancient nation, but also
to shows relevance of those aspirations to the modern.
Philosophy in India is not a product of speculation but of experience, direct and
personal. A true philosopher is he whose life and behaviour bear testimony to the
truths he preaches.
These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of
philosophies called shada darshana.
Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted
mainly of worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of
nature through prayers.
They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas
is recognised by all of them.
‘Science means knowledge partially unified, while philosophy means knowledge
completely unified .... Beyond the knowable is the unknowable, but in that realm
of the unknowable laid the solution of all the principles regarding the nature of the
soul, of the heavens, of God and everything.’
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It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true
nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the
ultimate reality were developed.
Samkhya System:
Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and absolute.
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one
female and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively.
Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the
change or transformation of these attributes brings about the change in all
objects.
Purusha is mere consciousness; hence it cannot be modified or changed.
The propounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra. o
Samkhya School explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution.
Yoga System:
Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. o
Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.
o By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga
systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti.
o Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is
found in the Yoga sutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second
century BC.
o Yoga is a means of achieving freedom or mukti. This freedom could be attained by
practising

self-control (yama),
 
observation of rules(niyama),
fixed postures (asana),
 
breath control (pranayama),

choosing an object(pratyahara)
fixing the mind (dharna),

concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana)
and complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi).
Nyaya:
o Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. Nyaya system of
philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.
Gautama is said to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras.
According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one
knows about the object as it exists. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a
snake or a cup as a cup.
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Vaisheshika:
Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe.
Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five
elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether. They believe that God is the
guiding principle.
The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which are
substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence. The living beings
were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions of
merit and demerit.
Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took place in agreement
with the wishes of God.
Kanada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika philosophy.
Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained the phenomena of the universe by the
atomic theory, the combination of atoms and molecules into matter and explained
the mechanical process of formation of Universe.
Mimamsa:
According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge,
and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the
use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda.
The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika
Systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. Its main text is known as the
Sutras of Gaimini which have been written during the third century BC.
Vedanta:
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and
Brahman is not different. Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the
concluding portion of the Vedas.
Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as
Advaita Vedanta. Shankaracharya’s wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads,
Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.
Shankaracharya’s believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth
and the ultimate knowledge. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all
things and the ultimate existence.
Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny the existence of the apparent ego, as known
to us, and in this respect Vedanta has its unique position in the history of
philosophies of the world.
Ramanuja was another well known Advaita scholar.
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Vedanta as a philosophy and a religion:
Vedanta philosophy teaches that all these different religions are like so many
roads, which lead to same goal. Vedanta enables the practitioner to access the
realm of spirit through the intellect.
Among different schools of philosophy was found one philosophy which reached the
climax of philosophic thought that the human mind can possibly reach, and that is
known as the Vedantic philosophy.
As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths that have been discovered by the
greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all ages and all countries.
The core message of Vedanta is that every action must be governed by the intellect the
discriminating faculty. Vedanta enables the practitioner to access the realm of
spirit through the intellect.
Whether one moves into spirituality through Yoga, meditation or devotion, it must
ultimately crystallize into inner understanding for attitudinal changes and
enlightenment.
CHARVAKA SCHOOL:
According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of humans and
pleasures the ultimate object in life. Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be
perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas.
It finds mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Thus it is supposed
to be the earliest philosophical knowledge.
It holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which
leaves no trace after death.
Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic philosophy. It is also known as
the Lokayata Philosophy the philosophy of the masses.
Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of philosophy. Since
God, soul, and heaven, cannot be perceived, they are not recognised by
Out of the five elements earth, water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not
recognise ether as it is not known through perception.
Questionary:
What was the role played by Charvaka School in the religious

movement of India?
What are the different forms of Shaiva movements?
Define the various characteristics of religious movements of ancient
India?
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Chapter: 12
Religion in ancient India

(Part 2)
Unorthodox Religions:
Jainism and Buddhism :Similarity
They both believe in Rebirth and Karma theory and Moksha.
They are heterodox philosophies who don’t believe in Supreme Brahma and Veda’s
authority. Both believe Ahimsa, Peace and compassion are basic tenets of
Religion.
th
Incarnation theory of Hinduism was rejected by both before 10 centaury but at
end Buddhism accepted that Buddha is incarnation of Vishnu but Jainism never.
Both of them were opposed to animal sacrifices. Though both emphasise the principle
of Ahimsa, yet Jainism is stricter in this connection and admitted disciples from all
the castes and from both sexes.
Differences:
o Jainism believes in fasts and severest penan. While
Buddhism not.
o Buddhists do not believe in the existence of soul whereas
Jainism believes the existence of soul in every living
being.
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Origin of Jainism:
There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was
Vardhaman Mahavira. The first Tirthankara is
believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev. The
23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born
in Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th or
7th century BC.
Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some
traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion.
The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. o
All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.
o 24 Tirthankaras who arrives time to time as human beings are worshipped to
symbolize attributes and not the beings.
Tirthankara:
A Tirthankara is not an incarnation of the God. He is an ordinary soul that is born as a
human and attains the states of a Tirthankara as a result of intense practices of
penance, equanimity and meditation.
The ultimate pure developed state of the soul is Tirthankara, which means a teacher
who 'makes a ford' i.e. shows the way.
Vardhaman Mahavira:
o Prince Vardhaman born in 599 BC Indiaat
Kundagrama near Vaisali. He left all worldly
pleasures at age of 30 in order to live an ascetic
life. Later known by Mahavira means The Great
Hero.
Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan and in
Prakrit Naata.); Mother – Trishala (Sister of
Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter
married Haryanka King Bimbisara). Mahavira Gotra was Kashyapa.
He preached his teachings for 30 years and attained Nirvana at Pavapuri (near
Rajagriha, Bihar) aged 72. He strongly believed in the importance of celibacy or
brahamcharya.
After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala
Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is
called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who
conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin.
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Nirvana:
o In Hindu philosophy it is the union of or the realization of the identity of Atman
with Brahman, depending on the Hindu tradition.
In Jainism, it is also the stereological goal; it represents the release of a soul from
karmic bondage and samsara.
In the Buddhist context, nirvana refers to realization of non-self and emptiness,
marking the end of rebirth by stilling the fires that keep the process of rebirth
going.
Causes of the rise of Jainism:
It was accessible to people of all castes. Varna system had rigidified and people of the
lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered them an honourable place. Vedic
religion had become highly ritualistic.
About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley
prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu to migrate to Karnataka. Jainism
spread to Southern India after that. Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was
more accessible to the common man as compared to Sanskrit.
Bhadrabahu was the last acharya of the undivided Jain sangha. He was the last
spiritual teacher of Chandragupta Maurya.
Sects of Jainism:
Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners
Bhadrabahu decided the famine would make it harder for monks to survive and
migrated with a group of twelve thousand disciples to South India, bringing with
him Chandragupta, turned Digambara monk. Who are sky clad.
According to the Digambaras, once a saint becomes a kevali or Kevala-jnani, that is,
omniscient, he needs no morsel of food. But this view is not acceptable to the
Sthulabhadra became a leader of the sangha when Bhadrabahu migrated to South

India. He permitted the use of white cloth by his order during the famine. He is
thus sometimes thought to be the originator of the Swetambara order.
On the night of full moon in the month of Kartik, Chandragupta Maurya saw sixteen
dreams, which were then explained to him by Acharya Bhadrabahu as upcoming
arrival of Famine.
Jain Philosophy:
Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they admit the
existence of a soul
The Jain philosophy was first propounded by the tirthankara Rishabha Deva. The
names of Ajit Nath and Aristanemi are also mentioned with Rishabha Deva.
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They also agree with the orthodox tradition that suffering (pain) can be stopped by
controlling the mind and by seeking right knowledge and perception and by
observing the right conduct.
Jain Councils:
First council: Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.Presided by Sthulabahu.
Second Council: Held at Valabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century BC.Presided by
Devardhigani.12 Angas was compiled here.
Kalpa Sutra:
Kalpa Sutra was written by Bhadrabahu. It contains the biographies of the Jain
Tirthankaras, most notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira, including the latter’s
Nirvana. Since Bhadrabahu was a teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, we can say
that it was compiled in Mauryan Era.
Acharang Sutra (Acaranga Sutra)
Acharanga Sutra is the first of the eleven (or 12) Anga Agamas. It is the first text
that was studied by the Jain monks. This agam describes the conduct and
behaviour of ascetic life and the description of the penance of Lord Mahavir. This
is the oldest agam from a linguistic point of view. It was written in Ardhamagadhi
Prakrit.
Satkhandagama:
Literally the "Scripture in Six Parts", is the most revered Digambara text that has
been given the status of agama.
Anekantavad
The same thing can be describe from at least seven standpoints and all can be
equally true. This particular school promotes tolerance of contrary opinions among
the theologises and philosophers. Philosophically an important contribution of
Jainism is the doctrine of Anekantavad (non-absolutism). As per this, reality can be
examined from many standpoints.
Non-violence in Jainism
Ahimsa means not to kill or hurt any living being by body, mind or speech. This
vrata or vow is different for Grahastha and Munis (Saints).
Non-possession
Possession of worldly things perpetrates in violence. Desire to get more is the root
cause of violence and bondage of soul with karma. Thus, non-possession is the
second cardinal principle of Jainism. It is ability to accept only what is needed and
enough.
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Six Dravyas of Jain Cosmology
As per Jain theory, the world is not not created, maintained, or destroyed by a
supreme, divine deity but functions according to the universal law of cyclic
existence. It is made of six dravyas as follows:
Jiva and Ajiva: All living and Non-living substances.

Pudagala: This means matter
Dharma-Tattva: This means Principle of Motion
Adharma tattva: This means principle of Rest

Akasa: This means space

Kala: This means time.
Samsara, as per Jain faith is worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and
reincarnations in various realms of existence. The mundane existence is full of
suffering and misery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksha is the only
liberation from Samsara.
Jain Symbol:
Jain Emblem or Jain Symbol was adopted in 1975, at
the auspicious occasion of 2500th Nirvana
anniversary of Lord Mahavira. Use of this emblem
helps to create a culture showing dedication and
trust for the religion and the values that are
represented by the emblem.
This emblem is used in almost all of the Jain
magazines, wedding invitation cards, Jain festival
cards, and every magazine with links to events
related to Jain society.
Origin of Buddhism:
o Gautama’s three main disciples known as Upali, Ananda and Mahakashyap
remembered his teachings and passed them on to his followers.
His childhood name was Siddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a
few days old. He was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of
sixteen. After a year of the marriage, he had a son, whom they named Rahul.
Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BC at
Lumbini, a village near Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal.
But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha renounced family life to find a
solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc.
It is believed that soon after the Buddha’s death a council was called at Rajagriha
where Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of the order) and Ananda recited the
Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s sermons or doctrines and ethics).
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He went to the forests and meditated there for six

years. Thereafter, he went to Bodhgaya (in Bihar)
and meditated under a pipal tree. It was at this
place that he attained enlightenment and came to
be known as the Buddha. He then travelled a lot to
spread his message and helped people find the
path of liberation or freedom.
Sometime later the Abhidhamma Pitaka consisting of
the Buddhist philosophy came into existence.
Buddha’s Life:
The four major events
Stupa, wheels, Bodhi tree, horses and
lotus. Do these remind you of
anything? These are prominent in
Buddhist art and architecture.
Actually they resemble four major
events of Buddha’s life.
o 1. The great renunciation
(Mahabhinishkramana) – Buddha
leaving his home, family and
kingdom in search of truth. This is symbolised by a horse.
2. Enlightenment (Nirvana) – Buddha attaining enlightenment under the tree in
Bodh Gaya. This is symbolised by a Bodhi tree.
3. Dhammachakraparivartan – This was Buddha giving his first sermon in Deer Park
close to Varanasi. This is symbolised by a wheel.
4. Mahaparinirvana – Buddha’s death. This is symbolised by a stupa. Essentially,
stupa is a mound.
Some scholars add a fifth event – Buddha’s birth which is symbolised by a lotus.
Before the Mathura school of art, Buddha was never represented in human form.
He was used to be represented by Tree, elephant, dharmshakra, empty throne etc.
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Bodha Philosophy:
Realization of Four Noble Truths : The knowledge realized by Buddha is

reflected in the following four noble truths:
There is cause of suffering, The second Noble Truth is related to the cause of
suffering. It is desire that motivates the cycle of birth and death. Therefore, desire
is the fundamental cause of suffering.
There is cessation of suffering. When passion, desire and love of life are totally
destroyed, pain stops. This Truth leads to the end of sorrow, which causes pain in
human life. It involves destruction of ego (aham or ahamkara), attachment,
jealousy, doubt and sorrow. That state of mind is the state of freedom from desire,
pain and any kind of attachment. It is the state of complete peace, leading to
nirvana.
There is suffering in human life. When Buddha saw human beings suffering from
sickness, pain and death, he concluded that there was definitely suffering in human
life. There is pain with birth. Separation from the pleasant is also painful.
Path of Liberation. The fourth Noble Truth leads to a way that takes to liberation.
Thus, initially starting with pessimism, the Buddhist philosophy leads to optimism.
Although there is a constant suffering in human life, it can be ended finally.
Buddha suggests that the way or the path leading to liberation is eight-fold, through
which one can attain nirvana.
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Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana):
Right Resolve: It is the strong will-power to destroy thoughts and desires that harm
others. It includes sacrifice, sympathy and kindness towards others.
Right Speech: Man should control his speech by right resolve. It means to avoid false or
unpleasant words by criticizing others.
Right Conduct: It is to avoid activities which harm life. It means to be away from
theft, excessive eating, the use of artificial means of beauty, jewellery, comfortable
beds, gold etc.
Right Vision. One can attain right vision by removing ignorance. Ignorance creates
wrong idea of the relationship between the world and the self. Thus, the right view
of the world and its objects is the right vision.
Right Means of Livelihood. Right livelihood means to earn one’s bread and butter by
right means.
Right Effort. It is also necessary to avoid bad feelings and bad impressions. It
includes self-control, stopping or negation of sensuality and bad thoughts, and
awakening of good thoughts.
Right Mindfulness. It means to keep one’s body, heart and mind in their real form.
Bad thoughts occupy the mind when their form is forgotten. When actions take
place according to the bad thoughts, one has to experience pain.
Right Concentration. If a person pursues the above seven Rights, he will be able to
concentrate properly and rightly. One can attain nirvana by it.
Divisions – Hinayan, Mahayana and Theravada
After Buddha’s demise (Mahaparinirvana), the Buddhist order split into two
groups.
Hinayana (lesser vehicle) – they interpreted Buddha’s teaching literally and
strictly, emphasizing on strict personal meditation and the monastic path to
Enlightenment.
Mahayana (greater vehicle) – they interpreted Buddha’s teaching logically and
liberally trying to understand the true meaning of Buddha’s teachings.
But why were these called “lesser” and “greater” vehicles?
A great vehicle is like a large ship that can carry many people over the ocean. A lesser
vehicle is like a little boat that can carry only a few people across a river.
The word vehicle is used here to describe the Buddha’s teachings, since the
ultimate purpose of the teachings is to carry people from the shore of this
impure world to the other shore of enlightenment.
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So Mahayana, which promises spiritual liberation to both monks and ordinary people
is called greater vehicle because it can help a large number of people in attaining
enlightenment. On the other hand, Hinayana which calls for strict
discipline cannot be practiced by ordinary people can only carry fewer people
towards enlightenment. Theravada is also called “southern Buddhism” as it was the
form that developed in souther part of the Indian subcontinent, primarily Sri Lanka.
Hinayana sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form
of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka and had an existence independent from the form
of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hinayana.
o We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the terms are not
synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C.
when there was no Mahayana at all.
Mahayana and Theravada:
Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.
The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in both schools.
The Paticca-samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in both schools.
Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.
Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sila, Samadhi, Panna without any difference.
Mahayana used three terms: Bodhisattvayana, Prateka-Buddhayana, and

Sravakayana. In the Theravada tradition these three are called Bodhis.
There are also some points where they differ. An obvious one is the Bodhisattva
ideal.
The Mahayana texts never use the term Arahant-yana, Arahant Vehicle, but
Theravada.
Both schools accept the three Yanas or Bodhis but consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the
highest. The Mahayana has created many mystical Bodhisattvas while the Theravada
considers a Bodhisattva as a man amongst us who devotes his entire life
for the attainment of perfection, ultimately becoming a fully Enlightened
Buddha for the welfare of the world, for the happiness of the world.
A BODHISATTVA IS an ordinary person who takes up a course in his or her life
that moves in the direction of Buddha. Anyone who directs their attention, their
life, to practicing the way of life of a Buddha is a bodhisattva. In non-Mahayana
Buddhism, it usually refers either to Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, or to the
historical Buddha Gautama prior to his enlightenment.
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Different Between Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism:
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Main Mudras of the Buddha:


DHYAN MUDRA:
o The two hands are placed on the lap, right hand on left
with fingers fully stretched (four fingers resting on
each other and the thumbs facing upwards towards one
another diagonally), palms facing upwards; in this
manner, the hands and fingers form the shape of a
triangle, which is symbolic of the spiritual fire or the
Triratna It This Mudra signifies meditation,
concentration of the Good Law and the sangha.
o This Mudra is used in representations of the Sakyamuni Buddha and Amitabha
Buddha. Sometimes the Dhyana Mudra is used in certain representations of
Bhaisajyaguru as the Medicine Buddha, with a medicine bowl placed on the hands.
BHUMISPARSA :
Calling the Earth to Witness the Truth it depicts the
Buddha sitting in meditation with his left hand, palm
upright, in his lap, and his right hand touching the
earth. It represents the Buddha asking Prithvi, the
Devi of the earth, that she witnessed enlightenment.
One day, the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was
sitting meditating by the Bodhi tree when he was
attacked the demon called Mara along with Mara’s monsters. “Who will speak for
you?” said Mara to Siddhartha. He reached his right hand down to touch the earth.
It was then Siddhartha Gautama realised enlightenment.
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ABHAY MUDRA:
Abhaya is translated from Sanskrit as fearlessness. The
Abhaya Mudra is made with the open palm of the
right hand extending outwards at the chest level or
slightly higher.
Karana Mudra:
Karana Mudra expresses a very powerful energy with
which negative energy is expelled. This hand gesture
is also called warding off the evil. It expels demons
and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative
thoughts. It is made by raising the index and the little
finger, and folding the other fingers.
It is nearly the same as the gesture known as corna in
many western countries; the difference is that in the
Karana Mudra the thumb does not hold down the
middle and ring finger.
VARADA:
o Compassion, Sincerity & Wish Granting: This VARADA
expresses the energy of compassion, liberation and an
offering of acceptance. The hand is extended downward,
palm out. Mostly on standing Buddha images, but
sometimes also represented in the sitting position. In
India, varada Mudra is used in images of Avalokitesvara
from the Gupta Empire (4th and 5th centuries). Varada
Mudra is extensively used in the statues of Southeast
Asia.
VAJRA MUDRA:
o Confidence in Self Vajra Mudra is formed by by
enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right
fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled
around) the tip of the left forefinger. This is also known
as the six elements Mudra, the fist of wisdom Mudra. It
symbolizes the unity of the five worldly elements (earth,
water, fire, air, and metal) with spiritual consciousness.
The Vajra Mudra transforms ignorance into wisdom. The
Mudra stresses the importance of Knowledge in the
spiritual world and is also known as the Mudra of
Supreme Wisdom.
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DHARMACHAKRA:
Wheel of Dharma (Cosmic Order): Dharma chakra Mudra
expresses the continuous energy (symbolized by a
wheel/chakra) of the cosmic order. The hands are placed at
the heart level with the thumbs and index fingers forming
circles (similar to Vitarka Mudra). The right palm faces
outwards and the left one faces towards the heart. This
Mudra is associated with Buddha's first sermon, or
teaching. It is often referred to as the representation of
teaching about the cosmic order as coming from (or
through) the heart center.
VITARKA:
Teaching Transmission: The Vitarka mudra ("mudra of
discussion") is the gesture of discussion, intellectual
argument and transmission of Buddhist teaching. While the
right hand is held at chest level and palm outward, vitarka
mudra is done by touching the tips of the thumb and the
index together forming a circle, and keeping the other
fingers pointing up. Sometimes the left hand is held with
fingers pointing downward, at hip level, also with palm
outward and with the thumb and index finger forming a
circle.
UTTARABODHI:
The Uttarabodhi mudra is a gesture that identifies with a
supreme enlightenment and symbolizes perfection. In this
position all fingers are intertwined. The index fingers are
extended and touch one another, pointing toward the sky.
Remaining fingers are crossed and folded down. Thumbs
are cross and folded or held next to each other. Clasped
hands are held over the head or at the level of the chest.
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Questionary:
Why did Jainism not become as popular as Buddhism?

What is Bodha Philosophy? Explain in detail: Mudra of Buddha.
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Chapter: 13
Religion in Medieval India
Rise of Religious Movements:

Nearly every month a programme is going on
in any auditorium in the city where songs of
the Sufi saints and Bhakti saints are sung.
The Sufis were mystics who called for
liberalism in Islam. They emphasised on an
egalitarian society based on universal love. -
The Bhakti saints transformed Hinduism by
introducing devotion or bhakti as the means
to attain God. For them caste had no meaning and all human being’s were equal.
Medieval period in India saw the rise and growth of the Sufi movement and the Bhakti
movement.The two movements brought a new form of religious expression
amongst Muslims and Hindus.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims and
Hindus together.
By using the local language of the people, they made religion accessible and
meaningful to the common people.
Rise of Islam:
Islam saw the rise of many religious and spiritual movements within it. These
movements were centered mainly around the interpretation of the Quran.
Islam first came to the western coast of India when Arab traders as early as the 7th
century CE came to coastal Malabar and Konkan-Gujarat.
There were two major sects that arose within Islam - the Sunnis and Shias.
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In Malabar, the Mappilas may have been the first

community to convert to Islam. Intensive
missionary activities were carried out along the
coast and many other natives embraced Islam.
Islam saw the rise of many religious and spiritual
movements within it. These movements were
centered mainly around the interpretation of the
Quran. Islam was founded by Prophet
Muhammad.
There were two major sects that arose within Islam – the Sunnis and Shias. India has
both the sects at present.
History Of Islam:
The history of Islam concerns the political, social,
economic and cultural developments of the Islamic
civilization. Prophet Muhammad died without
appointing a successor to lead the Muslim
community, and disputes arose over who should
shepherd the new and rapidly growing faith.
Some believed that a new leader should be chosen by
consensus (Sunni); others thought that only the
prophet’s descendants should become caliph (Shia).
The title passed to a trusted aide, Abu Bakr, though some thought it should have gone
to Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. Ali eventually did become caliph after
Abu Bakr’s two successors were assassinated. After Ali also was assassinated, his
sons Hasan and then Hussein claimed the title. But Hussein and many of his
relatives were massacred in Karbala, Iraq.
His martyrdom became a central tenet to those who believed that Ali should have
succeeded the Prophet. (It is mourned every year during the month of Muharram).
o Shias consider Ali and the leaders who came after him as Imams. Sunnis emphasise
God’s power in the material world, sometimes including the public and political
realm, while Shias value martyrdom and sacrifice.
More than 85 per cent of the world’s 1.5 billion Muslims are Sunni. They live
across the Arab world, as well as in countries such as Turkey, Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Iran, Iraq and Bahrain are largely Shia. The Saudi royal family, which practices an
austere and conservative strand of Sunni Islam known as Wahhabism, controls
Islam’s holiest shrines, Mecca and Medina. Karbala, Kufa and Najaf in Iraq are
revered shrines for the Shias.
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Principal Schools of Islam:
Our country has both the sects, but in many other
countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find
followers of only one of them. Among the Sunnis,
there are four principal schools of Islamic Law;
these are based upon the Quran and Hadis
(traditions of the Prophet’s saying and doings). Of
these the Hanafi School of the eighth century was
adopted by the eastern Turks, who later came to
India.
According to them, God is just and has nothing to do with man’s evil actions. Men
are endowed with free will and are responsible for their own actions.
This school believes that God knows, sees and speaks. The Quran is eternal and
uncreated.
The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by
Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD), the Ashari school evolved its own rationalist
argument in defence of the orthodox doctrine (Kalam). This school believes that
The Quran is eternal and uncreated.

Sufis owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas did.
The greatest exponent of this school was Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD),
who is credited with having reconciled orthodoxy with mysticism.
He was a great theologian who in 1095 began to lead a life of a Sufi.
He is deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis and said that positive
knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by revelation.
They were taught how to run the government in accordance with orthodox Sunni
ideas. These scholars were known as ulema.
Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. Ulema played an important role in the politics of
medieval India.
The Sufis:
Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. The Sufis were
mystics. They were pious men who were shocked
at the degeneration in political and
religious life.
The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema.
The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and
liberal ideas.
They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life and the readiness of the
ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers.
Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state.
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The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas. The Sufis turned to
meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the
Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity.
The pir and his disciples lived in a Khanqah(hospice). In course of time, the Sufis
were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its own pir
(guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh.
A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra
in Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities.
Basra in Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities. It must be noted that the Sufi
saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal
movement within the framework of Islam
The Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal
movement within the framework of Islam.
They owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulema did.
The Sufism in India:
In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were
Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to
Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. It may
be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on
a definite form before coming to India
Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks
of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis. These
silsilahs were divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. One of the early Sufis of
eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly
known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure).
The Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming to India. Its
fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers
and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed.
The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a
pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned
them a place of honour in Indian society.
Ba-shara and Be-shara.
Ba-shara was those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives
such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi,
Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs.
The besharasilsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this
group.
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The Chishti Silsilah:
Chishti Silsilah is a Sunni Sufi order within the mystic Sufi tradition of Islam. It began
in Chishti, a small town near Herat, Afghanistan about 930 CE. He made Ajmer the
main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the best form
of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died
in Ajmer in 1236.
o During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the emperors
regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. Among his disciples were Sheikh Hamiduddin
of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims. His verses,
written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth. Baba Farid’s most famous
disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible for making Delhi
an important centre of the Chishti silsilah.
The Hamiduddin lived the life of a poor peasant, cultivated land and refused
Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of villages. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar
to Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Baba Farid preferred to shun the company of rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the
state. For him renunciation meant distribution of food and clothes to the poor.
Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau.
Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi). Following his deat the disciples of
the Chishti silsilah moved out towards eastern and southern India.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah:
The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind This silsilah was
founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India by
Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262)
Besides these two silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari
Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, and Naqshbandi Silsilah.
Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi set up a leading Khanqah in Multan, which was
visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants.
Unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardi maintained close contacts with the state.
They accepted gifts, and even government posts.
There were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah,
Naqshbandi Silsilah, Not very popular in India.
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT:
An all-India socio-religious movement spread in the middle Ages in India. The Bhakti
movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval
Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism.
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The development of Bhakti movement took place in

Tamil Nadu between the seventh and
twelfth centuries.
It originated in the eighth-century Tamil south India
(now Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread
northwards. It was reflected in the emotional
poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and
Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).
It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith
between the 15th and 17th century CE. These saints looked upon religion
not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the
worshipped and worshipper.
In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slow
process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form.
Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva
popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in
Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able toreach out
to many people and they also translated Sanskrit works to make them
understandable to a wider audience.
THE BHAKTI SAINTS:
Ramanuja: ͡͡
o Ramanuja (traditionally, 1017–1137 CE; IAST: Rāmānuja; [raːmaːnudʑə] ) was a

Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one of the most important exponents of the Sri
Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism. It was in the eleventh or twelfth century
that Ramanuja preached unity of God under the name of Vishnu in Southern India.
He proclaimed the love of God as the way to salvation. It is said that Ramanuja had
to fly from the kingdom of the Chola king into Mysore, that he received converts
from all classes of the people in that land.
Ramananda:
Ramananda was a 14th-century Vaishnava devotional poet sant, in the Ganga river
region of Northern India. He traveled far and wide from Varanasi, and preached
and wrote in Hindi that was a local language of the people of Northern India.
Religious reforms have often led to the improvement and culture of the spoken
tongue in India and the Hindi language was greatly strengthened by Ramananda’s
life work.
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Kabir:
o Kabir was a 15th-century Indian mystic poet and saint, whose writings influenced
Hinduism's movement and his verses are found in Sikhism's scripture Guru Granth
Sahib. Kabir was a disciple of Ramananda. He followed in the same path. Kabir
conceived the lofty ideal of uniting Hindus and Muslims in the worship of one
God. He believed that the Creator is One. His God was called by many names -
Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc. No wonder then that the Muslims
claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his
songs in the Adi Granth.
Kabir’s teachings known as Kabir Chaura are preserved in Varanasi, and his followers
are still numerous in the Deccan, Central India, and Gujarat. Kabir emphasised
simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain God. He
refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning.
Chaitanya Maha Prabhu:
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a Vedic spiritual leader who founded Gaudiya
Vaishnavism. Almost contemporaneous with the reformer of the Punjab, Chaitanya
was born in Nadiya in 1486. Chaitanya too invited Muslims to join his sect, but his
following was almost entirely Hindu. Chaitanya preached in Bengal the religion of
One God under the name of Vishnu. Nearly the entire population of Bengal, except
the higher castes, are virtually Vaishnavas at the present day.
Nanak:
Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth
is celebrated worldwide as Guru Nanak Gurpurab on Kartik Pooranmashi, the full-
moon day in the month of Katak, October–November. Nanak was born in 1469 at
talwandi. He preached the same monotheism and conceived the same great idea of
uniting Hindus and Muslims in the worship of One God. From an early age, he
showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was helpful to the poor and needy. His
disciples called themselves Sikhs.
Guru Nanak’s objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices
in society. He showed a new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social
order Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a religious teacher. He called
for an improvement in the status of women. His vani (words) along with those of
other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy
book of the Sikhs.
Dadu Dayal (1554—1603 A D.):
Dadu Dayal was a sant from Gujarat, India. "Dadu" means brother, and "Dayal"
means "the compassionate one". Dadu Dayal was a weaver from Ahmadabad, who
made significant contributions to the Bhakti movement. He was a cobbler by caste
and renounced the world at an early age.
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o He was reputedly found by an affluent business man floating on the river

Sabarmati. In his teachings Dadu laid stress upon the promotion of love, union,
sentiments of brotherhood and toleration among people of various faiths. He said
“The Illusion of Allah and Rama hath been dispelled from my mind; since I see
Thee in all; I see no difference between Hindu and Turk.”
He dwelt upon the greatness of Guru even over the sacred books—the Vedas and
the Quran. Dadu established a sect the followers of which are known as Dadu-
panthis.
Dadu had 100 disciples that attained samadhi. Dadu was opposed to idol-worship,
caste distinctions, the theory of avatars (reincarnation of God), external formalities
of religion and the practice of worship at the shrines of the departed saints.
The Vaishnavite Movement:
o During this period, another movement based
upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had
also developed.
o This movement, called the Vaishnavite
movement, centered around the worship of
Rama and Krishna, who were seen as
incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu.
The saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak
had preached devotion toward a nirankar form of
God. During this period, another
movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed.
The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484-
1533). Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhacharya.
He was a blind poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar
recounts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and youth with
gentle affection and delightfulness.
Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to
salvation was expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and kirtans.
The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73).
Widowed at an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her
poems have a quality of their own and are popular even today.
The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn session by
devotees) which took place in homes, temples and even street processions.
The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of
Hinduism. They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings.
Their philosophy was broadly humanist.
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The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). He

considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The
most famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l 532-1623) who wrote the
Ramacharitmanas.
He makes an exposition of religious devotion of the highest order. Tulsi Das was a
humanist and Universalist and laid stress upon knowledge, devotion, worship and
mediation He has blended in his work the philosophical monist of the past with
stress on Bhakti, the poetry and dignity of Valmiki Ramayana with the devotional
fervour and humanism of Bhagavata.
Vallabhacharya:
Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava saint from the South. He hailed
from a Telugu Brahman family, and gained great popularity for his talents,
scholarship and deep knowledge of philosophy.
Vallabhacharya advocated a system of pure non-dualism devoid of the concept of
Maya. Vallabha glorified the intense love of Radha and Krishna. He advocated a
universal religion which did not believe in distinctions of sex, caste, creed or
nationality.
He had intense love for the divine incarnation of God—Shri Krishna. He wrote
commentaries on the Brahma Sutra, the Jaimini Sutra and Brahma Sutra and
Anubhshya and Tattvarthadipa. In addition he wrote numerous other small works.
Nimbarka:
Nimbarka is known for propagating the Vaishnava theology of Dvaitadvaita or
“dualistic non-dualism". It is also known as 'Bhedabheda' (bheda-abheda)
philosophy. He was a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, who also rendered great
service to the spread of Bhakti movement. He wrote Vedanta-Parijatasourabha, a
commentary on the Brahma Sutra, in simple language. Nimbarka also wrote Dasa
Sloki, which deals with three realities (tri-tattava) —Brahma (Krishna), soul (Chit)
and matter (Achit).
Nimbarka propounded the Radha Krishna cult, one of the most popular and influential
cults of India. He declared that the individual soul is a part of Brahma, both in the
state of ignorance and in that of knowledge or emancipation Nimbarka attached
great importance to attainment of knowledge and devotion.
Madhva:
Madhva wrote four Bhasa on Brahma Sutra; on the opening passages of the Rig-Veda;
on the ten philosophical Upanishads; and on the Bhagavad-Gita. He was another
devotee of Vishnu from the South. He took to monastic life when he was 25 years
old. He also wrote expositions of Mahabharata and Bhagavata. It is said that
Madhva in all wrote thistly-seven works. In these works he revealed his scholarly
ability and logical penetration.
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Madhva held that the greatest obstacle in the path of salvation was the belief in the
identity of Brahma and Jiva. He did not believe in the qualified monism of
Ramanuja and emphasised the doctrine of duality, based mainly upon the
Bhagavata Purana.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS:
The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti
saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis
too infused a new liberal outlook within Islam.
Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry
and social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking.
The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more
liberal movements of the fifteenth century.
The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by
them, which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even
in later centuries.
Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak had preached a non-sectarian religion based on universal
love. The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian
society. The Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was
remarkably similar to that in the Hindu Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints
preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to explain concepts. Malik
Muhammad Jaisi composing works in Hindi.
The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a
musical renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of
group singing at kirtans.
The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc. became so
common in such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise
Haqaiq-i-Hïndi to explain their Islamic equivalents.
Sikhism:
o The Sikhs, is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Punjab region of the
Indian subcontinent about the end of the 15th century. Guru Gobind Singh,
ordained the Sikhs to treat the Adi Granth, popularly known as the Guru Granth
Sahib, as their Guru.
It is one of the youngest of the major world religions, and the fifth-largest. The
orthodox Sikhs believe that their religion was revealed by God to Guru Nanak,
whose spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru.
But the students of history and religion think that the seeds for the birth and growth
of this religion were present in the Bhakti movement, in its nirguna branch.
Sometimes, the gurudom was conferred on the son and sometimes on the best disciple.
The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things.
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The first was in the shape of the Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus
and other allied saints.
The second was the standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was
first written. And finally, the site and the foundation of
the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple and the
Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the
dictats for the entire Sikh community are issued.
Guru Gobind Singh born Gobind Rai, was the tenth Sikh
guru, a spiritual master, Warrior, poet and philosopher.
He was created the Khalsa, which means
“the pure”, in 1699. He also ordained the Sikhs to take
five vows, namely, keeping of kesh, kangha, kada,
kirpan and kaccha. Consequently, these symbols
became the distinguishing marks of a Sikh.
He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs.
Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism and they believed that
through music one can attain ecstacy or samadhi.

Sikh Gurus:
Guru Nanak:
Guru Nanak travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and
Baghdad, preaching his message.
On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.Guru Angad Dev
Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552). He created a new script
gurmukhi and gave the Sikhs a written language. After his death Guru Amar Das Ji
(1479-1574) followed in succession
He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism. Guru Ram
Das Ji took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later
incorporated in the sacred writings. Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of
Sikhism. He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly known as the
Golden Temple in Amritsar.
He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of the Sikhs. Guru
Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru.
Hargobind:
Who maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing
spiritual and temporal power. Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in
1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching the
teachings of Guru Nanak.
His son Guru Siri Har Krishnji was eighth . He gave his life while serving and healing
the epidemic-stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breath his last is the one
where, the renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi.
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Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664 as ninth. o

When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to
forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur
decided to fight it out.
o The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of
his death invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the
supreme head of the Sikhs, thus bringing the
practice of nominating a religious head to a
grinding halt.
Zoroastrianism the Ages:
The Zorastrian religion spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant
religion till the eighth century AD when Muslims conquered this region. Most of
the Parsis migrated to different parts of the world. They also came to India and
settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on spread to almost all parts of India.
The Parsi or Zoroastrian religion was founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the
eighth century BC. He preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia.
He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura
Mazda and Ahura Man. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness and charity.
These doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
The Parsees also established a large number of public charities. Zorastrianism is not a
proselytising religion and no new entrants are accepted into its fold under any
circumstances. Jamshedji Tata, a pioneering Indian industrialist established an iron
and steel industry in India in the face of the toughest competition posed by the
British steel mills and yet continued to prosper.
They have contributed a lot to Indian culture. It was Dadabhai Naoroji, the famous
nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed the hollowness of the British claim of
civilizing India and not exploiting it.
Questionary:
How did Sufi movement progress in Islam?

What were the similarities between Guru Nanak and Kabir?
Write a short paragraph on the Vaishnavite movement of India?
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Chapter: 14
Religious Reform Movements in
MODERN INDIA
Social Change:
It followed certain practices which are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or
values but were still being followed in the name of religion.
When the British came to India they introduced the English language as well as
certain modern ideas. These ideas were those of liberty, social and economic
equality, fraternity, democracy and justice which had a tremendous impact on
Indian society
Fortunately for our country there were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati and many others who
were willing to fight and bring in reforms in society so that it could face the
challenges of the West.
There were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram MohanRoy, Ishwar Chand
Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati and many others who were willing to fight and
bring in reforms in society so that it could face the challenges of the West.
They tried to bring changes in the religion in order to reflect in the society.
Social condition:
By the turn of the century, the condition of women had little to be happy about.
Perpetual widowhood was the injunction of the society, especially amongst the
upper castes. These widows could not wear coloured clothes, or attend marriages
since their presence was considered inauspicious.
The birth of a girl child was considered to be unfortunate. Child Marriage and
Polygamy was permitted. Women had no right to property or divorce.
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The condition of Muslim women was much the same. They faced immense
hardship due to the practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to
property.
Rise of Movements:
From the late 19th century a number of European and
Indian scholars started the study of ancient India’s
history, philosophy, science, religions and literature.
o This growing knowledge of India’s past glory
provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in their
civilization. It also helped the reformers in their work
of religious and social reform for their struggle
against all type of inhuman practices, superstitions
etc.
They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability,
purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities
and illiteracy.
o Since they had become associated with religious
beliefs, therefore most of the movements of social
reform were of a religious character.
These social and religious reform movements arose
among all communities of the Indian people. They
attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the
priestly class.
Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the British officials
and some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations framed
by the British Government.
Social and religious reforms:
Christian priests came to India along with the employees of the East India Company to
perform their religious rituals. Along with Christian propaganda, English education
was introduced which had a great impact on the society and economy of India.
o But these priests soon started preaching Christianity to the non-Christian
employees of the Company as well. Slowly they started opening schools that were
attended by the Indian children. It were these missionaries, who also started the
printing press and magazines for disseminating Christian precepts and literature.
They imbibed new ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and freedom.
Soon English language also became the lingua franca of the educated
Indians.
Though the purpose of introducing English education was to fulfil British political and
administrative needs, it opened the windows for Indians to the West.
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Methods Used:
The Indian society of 21st century is very different from the one in the first half of
the 19th century. Multiple socio-religious factors prevented the society’s progress.
Many sections of the Indian society were rigid and followed certain practices
which were not in keeping with humanitarian values. The desire to reform the
society was so strong that the reformers were now ready to face challenges as well
as resistance from the orthodox Indians. They started several movements to bring
desirable changes in the society.
Creation of awareness among people:
These movements adopted various methods for bringing changes in the society. First
was the creation of awareness among people by publishing articles, journals and
books as well as organizing debates and discussions on various issues. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy was a pioneer in this field. In 1818 and 1819he published his famous
pamphlets on sati which received widespread public attention
Legislative intervention:
Second method was by seeking legislative intervention against prevalent social evils.
Reformers like Keshab Chandra Sen in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in
Maharashtra and Veersalingam in Andhra Pradesh believed that social reforms
could be taken up only with the support of the state. These reformers appealed to
the colonial rulers for enacting suitable legislations. Although they were successful
in some cases and legislation banning sati and allowing widow
remarriage were passed, these reformers failed to understand that primary intention
of the British in India was not to reform or enlighten Indian society but to govern it
for their own benefit and hence their support was likely to come only when it
suited their own interests.
Representing themselves as symbols change:
Third method was that of representing themselves as symbols of change through

non-conformist individual activity and an uncompromising attitudetowards social
evils. However, this group was limited only to ‘Derozions’ or ‘Young Bengal’.
They were highly influenced by the West and stood for rejection of all tradition.
One of them, Ram Gopal Ghose, while taking about rationality said, “He who will
not reason is a bigot, he who cannot is a fool and he who does not is a slave.”
However, their uncompromising attitude failed to impress people.
Social service:
Last method adopted by some of the reformers was through social service.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was one such reformist who did not feel contended by
writing pamphlets and creating awareness.
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He devoted his entire life for the cause of widow remarriage. Arya Samaj and
Ramakrishna Mission also tried to propagate ideas of social reform through social
service.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) AND BRAHMO SAMAJ: o
Rammohan Roy is unanimously considered as
first ‘modern men’, pioneer of socio-religious and
political reform movements in modern India.
Known as the “father of the Indian Renaissance”,
Rammohan Roy was a great patriot, scholar
humanist and linguist. He was moved by deep love
for the country and worked throughout his life for
the social, religious, intellectual and political
regeneration of the Indians.
o In 1814, Roy founded the short-lived Atmiya-
Sabha (Friendly Society) to propagate his doctrines
of monotheistic Hinduism. He became interested in Christianity and learned
Hebrew and Greek in order to read the Old (see Hebrew Bible) and New
Testaments. In 1820 he published the ethical teachings of Christ, excerpted from
the four Gospels, under the title Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and
Happiness.
o This led him to challenge other unfair social and religious practices prevalent at
that time. He founded Brahmo Samaj in 1828, intended to bring socio-religious and
intellectual reforms. He was the first person to take an initiative to challenge the
practice of Sati and it soon became his life-long crusade. He mobilized public
opinion and cited the scriptures to show that this practice had no sanction in Hindu
religion.
o In his efforts he was supported by the then Governor General of India, Sir William
Bentinck. A law was passed in 1829 making Sati illegal and punishable. He also
made efforts to advocate widow re-marriage and condemned child marriage. He
represented a synthesis of the Eastern and the Western thoughts. He advocated the
importance of Vedas in reforming religion and upheld the fundamental unity
among all religions. But he never acknowledged that Vedas are infallible. He held
that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached Monotheism (worship of
one God) and opposed Polytheism (belief in more than one God).
o He was critical of idol worship and observance of meaningless rituals. He strongly

advocated the learning of English language, literature, scientific advancement and
technology to modernize India as he realized that India would be a backward
country, if her people did not learn English, Mathematics and Science.
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BRAHMO SAMAJ AFTER ROY:

Debendranath Tagore:(1817-1905)
Debendranath Tagore Established the Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839) at Calcutta to
propagate Rammohan Roy’s ideas. He formally joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1843
remained the undisputed leader of the Brahmo Samaj till 1866 and carried on the
socio-religious reform work initiated by Roy.
Keshab chandhra sen (1838-84) and first schism:
Keshab Chandhra Sen Joined the Samaj in 1857 and became the right hand man of
Debendranath. Later development of differences occurred between theo lder and
conservative section led by Debendranath and the younger and progressive section
led by Sen over the issues of social reforms (particularly the caste system) and of
the relationship between Hinduism and Brahamoism
Sen’s group got separated from the parent body (which had come to be known as
the Adi Brahmo Samaj) and formation of a new organisation, known as the
Brahmo Samaj of India, in 1866.Sen spread the message of Brahmo Samaj in other
parts of India, including Bombay and Madras by his tours.
o He adopted a much more radical and comprehensive scheme of social reform and
fusion of “bhakti” into Brahamoism. Sen formed the Indian Reform Association
(1870) and persuaded the British government to enact the Native Marriage Act Of
1872 (popularly known as Civil Marriage Act)which legalised the Brahmo
marriages and fixed the minimum age for the groom and the bride at 18 and 14
respectively.
Econd schism in Brahamoism:
o It occurred in 1878 when a group of Sen’s followers under Anadamohan
Bose and Sivanatha Sastri, left him and formed the Sadharana Brahmo
Samaj. Causes for this split were the question of management of the Samaj and the
violation of the Native Marriage Act by Sen himself.
The young Bengal movement and Henry Vivian derozio:
The establishment of the Hindu College in 1817 was a major event in the history of
Bengal. It played an important role in carrying forward the reformist movement
that had already emerged in the province. A radical movement for the
reform of Hindu Society, known as the Young Bengal Movement, started in the
college.
Derozio was deeply influenced by the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and
fraternity. He was a brilliant teacher and within a short period of time, he drew
around him a group of intelligent boys in the college.
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He inspired his students to think rationally and freely, to

question authority, to love liberty, equality and freedom
and to worship truth. By organising an
association for debates and discussions on literature,
philosophy, history and science, he spread radical ideas.
The movement started by Derozio was called the Young
Bengal Movement and his followers were known as
the Derozians. They condemned religious rites and the
rituals, and pleaded for eradication of social
evils, female education and improvement in the condition of women.
Derozians carried forward Raja Rammohan’s tradition of educating the people in
social, economic and political questions through newspapers, pamphlets and public
associations.
They carried on public agitation on public questions such as the revision of the
Company’s Charter, the freedom of the Press, better treatment for Indian labour in
British colonies abroad, trial by jury, protection of the riots from oppressive
zamindars, and employment of Indians in the higher grades of government
services. But the extreme radical ideology of Derozians resulted in lack of support
and gradual decline of movement.
Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar:
o Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar was born in a poor Brahmin
family of Bengal in 1820. He was a renowned Sanskrit
scholar and became the Principal of the Sanskrit
College in 1851. The Sanskrit College conferred on
him the title of ‘Vidyasagar’because of his profound
knowledge of Sanskrit.
He was both a scholar and a reformer. He was a great
humanist and dedicated his entire life to the cause of
social reform which he thought was necessary for modernising India. By admitting
non-Brahmin students to the Sanskrit College, he dealt a severe blow to the
prevalent caste system.
Vidyasagar was a staunch supporter of women’s education and helped Drinkwater
Bethune to establish the Bethune School, the first Indian school for girls, in 1849.
As Inspector of Schools, Vidyasagar opened a number of schools for girls in the
districts under his charge.
Vidyasagar’s greatest contribution lies in the improvement of the condition of widows.
Despite opposition, Vidyasagar openly advocated widow remarriage. Soon a
powerful movement in favour of widow remarriage was started. At last, after
prolonged struggle the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856. He also spoke
vehemently against child marriage and polygamy.
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Vidyasagar contributed enormously to the growth of the Bengali language and

contributed to the evolution of the modern prose style in Bengali. He wrote a
Bengali primer, ‘Varna Parichay’, which is used even today. Babuvivah was one of
the important books authored by him and Shome prakash was the newspaper
started by him. Through his writings, Vidyasagar made the people aware of the
social problems and thus helped the growth of nationalism in India.
Prarthana Samaj:
o The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang
(1825-1898) in 1867 with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The
two great members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhadarkar and Justice Mahadev
Govind Ranade.
They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste
dining, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of
women and depressed classes.
Mahadev Govinda Ranade:
Mahadev Govinda Ranade (1842-1901) devoted his
entire life to Prathana Samaj. He was the founder of
the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the
Deccan Education Society. He established the
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well. To Ranade,
religious reform was inseparable from social
reform. He also believed that if religious idea were
rigid there would be no success in social, economic
and political spheres. MG Ranade was the leader of
social reformation and cultural renaissance in Western India.
Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involved in social service was
“Strength of numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of
conviction, singleness of devotion, readiness for self-sacrifice, in all honest
workers in the cause”. Although Prathana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the
ideas of Brahmo Samaj. It did not insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and
a definite break from the caste system. It did not regard the Vedas as the last word,
nor did it believe in the doctrine of transmigration of the human soul and
incarnation of God. Its central ideas were one positive belief in the unity God.
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Western India Reformers:
Gopal Hari Deshmukh:
o A champion of new learning and social reform in
Maharashtra, he was popularly known as
‘Lokahitawadi’.He made powerful rationalist attacks on
Hindu orthodoxy and preached religious and social
equality.
Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak samaj:
Belonging to a low caste from Maharashtra and being aware of the degraded position
of the untouchables and non-Brahmins, he waged a life-long struggle
against upper caste domination and Brahminical supremacy through his
Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). The main objective of Satya Shodak Samaj was to
liberate the lower castes and protecting them from exploitation and atrocities
Pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtraand worked for the
education of women.
Savitribai Phule:
At a time when people hardly identified the
grievances of women in India, Savitribai Phule
along with her husband stood up to fight the
injustice against women. Savitribai Jyotirao
Phule, born on 3 January 1831, was a social
reformer and poet. She played an important role
in fighting for women's rights in India during
British rule and is described as "one of the first-
generation modern Indian feminists".
Phule also worked to abolish discrimination and unfair treatment of people based on
caste and gender.She found the treatment of the untouchables problematic and
opened a well in her house in 1868 so that, people who were refused drinking
water by the upper caste can use it.She died while taking care of the patients
suffering during the worldwide Third Pandemic of the bubonic (bacterial infection)
plague.
Pandita Ramabai:
Pandita Ramabai in Maharashtra, Pandita Ramabai, a
renowned social reformer, fought for the rights of
women and spoke against the practice of child
marriage. She promoted girls education and started
the Arya Mahila Samaj in1881, in Pune, to improve
the condition of women, especially child widows.
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In 1889, she established the Mukti Mission, in Pune, a refuge for young widows who
had been deserted and abused by their families. She also started Sharda Sadan
which provided housing, education, vocational training and medical services to
widows, orphans and the visually challenged. She also wrote many books showing
the hard life of women, including child brides and child widows. The Pandita
Ramabai Mukti Mission is still active today.
Arya Samaj and swami Dayanda Saraswati:
With all this doctrine, he went about all over the

country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj in
Bombay Satyarth Prakash was his most important
book. The use of Hindi in his writings and
preaching’s made his ideas accessible to the
common people of Northern India. Arya Samajits
opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage
of widows. It made rapid progress in Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Swami worked
actively for the regeneration of India. The Arya Samaj made significant
contributions to the fields of education and social and religious reforms. Although
it was not a political organisation, the Arya Samaj played a positive role in creating
a nationalist pride in India tradition and culture.
The ‘suddhi’ movement was one of the most distinctive features of Arya Samaj which
means the reconversion of those Hindus who had once been willingly or forcibly
converted into other religions, but were now willing to come back into the fold of
Hinduism also it prevented further conversion. It was considered by the Arya
Samajists as a potent instrument for effecting socio-religious and political
unity of India.
After the death of Dayanand (1883) serious differences arose between two sections of
the Arya Samaj over the question of the system of education to be followed,
resulting in a split in 1892. One section, known as the ‘Gurukula Section’ led by
Swami Sraddhanad advocated the adoption of the ancient system of
Hindu education and established institutions for boys only, the most important
among them being the one at Haridwar. The other one, called the ‘College Section’
led by Lajpat Raj and Hans Raj, stood for the spread of English education, and
established a number of Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools and Colleges both
or girls and boys, the most important being the one at Lahore.
With the objectives of revival of Aryan religion and removal of all evils crept into it,
Swami Dayanand Saraswati started Arya Samaj in 1875 in Bombay. He held that
the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by God and essentials of
modern science could also be traced in them, they are infallible.
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He was opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood, particularly to the prevalent caste
practices and popular Hinduism as preached by the Brahmins. He favoured the
study of western science.
Ramakrishna Paramhansa and Swami Vivekananda
o Ramakrishna Paramhamsa (1836-1886) highlighted the essential unity of religions
and the need to lead a spiritual life. He believed that the different religions of the
world are only different ways to reach the same god. Swami Vivekananda (1863-
1902) was his foremost disciple.
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
o Swami Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s teaching on the essential oneness
of all religions. He promoted the Vedanta philosophy which the considered the
most rational system.
The principal feature Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on the
upliftment of the masses. For him, service to the poor and downtrodden was the
highest religion. To organise such service, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission in
1897.
Vivekananda was the first spiritual leader who thought beyond religious reforms.
He felt that Indian masses needed secular as well as spiritual knowledge to
empower them to believe in themselves. Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna
mission after the name of his guru Ramakrishna Paramhansa. Through his speeches
and writings, he brought out the essence of Hindu culture and religion.
Vivekananda attached primary importance to the removal of ignorance among the
people. Vivekananda Contributed to the rise of nationalism. His nationalism was
based on 4 pillars;
Awakening of masses
Development of physical and moral strength o
Unity based on common spiritual ideas
o Pride in ancient Indian glory
Ramakrishna mission and math:
In 1896, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission to propagate social welfare.
It laid emphasis not on personal salvation but on social good and social service.
The Ramakrishna Mission stood for religious and social reform based on the
ancient culture of India. Emphasis was put on the essential spirit of Hinduism and
not on rituals.
Rendering social service was the primary aim of the Ramakrishna Mission. It
believed that serving a human being was the same as worshipping God.
The Mission opened a chain of schools, hospitals, orphanages and libraries
throughout the country. It provided relief during famines, earthquakes and
epidemics.
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Theosophical society:
Theosophical Society was founded in New York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P.
To form a universal brotherhood of man. To promote the study of ancient religions

and philosophies
To make a systematic investigation into the mystic potencies of life and matter, this is
called occultism.
o Under their inspiration the Theosophical Society of India came into being at Adyar
in Madras in 1886.
MRS.ANNIE BESANT:
Annie Besant made the movement very popular in India.
It represented both Indian and international character.
The society under Besant concentrated on the revival
of Hinduism and its ancient ideas. In order to provide
Hindu religious instruction, she founded the Central
Hindu School at Varanasi which was later developed
into the Banaras Hindu University by Madanmohan
Malaviya. Annie Besant fought for the causes she
thought were right, such as, women’s rights,
secularism, birth control, Fabian socialism and
workers’ rights.
She also became involved in Indian freedom movement. Along with the Lokmanya
Tilak in 1916, she founded Home Rule League which advocated self-rule by
Indians. She became the President of Indian National Congress in 1917. She was
the first woman to hold that post. She started a newspaper,“New India”, criticized
British rule and was jailed for sedition. She worked hard on the campaign for
India’s independence and has created various letters and articles demanding the
independence of India.
The society conducted researches on Hindu religious thoughts, translated and
published Hindu scriptures which helped the process of intellectual awakening of
India. The Theosophical Society established the greatness of the Hindu
metaphysical doctrines and created a national pride in the minds of educated Indian
youths, which gave birth to the modern concept of nationalism.
Reform movement among the Muslims:

The Muslim reform movements started a little later because they had avoided western
education in the beginning. The first effort was in 1863 when theMuhammad
Literary Society was set up in Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise the study of
English and western sciences. It established a number of schools in Bengal.
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Aligarh movement:
o The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the
social and educational advancement of the Muslims in India. He fought against the
medieval backwardness and advocated a rational approach towards religion. Syed
Ahmad Khan was born in 1817 into a Muslim noble family and had joined the
service of the Company as a judicial officer.
In 1862, he founded the Scientific Society to
translate English books on science and other
subjects into Urdu. He also started an English-
Urdu journalthrough which he spread the ideas
of social reform through his initiative was
established the Mohammedean Oriental College
which later developed into the Aligarh Muslim
University. It helped to develop a
modern outlook among its students. This intellectual movement is called the
Aligarh Movement.
o As a social reformer, Syed Ahmad khan campaigned against the purdah system,
polygamy and the Muslim system of divorce. He emphasized the need for
removing irrational social customs while retaining the essence of Islam and
encouraging a rational interpretation of the Koran.
Syed Ahmed Khan believed that the interest of the Muslims would be best served
through cooperation with the British Government. It was only through the guidance
of the British that India could mature into a full-fledged nation. So he opposed the
participation of the Muslims in the activities of theIndian National Congress.
The Deoband school:
o The orthodox section among the Muslim
ulema-organised the Deoband Movement.it
was a revivalist movement whose twin
objectives were:
To propagate among the Muslims the pure
teachings of the Koran and the Hadis
o To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the
foreign rulers.
The new Deoband leader Mahmud-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and
intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school.The liberal interpretation of
Islam created a political awakening among its followers.Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad,a scholar of Deoband school taught there is no conflict between nationalism
and Islam.
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Sikh reform movement:
o Punjab also came under the spell of reforms. Baba Dayal Das founded
the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar
(formless).The Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh. His
followers wore white clothes and gave up meat eating.
The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amritsar in 1870 were aimed at reforming the
Sikh society. They helped to set up the Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892. They
also encourage Gurumukhi and Punjabi literature.In 1920, the Akalis started a
movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the Sikh guruwaras.The
British government was forced to make laws on this matter. Later, the Akalis
organised themselves into apolitical party.
Parsi reforms movement:
The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji
and S.S. Bengalee in 1851. They advocated the spread of women’s
education. They also wanted to reform their marriage customs.
Naoroji published a monthly journal, Jagat Mithra. The momentum gathered through
these reform movements and went a long way in uplifting the entire community.By
the middle of the twentieth century most of them were highly placed in various
capacities and have made a significant contribution to India’s development.
Limitation of socio Religious Reform movement:
o The religious reform movement was concentrated upon and benefited only a
microscopic minority of the Indian population. In addition to this, it started tending
to look backward, appeal to past greatness, and to rely on scriptural authority.as a
result, the supremacy of the human reason and scientific outlook was undermined.
Further, the neglect of medieval Indian history showed serious repercussions both
socially and politically in later periods.
One of the main limitations of Indian renaissance was lack of unity and a sound
organisation. Opposition from orthodox elements was there at every attempt of the
reformers. For instance, Radhakanta Dev organized the Dharma Sabha to protest
against reforms of Roy, Sayyid Ahmed Khan was attacked by
the conservatives of Deoband movement.
o These movements did not have an all-India character. They were localised
in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, etc. Their impact was generally limited to
theeducated, upper middle and middle classes. Rise of revivalism during the last
decade of 19th century in the form of Theosophical Society also contributed to the
declining zeal of the reform movements. The upsurge of militant nationalism, with
its revivalist undertones, strengthened this trend.
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These movements were carried under constraints inherent in a colonial society. They
tended to lean more on alien rulers for help in their efforts to achieve their ends.
Except movements of Jyotiba Phule and Shree Narayan Guru and to a certain
extent Arya Samaj, the reform movements were limited to the upper class of the
society. This restricted the effectiveness of these movements.
Effects of 19th century socio Religious Reform movements:

19th century reformers initiated social and religious awakening in India. It was due to
their work that self-respect, self-confidence and pride were fostered among
Indians. The reform movements helped in the revival of the past glory. They also
helped in making up of a modern India.
Numerous individuals, reform societies and religious organizations worked hard to
spread education among women to prevent marriage of young children, to bring
women out of the purdah, to enforce monogamy, and to enable middle class
women to take up professions or public employment. Eventually it helped Indian
women to play an active and important role in the struggle for independence of the
country.
o The reform movements created the rise of a middle class which consisted of the
teachers, the doctors, the lawyers, the scientists, and the journalistswho helped in
the progress of India in different fields. The caste system began to lose its hold on
the society, to travel abroad, which was considered as a sin before, was accepted
now. All the reformers propagated the idea of one God and the basic unity of all
religions. Thus, they tried to bridge the gulf between different religious beliefs. By
attacking the caste system and untouchability, the reformers helped to unify the
people of India into one nation.
Questionary:
Discuss the role of Theosophical Society in the history of religious

movement in India.
Explain the role of following reformers in challenging caste system and
advocating widow remarriage: (a) Raja Ram Mohan Roy (b) Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar (c) Jyotiba Phule
Write a short note on the reforms undertaken by the Sikh reformers.
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Chapter: 15
Indian Painting
Painting:
Many thousands of years before the dawn of history, when man was only a cave
dweller, he painted his rock shelters to satisfy his aesthetic sensitivity and creative
urge.
Painting is one of the most delicate forms of art giving expression to human thoughts
and feelings through the media of line and colour.
Among Indians, the love of colour and design is so deeply ingrained that from the
earliest times they created paintings and drawings even during the periods of
history for which we have no direct evidence.
Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly, as in the
Ajanta Caves & Kailash temple (Ellora)
Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures.
Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums on
perishable material such as paper and cloth.
Pre Historic Paintings:
Painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock
painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) where we have
drawings and paintings of animals.
The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra)
show skins of spotted deer left drying.
Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had
already appeared on the seals of Harappan
civilization.
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Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and
techniques:
Lepyacitras : The representation of folklore
Lekhacitras: line drawing and painting on textile while
Dhulitcitras: painting on the floor.
Paintings in Literature:
o The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.)
mentions numerous paintings or Patas.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century)
describes the existence of painted figures in many
royal buildings.
The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kama sutra
by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst 64
kinds of arts and says that it was based on scientific principles.
o Painted halls are also described in the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the
composition of which in their original form is acknowledged to be of great
antiquity.
The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called
Chitrasutra which describes the six organs of painting :
Rupabheda secrets of form knowledge of appearances viz. facial

expressions & features
Pramanam Proportion Correct perception, measure and structure
Bhava Emotional Portraying feelings on canvas

Disposition
Lavanya Gracefulness in Portrays Grace & Poise

Yojanam composition
Sadrisyam Similitude Defines similarities between the real & the

creation
Varnika Colour Artistic manner of using the right brush and

bhanga differentiation colours, invented by Rabindranath Tagore
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Mural Paintings:
o Mural is inherently different from all other
forms of pictorial art & is organically
connected with architecture.
Mural is the only form of painting that is truly
three-dimensional, since it modifies and
partakes of a given space.
Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with
the major use of egg, yolk, oil, etc.
A mural artist must conceive pictorially a theme on the appropriate scale with
reference to the structural exigencies of the wall & to the idea expressed.
The history of Indian murals starts in ancient & early medieval times, from 2nd
century BC to 8th – 10th century AD. Murals from this period depict mainly
religious themes of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu.
Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides.
Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly, as in the
Ajanta Caves & Kailash temple (Ellora)
Fresco Paintings
A technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster.
Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment
With the setting of the plaster; the painting becomes an integral part of the wall.
Notable examples of Mural : Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Sittanavasal Caves,
Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Kailasa temple (Ellora Caves) .
TECHNIQUES:
Most of the colours were locally available. Brushes were made up from the hair of
animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose, etc.
The ground was coated with an exceedingly thin layer of lime plaster over which
paintings were drawn in water colours. In true fresco method the paintings are
done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall
surface.
The technique and process of making Indian wall paintings which has been discussed
in a special chapter of the Vishnudharamotaram, a Sanskrit text of the 5th/6th
century A.D. The process of these paintings appears to have been the same in all
the early examples that have survived with an only exception in the Rajarajeshwara
temple at Tanjore which is supposed to be done in a true fresco method over the
surface of the rock.
Whereas the other method of painting which was followed in most of the cases of
Indian painting is known as tempora or fresco-secco. It is a method of painting on
the lime plastered surface which has been allowed to dry first and then drenched
with fresh lime water. On the surface thus obtained the artist proceeded to sketch
out his composition.
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This first sketch was drawn by an experienced hand and subsequently corrected in
many places with a strong black or deep brown line when the final drawing was
added.
After the painter had drawn out his first scheme in red, he proceeded to apply on this a
semi-transparent traverse monochrome, through which his outline could be seen.
Over this preliminary glaze the artist worked in his local colours.
The principal colours in use were red ochre, vivid red (vermilion), yellow ochre,
indigo blue, lapis lazuli, lamp black (Kajjal), chalk white, terraverte and green.
Bhimbetka:
Declared as World Heritage site. Executed mainly in

red and transparent with the occasional use of
green and yellow.
Painted rock shelters by prehistoric cave dwellers.
Reflects primitive records of wild animals, birds &
marine creatures
One of the earliest examples of Indian Painting. The
paintings date from 1500-2000 BC.
Largest and oldest collection of rock paintings belonging to Neolithic age and
depicting
Depicts human images, dancing images. Bhimbetka caves were discovered in 1958 by
V.S. Wakanker.
Sittanavasal:
Here paintings are connected with JAINA theme.
The ceilings have depiction of a lotus tank with natural
looking images of men, animals, flowers, birds and
fishes representing the Samavasarana faith of Jainism.
The pillars are also carved with dancing girl and the
king and the queen. Enjoy the same norm and
technique as that of Ajanta.
Most paintings are made in Pandyan period - 7th century AD.
Ajanta:
There are 30 caves chiselled out of the rock in a semi-
circular fashion, executed between 2nd century B.C. and
7th century A.D.
Compositions of these paintings are large but the majority of
the figures are smaller than life size. Principal characters
are in heroic proportions
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Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales)
Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
They are patronised by Satvahana and Vakataka dynasty and then Gupta Dynasty.
Prominent feature → Half closed drooping eyes. Scene of life of Buddha.
The painting of Bodhisatva Padmapani from cave I is one of the masterpieces of
Ajanta Painting executed in the late 6th century A.D. In princely fashion he is
wearing a crown adorned with sapphires, his long black hair falling gracefully.
This beautifully ornamented figure is more than life size and is shown stopping
slightly and holding in his right hand a lotus flower.
No frame divides a scene from the next but blends into the other, there is no
perspective but an illusion of depth is given by placing the background figures
Somewhat above those in foreground
Decorative design includes pattern & scrolls and figures of animals, flowers & trees.
Mythical king freely used to fill the space.
Bagh Cave Painting:
They are more earthly and human than those at Ajanta.
Unfortunately, their condition is now such that they can
only be appreciated at the site.
o These paintings are materialistic rather than
spiritualistic. The ground prepared was a reddish-brown
gritty and thick mud plaster, laid out on the walls and
ceilings.
Caves are group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated on
the slopes of the Vindhyas in Madhya Pradesh (Dhar
district).
They are Buddhist in inspiration, all the caves are viharas
Same stylistic form as Ajanta, but Bagh figures are more tightly modelled, and are
stronger in outline.
Over the plaster, lime-priming was done, on which these paintings were executed.
Some of the most beautiful paintings were on the walls of the portico of Cave 4.
To prevent further loss of the values of Indian classical art, most paintings were
carefully removed in 1982 and today can be seen in Archaeological Museum of
Gwalior.
Ellora Murals Paintings:
Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders .
Prominent features → Sharp twist of the head + painted
angular bents of the arms + sharp projected nose + long
drawn open eyes + concave curve of the close limbs
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Badami Mural Paintings:
Depictions in the caves show Vaishnava affiliation,
Only a fragment of painting has survived on the vaulted

roof of the front mandapa.
Badami cave painting represents an extension of the
tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to Badami in
south India.
A cave site in Karnataka, patronized by chalukya king,
Manglesha.
Earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, belonging to 6th century A.D.
The technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling is much more sensitive
in texture and expression and the outline soft and elastic.
It is noteworthy to observe that the contours of different parts of the face of the face
create protruding structures of face.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Cholas: o

Paintings at Nartamalai & Brihadeswara temple were
patronized by Cholas Murals under the Pallava,
Pandava and Cholas.
o Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were
patronised by Pallava king, Rajsimha Paintings at
Tirumalaipuram caves & Jaina caves at Sittanvasal
were patronised by Padayas.
Prominent feature of Cholas art → wide open eyes o
Notable Cholas art example → Dancing girl from
Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjore
Vijayanagara murals (13th century):
o Paintings at Virupaksha temple (Hamphi) &
Lepakshi temple (Andhra Pradesh) were patronised
by Vijayanagara Kings Vijayanagara murals
Miniature Paintings:
Miniatures paintings are beautiful handmade paintings, which are quite colourful but
small in size.
The colors are handmade, from minerals, vegetables, precious stones, indigo, conch
shells, pure gold and silver. The most common theme of the Miniature painting of
India comprises of the Ragas i.e., the musical codes of Indian classical
music.
There were a number of miniature schools in the country, including Mughals, Rajputs
and the Deccan.
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During the time of the Mughals, Muslim kings of

the Deccan and Malwa as well as the Hindu
Rajas of Rajasthan, this art flourished to quite an
extent.
o Infact, the Mughals were responsible for
introducing Persian tradition in the Miniature
paintings of India. The credit for western
influence can be ascribed to the Muslim kings.
The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India.The art of
miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period.
The highlight of these paintings is the intricate and delicate brushwork, which lends
them a unique identity.
The tradition of miniature paintings was carried forward by the painters of different
Rajasthani schools of painting like the Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar &
Mewar.
The Ragamala paintings also belong to this school, as does the Company painting
produced for British clients under the British Raj.
Schools of Miniature Painting

The different schools of the Miniature paintings of
India include:
Pala School
Orissa School
Jain School
Mughal School
Rajasthani School
These schools were the products of hothouse cultivation that was practiced over
generations. The earliest instances of the Indian Miniature painting are those
related to the Pala School and date back to the 11th century.
PALA School:
This School developed illustration on palm leaf and
paper manuscripts and on their wooden covers.
This school is inspired by Vajrayana Buddhism
characterized by sinus lines, subdued tones and
simple composition.
This school emphasized on the symbolic use of
color in the paintings, which was taken from tantric ritual.
The other characteristics of the Pala School include the use of a skillful and graceful
line, modeling forms by delicate and expressive variation of pressure, use of
natural color for painting human skin.
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o The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of

illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the
eastern India and the Jain texts executed in western India during the 11th-12th
centuries A.D.
The other characteristics of the Pala School include the use of a skilful and graceful
line, modelling forms by delicate and expressive variation of pressure, use of
natural colour for painting human skin.
The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at
the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century. Some of the
monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped in reinforcing the
existing art traditions there.
ORISSA:
In Orissa, palm-leaf continued to be used even upto the
19th century. The outline drawing was rendered
with a stylus on the palm-leaf and then charcoal or
ink was rubbed on the drawing. A few colours were
sparingly used to fill in the designs.
The technique of painting on paper was, however,
different and was like the one used in other schools
of painting.
The early manuscripts display neatness in drawing. Later on in the 18th century the
line becomes bold and a little crude but the style in general is very decorative and
ornamental.
The earliest surviving examples of miniature painting in Orissa appear to belong to the
17th century A.D. Some good examples of the paintings of this period are a
court scene and four illustrated leaves of a manuscript of the Gita Govinda in the
Asutosh Museum, Calcutta and an illustrated palmleaf manuscript of the Ramayana
in the National Museum.
The style is very decorative and is marked by bold drawing, stylisation of the tree,
heavy ornamentation of figures and use of rich colour schemes.
An illustration from a series of the Gita Govinda of circa 1800 A.D. in the collection
of the National Museum depicts Krishna and Radha. They stand face to face under
the dropping branches of a slender tree, against a red background.
Western School Of Painting:
Prevailed in the region comprising Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa. The motivating
force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism just as it was Buddhism
in case of the Ajanta and the Pala arts.
Counterpart of Pala in western India (11th to 15th) earlier phase of illustrated
manuscripts on palm leaf and later phase on paper.
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This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and forceful colours. o

This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and
forceful colours. From about 1100 to 1400 A.D.,
palm-leaf was used for the manuscripts and later on
paper was introduced for the purpose. The
Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya-Katha, the two
very popular Jain texts were repeatedly written and
illustrated with paintings.
o The Jain School of Miniature paintings laid great emphasis on style. The
illustrations on Jain manuscripts are in a style of vigorous distortion.
One finds in this style an exaggeration of certain physical traits, eyes, breasts and hips
are enlarged. Figures are flat with angularity of features and the further eye
protruding into space.
The unique features of this school include strong pure colours, stylish figures of ladies,
heavy gold outlines, diminution of dress to angular segments, enlarged eyes
and square-shaped hands.
One can see the influence of Jain miniature paintings on Rajasthani and Mughal
paintings also.
Mughal School Of Painting:
The Mughal style is marked by supple naturalism based
on close observation of nature and fine and delicate
drawing with dominating colours being red,
blue and green.
o It is of a high aesthetic merit. It is primarily
aristocratic and secular. Realism is key stone of it,
incident drawn from magnificent court life of time.
Under Jahangir, painting acquired greater charm,
refinement and dignity.
He had great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals
and flowers. Some important manuscripts illustrated during his period are, an
animal fable book called Ayar-i-Danish.Jahangir commissioned or fist to
desired portraits of rare animals & god.
The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a landmark in the
history of painting in India. With the establishment of the Mughal empire, the
Mughal School of painting originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D.
In the beginning of his rule an atelier of painting was established under the
supervision of two Persian masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who
were originally employed by his father Humayun. A large number of Indian artists
from all over India were recruited to work under the Persian masters.
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Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the

indigenous Indian style of painting and the Safavid
school of Persian painting.
Under Shah Jahan the Mughal painting maintained its fine
quality. But the style, however, became over-ripe
during the later period of his rule. Portraiture was given
considerable attention by his painters.
o Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore did not
encourage art. Painting declined during his period and
lost much of its earlier quality. A large number of court painters migrated to the
provincial courts.
During the period of Bahadur Shah, there was a revival of the Mughal painting after
the neglect shown by Aurangzeb. The style shows an improvement in quality.
The Hamza-nama, in this miniature one can observe that the architecture is Indo-
Persian, the tree types are mainly derived from the Deccani painting and female
types are adapted from the earlier Rajasthani paintings, Women are wearing four
compered pointed skirts and transparent Muslim veils. Turbans worn by men are
small and tight, typical of the Akbar period.
Shortly after that, between 1564-69 A.D. was completed a very ambitious project
in the form of Hamza-nama illustrations on cloth, originally consisting of 1400
leaves in seventeen volumes. The style of Hamza-nama is more developed and
refined than that of the Tuti-nama.
An illustrated manuscript of the Tuti-nama in the Cleveland Museum of Art (USA)
appears to be the first work of the Mughal School. The style of painting in this
manuscript shows the Mughal style in its formative stage.
The Mughal style was further influenced by the European paintings which came in
the Mughal court, and absorbed some of the Westem techniques like shading and
perspective.
Hamza - Nama illustration on cloth Akbar's return from Ain-i-Akbari
The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a typical example of miniature executed

during the period of Jahangir.
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They engaged artists trained in the Mughal technique of painting. But the artists
available to them were of inferior merit, those who could not seek employment in
the Imperial Atelier which required only first-rate artists. The works of such
painters are styled as "Popular Mughal" or 'Provincial Mughal' painting.
It shows Jahangir holding a picture of the Virgin Mary in his right hand. The portrait is
remarkable for its superb drawing and fine modelling and realism. There is liberal
use of gold colour on the borders which are decorated with floral designs.
They engaged artists trained in the Mughal technique of painting. But the artists
available to them were of inferior merit, those who could not seek employment in
the Imperial Atelier which required only first-rate artists. The works of such
painters are styled as "Popular Mughal" or 'Provincial Mughal' painting.
This style of painting has all important characteristics of the Imperial Mughal
painting but is inferior in quality. Some notable examples of the Popular Mughal
painting are a series of the Razm-nama dated 1616 A.D., a series of the
Rasikapriya (1610-1615) and a series of the Ramayana of circa 1610 A.D., in
several Indian and foreign museums.
An example from a series of the Ramayana of the early 17th century in the typical
popular Mughal style, It shows a fight between the armies of Rama and Ravana in
Lanka. Rama with his brother Lakshmana is seen in the foreground to the left
while Ravana is seen in his court conversing with the demon chiefs inside the
golden fort. The drawing is fine but not as refined as observed in the Imperial
Mughal painting. The human facial type, demons, the tree types and the treatment
of rocks are all in the Mughal manner.
Under Shah Jahan the Mughal painting maintained its fine quality. But the style,
however, became over-ripe during the later period of his rule. Portraiture was given
considerable attention by his painters.
The portrait of Jahangir Shahjahan on a globe
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Deccan school of Painting:

Deccani painting is a Deccan form of miniature painting, evolved in south-western
India—(also known as Deccan), during the inception of Bahmani
Sultanate in 1347 AD.
It is contemporary to Mughal painting, though actually deriving their forms from
Vijayanagara & probably Bahamani Court painting. Early centres of painting in the
Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and
Golconda.
In the Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the
beginning. However, later in the 17th and 18th centuries it was increasingly
influenced by the Mughal style.
Golconda style:
The colours are rich and brilliant and are different from
those of the northern painting.
Tradition of the early Deccani painting continued long
after the extinction of the Deccan Sultanates of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
It shows royal taste in fruits, scented flowers and pets
replaced by Hyderabadi style.
Influence of the Persian painting is also observed in the
treatment of the horizon gold sky and landscape.
Tanjore style:
o A style of painting characterised by bold drawing,
techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant
colours flourished at Tanjore in South India during the
late 18th and 19th centuries.
Vishnu, Shiva & Krishna favourite of artist Made for
ritual & worship and not for display
Paintings were made on Jack wood posted with unbleached cloth brilliant colour
schemes, jewellery with stones and copper glasses & remarkable gold leaf work to
which a mixture of list, chalk, gum honey are applied in layers on a sketch of the
icon.
Background always painted Red/Green. Baby Krishna is white but as an adult blue.
Outlines of figures are in a dark reddish brown.
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Hyderabad Style:
Influence of the Mughal style of painting on the already
existing early styles of Deccani paintings, introduced by
several Mughal painters who migrated to the Deccan
during the period of Aurangzeb and sought patronage
there, was responsible for the development of various
styles of painting in the Deccan at Hyderabad and other
centres.
Distinctive features of the Deccani paintings of the 18th and 19th centuries are
observed in the treatment of the ethnic types, costumes, jewellery, flora, fauna,
landscape and colours.
Bijapur:
Painting was patronised by Ali Adil Shah I (1558-80
A.D.) and his successor Ibrahim II (1580-1627 A.D.)
There is influence of the Lepakshi mural painting on the
female types.
The rich colour scheme, the palm trees, animals and men
and women all belong, to the Deccani tradition.
The profuse use of gold colour, some flowering plants
and arabesques on the top of the throne are derived
from the Persian tradition.
Rajasthani Painting:
Unlike Mughal painting which is primarily secular, the

art of painting in Central India, Rajasthani and the
Pahari region etc. is deeply rooted in the Indian
traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics,
religious texts like the Puranas, love poems in
Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-
lore and works on musical themes.
Origin dates back to sultanate period illustration
influenced by the contemporary literacy and musical forms and drawn upon their
motifs.
The themes from the Ramayana., the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Siva Purana,
the Naishadacarita, the Usha Aniruddha, the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva, the
Rasamanjari of Bhanudatta, the Amaru Sataka, the Rasikapriya of Kesavadasa, the
Bihari Satasayee and the Ragamala etc., provided a very rich field to the painter
who with his artistic skill and devotion made a significant contribution to the
development of Indian painting.
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All are decorate in their composition & colour schme done with utmost care and in
minute details with story lines & bold colours set in harmonies.
The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised tremendous influence on the
pictorial art of these places. Among these the cult of Krishna was the most popular
one which inspired the patrons and artists.
All the sub style possess certain common factors that suggest a generic Rajasthani style
which gave birth to region styles of Bundi, Mewar, Amber, Malawa etc.
Mewar Painting:
Colourful tradition of Rajasthanis reflects in art of
paintings as wel. “Rangmala Painting’ in Portray
incident mainly from the life of Krishna and his
frolic with the gopi the hero & heroine themse of
Indian Poetry and pictorial representation of the
Indian musical (Rangmala) under Bhagvat and
Ramayana illustration conceived & executed on
wider scale.
Portrayal of birds and animal show their Gujrati origin
though Mughal influence can be felt.
Landscape lack the naturalism of the Mughal School but has imaginative character,
tree types with dense foliage, rivers full of lotus blossoms and drops of rain falling
from deep blue clouds, strengths of gold indicating lighting are all striking.
Malwa Painting:
Mandu was the main center in the early era of pre-
Mughal times where "Kalpsutra" was painted
in 1439 A.D. This was also the painting period of
"Niyamatnama".
o 17th-century school of Rajasthani miniature
painting centred largely in Malwa and
Bundelkhand (in modern Madhya Pradesh state)
The painting tradition of Malwa influenced the
painting tradition of Mewar.
Malwa paintings show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and
chocolate-brown backgrounds, figures shown against a solid colour patch, and
architecture painted in lively colour. The school’s most appealing features are a
primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.
Marwar:
One of the earliest examples of painting in Marwar is a series of the Ragamala in the
collection of Kumar Sangram Singh, painted by an artist named Virji in 1623 A.D.
at Pali in Marwar.
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Jodhpur & Nagaur painting show very bold types of

expression with broad, fish eyes in human faces and
highly stylized tree types school is by 18th painting
spend to other centers which is essentially Hindu is
feeling.
Kishangarh (Banithani Painting):
Offshoot of Jodhpur school, rose around the personality of

Raja Samant Singh (1748-64)
popular subject loves of ‘Radha & Krishna’
o The painting is marked by delicate drawing, fine
modelling of the human figures and cows and the broad
vista of landscape showing a stream, rows of
overlapping trees, and architecture.
The artist has displayed a masterly skill in the grouping of
many figures in the miniature. The painting has a
golden inner border.
Men and women are drawn with pointed noses and chins, deeply curved eyes, and
serpentine locks of hair.
Jaipur:
o It is generally believed that a school of painting
originated at Amber, the old capital of the Amber State,
in early 17th century. Later on in the 18th century, the
centre of artistic activity shifted to Jaipur, the new
capital.
o Mughal sense to make any genuine impression.
Painting becomes an extra vulgarity decorative art.
Bundi:
Bundi School Concentrated on court scheme, many scenes of nobles, lovers & ladies
in palaces were produced.
The peculiar characteristics of the Bundi painting are the
rich and glowing colors, the rising sun in golden
colour, crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-
naturalistic trees.
The Bundi style of painting is very close to the Mewar
style, but the former excels the latter in quality.
The Mughal influence is visible in the refined drawing
of the faces and an element of naturalism in the treatment of the trees. The text is
written in black against yellow background on the top.
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Kotah:
Renowned for superb hunting scene painted in 18th
century.
Themes of tiger and bear hunt were very popular at Kotah.
In Kotah paintings, most of the space is occupied by the
hilly jungle which has been rendered with a unique.
th th
The Pahari Schools (17 – 19 Century):
Developed in small Hindu kingdom of Punjab hills was not sudden development,
nor unrelated to life of people but deeply rooted in the feeling and experiences of
the human heart and saturated with the Hillman’s poetry, music and religious
belief.
Love is inspiration and the main pre-occupation of the PAHARI School.
Comprises the present State of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab,
the area of Jammu,&Garhwal in Uttarakhand.
Basohli Paintings (17th – 18th century):

o known for its bold vitality of colour, lines & red borders
Emotional scenes from a text called “Rasamanjari” →
Krishna legend
Favoured oblong format, with the picture space usually
delineated by architectural detail, which often breaks
into the characteristic red borders Stylized facial type,
shown in profile, is dominated by the large, intense eyes.
o Colours are always brilliant, with ochre yellow, brown, and green grounds
predominating Plain monochrome background with facial type became a little
heavier& tree forms acquiring somewhat naturalistic character.
Depicted jewellery by thick, raised drops of white paint, with particles of green
beetles wings to represent emeralds.
Kullu – Mandi painting:

A folk style of painting in the Kulu-Mandi area, mainly
inspired by the local tradition
The style is marked by bold drawing and the use of dark and
dull colours
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Guler painting (Jammu)

Mainly consisting of portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of
Jasrota (Jammu) designed by Nainsukh Colours used
are soft and cool unlike Basohli school.
o Style appears to have been inspired by the
naturalistic style of the Mughal painting.
th
Kangra painting (Late 18 century)
The Kangra style is developed out of the Guler style
possesses its main characteristics, like the delicacy
of drawing & naturalism.
The Kangra style continued to flourish at various places
namely Kangra, GuIer, Basohli, Chamba, Jammu,
Nurpur and Garhwal etc.
o However, Named as Kangra style as they are
identical in style to the portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra.
In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the
forehead the eyes are long & narrow, & chin is sharp.
There is, however, no modelling of figures and hair is treated as a flat mass. o
Paintings of the Kangra style are attributed mainly to the Nainsukh family.
Independent Paintings:
Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19th century)
Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in
Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in
the early 19th century
They evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made
paper
Used brush and ink from the lampblack
Depicts figures of deities, gentry & ordinary people o
Reflects romantic depictions of women
o Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works of art that came from
Bengal
Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar):
Used to paint the walls of room, known as KOHBAR GHAR in which the newly
wedded couple meets for the first time
Very conceptual, first, the painter thinks & then “draws her thought”
Has five distinctive styles – Bharni, Katchni, Tantrik, Godna and Gobar
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Bharni, Kachni and Tantrik style were mainly done

Brahman & Kayashth women, who are upper caste
women in India and Nepal. Godna & Gobar style is
done by the Dalit & Dushadh communities.
Colourful auspicious images on the interior walls of
homes on the occasion of rituals & festivity →
painted by women
o This ancient tradition, especially elaborated for
marriages, continues today.
Bharni, Kachni and Tantrik style were mainly done Brahman & Kayashth women,
who are upper caste women in India and Nepal. Godna & Gobar style is done by
the Dalit & Dushadh communities.
Traditionally done on freshly plastered mud walls and floors of huts, but now they are
also done on cloth, hand-made paper and canvas.
Madhubani paintings are made from the paste of powdered rice.
There are paintings for each occasion and festival such as birth, holi, kali puja, etc o
Madhubani paintings mostly depict nature and Hindu religious motifs, and the
themes generally revolve around Hindu deities
Phad paintings (Bhilwada, Rajasthan):
Phad is a painted scroll, which depicts stories of epic dimensions about local deities
and legendary heroes.
Bhopas (local priests) carry these scrolls on their shoulders from village to village
for a performance
Represents the moving shrine of the deity and is an object of worship o
Most popular & largest Phad – local deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji
Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)

Literal meaning is painting done by kalam (pen) , Mainly in Andhra Pradesh
(developed under Vijayanagara rulers)
Stories from the epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are painted as
continuous narratives
Mainly to decorate temple interiors with painted cloth panels scene after scene; Every
scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns.
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o The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick

pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair
attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen.
Relevant Telugu verses explaining the theme are also
carried below the artwork.
Cloths are painted with the colours obtained from
vegetable and mineral sources.
o Gods are painted blue, the demons and evil
characters in red and green.
Yellow is used for female figures and ornaments. Red is mostly used as a background
Warli Folk Painting:
It is vivid expression of daily & social events of Warli
tribe, used by then to embellish the walls of village
houses. Women are mainly engaged don’t depict
mythological character/images of deities but depict
social life.
It uses very shapes: a circle, a triangle and a square. The
circle represents the sun and the moon, the triangle
derived from mountains and pointed trees, and the
square indicates a sacred enclosure or a piece
of land.
Painted on austre mud base using one colour. In this sax to see straight line.
Developed in Maharashtra.Warlis are an indigenous tribe living in hilly regions of
Maharashtra-Gujarat border
Human and animal bodies are represented by two triangles joined at the tip; the upper
triangle depicts the trunk and the lower triangle the pelvis. Their precarious
equilibrium symbolizes the balance of the universe.
Pattachitra:
Paintings are done on small strips of cotton cloth. The
canvas is prepared by coating the cloth with a mixture
of chalk and gum made from tamarind seeds. Women
traditionally make this gum and application.
The master hand, mostly the male member, draws the
initial line and gives the final finishing.
The painting is held over a fire-place so that the back
of the painting is exposed to heat. On the surface of the painting fine lacquer is
applied.
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Traditional painting of Orissa, and as its name suggests is drawing on canvas.

Natural colours are used. Tala Pattachitra is one variant of this form, drawn on palm
leaf.
Decorative Art
o On walls of homes viz. Rangoli or decorative designs on floor mainly on
auspicious occasions
Usually rice powder is used for these paintings but collared powder or flower petals
are also used to make them more colourful.
Different Names of Decorative Art

Rangoli North

Alpana Bengal

Aipan Uttarakhand

Mandana Madhya Pradesh
Rangavalli Karnataka

Kolam Tamilnadu
Kolam
A ritualistic design drawn at the threshold of households and temples. o
Drawn everyday at dawn and dusk by women in South India
o Kolam marks festivals, seasons and important events in a woman’s life such as
birth, first menstruation and marriage.
o Kolam is a free-hand drawing with symmetrical and neat geometrical patterns.
Mandana Kolam
Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and

Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy played an important role
in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art.
The Bengal School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where
Rabindranath Tagore setup the Kala Bhavan. Talented artists like
Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij
rendered training to aspiring artists.
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o In the later nineteenth century art schools on the

European model were established in major Indian cities
like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
o Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore
depicting mythological and social themes became
highly popular at this time.
Nandalal often derived inspiration from Indian folk art and
also from Japanese painting while Binod Behari
Mukerjee was deeply interested in oriental traditions.
Jamini Roy, another great painter of this period, drew
inspiration from Qrissa’s pata painting and Kalighat painting of Bengal.
o Amrita Shergil, a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest.
Considered a prodigy from a Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on
Indian themes in bright colours specially Indian women and peasants. Though she
died very young, she left behind a rich legacy of Indian paintings.
Questionary:
Define the Madhubani art form. How are the drawings in

Madhubani paintings very conceptual?
How will you describe the development of painting art during the
medieval era?
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Chapter: 16
Performing Arts Part1
Performing Arts :
In India, religion, philosophy and myth can not be divorced from their art forms.
Dance and music are tied inextricably to ceremony of any kind. Weddings, births,
coronations, entering a new house or town, welcoming a guest, religious
processions, harvest time , all involve music and dance.
In India, various facets of performing arts are all pervading bringing colour and joy to
numerous festivals and ceremonies, and reaffirming the faith of the people in their
heritage. These facets have been responsible for sustaining the long
continuities of ancient traditions
Under the patronage of Kings and rulers, skilled artisans and entertainers were
encouraged to specialize and to refine their skills to greater levels of perfection and
sophistication. Gradually, the classical forms of Art evolved for the glory of temple
and palace.
In addition, while links with their folk roots distinguish the regional classical art
forms, the myriad folk forms throughout India are bound by common classical
religious and mythological themes.
There are tribal belts throughout India, and although each tribe has its own distinctive
music and dances, they all share a similar form, with men and women forming
separate rows with linked arms and executing intricate leg movements in a
gradually increasing tempo that builds up to a crescendo of vigour.
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Pre-historic Cave painting, Dance of Shiva, Chamba,

Bhimbetka Himachalpradesh
Dances in Literature:
o In literature, the first references come from
the Vedas where dance and music have their roots. o
A related development was the evolution of
classical Sanskrit drama which was an amalgam of
the spoken word, gestures and mime,
choreography, stylised movement and music. From
the 12th century to the 19th century there were many
regional forms called the musical play
or sangeet-nataka. Contemporary classical dance forms are known to have evolved
out of these musical plays.
A more consistent history of dance can be reconstructed from the epics, the several
Puranas and the rich body of dramatic and poetic literature known as
the nataka and the kavya in Sanskrit.
The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the
source book of the art of drama, dance and music. It is generally accepted that the
date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E.
The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda.
Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken
torso from Harappa (dating back to 2500-1500 B.C.E.) These are suggestive of
dance poses. The latter has been identified as the precursor of the Nataraja pose
(dancing Shiva).
According to the author, he has evolved this veda by taking words from
the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions
from the Atharvaveda. There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote
the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses.
In terms of the classical tradition formulated in the Natyashastra, dance and music are
an inextricable part of drama.
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The art of natya carries in it all these constituents and the actor is himself the dancer
and the singer, the performer combined all the three functions. With the passage
of time the status of an independent and specialised art, marked the
beginning of the 'art' dance in India.
As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as having three aspects:
Natya, nritya and nritta.

Natya highlights the dramatic element and most dance forms do not give emphasis to
this aspect today with the exception of dance-drama forms like Kathakali.
Nritya is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of
a theme or idea.
Nritta on the other hand, is pure dance where body movements do not express any
mood (bhava), nor do they convey any meaning.
To present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should be trained to communicate

the navarasas.
Navarasas: love (shringaara), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna),

valour(veera), anger (roudra), fear (bhayanak), disgust (bibhatsa), wonder
(adbhuta), peace (shaanta)
Bharata and Nandikesvara, the main authorities conceive of dance as an art which uses
the human body as a vehicle of expression. The major human units of the body
(anga) are identified as the head, torso, the upper and lower limbs and the
minor human parts (upangas), as all parts of the face ranging from the eyebrow
to the chin and the minor joints.
An ancient classification followed in all styles is of Tandava and Lasya. Tandava the
masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous. Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and
graceful. Abhinaya, broadly means expression. This is achieved through angika,
the body and limbs, vachika song and speech and aharya, costume and
adornment; and satvika, moods and emotions.
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Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in different parts of the country its
own distinct style taking on the culture of that particular region, each acquiring its
own flavour. Consequently a number of major styles of 'art' dance are known to
us today, like Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi and
Sattriya.
Then, there are regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range
from simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons, harvest or birth of a child to
dances for the propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits. Today there is also a
whole new body of modern experimental dance.
Classical Dances of India:
Bharatnatyam:
o ‘Bharatnatyam’ also called as ‘Sadir’, it was conventionally performed by
Devadasis (girls offered to God in the temple) in Hindu Temples of South India.
Thus, also known as ‘Dasiattam’. Developed in the Tanjore and other regions of
South India prominently Tamil Nadu, this could possibly be the Oldest Classical
Dance form of India (around 2000 years old).
Bharatnatyam Dance is considered to be over 2000 years old. Several texts beginning
with Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) provide
information on this dance form.
Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many
roles in a single performance.
o It follows the convention of Natya Shastra in true spirit. Abhinaya Darpan by
Nandikesvara and Sangeet Ratnakar guide the technique and grammar of body
movements.
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The word meaning of Bharatnatyam: o

Bha: Bhava which means emotions
o Ra: Rag meaning musical notes.
o Ta: Taal meaning the Rhythm.
o Natyam: The Sanskrit word for Drama.
The evidence of Bharatnatyam:
Silappadhikaram (where its existence was mentioned in this
ancient Tamil epic).
o Brihadeshwara temple was a major center for
Bharatnatyam since 1000CE.
The Gopurams of Chidambaram display the poses of
Bharatnatyam, chaaris, and Karanas that are carved in the
stones.
The repertoire of Bharatnatyam:
The repertoire of Bharatnatyam is extensive, however, a performance follows a
regular pattern:
Alarippu – Invocation (to adorn with flowers)
Jatiswaram – accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music (has no
sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus which are pure dance sequences -
nritta.)
Shabdam – Short compositions with word (Generally in adoration of the Supreme
Being.)
Varnam – a story, that includes both Nritta and Nritya
A number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods – The common pieces are
keertanam, kritis, padams and javalis.
Thillana – Origin in the Tarana of Hindustani Music. Musical syllables with a few lines
of sahitya. Ends with Mangalam - invoking the blessings of the Gods.
The music and instruments used for the Bharatnatyam: o

Carnatic Style, Vocalists Called – Nattuvanar (normally Guru). o
Verses are usually in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit.
o Mridangam, Nadaswaram, Nattuvangam, Flute, Violin veena etc.
The revival of Bharatnatyam from ancient to modern day platform:
Rukmini Devi Arundale created a Renaissance. Before her, this art was almost dead.
She raised this art form to a Puritan form.
Also, T.Balasaraswati‘s efforts helped to uplift this art form to the form known
today.Rukmini Devi founded the Kalakshetra in Adyar and thus gave a new hope
to the promotion of this Dance form.
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o The famous Bharatnatyam dancers are Yamini Krishnamurthy, Meenakshi

Sundaram Pillai, Saroja Vaidyanathan, Janaki Rangarajan Etc.
Kathakali:
Movements in Kathakali are influenced by ancient
martial arts and athletic tradition. It is basically a
Dance-Drama. Kathakali was traditionally a male-
dominated dance and now females are too welcomed
in this dance form.
o Kathakali is also famous for its huge elaborate
costumes, amazing make-up style, face masks, and
ornaments.
o Dazzling classical dance of Kerala is Kathakali.
‘Katha’= Story or tale, ‘Kali’=
Performance and Art. Its roots are in ancient ‘Kutiyattam’ (Classical Sanskrit
Dance Drama) and ‘Krishnattam’ (Dance-Drama depicting Stories of Hindu God
Krishna).
Modern day presentations are short as per the time limit of the program. The Kerala
Kalamandalam is the main center for Kathakali Artists.
Kathakali has similarities with other dance forms like that of the Japanese ‘Noh’
and ‘Kabuki’ dance forms have similarities with Kathakali.
Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the ritual
performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its
form and technique.
Unlike other Classical Dances, Kathakali art form developed in the courts and theatres
of Hindu principalities. The traditional performances were used to be as
long from Dusk to dawn.
The dancer expresses himself through codified hastamudras and facial expressions,
closely following the verses(padams) that are sung.
o The four aspects of abhinaya_ angika, acharya, vachika, satvika and the nritta,
nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly.
Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be the
ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the sanctum
sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas-the raga and tala
conforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya).
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The main themes used in Kathakali

o Mythological themes include Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Bhagvat Purana, etc.
Also modern day Kathakali dancers present stories
and plays of Shakespeare.
The makeup for Kathakali
According to the role of the dancer, his face is
Collared/painted.
The colours are made in rice paste with vegetable
colours and applied on the face.
The Green for Noble characters. o
Tati (Red) for evil like Ravana.
o Kari (black) for hunters and monsters.
o Yellow for women etc.
The famous artists of Kathakali o

Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad.
o Kalamandalam Kesavan Namboodiri.
o Kalamandalam Gopi etc.
Kathak: Kathak Dance
The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha
which means a story.
Mime and gestures were perhaps added later on to make
the recitation more effective. Thus evolved a simple
form of expressional dance, providing the origins of
what later developed into Kathak as we see it
today.
Kathakars or story-tellers, are people who narrate stories
largely based on episodes from the epics, myths
and legends. It probably started as an oral tradition. Also known as ‘Natwari
Nrutya’.
The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely popular along with the works of
Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and Krishnadas.
The emergence of Raslila , mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.)
was an important development.
The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century. and the resultant
bhakti movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms.
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It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance

in Raslila, however, was mainly an extension of the
basic mime and gestures of the Kathakars or story-
tellers which blended easily with the existing
traditional dance.
o With the coming of the Mughal, this dance form
received a new impetus. A transition from the temple
courtyard to the palace durbar took place which
necessitated changes in presentation.
In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came to be
regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment.
Under the Muslims there was a greater stress on nritya and bhava giving the dance
graceful, expressive and sensuous dimensions.
Kathak is world famous for its spectacular footwork, amazing spins, Nazakat and
Padhant (Chanting of bols, toda, tukdas by dancer himself and then performing).
This is the distinctive feature of Kathak.It creates a nexus between the dancer and
audience.The heavy ghunghroos are worn by the Dancers – 100/200/250 on one
leg.
There is a wide variety of sounds are hidden in these ghunghroos like running train,
heavy rains, Sound of Horse riding,( Ghode ki chaal) and much more. This
adds more beauty to the performance.The nineteenth century saw the golden age of
Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oudh.
o He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on bhava, the
expression of moods and emotions. The Jaipur gharana known for its layakari or
rhythmic virtuosity , the Benaras gharana are other prominent schools of Kathak
dance. The technique of movement in Kathak is unique to Benaras.
The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis.
The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the balls of the
foot are used, their function is limited.
There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower
part of the body. Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line
rather than through the manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower
waist muscles.
In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at a level higher than the
head and the other is extended out on the level of the shoulder.
The Sequence of Kathak dance:
Starts with Vandana ( Worshipping God), Uthaan, That, Aamad (sequence of That
Aamad Uthaan may be different in different gharanas) Salaami, Toda Tukdas,
Tihai, Paran, Gatnikas, Gatbhaav (Story) Ladi-Tatkaar(Footwork) End with a
Bhajan, Thumri, Tarana or Ashtapadi, Kajri, Chaiti, Chaturang etc.
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The costume, makeup, and ornaments used for Kathak:
Traditionally, Sari, Ghagra-Choli, Chudidar Frock – Jacket, Dupatta for women
and men can wear Chudidar Kurta and Dupatta tied at the waist.
This dance-drama may have costumes as per the character. Mostly white—yellow
pearl ornaments are used.
Makeup is not much heavy but is quite sharp and Fine to reflect the expressions. A
bun or long plaits with garland looks beautiful.
The music and instruments used for Kathak dance form:
Hindustani Music: Lyrics may be in Hindi, Brij, Sanskrit or any other regional
language.
Instruments like Pakhawaj, Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar, Harmonium, Flute, Sarod, etc. are
used.
The revival of Kathak dance forms
The King of Raigarh Raja Chakradhar Singh who himself was a Kathak dancer
gave birth to Raigarh Gharana of Kathak—greatest contribution to Kathak.
Achhan Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj, Gopi Krishna, Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit
Rajendra Ganagani ji, Sitara Devi, Rohini Bhate, Maya Rao, Mandvi Singh, Shama
Bhate, Shovana Narayana and many more artists gave their priceless contribution
in Kathak.
Kathak Kendra Delhi, a constituent Body of Sangeet Natak Akademi and many other
governments and private institutes all over the world strive hard continuously for
the training and promotion of Kathak.
Manipuri:
The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and
traditional festivals, there are legendary references to
the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and
goddesses who created the universe .
Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is
performed as a ceremonial offering of song and dance.
The principal performers are
the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses) who
re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.
The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond
recorded history.
Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots
in the pre-Vaishnavite period. Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which
forms the basis of all stylised dances in Manipur.
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It is also known as ‘Jogai’. It was traditionally performed as a dance – drama on

devotional songs, Manipuri showcases the love between Radha- Krishna through
Raaslila. Manipuri is a combination of two culture- Indian and South-East Asian.
The Manipuri dance form is categorized as Tandav or Lasya.
The beautifully soft and graceful dance form, Manipuri has significant movements of
hands and upper body. A curvy body structure with a pleasant smile, decorative,
shiny costumes, and ornaments, Manipuri is indeed a mesmerizing dance form.
Another uniqueness of this dance form is that, while Ghunghroos (Bells) glorify the
classical dances of India, they are not worn in Manipuri.
The themes used in Manipuri dance forms
Mostly influenced by Hindu Vaishnavism themes.
It also includes themes related to Shaivism and Shaktism and regional deities. o
Tandav Manipuri depicts themes of Shiv, Shakti or Krishna as warrior.
o Lasya theme includes Love inspired stories of Radha-Krishna.
o It is said, that this 18th century philosopher king conceived this complete dance
form along with its unique costume and music in a dream.
o Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and melodic compositions were
introduced.
o It was in the reign of King Bhagyachandra that the popular Rasleela dances of
Manipur originated.
The Manipuri Raslila: Three styles
Tal Rasak: It is accompanied by clapping.
Danda Rasak: The synchronous beat of two sticks where dancers position creates
geometric patterns.
Mandal Rasak: The Gopis make a circle while Krishna attains the center.
Different types of Manipuri Dance Styles
Raas. Nata-Sankirtan. Pung Cholam. Dhola Cholam. Kartal Cholam. o
Thang ta (a Martial art of Manipuri) etc.
The Music and instruments used in Manipuri dance
Other instruments include Sembong, Harmonium, Pena (String Instrument), Flute
(Wind Instrument), Esraj and Shankh (conch).
The expressions used in Manipuri are from the poetry of Jayadev, Vidyapti,
Chandidas, Govindadas and Gyandas that may be in Sanskrit, Maithili, Brij or any
other language.
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Pung Cholam Kartal Cholam Thang-Ta
The martial dancers of Manipur - the Thang-ta - have their origins in the days when
man's survival depended on his ability to defend himself from wild animals.
The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as
Sankirtana in Manipur. The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing.
The masculine aspect of dance - the Choloms are a part of the Sankirtana tradition.
The Pung and Kartal choloms are performed at all social and religious festivals.
The costumes of Manipuri dance:
o Manipuri dance incorporates both
the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most
vigorous masculine to the subdued and graceful
feminine.
The female dancers wear decorative barrel-shaped drum
like long stiff skirt till bottom with decorative
embellishments.
Dark colored velvet blouse covers the upper part of
the body and a traditional veil is worn over hair that
falls gracefully over the face.
The male dancers adorn themselves with dhoti kurta white turban, a folded shawl
over the left shoulder and the drum strap over the right shoulder.
The costume for the character of Lord Krishna is Yellow dhoti, dark velvet jacket, and
crown of peacock feathers.
The revival and recent developments of Manipuri dance:
The prominent among them is, Jawaharlal Nehru Manipuri Dance Academy, Imphal
which is the constituent body of Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi.
There are several private institutes as well as few Government aided centers that
provide training in Manipuri Dance.
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Manipuri dancers:
Guru Bipin Sinha. Nirmala Mehta. Savita Mehta. Yumlembam Gambhini Devi.
Darshana Jhaveri and many others.
Odissi:
Odisha, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi,
one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.
o Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the
Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand gestures and
body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling,
an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
o The long-established dance form in the serene
surroundings of Shri Jagannath Temple. In ancient days this dance form filled with
Bhakti ras was a part of worship to God at Jagannath temples. Thus we find many
sculptures in dance position inside the temple.
The magnificent Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th century, with its Natya
mandap or Hall of dance, marks the culmination of the temple building activity in
These dance movements, frozen in stone, continue to inspire Odissi dancers even
today.
It has a combination of Lasya and Tandav. Graceful and mesmerizing, it appears
like waves of the ocean.
Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine and
the human, the sublime and the mundane.
Odisha, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of
Indian classical dance.
Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya
Shastra and the Abhinaya Darpana. The creative literature inspired the Odissi
dancer like Gita Govinda by Jayadeva.
For centuries maharis were the chief repositories of this dance. The maharis, who were
originally temple dancers came to be employed in royal courts which resulted in
the degeneration of the art form.
Around this time, a class of boys called gotipuas were trained in the art, they danced
in the temples and also for general entertainment. Many of today's gurus of
this style belong to the gotipua tradition.
The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight
of the body equally balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance
where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk
The formal repertoire of Odissi has a certain order of presentation, where each
successive item is systematically put together to produce the desired rasa.
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Hand gestures play an important role both in nritta where they are used only as
decorative embellishments and in nritya where they are used for communication.
Chowk-Basic Standing position Tribhangi position

The sequence of repertoire:
The opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage with
flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth. . This also includes
Trikhandi Pranam- Devas, Gurus, and Rasikas.
The verses may be in Sanskrit or Odia language. Ashtapadis—Dashavtar,
Ardhanari etc. are quite famous.
Then comes the Dance Drama in sequence. The themes generally relate to the Hindu
gods and goddesses. Modern day expressive theme presentations go beyond the
horizon.
The next comes the Batu Nrutya Fast dance pure dance which we call it as Nritta
which is then followed by Nritya which include, Abhinay- Expressions on some
devotional poems or songs.
The costumes used for the Odissi dance forms:
The female dancers wear brightly coloured sari usually made of local silk adorned
with traditional and local designs such as the Bomkai Saree and the Sambalpuri
Saree. Today fully stitched costume is available.
A crown is worn by female dancers which are prepared in Jagannathpuri. White
colored flowers are adorned on the bun.
Like every other dance form, jewelry remains the same but is of silver colored.
Ghunghroos too form part of this dance.
The music and instruments used:
The South Indian, as well as North Indian Music, is employed for the dance.
The Pakhavaj, Tabla, Swarmandal, Harmonium, Sitar, Flute, Violin, and Cymbals.
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The revival of Odissi dance forms:
Recently, the Odissi has now been included in the syllabus of IIT Bhubaneshwar’s
B.Tech syllabus since 2015. It became the first national technical institute to
introduce any Indian Classical Dance form in their syllabus.
Kelucharan Mahapatra, Gangadhar Pradhan, Pankaj Charan Das etc.revived this dance
form in the late forties and early fifties.
Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Kumkum Mohanty, Anita Babu, Sujata
Mohapatra etc. contributed to the upliftment and popularization of Odissi.
Kuchipudi:
Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance.
Around the third and fourth decade of this century it
emerged out of a long rich tradition of dance-drama of the
same name.
Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district
of Andhra Pradesh. Around 3rd and 4th CE it emerged out
of a long rich tradition of dance-drama of the same name.
o In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was
conceived by Tirtha Narayana Yati and his disciple
Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary
who had the capacity to give concrete shape to some of his
visions.
Andhra has a very long tradition of dance-drama which was known under the
generic name of Yakshagaana.
Kuchipudi gradually developed as a solo dance form and today we can see both male
and female performing it. Kuchipudi are themes related to Vaishnavism, Lord
Krishna, Rukmini, Satyabhama and other myths.
o The followers of Siddhendra Yogi wrote several plays and the tradition of
Kuchipudi dance-drama continues till today.
'At times, even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was being
presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal. One such
number is tarangam inspired by the Krishna-leela tarangini of Teerthanarayana
It was Lakshminarayan Shastry (1886-1956) who introduced many new elements

including solo dancing and training of female dancers in this dance style.
Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate
sequences.
Now there are two styles one is solo dancing and other is dance-drama style. o
Kuchipudi also holds certain specialties of Bharatnatyam and Odissi as well.
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Kuchipudi vs Bharatnatyam:
Bharatnatyam is a form of Classical dance from Tamil Nadu whereas Kuchipudi is
a classical dance form from Andhra Pradesh.
Bharatnatyam costume has three fans of dissimilar lengths. While Kuchipudi dress
has only one frill/fan lengthier than the lengthiest fan in the former.
In Bharatnatyam, there is no side Pallu but in Kuchipudi separate pallu is stitched seen
on the left side.
Two buns are used in Kuchipudi while only one in Bharatnatya.
The repertoire of Kuchipudi:
Kuchipudi is a team performance, with roots in Hindu religious festivals. o
The repertoire of Kuchipudi is similar to that of Bharatanatyam:
o The drama-dance involves extensive stage movements and exacting footwork,
wherein the underlying drama is mimed by expressive gestures of hand, eye and
face movements. The expressive style is through a sign language that follows the
classical pan-Indian Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra, Abhinaya.
o Kuchipudi has a specialty called- ‘Tarangam’ in which the dancer performs on the
top of the brass plates. And sometimes balances some pot on the head. This makes
the dance form extremely unique.
o Vachika Abhinaya- Speciality of Kuchipudi where dancers speak dialogues also.
Nritta-pure dance Satyabhama

The costume and makeup of Kuchipudi:
The traditional Kuchipudi was performed by all males
troupe. A dancer in a male role would be in Angivastra,
also known as Bagalbandi, wear a dhoti.
The makeup is similar to that of Bharatanatyam.
A dancer in a female role would wear a Sari with light
makeup. Today the stitched costume is available.
Modern productions retain the male dress, but are more
elaborate and Bharatanatyam-like for the female roles.
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The music and instruments used for the Kuchipudi dance: o

Based on Carnatic music the language is usually Telugu.
o Mridangam, cymbals, veena, flute and Tambura.
The famous dancers in Kuchipudi:
Raja-Radha Reddy. Yamini Reddy. Vaijayanti Kashi. Uma Rama Rao etc.
Sattriya:
o Sattriya or Sattriya Nritya is a major Indian
classical dance.
o Sattriya is the traditional dance –drama of
Assam. Sattriya was recognized in 2000 as
Classical Dance by Sangeet Natak Akademi.
It is a dance-drama performance art with origins
in the Krishna-centered Vaishnavism
monasteries of Assam, and attributed to the 15th
century Bhakti movement scholar and saint named Srimanta Sankardev.
The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great
Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful
medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on. This
neo-Vaishnava treasure of Assamese dance and drama has been, for centuries,
nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths
or monasteries.
Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras, this dance style has
been aptly named Sattriya.
The themes and styles used in Sattriya:
The themes performed are mostly on Radha-Krishna and other myths. o
Dramas written by Sankardev are typically presented.
o Sattriya performance integrated two styles: One Masculine (Paurashik Bhangi
energetic and with jumps) and Feminine (Stri Bhangi Lasya or delicate).
o Both male and female perform this beautiful, expressive dance openly on the
modern platform.
The costumes used for Sattriya:
Male—Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban).
Female—Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (waist cloth) made up of materials manufactured in
Assam.
The play and Character specific costumes are also seen in Sattriya.
o Masks are used for special characters (like demons) sometimes. Traditional
Assamese jewellery is employed.
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The music and instruments used for Sattriya:
Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev. Khol (two faced asymmetrical drum). o
Cymbals- Manjira Bhortal. Flute, Violin, Harmonium etc.
The revival of Sattriya dance:
Sattriya Kendra Guwahati is a constituent body of
Sangeet Natak Akademi established for preserving,
promoting and providing training to young
aspirants of Sattriya.
o Conventionally, it was only performed by
‘Bhokots’/‘Monks’ as a part of their daily rituals
not before the idol but before the copy of Bhagvat
Purana placed in the eastern corner of dance
community hall (namghar).
After the second half of the 20th century, this dance form moved from the den of
Assam’s Monasteries to the modern day stage. Sattriya received patronage outside
Assam and Outside India too.
Today Sattriya performances are a part of Major Dance Festivals in India and Abroad.
The famous Artists of Sattriya:
Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid
down principles in respect of hastamudras,
footworks, aharyas, music etc.
Guru Indira P.P Bora. Late Pradip Chaliha. Jatin
Goswami. Anita Sarma etc.
This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams the
Bhaona-related repertoire starting from the
Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach,
secondly the dance numbers which are independent, such as Chali, Rajagharia
Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness and elegance, while the
Jhumura is marked by vigor and majestic beauty.
Mohiniyattam:
o Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the dance of

‘Mohini’, the celestial enchantress of the Hindu
mythology, is the classical solo dance form of Kerala.
Mohiniyattam, also spelled Mohiniattam , is one of two
classical dances of India that developed and remain
popular in the state of Kerala.
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The delicate body movements and subtle facial expressions are more feminine in
nature and therefore are ideally suited for performance by women.
References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts Vyavaharamala written in
1709 by Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri and in Ghoshayatra, written later
by great poet Kunjan Nambiar.
Mohiniyattam as seen today has evolved through a long process of evolution. It traces
its origin to the temples of Kerala.
This dance form of Kerala was structured into the present day classical format by the
Travancore Kings, Maharaja KartikaTirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati
Tirunal (18th -19th century C.E.).
According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu took on the guise of a ‘Mohini’ to seduce
the Asuras, both in connection with churning of the ocean and episode of
the slaying of Bhasmasura.
Mohiniattam is Lasya inspired dance with soft, calm and gentle movements.The
dancers were called by different names during different periods of time.
They were called as TaiNangai or Nangachi (one with beautiful hand), Dasi
(servant), Tevitichi or Deva-Adi-Achi (the one who served at the feet of the Lord),
Koothachi (who performed koothu or dance).
Their dances were known as ‘Nangai Natakam, Dasiyattam, Tevitichiyattam, etc. The
Nangiars, who are the women folk of Nambiar community, still follow a
strict code of dance, performed in a small performing space, within the temple
precincts, as practised in the olden times.
Though the exact period of its origin is not known, there are evidences to prove the
existence of a community of female temple dancers who assisted the temple rituals
by adding expressive gestures to the mantras chanted by the temple priests.
The graceful and most beautiful, Mohiniattam is mesmerizing. The text ‘Hastha
Lakshanadeepika’ is followed (for hand gestures and facial expressions) that has an
elaborate description of mudras.
The costumes for Mohiniyattam:
Mohiniyattam has a unique White/Off-White Costume. o
The prominent one-sided hairstyle (bun) also called
as ‘Kuduma’.
o Adorable ornaments make it unique.
The sequence of Mohiniyattam:
o Invocation. Jatiswaram. Varnam. Shlokam. Shabdam
.Padam. Tillana.
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The revival of Mohiniyattam:
In 1930, Nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayan Menon helped to repeal
the ban on temple dancing in Kerala as well as established the Kerala
Kalamandalam dance school and gave encouragement for its training and practice.
o Mukundraj, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony as well as Guru and Dancer
Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma gave their heroic contribution in reviving the
traditional art form.
Chau Dance:
o ‘Chhau’ – is derived from the Sanskrit
word ‘Chaaya’, meaning Shadow, image or
mask. Also, Chhau is defined by Sitakanta
Mahapatra to be derived from Chhauni (Military
Camp) in Odia language. Traditionally performed
by Males – Male troupes.
The Chhau has three different types originating from
three different regions. Every type has its own
unique feature, pattern, and style of performing and
ornamentation as well.
The Chhau dance of Eastern India -- Orissa, Jharkhand, and West Bengal – is a blend
of martial traditions, temple rituals, and folk and popular performance of this
region.
The themes in Chhau
Vaishnavism. Shaivism. Shaktism.
The costumes used in Chhau o
Bright colored costumes.
o Huge ornamental headgears. Masks depend upon the role you play in the story.
The music and instruments used for Chhau
The music is based on folk melodies.
Mohuri, Turi-Bheri ,Shehnai, Dhol, Dhumsa, Kharka or Chadchadi , Nagada and
Jhanj provide accompaniment to Chhau dance are few instruments employed to
create the music.
The revival, recognition and recent developments of Chhau
In 2010, Chhau was listed in the UNESCO’S Representative List of the Intangible
The Government has established Government Chhau Centre in Seraikella in 1960

and Myurbhanj Chhau Nritya Pratishthan at Baripada in 1962.
The Sangeet Natak Akademi established a National Centre for Chhau Dance at
Baripada, Odisha.
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The Seraikella Chhau developed in Seraikela, the

present day administrative headquarters of
the Seraikela Kharsawan district of Jharkhand,
the Purulia Chhau in Purulia district of west
Bemgal and the Mayurbhanj Chhau in
Mayurbhanj district of Odisha. The most
prominent difference among the three
subgenres is regarding the use of masks. While, the Seraikela and Purulia
subgenres of Chhau use masks during the dance, the Mayurbhanj Chhau uses none.
It is semi classical dance form where episodes from the epics Mahabharata,
Ramayana, Puranas, traditional folklore, local legends and abstract themes through
the medium of dance and a music ensemble that consists primarily of indigenous
drums.
In its traditional context, the dance is intimately connected with the festivals and
rituals of East region. Important among these is the Chaitra Parva celebrated in the
month of April. The month of Chaitra celebrates the advent of spring and the start
of the harvesting season.
Though vocal music is not used in Chhau, the melodies are based on songs from the
Jhumur folk repertoire, the devotional Kirtan, classical Hindustani 'ragas', and
traditional Oriya sources.
The Purulia Chhau uses extensive masks shaped in the form of the character being
played; for example, a lion character has a face mask of lion and body costumes
too with the actor walking on all fours.
The Seraikella Chhau's technique and repertoire were developed by the erstwhile
nobility of this region who were both its performers and choreographers, and in the
modern era people from all backgrounds dance it. The Seraikella Chhau is
performed with symbolic masks, and the acting establishes the role the actor is
playing.
These masks are crafted by potters who make clay images of Hindu gods and
goddesses and are primarily sourced from the Purulia district of West Bengal. In
the Mayurbhanj Chhau is performed without masks and is technically similar to the
Seraikella Chhau.
Folk Dances:
Indian folk and tribal dances are simple dances, and
are performed to express joy and happiness
among themselves. The folk music and dances
of agricultural communities celebrate the
rhythms of daily life, the turn of the seasons, the
highlights of the agricultural calendar, religious
festivals and important events that punctuate the
flow of life, such as births and marriages.
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A folk dance is performed for every possible

occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth
of a child, a wedding and festivals. Along the
entire Himalayan region, from Kashmir to
Darjeeling, folk dancers link arms and sway
gracefully in undulating movements, celebrate the
sowing of the wheat crop; few can resist the
infectious beat of the dholak, the two-sided drum, and pairs of dancers take turns to
execute complex acrobatic movements in the centre of a circle of abandoned
dancers.
In the fishing communities of Maharashtra, men and women link arms and dance
together and the women climb on to the men's shoulders to form pyramids. The
women's Lavani dance from this area is notable for its unabashed sensuality.
There are also several forms of dance-drama or folk theatre, such as the Nautanki of
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Bhavai of Gujarat, the irreverent
Tamasha of Maharashtra , the Bengali Jatra, the spectacular Yakshagana of
Karnataka and Theyyam of Kerala, all of which narrate legends of local heroes,
kings and deities.
In Punjab women perform the Giddha, also characterised by its spontaneous energy.
Rajasthani women, their faces covered with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as
they pirouette in the Ghoomar dance, while their counterparts in Gujarat perform
the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons. Their men perform the Dandiya
Ras, a more vigorous version of the same dance, leaping and crouching in
twirling patterns.
Martial art forms throughout the country have been stylized to quasi dance forms,
notable among which are the martial dances of the North-eastern hill tribes, the
Lazim dances of Maharashtra, the Kalaripayattu of Kerala, and the highly stylized
masked Chhau dances of Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar.
Gaur dance
Gaur means Bison, and in this dance, the dancers mimic
the movements of a ferocious bison such as charging,
tossing of horns, hurling wisps of grass into the air etc.
This dance is performed in the Bastar district of
Madhya Pradesh.
Pandavani Dance
Pandavani dance and music is a folk singing style of
musical narration of tales from ancient epic
Mahabharata with musical accompaniment and Bhima
as hero. It is a folk dance of Chhattisgarh. Teejan Bai is a known Pandavani artist.
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Art and Culture
Jatra Dance
Jatra dance is a folk dance of West Bengal &
Bangladesh. The name literally means ‘going’ or
‘journey’. It is performing art combining acting,
songs, music and dance. The dance form developed
from ceremonial functions conducted before setting
out on a journey such as the processions brought out
in honour of various deities.
Bihu Dance
Bihu is a popular folk dance of Assam. It is an
integral part of the Bihu festival in April when the
harvesting of crops is over. Young men and girls
perform the Bihu dance together to the
accompaniment of drums and pipes.Love forms
the subject matter of the songs that are sung during
the performance. The dances are performed in
circles or parallel rows.
Bidesia, Bihar
It is a popular form of dance drama prevalent in the
Bhojpuri-speaking region of Bihar. Bhikari Thakur
is believed to be the creator of these dramas. It
dealt with many social issues, contradictory topics
& conflict between the
traditional and the modern, the urban and rural,
and the rich and the poor.
In Bidesia, the female roles are also played by the male actor-dancers. The plays and
style of theatre is very popular for their rhythmic language, sweet songs and
appealing music.
Jat-Jatin Dance, Bihar
It is one of the most admired folk dances of North
Bihar (including the Mithila and Koshi region). It
is normally performed in a couple. The original
theme of the dance explains the story of the lovers
Jat and Jatin, who were separated and living in
difficult situations. But now through many social
situations are also discussed like natural calamities situation like droughts and
floods. Many socially concern topics like poverty, sorrow, love; all find its
expression in this dance.
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Jumari Dance, Bihar

It is a folk dance of Mithilanchal of Bihar. It is
somewhat similar to garba and only married
women perform it. As many other rituals that are
performed by married women, it also signifies a
good omen. It is usually performed in the
beginning of karthik month as per the Hindu
calendar. At this time, the sky is crystal clear. This
creates Maids in love go on dancing, singing and celebrating the turns of the
season.
Paika Dance, Bihar
The word `paika` is believed to derive from the Sanskrit word
`Padatika` which means the infantry. Therefore, the name
of the dance is Paika (battle) dance. The Paika dance is
performed with employing shield and sword. It is a dance
of martial character. In the dance performance, skills &
ability of the dancers in handling sword and shield is
displayed. The dance reach at the climax with the fast beats
produced by `Mandal`.
Cheraw Dance:
Cheraw is also known as Bamboo Dance. It is a folk
dance of Mizoram, in which the dancers move by
stepping alternately in and out of the pairs of
horizontal bamboos. Thus, a grid of bamboo poles
is an integral part of this dance. The performers tap
the bamboos open and closed in
They tap the bamboos open and closed in rhythmic beats. The dancers step in and out
of the squares formed by the bamboos with ease and grace. The pattern and
stepping of the dance resemble the movements of birds, swaying of trees
Dumhal Dance
Dumhal dance is performed by the men folk of the
Wattal tribe of Kashmir. This dance is performed
with long colourful robes, tall conical caps.
Dumhal dance is accompanied by songs which the
performers themselves sing. Performers of this
dance place a banner into the ground at a fixed
location. They begin to dance around this banner.
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Kariyala:
It is a popular art form of Himachal Pradesh. The
plays celebrate local traditions of dress, worship,
and morality, by telling stories of ordinary life
using a range of familiar characters. Music,
dance, and satirical humour enliven the
performances, which sometimes last
all night.
There is also a religious element with a chorus that sings praises to the gods. This
form of shows present sharp and pungent satires about the bureaucracy and social
issues very boldly.
Namagen:
In Himachal, the Namagen dance is performed for the
celebration of the autumnal hue in the month of
September. The most striking dance performance
amongst these is the Gaddis. The costumes that are
used in this dance are of woolens and women wear
richly studded ornaments of silver. The dancing
steps & rhythm of the dance is wonderfully mixed
with each other. Drum plays an important part in this dance performance.
Bhangra Dance
Bhangra is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has
now evolved into a pop sensation. It is the folk dance
of the agriculturist class of Punjab. Traditionally this
dance is associated with the harvesting season and
was performed on a full moon day. People sing
Boliyaan (lyrics or couplets) in the Punjabi
language. Dhol is an integral part of
Bhangra. Bhangra has eventually become a part of social occasions including
weddings.
Langvir Dance
Langvir nritya is a folk dance form of Uttarakhand. The
acrobatic dance movements are performed only by
males.Dancer climbs a pole and balance himself on
his navel on the top of the pole. To the
accompaniment of drum beats and music, he
balances skilfully and rotates on his belly,
performing several acrobatic stunts.
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Gidda Dance
o Gidda is a female counterpart of the Bhangra,
performed by women and girls.
Padayani:
This dance is performed in Southern Kerala and is
associated with the festival of certain temples, called
Padayani or Paddeni. One can easily identify this
dance by the size of the huge mask (Kolams) used by
the performers. The dance is performed traditionally
in Bhagvati temples. Such temples are in Alleppey,
Quilon, Pathanamthitta and Kottayam districts.
Dollu Kunitha:
This folk dance is performed in Karnataka state. Large drums
are adorned with colored clothes and hang around the necks
of men. The songs used in this dance usually have religious
and battle fervour. The main emphasis is on quick and light
movement of the feet and legs. The Dollu Kunitha dance
forms a part of the ritualistic dances of the Dodavas of
Karnataka.
Dhimsa:
This dance is popular among the tribes inhabiting the
Araku Valley region of Vishakhapatam, in Andhra
Pradesh.
Garba and Ras:
Dandiya is a form of dance-oriented folk music that
originated in Brindavan and became popular in
western India. These songs sung in honor of Hindu
goddesses and gods during Navratri. It is sung in the
honour of god Krishna, hanuman, ram etc. This
dance form is actually the staging of a mock-fight
between Goddess Durga and Mahishasura, the mighty demon-king.
Ghoomar Dance
o Ghoomar is a folk dance of Rajasthan and is
characteristic dance of the Bhils. It is a community
dance performed by groups of women on auspicious
occasions. The name is derived from the word
ghoomna (pirouetting).
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Kalbelia Dance:
o Kalbelia dance is performed by the womenfolk
hailing from the Kalbelia (Snake charmers)
community in Rajasthan. They pursue the centuries-
old profession of catching snakes and trading snake
venom. The dance movements and the costumes
have an uncanny resemblance to the slithery
creatures. Kalbelia dance has been included in UNESCO intangible cultural
heritage list.
Bhavai Dance:
In Rajasthan, this spectacular dance form consists of veiled women dancers balancing
nearly seven or nine brass pitchers as they dance dexterously, pirouetting and
swaying with the soles of their feet perched on top of a glass or on the edge of a
sword.
Khayal Dance:
It is amongst the most famous dances of Rajasthan. The themes
for the dance are derived from the great Hindu epics i.e. the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These dances are performed
by the Bhawai caste. Thought to have been originated from
the Jats, these Bhawai castes perform the Khayal dance on
heredity basis. They enact these dance-dramas and have
numerous ballets; some of which are humorous and depict
the comic characters of `baniyas`,
barbers and moneylenders with bitterest satires. Women do not participate in
Bhawai dances.
Rasdhari Dance:
It occupies an artistic middle ground between Rasalila and
Khyal dances of Rajasthan. It is closer to the latter with
its combination of entertaining dance, song, and
dialogue. It started as a community activity expressing
devotional joy and later the troupes became professional
and the performances started serving as their livelihood.
Thirayattam:
o Thirayattam (Malayalam) is a ritualistic performing
Ethnic art form of kerala state in India. It blends of
dance, theatre, music, satire, facial painting, body
painting, masking, martial art & ritualistic function.
This vibrant folk art form has great resemblance to the
tradition and customs of the ancient civilization.
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"Thirayattam" is one of the most outstanding folk art of kerala.This divine ritualistic
folklore art form enacted in courtyards of "kaavukal"(sacred groves) and village
shrines of south malabar (Calicut & malappuram dt:)region in kerala state.
Theyyam:
Theyyam otherwise known as Kaliyattam, is one of
the most outstanding folk arts of Kerala. Just as the
name Kaliyattam indicates, it is a sacred ritual
dance performed to glorify the goddess Kaali. The
term 'Theyyam' is supposed to be the corrupt form
of the Malayalam word 'Daivam', meaning God.It
earned the name Thirayattam as every thira or
village performed this ritualistic art at the village temple known as kaavu.
Yakshagana:
Yakshagana is a classical dance drama popular in the state of
Karnataka. This theater art involves music, song, dance,
acting, dialogue, story and unique costumes. Songs and
dance adhere to well-established talas very similar to
classical Indian dance forms but acting and dialogues are
created spontaneously on stage depending on the ability
of the performers. This combination of classical and folk
elements makes yakshagana unique from any other Indian
art. It can be equated with western
opera.
o Traditionally, yakshaganas use to start late in the night and run all night.
Bhagavata, the background singer, is also the directory of the story and controls the
proceedings on stage. Bagavatha along with background musicians who play
chande and maddale forms himmela. The actors wear colorful costumes and enact
roles in the story of Mummela.
Bagurumba folk dance:
By bodo tribe in Asin Assam and Northeast India.
The Bodo women perform the Bagurumba dance
with their colourful dokhna, jwmgra (fasra) and
aronai. The Bagurumba dance is accepted as main
traditional dance of Bodo people. But there are
some other important dances like- Bardwisikhla
dance, Mwsaglangnai dance, Dahal-tungri sibnai
dance, Sikri sikla dance, Daosri delai dance, Sa-gwlao mwsanai, Kopri sibnai
mwsanai and so on. All these dances are known as Kristi dance.
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It is also accompanied by musical instruments like kham (a long drum, made of wood
and goat skin or other animal’s skin), sifung (flute, made of bamboo), jota (made
of iron/tama), serja (a bowed instrument, made of wood and animals skin), and
gongwna (made of bamboo), tharkha (a piece of split bamboo).
Questionary:
What is the importance of classical dance? Explain any four of the

classical dance of India.
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Chapter: 17
Indian Performing Arts part 2
Indian Music:
The music of India includes multiple varieties of classical music, folk music, filmi,
Indian rock and Indian pop. India's classical musictradition, including Hindustani
music and Carnatic, has a history spanning millennia and developed over several
areas.
Indian music has remained essentially melodic. In melody, one note follows the other,
making for a continued unity of effect, whereas in harmony musical sounds are
superimposed on one another.
It is generally believed that the music of India was more or less uniform before the
13th century. Later it bifurcated into the two musical systems.
The evolution of poetry, painting and other visual arts has been preserved on stone,
leaves and paper but music being auditory, no such evidence exists.
The present Indian music has grown from ancient times. Almost every tribe or people
have lent their own share in this growth. What therefore, we now call a raga might
have started as a tribal or folk tune.
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Vedic Music:
The oldest music, which possessed a grammar was the vedic. In the Vedic era, the
priests composed hymns in praise of the nature gods, which had to be sung or
chanted at religious sacrifices. This tradition led to the composition of a sizable
body of the religious poetry, which we call Shruti Literature.
The Rig-Veda is said to be the oldest: nearly 5000 years old. The psalms of
the Rig-Veda were called the richas.
o TheYajur Veda was also a religious chant. While Yajurveda tells us the procedures
followed in the sacrifice, the Samveda contains the hymns to be sung by those who
chanting them.
Samveda basically consists of a samhita (collection) of richās. How these
Rigvedic richās should be sung is known as Sām. This implies that Sām is the
composition of Rig-Veda richās in the form of notes, while Sāmgana is the song
thus sung. This music is called the Vedic Music.
The sāmgana included the instrumental music also. The prominent instruments in
the Vedic Music were the veena, tunav, dundubhi, bhoomi-dundubhi, talav
etc.Upveda Gandharvaved also talks about Music.
There were non-Aryan people with their own art. For instance, Santhal music from the
Eastern region of India ,there is no doubt that such music of the people contributed
to the formation of what we now call Hindustani Classical Music.
Origin of Sargam:
The Samaveda employed more notes and thus finally settled down on seven notes,
which were krusht, pratham, dwitiya, tritiya, chaturth, mandra and atiswār. This
later evolved into what we call the seven Svaras.
The initial notes in Indian music were three viz. udatta, anudatta and svarita.
The seven Svaras are the basic notes of an octave named Ṣaḍjaṃ, Riṣabh, Gāndhār,
Madhyam, Pañcham, Dhaivata and Niṣād (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha and Ni)
respectively.
Collectively, they are called Sargam. A series of the seven notes is also known as
Saptak.
Divine Origin of Indian Music
Narada was the first sage to whom the laws of music were revealed. Veena is the
oldest music instrument, which was invented by Narada. Tumburu was the first
singer. Saraswati was the goddess of music and learning; and Bharata was the first
to draw up rules for theatre, of which music was a major and integral part.
Ragas in Indian Music:
Set of notes i.e. Swara (Between 5 to 8) form Ragaa.
Forms basic of melody. It is a combination of melody, scale and key.
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They are linked with time of day or different seasons or moods

Each Raga has ascending and descending patterns of notes, A set melody called Gat.
Three kinds of Ragas:
Odava raga: made of 5 notes (Swara)
Shadava raga: made of 6 notes (Swara)
Sampurna raga: made of 7 notes (Swara)
Raga Time Season Mood Indian

Ritu
Hindol Dawn Spring Sweetness Basanta

of young
couple
Deepak Night Summer Compassion Grishma
Megha Afternoon Rainy Courage Varsha
Shri Evening Winter Gladness Hemant
Malkaus Midnight Winter Youthful Sharad

Love
Bhairavi Morning Autum Peace and Shishira

Devotional
Natya Shastra:
The Natya Shastra of Bharata is a comprehensive work mainly dealing with
dramaturgy. But a few chapters of this deal with music. Therein we get information
on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments.
o The then contemporary music recognized two standard scales. These were called
gramas. The word grama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or sect:
a village, for instance.
This probably leads to a set of svaras or notes being called grama. This could roughly
be translated as scales.
There were then two gramas, Shadja grama and Madhyama grama. The difference
between the two was only in one note, the panchama.
The sruti thus is the unit of measure or small difference between the various
consecutive pitches within a grama or a scale.
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As far as practical enumeration is concerned there are seven notes in an octave or

saptak from Sa to upper Sa. But in reality the number of srutis employed in Indian
music is infinite.
Variation in Indian Music:
So there were two gramas, with seven notes each. Bharata also mentions two other
note: these were the antara gandhara and kakali nishada.
o Now, from each grama subsidiary scales are derived. These are called
moorcchanas. The notes are played or sung in a descending manner.
13th century A.D. Sarangadeva wrote his monumental Sangeeta Ratankara. He also
described technical terms such as gramas and moorcchanas.
The standard scales were still the same. But whereas Bharata mentions two auxiliary
svaras, the number and definition of these were very different in medieval times.
The disappearance of gramas and moorcchanas:
Sometime around about the 15th century, the grama system became obsolete.
The concept of mela or thata takes its place. In this there is only one standard scale.
All known notes are referred to a common note Sa.
By about the 18th century even the standard or shuddha svara in Hindustani music
becomes different.
The following is the current one, accepted from then Sa re ga ma pa dha ni This is
the mela aaroh of the modern raga Bilaval.
Besides these seven shuddha notes or svaras there are five variants, making in all
twelve notes to a saptak.
Sa re ga ma pa dha ni These are the shrutis, It is better, therefore, to call these 12
tonal regions rather than notes.
Variation in Indian Music:
o All known ragas are grouped within this twelve tone scale. A Carnatic musicologist
- Venkatmukhi of the 17th century, who gave a system of 72 melas formed out of
these twelve tones. Later on, in the 20th century, Pt. Bhatkhande, chose 10 out of
the 72 to classify Hindustani ragas.
In theNatya Shastra of Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms called jati.
Every one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or the other. They were
distinguished by characteristics like the graha (starting note) nyasa (note on which
a phrase stops). the range of notes - from low pitch to high - and so on.
Many scholars are of the opinion that the concept of raga which is so basic to our
music, was born and developed out of jati.
The major work dealing with the raga is the Brihaddesi of Matanga. The work is dated
around the 6th century, A.D.
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Brihaddeshi is the first text that speaks about rāga and distinguishes the music genres
into Marga Sangeet (Classical Music) and Desi Sangeet (Folk Music).
Brihaddeshi was also the important work on Indian music before the Islam came and
influenced the Indian music.
No folk singer thinks of a grama or a mela.
The tribal and folk songs existed and still exist without a conscious grammar. o It
is the musicologist who later classifies melodies or ragas into scales.
o A characteristic contribution of India to musical rhythm is the tala. Tala is a cyclic
arrangement of time units (beats).
o The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta. Range of Tala is from 3
to 108 beats. E.g. Teental has 16 beats.
o A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a tabla. Each stroke on the drum
has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha, ta, ghe.
Types of Musical Instruments:
Types:
A musical instrument is an instrument created or

adapted to make musical sounds. The general term
for musical instruments in India is Vadya. There are
predominantly 5 types of them. There is a traditional
system for the classification of instruments.
Tat Vadya:
The String Instruments are known as Tat Vadya. They are the Plucked Stringed
Instruments. In ancient times virtually all instruments of this class were referred to
as vina.
Some of the instruments of this categorty are Sitar, Sarod, Saraswati Vina (South
Indian Vina), Surbahar, Gotuvadyam, Rudra Vina,Vichitra Vina, Ektar, Tanpura,
Dotar ,Santoor, Surmandal, Bulbul Tarang, Nakula Vina ,Magadi Vina ,Getchu
Vadyam (Gettuvadyam) ,Gopichand (ektar), Seni Rabab, Been and Sarangi.
Sushir Vadya:
The Blown Air Instruments. This class of instrument is characterized by the use of air
to excite the various resonators. Some of the instruments of this category are
Bansuri, Shehnai, Pungi, Harmonium, Shankh, Nadaswaram, Ottu and Surpeti.
Ghana Vadya:
The Non- Membranous Percussive Instruments. This is one of the oldest classes of
instruments in India.
This class is based upon percussive instruments which do not have membranes,
specifically those which have solid resonators.
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Vitat Vadya:
The Bowed Stringed Instruments, are played by a bow rubbing the strings. The bow
rubbing the string causes vibration which the instrument emits as sound.
This is a class of stringed instruments which are bowed. Some of the instruments of
this category are Sarangi, Saringda, Violin ,Esraj, Dilriba, Chikara, Mayuri Vina
and Pena.
Avanaddh Vadya:
The Membranous Percussive Instruments. This is a class of instruments which have
struck membranes. These typically comprise the drums.
Some of the instruments of this category are Tabla, Pakhawaj, Mridangam, Tabla
Tarang, Dholak ,Nagada, Dholki (Nal), Daf (Duf, Daphu, Daffali), Kanjira, Tavil,
Khol (Mridang), Pung, Thanthi, Panai, Damaru, Chenda, Shuddha Madalam,
Idakka and Udaku (Udakai).
Classical Indian Music:
Today we recognise two systems of classical music: the
Hindustani and the Carnatic. Carnatic music is confined
to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala.
The classical music of the rest of the country goes under
the name, Hindustani Classical Music. Of course. there
are some areas in Karnataka and Andhra where the
Hindustani Classical system is also practiced.
Carnatic Music:
Carnatic music is completely melodic with improvised variations. Purandara Dasa
is credited with having founded today’s Carnatic music.
He is credited with having elevated Carnatic music from religious and devotional
music into the realm of a performing art.
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Carnatic music is usually performed by a small

ensemble of musicians consisting of a principal
performer (vocalist ) a violin, mridanga ,and a
tamburu.
Today carnatic music is presented by musicians in
concerts or recordings either vocally or through
instruments.
Important elements of carnatic music: o

Shruti commonly refers to musical pitch.
o Swara refers to type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative
position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.
o Raga - A raga in carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody.
Tala - Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition ( a measure of time)
Types of Carnatic Music and its meaning Ragam: o

Kriti-Kirthanai: Most popular type which refers to
devotional music laced with poetic beauty.
o Varnam: Performed at the beginning of a concert ;
a completely composed piece.
o Tanam- Pallavi: Elaborate rhythmic and melodic
variat ion in unmeasured sense.
o Padam: Slower tempo love songs referring to the
human yearning for the adored god head.
o Javalis: Faster tempo love songs with direct description of human love.
o Tillana: Meaningful phrases are interspersed with variety of meaningless syllables

Instruments Of Carnatic Music:
Percussion instruments:
o The term percussion instrument refers to the method of playing the instrument, viz:
striking the instrument, either by fingers, hand or sticks.
The Mridangam:
The name comes from the Sanskrit words “Mrid” and
“Ang” which literally means “Clay Body”, which was
very likely how the original mridangam was made.
Today, is made from a large piece of hollowed out
jackfruit wood.
The two mouths or openings are covered with goatskin,
and attached to each other with tightly bound leather straps. The two sides of the
drum are different sizes, so you can get bass and treble sounds from one drum.
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The ghatam:
The ghatam consists of a clay pot reinforced with brass,
copper and iron fillings. The pitch of the ghatam is unique
and can only be slightly modified by water and additional
clay.
The morsing:
It is a tiny instrument held in the left hand, shaped like prongs
with an additional metal stick running through the
length of the instrument. It is played along with the
mridangam in Carnatic concerts. Identical to the Jew’s
harp, it is an ancient instrument with a nasal, twangy sound.
The thavil:
It is used for accompanying the nadaswaram.It consists of a
barrel shaped drum carved out of jackfruit wood, with
animal membrane stretched out on either side. The
instrument is played while sitting, or is hung by a cloth
strap from the neck.
The kanjira
It is a small handheld drum that resembles a tambourine. It
consists of a circular wooden frame of jack wood. One
face of the frame is stretched over with a thin layer of
leather. The drum is usually held in the left hand and
played by striking the leather face with the fingers of the
right. A couple of small metal discs are attached to the
frame.
The udukkai
It is an hourglass shaped, membranous drum used in
devotional and folk music throughout India. It is played
with the hand and the pitch may be altered by tightening
the lacing in the middle. It is made of wood or brass and is
very portable.
Drone instrument :
o Produce the drone effect's sustained pitch, generally
without the ongoing attention of the player. A drone is a
harmonic or monophonic effect or accompaniment where
a notr or chord is continuously sounded throughout most or all of a piece.
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Thampura
It is a long-necked, fretless lute that supplies a drone accompaniment in Indian music,
usually has four metal strings tuned .Precision tuning is achieved by inserting bits
of wool or silk between the strings and lower bridge and by adjusting small beads
attached to the strings. It accompanies the voice and all melody instruments except
the Nagaswaram.
Wind instrument:
A musical instrument that contains some type of resonator (usually a tube), in which a
column of air is set into vibration by the player blowing into (or over) a
mouthpiece set at or near the end of the resonator.
Flute:
The flute that is used in Carnatic music is a side blown
instrument with holes, The flute's seven holes are
fingered by the middle joint of the fingers
instead of the tips, producing an impressively fluid
melody that would not fit into the graphic notation
system of traditional Western music.
At the same time, it does not compete with the vocal line by being too melodically
clear. It is generally made of bamboo. It is referred as Venu and is the music
instrument of Lord Krishna in Indian mythology.
The shankha:
It is a conch shell primarily used in religious music of
Hinduism and Buddhism. The shell is got from the
shell of a large predatory sea snail, the Turbinella
Pyrum that lives in the Indian ocean.The shankha is
blown through a hole that is specially drilled near the
apex. When blown, the sound produced is loud and
high.
The nadaswaram:
The nadaswaram is made of wood and metal that is found in both classical and folk
traditions in South India.
The name is got from ‘Nada’ or pleasing sound and
‘Swaram’ meaning note. The sound of the
instrument is considered auspicious, and it is used
in temple concerts and religious festivals. The
nadaswaram is accompanied by the thavil, a barrel
shaped drum. It has a long tube with seven finger
holes.
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Reed instrument:
The reeds of most woodwind instruments are made from Arundo donax ("Giant cane")
or synthetic material; tuned reeds are made of metal or synthetics. A reed is a thin
strip of material which vibrates to produce a sound on a musical
instrument.Musical instruments may be classified according to the type and
number of reeds used.
Harmonium:
It is a wind activated reed instrument. Air is blown
using the hand bellow.
o A version with foot pump too exist but not very
popular. A smaller version with no Key board
called Sruthi box exist to provide drone. The key
board is European and has many drone reeds
peculiar to Indian music. Base drone is
accomplished by keeping some of the reeds
continuously activated by pulling the required
knobs in the front side of the instrument.
String instrument:
stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound
from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some
manner.
Veena:
The Saraswati veena has seven strings strung over twenty
four fixed frets.Veena, as Saraswathi Veena is
popularly known, is the instrument associated with
Saraswathi. It is used in Carnatic music for exclusive
performance and not as an accompaniment to a vocal
performance.
It has a large resonator (kudam), a tapering hollow neck (dandi) and a tuning box that
curves downwards (yali). The veena is said to be the only instrument that can play
all the gamakas (oscillations) in Carnatic music.
The chitravina:
Around the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it started
to be known by another name, Gotuvadyam which
was bestowed upon it by Sakha Rama
Rao from Tiruvidaimarudur, who was responsible for
bringing it back to the concert scene. The chitravina
( hanumad vina, or mahanataka vina) is a 20 or 21-
string fretless lute in Carnatic music.
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Today it is played mainly in South India, though its origins can be traced back to
Bharata's Natya Shastra(200 BCE-200 CE), where it is mentioned as a seven string
fretless instrument.
Sarangadeva (1210–47) also made a similar reference to the chitravina in his work,
Sangita Ratnakara.
Violin:
The violin used in Indian classical music is similar to
the one used in Western classical traditions. Violin is
a bowed, stringed musical instrument of the
family chordophones (divided into four subgroups -
lutes, zithers, lyres, and harps – based on positioning
of strings in relation to the body of the instrument).
Violin belongs to the subgroup - Lute.
In Carnatic music, the tuning is the same. The tuning
is slightly modified for the Hindustani violin, but the playing style remains the
same- sitting cross legged on the floor with the scroll of the violin resting on the
right foot of the player.
The violin is also extensively used as a solo instrument in both Carnatic and
Hindustani styles. It is accompanied by the mridangam, tabla, and allied percussion
instruments like the ghatam.
Personalities Of Carnatic Music:
M.S. Subbulakshmi : Vocalist
She was the first musician ever to be awarded the
Bharat Ratna. She also received Ramon Magsaysay
Award. Some of the famous works include
Suprabhatam, Bhajagovindam, Vishnu
sahasranamam, Hanuman Chalisha etc.
Dr. M. Balamurali Krishna:
He is a carnatic vocalist, multi - instrumentalist and a
playback singer. carnatic vocalist, multi -
instrumentalist and a playback singer. He has
composed over 400 compositions in various
languages like Telugu, San- skrit and Tamil.
Dr. Balamuralikrishna has innovated the whole
Carnatic Music system by keeping its rich tradition
untouched. He also innovated the tala system. He has won many awards including
Padma Shri, Padma Bhush-an and Padma Vibhushan and many honorary
doctorates from various universities.
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Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer:
Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer is one of the greatest
carnatic vocalist of the twentieth century. He is the
Pitamaha of carnatic music.
He also popular is edrare ragas such as Bhava priya
Salagha bhairavi and Narayanagowla. Semmangudi
has received many awards including Padma
Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan.
Although a tradionalist, he introduced many novelties in the works of composers
ranging from Swati Tirunal to Ambujam Krishna.
G.N. Balasubramaniam:
G.N. Balasubramaniam was a legendary vocalist in the
Carnatic tradition. He was also the first major
Carnatic musician to moot the idea of Indian music
as a single entity rather than separating it into
Hindustani and Carnatic Systems. He was the first
concert musician to approach the concept of raga
alapana in a step-by-step approach. He composed
over 100 krithis and invented new ragas.
M.L.Vasantha kumari:
o M.L.Vasantha kumari was a carnatic musician and
playback singer for film songs. M.L. Vasanthakumari
popularised unfamiliar ragas. She popularised the
compositions of Purandara Dasa. She had received
many awards including the Padma Bhushan.
MD Ramanathan
MD Ramanathan was a carnatic music composer and
vocalist. He was known for his unique style of singing.
He sang with adequate bhava or expression. His style of
rendering was very different from the standard format
of carnatic concert. He often deviated from the s
tandard set and sa ng his own versions.
Ariya kudi RamanujaIyengar
o Ariya kudi RamanujaIyengar was a carnatic music
vocalist known for his unique style. His unique style of
singing came to be known as the riyakudi Tradition.
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Hindustani Music:
It was Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Vishnu Narayan
Bhatkhande who spread Hindustani classical music to
masses by starting schools, teaching music in classroom
and devising a standardized grading and testing system.
Bhatkhande standardized and universalized the notation
system making it easier to spread music.
Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on the vocal
performance, recently instrumental Hindustani music is very popular than vocal
music especially outside South Asia.
It has seven basic notes , 5 interspersed half notes and 12-note scale. o
Raga(Melodic Pattern) and Tala(Rhythmic cycle) are unique features.
Gharanas: schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons

such as kings or noblemen. There is a rich tradition of Gharanas in classical
Hindustani music. The music Gharanas are also called styles.These schools or
Gharanas have their basis in the traditional mode of musical training and education.
Every Gharana has its own distinct features. The main area of difference between
Gharanas is the manner in which the notes are sung. The concept of a Guru-
Shishya leads to the development of Gharanas.
Hindustani Music Styles:
Dhrupad:
Dhrupad is an oldest style of Hindustani singing,
traditionally performed by male singers.
o The great Indian musician Tansen, Haridas and
Baijubawara sang in the Dhrupad style.
It has religious theme and demands huge efforts by
vocalists. The Been, Pakhawaj and Tanpura is also associated with it.
The dhrupad is even now highly respected and can be heard on the concert platform
but more often in temples of North India. Also called temple music.
The dhrupad has somewhat receded to the background and is not so popular with
the masses.
Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior petronised it. Performance cosists of two parts:

Alaap (Exposition Section mainly in Sanskrit Mantras)

Bandish (Fixed Composition)
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Following are Dhrupad Gahranas:

Darbhanga: This tradition uses Khandarbani and Guaharvani.
Jaipur Beenkar: Founded in the 18th century by Shahaji Saheb.
Talwandi: This gharana removed the Hindu terminology of Dhrupad and replaced it with
Muslim terminology. (Pakistan)
Vishnupur: performed exclusively in devotional, temple settings.
Qadri: This tradition does not have an established name.
Rampur or Maihar : It is most well known for its instrumentalists.
Bettiah: This tradition uses Khandarbani. (Bihar)
Dagar: This is the most well known worldwide.
Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music but has now given way
to Khyal.
Khyal is a form of vocal music in Hindustani music. It was adopted from medieval
Persian music It is special as it is based on improvising and expressing emotion.
Khyal means thought and imagination.It was popularised by Amir Khusaro.
The khyal is always in medium speed. The words are pronounced clearly and in an
open and clear voice. Khyal has delicate and romantic themes like pranks of
Krishna. It gave way to use of taan in Hindustani Music.
The distinguishing characters are the passages which are primarily based on alankars -
that is. repetitive melodic motifs - and an almost metronomic insistence of tala
division. Perfromance consists of two parts :; Bada khyal and Chota Khyal

Khyal Gharanas:
Agra Gharana:
o The Agra Gharana places great importance on developing forcefulness and
deepness in the voice so that the notes are powerful and resonant.
Kirana Gharana:
It derives its name from the birthplace of Abdul Kharim Khan of Kirana near
Kurukshetra. In the Kirana style of singing, the swara is used to create an
emotional mood by means of elongation and use of Kana-s.
Delhi Gharana:
The Delhi Ghaana was represented by Tanras Khan and Shabbu Khan.The highlights
of Delhi Gharana are pleasing vistaar and exquisite compositions.
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Jaipur Atrauli Gharana:
The most distinctive feature of the Jaipur Gharana can be best described as its
complex and melodic form which arises out of the involutedly and undulating
phrases that comprise the piece.
Gwalior Gharana:
This is the oldest among all the Khayal Gayaki (vocal) styles. The distinctive feature
of this style of singing has been noted as its lucidity and simplicity.
Benaras Gharana:
The Benaras Gharana evolved as a result of great lilting style of khayal singing known
by Thumri singers of Benaras and Gaya.
Mewati Gharana:
The Mewati Gharana gives importance to developing the mood of the raga through the
notes forming it and its style is Bhava Pradhan. It also gives equal importance to
the meaning of the text.
Rampur Sahaswan Gharana:
The Rampur Sahaswan Gharana there is a stress on the clarity of swara in this style
and the development and elaboration of the raga is done through a stepwise
progression.
Bhendi Bazaar Gharana:
The most distinctive feature of the Bhendi Bazaar Gharana is the presentation of
Khayal, which is open voice, using Akar. There is a stress on breath-control and
singing of long passages in one breath is highly regarded in this Gharana.
Dhamar :
It is associated with the dhrupad style and typically played on the pakhawaj.
Dhamar tala has 14 beats (matras) grouped asymmetrically into a 5-2-3-4 pattern. o
The text of a dhamar concerns the antics of Krishna teasing the milkmaids during
the Holi (hori) Spring Festival of colours.
o It is considered a relatively light and romantic musical form.
o More Freedom given to artist and contain erotic content.
Tarana:
It was invented by Amir Khusro (1253-1325 CE),and is similar to the Qalbana form of
Sufi poetry.
In modern times, the tarana is most commonly associated with the singer Amir Khan,
who helped popularize it and researched its origins and the syllables used.
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Tarana has certain words and syllables (e.g. "odani", "todani", "tadeem" and "yalali")
based on Persian and Arabic phonemes are rendered at a medium
(madhya) or fast (drut) pace (laya).
Nissar Hussain Khan was also well known for tarana singing. Tarana was also used by
Sikh tenth Guru Gobind Singh in his compositions.
They consist of a few lines of poetry with rhythmic syllables.
Thumri:
The term "thumri" is derived from the Hindi verb thumakna, which means "to walk
with dancing steps so as to make the ankle-bells tinkle."
Thumri is a semi classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh.
The text is romantic or devotional in nature, and usually revolves around a girl's love
for Krishna. Usually sung in female voice.
The form is, thus, connected with dance, dramatic gestures, mild eroticism, evocative
love poetry and folk songs of Uttar Pradesh, though there are regional
variations.
UttarPradesh dialects of Hindi called Awadhi and Brij Bhasha are used in lyrics.
Thumri is characterized by its sensuality, and by a greater flexibility with the raag.
There are two types Thumrī is also used as a generic name for some other, even
lighter, forms such as Dadra, Hori, Kajari, Saavan, Jhoola, and Chaiti.
Like Indian classical music itself, some of these forms have their origin in folk
literature and music.
There are two types of Thumri:
Purbi Thumri (Slow)
Punjabi Thumri (Fast and lively)
Tappa:
It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a
form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori.
o Quick phrases and turn are used in tappa. It uses short taan without any
elaboration.
Tappa is a from of Indian semi- classical vocal music.
Its specialty is a rolling pace based on fast, subtle and knotty construction.
Its tunes are melodious and sweet, and depict the emotional outbursts of a lover.
Tappe (plural) were sung mostly by songstresses, known as baigees, in royal courts
Ghazal:
Independent couplets on love and devotion. It is an originally Persian form of Poetry.
In India, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the Urdu language.
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Bhajan: Religious devotional songs
Sabadas: Sikh religious songs
Qawali: Indo- Muslim repertories of songs in groups.
Instruments Of Hindustani Music:

Percussion instruments:
The pakhavaj
o After fifteenth century, there was yet another
name for Mrudangam instrument pakhavaj.
Pakhavaj acquired a place of great importance in
Hindustani music till the nineteenth century. It
was the only accompanying instrument of the
dhrupad style of singing and for the instruments
played in dhrupad style such as been, rabab,
sursingar and surbahar, etc., and thus was looked upon with great reverence. With
the fall of dhrupad and with the advent of khayal pakhavaj also lost its reigning
position and made way for the tabla.
The tabla
The instrument consists of two drums, called bayan (left) and
dayan (right) as per the hand they are most commonly
played with. The drums consist of a layer of goatskin
stretched over a metal or clay vessel. The left and right
vessels are shaped differently, with the right being narrow
and more cylindrical.
The tabla is used as both a solo and an accompanying
instrument. It is commonly used as an accompaniment for khayal and thumri
music.
The jal tarang
The jal tarang consists of a set of ceramic or metal bowls
tuned with water. The bowls are played by striking the
edge with beaters, one in each hand.

String instrument:
Veena:
o The veena is among the oldest of Indian musical
instruments. From the references to Vedic writings, it can
date back to around the first millennium B.C. Temple
sculptures from the 2nd century B.C. show a type of
veena being played.
o The Saraswati veena is the predominant Carnatic music
and the Rudra veena the most played veena in Hindustani music.
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The rudra veena also called Bin. It has a long tubular body made of wood or bamboo
with a length between 54 and 62 inches. Two large, round resonators,
made of dried and hollowed gourds, are attached under the tube. As Rudra is a
name for the Hindu god Shiva, rudra vina literally means "the veena dear to
Shiva". Shiva is also said to have created the Rudraveena, inspired by his wife,
Parvati.
It is an ancient instrument rarely played today. The rudra veena declined in popularity
in part due to the introduction in the early 19th century of the surbahar, which
allowed sitarists to more easily present the alap sections of slow dhrupad-style
ragas.
Surbahar:
Surbahar sometimes known as bass sitar, is a plucked string
instrument . It is closely related to the sitar, but has a lower
tone. Depending on the instrument's size, it is usually
pitched two to five whole steps below the standard sitar, but
as Indian classical music has no concept of absolute pitch,
this may vary.
The sitar:
o The sitar, is played by plucking and has gained
popularity both in India and the west over the past few
decades.
The origin of the sitar is however relatively unknown. It
is regarded as an instrument that came in from Central
Asia. It may also have descended from the 10th century
long lute of the temple sculptures.
The sitar consists of a hemispherical base made out of a dried and hollowed gourd
(tumba), a long half-round frame of wood (dandi), a second resonator, and wooden
pegs that run through the length of the sitar.
The 16th century Sufi mystic Amir Khusrow has also had a major role in the
development of the instrument.
o The number of frets on the dandi range from 16 to 24.
The tuning of the sitar has evolved into two very distict schools- the Pt. Ravi
Shankar (instrumental style) and the Ustad Vilayat Khan (gayaki style) schools.
Veena Vs Sitar :
In terms of style, Hindustani music is played using the Sitar and Carnatic Music is
played using the Veena.
The sound of the sitar is distinct and has an extra touch of melody because there
are additional strings below the frets that resonate along with the main strings.
In the sitar, You can fine tune by changing the position of the frets, whereas in the
veena, they are fixed.
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Also, the frets are bent in the sitar, but in the veena, they are straight.
Veena Sitar
Sarod:
The sarod is known for a deep, weighty, introspective
sound, in contrast with the sweet, overtone-rich
texture of the sitar, with sympathetic strings that give
it a resonant, reverberant quality.
o It is a fretless instrument able to produce the
continuous slides between notes known as meend (glissondo)which are important
in Indian music.
The sarod is used mainly in Hindustani music. Along with the sitar, it is among the
most popular and prominent instruments.
Sarangi:
It is the most popular musical instrument in the Western part
of Nepal, and is said to most resemble the sound of the
human voice – able to imitate vocal ornaments such as
gamaks (shakes) and meends (sliding movements).
The sarangi is a bowed, short-necked string instrument from India as well as Nepal
and Pakistan which is used in Hindustani classical music.
Esraj:
It is a relatively young instrument, being only about 300
years old. Esraj is an Indian stringed instrument found in
two forms throughout the Indian subcontinent.
It is found in North India, primarily Punjab, where it is used
in Sikh music and Hindustani classical compositions
and in West Bengal. The esraj is a modern variant of the dilruba, differing slightly
in structure.
The famous scientist Satyendra Nath Bose often played the esraj in a corner of his
house in Kolkata.
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Mandolin:
It is so called because its body is shaped like an almond (in
Italian, Mandoria means almond). The mandolin is a
stringed musical instrument in the lute family and is
usually plucked with a plectrum or "pick". It commonly
has four courses of doubled metal strings tuned in unison .
These are pear shaped with fretted finger board and has a head with tuning pegs which
is often angled backward from the neck. The strings are plucked with fingers. Used
in both Hindustani and Carnatic music. First used in Italy.
Santoor:
o It is the national musical instrument of Iran and a
traditional instrument in Jammu and Kashmir.
The santoor is an Indo-persian trapezoid shaped hammere
dulcimer or string musical instrument generally made of
walnut, usually with seventy-two strings.
Tar Shehnai:
This amplifier fixed to the sound board of the instrument is
modeled on the gramophone sound box to project a stronger,
more directional sound.
The Tar Shehnai is an esraj (bowed string instrument) with an
added mechanical amplifier.
o The amplifier gives the instrument a shehnai (reed
instrument) sound quality and the overall effect is very much like a violin sound.
Sursringar:
The sursringar has a body made out of dried gourd with a
wooden cover. It has a second resonator, a neck, and
metal strings. It is plucked with a metal pick.
The sursringar is a rare string instrument that is used as a
Hindustani solo instrument. It was customary to learn the
sursringar along with the sarod in the early twentieth
century. It was used in Dhrupad music in the 19th
century, and is regarded as a descendent of the Rabab.
Swarmandal:
The swarmandal is used by some gharanas or schools of
Hindustani music. It is tuned to the individual raga being
sung and strummed by hand.
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Swarmandals are strung according to a musician’s preference. There is no standard

tuning, and it is common to repeat notes of a particular raga. It is played almost
exclusively by the lead vocalist.
The swarmandal is a harp like instrument that is most commonly used as an
accompaniment to Hindustani vocal music. The name originates from ‘swara’
(note) and mandal (group), an indicator of the large number of notes it can
produce.

Wind instrument:
Indian flute
o The Indian flute exists as a solo instrument in both
Hindustani and Carnatic music.
o It has been extensively used in folk music. The flute can
be a part of the musical orchestration for dance forms like
Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi.
Clarinet
The clarinet is a musical-instrument family belonging to

the group known as the woodwind instruments. It has
a single-reed mouthpiece, a straight cylindrical
tube with an almost cylindrical bore, and a flared bell.
A person who plays a clarinet is called a clarinettist.
It is used in both Hindustani as well as Carnatic music.

Reed instrument:
Shehnai:
o The shehnai, is a musical instrument similar to the oboe
(family of double reed instruments), common in India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
It is made out of wood, with a double reed at one end and a
metal or wooden flared bell at the other end. Its
sound is thought to create and maintain a sense of
auspiciousness and sanctity and, as a result, is widely used during marriages,
processions and in temples although it is also played in concerts. The shehnai is
similar to South India's nadaswaram.
Harmonium:
The harmonium (Pump Organ) is now widely used as an
accompaniment in Hindustani vocal music, in religious
music across the states of Maharashtra and Punjab
Haryana, and in Qawwali music of the Islamic traditions.
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The modified harmonium plays 22 microtones that are used in Indian music but that
cannot all be played on a standard harmomium. The modification consists knobs
under every note other than the first and the fifth, to be pulled out when a higher
microtone is needed.

Personalities Of Hindustani Music:
Bhimsen Joshi:
o He was the member of the Kirana Gharana. He is
famous for Khyal form of singing. He enriched the
kirana gharana by adding his own distinctive style
and adopting characteristics from other gharanas.
Bhimsen Joshi was on Indian vocalist in the
Hindustani classical tradition.
He was the recipient of s evera l prestigi ous awards
including Padma Shri , Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan. Bhimsen Joshi is
renowned for his unique style and mastery over ragas.
Mallikarj un Mansur:
o Mallikarj un Mansur was an Indian Hindustani
classical singer of the Khyal style in the Jaipur-
Atrauligharana. He had received many awards
including Padmabhushan, Kalidas Summan etc.
Pandit Jasraj:
Pandit Jasraj’s greatest contribution to Indian music is
his conception of an unique and novel jugalbandhi
based on the ancient system of moorchanas, between
a male and a female vocalist, each singing in their
respective scales and different ragas at the same time.
Pandit Jasraj is the recipient of several honors
and awards. Pandit Jasraj is the exponent of the Mewati Gharana of Hindustani
classical music.
Begum Parveen Sultana:
Begum Parveen Sultana is a Assamese Hindustani
classical singer of the Patiala Gharana. She is among
the foremost classical vocalist in India. She is known
as Queen of Classical Vocal. She was confer red the
Padmashri in 1976.
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Kumar Gandharva:
o Kumar Gandharva was a Hindustani classical singer,
famous for his unique vocal style. He did not follow
any kind of Gharana. He experimented out his own
styles. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1990.
Siddheswari Devi:
o Siddheswari Devi was a Hindustani singer from
Varanasi. She sang Khyal, Thumri and short classical
forms as dadra, chaiti, Kajri etc. Siddheswar’s music
had all the salient features of the Banaras style such as
simple charm, intensity of feeling and effective
expression of emotions.
Ravi Shankar:
Ravi Shankar born Rabindra Shankar Chowdhury, his
name often preceded by the title Pandit ('Master'), was
a Indian musician and a composer of Hindustani
classical music. He was one of the best-known
proponents of the sitar in the second half of the 20th
century and influenced many other musicians
throughout the world. In 1999, Shankar was awarded
India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna.
Girija:
o Girija Devi is an Hindustani classical singer of the
Banaras gharana. She sings different general of
Hindustani vocal music like Khyal, Thumri, Dadra,
Chaiti and Kajri. But her forte lies in singing the poorab
and Thumri. So she is called the Queen of Thumri.
Gangubai Hangal:
Gangubai Hangal was an Indian Hindustani musical singer
of the Khyal genre. She belonged to the Kirana
Gharana. She was famous for her deep and powerful
voice.
Ustad Bismillah Khan:
Ustad Bismillah Khan (born as Qamaruddin Khan), often
referred to by the honorific title Ustad, was an Indian
musician credited with popularizing the shehnai.
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While the shehnai had long held importance as a folk instrument played primarily
schooled in traditional ceremonies, Khan is credited with elevating its status and
bringing it to the concert stage.
Zakir Hussain:
He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1988, and the Padma
Bhushanin 2002.
Zakir Hussain is an Indian tabla player in Hindustani
classical music, musical producer, film actor and
composer.
In 1999, he was awarded the United States National
Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship, the
highest award given to traditional artists and musicians.
Indian Folk Music:
There are also many songs associated with planting and harvesting. In these activities
the villagers routinely sing of their hopes, fears and aspirations. There is
no rules followed, they are very diverse and danced oriented.
Musical instruments are often different from those found in classical music. Although
instruments like the tabla may sometimes be found it is more likely that cruder
drums such as daf, dholak, or nal are used. The music is an indispensable
component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births.
There is a plethora of songs for such occasions in tribal and rural areas.
The instruments of classical music are crafted by artisans. In contrast the folk
instruments are commonly crafted by the musicians themselves.
It is very common to find folk instruments that have been fabricated of commonly
available materials e.g. Skin, bamboo, coconut shells, and pots.
The sitar and sarod which are so common in the classical genre are absent in the folk
music.
One often finds instruments such as the ektar, dotar, rabab, and santur, Khartal, and
Cymbals.
Baul, West Bengal
Rasiya Geet, Uttar Pradesh
Pankhida, Rajasthan
Lotia, Rajasthan
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Pandavani, Chhattisgarh
Shakunakhar - Mangalgeet, Kumaon
Barhamasa, Kumaon
Mando, Ovi , Goa
Alha,Hori, Kajri, Uttar Pradesh
Sohar, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
Chhakri, Kashmir
Laman, Himachal Pradesh
Tappa, Punjab
Powada, Lavani Mahaarshtra
Ja-Jin-Ja , Naigoda, Arunachal
Heliambu, Neuleu, Herelieu, Hekailu, Nagaland
Teej Songs, Rajasthan
Burrakatha, Andhra Pradesh
Bhakha, Jammu and Kashmir
Bhuta song, Kerala
Daskathia, Odisha
Bihu songs, Zikir, Assam
Sana Lamok, Khonjam Parva Ballad , Manipur
Songs of Lai Haraoba Festival, Manipur
Saikuti Zai (songs of Saikuti), Mizoram
Chai hia (songs of the Chai Dance during the Chapchar Kut festival ), Mizoram
Basanti/ Basant Geet, Garhwal
Ghasiyari Geet, Garhwal
Sukar ke Biah, Bhojpuri Song
Villu Pattu, “Bow Song”, Tamil Nadu
Ammanaivari, Tamil Nadu
Wanawan, Kashmir
Pai Song, M.P.
Maand, Paani Hari ,Rajasthan
Bhagwati, Karnatak
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Questionary:
How do you distinguish between Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dances?

(2012)
Dancers occasionally speaking dialogues is found in Kuchipudi dance but not in
Bharatanatyam.
Dancing on the brass plate by keeping the feet on its edges is a feature of
Bharatanatyam but Kuchipudi dance does not have such a form of movements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
In the context of cultural history of India, a pose in dance and dramatics

called ‘Tribhanga’ has been a favourite of Indian artists from ancient times
till today. Which one of the following statements best describes this pose?
(2013)
(a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at waist and neck
(b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and make-up are combined to symbolize
certain epic or historic characters
(c) Movements of body, face and hands are used to express oneself or to tell a story
(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and certain hand gestures are emphasized to
express the feelings of love or eroticism
With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions of India that has been
kept alive for centuries, which of the following statements are correct?(2012)
1.Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput kingdoms during the Mughal
period.
2.Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual music.
3.Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables from Mantras.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above is correct
Write short note: A)Any Two Instruments Of Carnatic Music and Hindustani
Music.
How many types of musical instrument? Explain in details
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Chapter:18
Indian Performing Arts Part 3
Indian drama and theatre :

Drama and Theater of India is also older as other
Indian arts. Indian first treatise named, Natya Shastra,
was written by Bharat Muni around between 2nd
century BC and 4th century AD.
During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are
presented. They reflect the common man’s social
attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there
is also the individual’s role which is given due importance
Bharata’s Natyashastra was the earliest and most elaborate treatise on dramaturgy
written anywhere in the world. In different regions of India, there are religious
festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual off rings, prayers, almost throughout the year.
Plays performed in terms of two types of production:
Lokadharmi:
This involved the reproduction of human behaviour on the stage and the natural
presentation of objects.
Natyadharmi:
This is the presentation of a play through the use of stylized gestures and
symbolism and was considered more artistic than realistic.
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Theatre in India has encompassed all the other forms of literature and fine arts into its
physical presentation: literature, mime, music, dance, movement, painting,
sculpture and architecture – all mixed into one and being called ‘Natya’ or Theatre
in English.
Indian drama and theatre:
This emphasis on narrative elements made our theater essentially theatrical right from
the beginning.
Indian Theatre started as a narrative form that is reciting, singing and dancing
becoming the essential part of the theatre.
Theater in India started as a narrative form, i.e., reciting, singing and dancing
becoming integral elements of the theater.
Classical or the Sanskrit theatre: o

st
Traced to the 1 century AD
o An amalgamation of the religious, educational and entertaining elements
Traditional or the folk theatre:
Mainly narrative or vocal without any complicated gestures or movements and
elements of dance
Divided into Ritual Theater and Theater of Entertainment
Modern theatre:
Traced with the coming of British in India.
They introduced their brand of theater in Bombay, Calcutta & Madras.
Traditional theatre:
Kutiyattam is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to
have originated around the beginning of the Common Era, and is officially
recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity.
classical element with regional, local and folk colouring.
This kind of synthesis, give-and-take must have taken place on various levels such as
written, verbal, classical, contemporary, national and local.
In traditional theatre, age-old forms, customs and the desire to improvise are
intermingled.
Classical world of Sanskrit drama, went to the neighbouring regions after its
decline and intermingled with the local theatre forms.
Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization,
industrialization, and urbanization.
Traditional art forms have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa. It is an eternal
journey in the sphere of ‘culture’.
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In traditional theatre forms, there is no such thing as episodes. There is always

continuity in its theme, structure and presentation.
In traditional theatre forms, characters keep changing their place on the stage to be
more impressive and to give the situation a greater significance.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF THEATRE:
Bhand Pather: Jammu & Kashmir
Traditional theatre form of Kashmir,
Unique combination of dance, music and acting, o
Music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol,
o Actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of
their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.
Nautanki:
Nautanki is one of the most popular folk operatic
theater performance forms of South Asia, particularly
in northern India. Usually associated with Uttar
Pradesh.
o Before the advent of Bollywood (the Hindi film
industry), Nautanki was the biggest entertainment
medium in the villages and towns of northern India.
There was a time when only men acted in Nautanki
but nowadays, women have also started taking part in the performances. Among
those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.
The most popular centres of this traditional theatre form are Kanpur, Lucknow and
Haathras.
The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel,
Rasleela:
The Rasleela or Rass dance is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in
Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita
Govinda, where he dances with Radha and her sakhis
Based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends;
Nand Das believed to write the initial plays based on the life of Krishna;
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Rasa dance is part of the traditional story of Krishna

described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata
Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where
he dances with Radha and her sakhis.
In this theatre form the dialogues in prose combined
beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna's
pranks.
It is a popular form of folk theatre in the regions of
Mathura, Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, especially during the festivals of Krishna
Janmashtami and Holi, and amongst various followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in
the region.
Swang: Rajasthan, Haryana, UP and Malwa
Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry (or
nakal) accompanied by song and dialogue. It is dialogue-
oriented rather than movement-oriented.
The two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and
Haathras.
Originally the theatre was mainly music-based. o
Musical folk-drama evolved in 18th century.
o The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa along with the development of
character can be seen in this theatre form.
o In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in
Haathras, it is Brajbhasha.
Bhavai:
The instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
Pakhawaj, rabaab, Sarangi, manjeera, etc.
Bhavai is an extremely simple form of theatre when
considered in terms of production requirements.
In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and
romantic sentiments.
Traditionally performed during Navratri
The traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The centers of this
form are Kutch and Kathiawar.
o It is not dependent on heavy stage, lights and theatrical assistances and is
performed in the available open space.
Maach:
o Maach is a form of folk theatre from the Malwa region of the Indian state of
Madhya Pradesh. Originally a drama in verse, it is only recently that dialogue has
been introduced into the form.
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Maach is believed to be around 300 years old, and

originally a Rajasthani folk theatre that survives in
the villages of Madhya Pradesh.
o Songs are given prominence in between the
dialogues.
The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme
in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this
theatre form are known as rangat.
Although a form of theatre, acting is under-emphasised and the theme unfolds through
the songs and dances in the play. The background of the play is set by
curtains and the dancers usually double up as singers. It is a sung drama with only
occasional use of speech.
Maach is thought to be a two or three century old tradition which was shaped by the
religious developments of the 19th century. While originally associated with the
festival of Holi, it is now performed on many occasions.
Jatras:
Jatras is a popular folk-theatre form of Bengali theatre
spread throughout most of Bengali speaking areas
of the Indian subcontinent.
The word jatra means journey or going. Jatras are
travelling theatre groups which perform under the
open sky. They are essentially in the form of an
opera with definite characteristics.
Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and
ceremonies have within their framework musical plays are known as Jatra.
This form was born and nurtured in Bengal.
Jatras are usually epic four-hour-long plays, preceded by a musical concert often
lasting an hour, used to attract audiences.
Krishna Jatras became popular due to Chaitanya's influence. o
Later, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
o The earlier form of Jatras has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage.
o The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc.
Bhaona:
It is a traditional form of entertainment, always with
religious messages, prevalent is Assam, India.
The plays of bhaona is popularly known as Ankiya Nats
and their staging is known as bhaona cultural
glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and
Brindavan can be seen,The Sutradhaar, or narrator
begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.
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Tamasha (Maharashtra):
Tamasha is a traditional form of Marathi theatre, often
with singing and dancing, widely performed
by local or travelling theatre groups within the
state of Maharashtra, India.
Tamasha includes songs and dance along with the
musical instruments like the Dholki, Drum,
Manjira, Harmonium etc.
o Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the
female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play. She is known
as Murki.
Traditional folk theatre form of Maharashtra came into existence in the early 16th
century.
Evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan,
Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to
portray all the emotions through dance.
Mudiyettu
Mudiyett or Mudiyettu is a traditional ritual theatre
and folk dance drama from Kerala that enacts
the mythological tale of a battle between the
goddess Kali and the demon Darika.
o Traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is
celebrated in the month of Vrischikam
(November-December).
It is usually performed only in the Kali temples of
Kerala.
In 2010 Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO's Representative List of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Dashavatar:
Theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions;
o Performers personify the ten incarnations of
Lord Vishnu.
Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and
papier mache.
It personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar),
Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf),
Parashuram, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.
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Yakshagaana:
o Yakshagana is a traditional theatre form that
combines dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-
up, and stage techniques with a unique style and
form. Traditional theatre form of Karnataka; Based
on mythological stories and Puranas;
o The most popular episodes are from the
Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra
vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e.
Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.
Krishanattam (Kerala):
Krishnattam is the folk theatre of Kerala. It came into
existence in 17th century under the patronage of
King Manavada of Calicut.
Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for
eight consecutive days, presenting the story of
lord Krishna.
Came into existence in the mid-17th century under the patronage of King Manavada
of Calicut. Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive
days
o Eight plays → Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram,
Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.
The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram,
Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.
Episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna – his birth, childhood pranks and
various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.
Koodiyettam (Kerala):
Koodiyattam is one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of Kerala and is based on
The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the
instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women’s roles.
The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists o
Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues.
o Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and theater form
unique.
Therukoottu (Tamil Nadu):
Theukoothu, literally meaning street play, is the most popular form of folk drama of
Tamil Nadu.
Literally means “street play”- mostly performed by males dancers.
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o Mostly performed at the time of annual temple

festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve
rich harvest.
Theme being a cycle of eight plays based on the life of
Draupadi.
Kariyala:
o The season of Kariyala generally starts after the
festival of Deepavali.
o It is an open-air theatre, which consists of an
entertaining series of small playlets, farces, skits,
revues and burlesques.It is generally staged during
village fairs and on some festive.
Popular folk drama form of Himachal Pradesh.
Most popular in the districts of Shimla, Solan and
Sirmour.
The Kariyala entertainment starts in the evening and goes on throughout the night
staging various popular items one after other. The square-performing arena is
called Khada.
In the centre of Khada, a bonfire is lit which is considered very sacred.
A number of musical instruments like chimta, nagara, karnal, ranasingha, shahanai,
basuri, dholak and khanjiri are used to provide background music.
Oja-Pali:
Ojapali is a traditional folk dance from the Assam region of India. o
Storytelling with dramatic techniques associated
with the worship of Manasa, the serpent goddess.
o Ojapali is believed to have evolved from Kathakata
tradition and is performed in a group; it is believed
to be one of the oldest art forms of Assam.
o The performers take many days to narrate the story,
which is divided into three parts: Deva Khanda,
Baniya Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda.
o The Oja is the main narrator-singer and the Palis are his associates or members of
his chorus.
Burrakatha/ Harikatha:
o Burra Katha, also spelled Burrakatha, is an oral
storytelling technique in the Katha tradition,
performed in villages of Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana. The term ‘burra’ is used for
Tambura, a musical string instrument with a hollow shell and ‘katha’ means story.
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Art and Culture
It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo drama, dance, songs,

poems and jokes.
Burrakatha tellers are called as budagajangalu. The topic will be either a Hindu
mythological story or a contemporary social problem.
It played an effective role in conveying message to people and awakening them
during Indian Independence Movement.
Questionary:
Why theater is important?

What is a drama in theater? Explain any 3 different form of theater.
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Chapter: 19
Indian Architecture
Part One
Indian Architecture:
Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of
recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities.
Indus Valley Architecture (Town Planning, Public Utilities) o
Buddhist-Mauryan Architecture (Stupa and Pillars)
o Post Mauryan Architecture (Caves)
o Gupta Architecture (Caves and Temples)
o Medieval Architecture (Indo Islamic)
o Modern Architecture
Indus Valley Architecture:
Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of
history, bears the stamp of respective periods.
The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the earliest
civilizations of the Bronze Age 3300-1100 BCE).
The civilization was located on the well-irrigated flood
plains of the river Indus.
The earliest remains of Indian architecture are to be found in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro,
Ropar, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rangpur, belonging to Indus valley culture, which
is purely indigenous.
A lot of building activity went on in these areas; do not give us any clue as to
aesthetic considerations but utility.
The civilization was ahead of its time in regards to city planning, sanitary systems,
public utilities and so on and henceforth
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The Indus Valley- Town Planning:
One of the most striking features of the architecture of
the Indus Valley Civilization is that their cities were
well planned. Town planning was excellent.
The evidence of this fact can be seen in the towns of

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The cities of the Indus
Valley Civilization were planned on the
gridiron pattern.
The towns were divided into public and private spaces.
The public spaces consisted of granaries,
warehouses, public baths, the Royal Palace,
assembly halls and praying areas. While the private
parts of the cities mostly consisted of the houses for
the citizens.
The public spaces consisted of granaries, warehouses, public baths, the Royal Palace,
assembly halls and praying areas.
Burnt brick was widely used, roads were wide and at right angles to one another, city
drains were laid out with great skill and forethought, the corbelled arch and baths
were constructed with knowledge and skill.
Cities were walled for security. With the fragmentary remains of the buildings
constructed by these people it is not yet possible to know enough about the
architectural skill and tastes of the people.
The Indus Valley –House:
o Houses in the Indus Valley Civilization varied
according to the class and affluence of the resident. o
Material used in houses: Begged Clay, Stone,
Wood.
The average house had a living room, space for
cooking and a toilet and an area for bathing.
Thus, the wealthier and the more affluent people
resided in bigger as large as three story houses while the
less wealthy were restricted to single story homes. o
The average house had a living room, space for
cooking and a toilet and an area for bathing.
o The houses were connected to the main sewage
system which disposed of the waste.
The houses also have accessible terraces and service lanes.
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The Indus Valley -Sewage & Drainage Systems: o The

sewage and the drainage system of the Indus
Valley Civilization were one of the most striking
features of development in the bronze age
civilization.
o The Indus Valley Civilization also was the first
civilization in the world which had running water
being supplied to residences through a network
of underground water pipes.
o All the houses and the other structures were connected to the central sewers water
drainage systems to dispose of waste.
o The Indus Valley Civilization also had wells, tanks and other water storage and
conservation systems.
The Indus Valley -Great Bath:
Indus Valley cities were that they had great (public)
baths. This was centuries before similar
concepts were formulated in the West.
There was separate well and bath for every house
as well they had great (public) baths.
The civilization was great in the management of
water resources.
These baths were similar to public baths in the current context. One has to understand
that the civilization was great in the management of water resources.
Some researchers also claim that they had developed pulley systems for the same. o
Indication of the technological advancement of the Indus Valley Civilization.
o Importance of Hygiene, Sanitation and rituals.
The Indus Valley -Irrigation system, Granaries & Warehouses: o There

is also evidence that the Indus Valley
Civilization developed a number of storehouses and
warehouses for trade and commerce.A highly
efficient and an effective water irrigation system.
o The majority of the civilization was engaged in
agricultural activity.
o Thus, a major thrust of all developmental work was developing a successful
irrigation system.
o Another reason for building up such infrastructure could have been to protect
agricultural produce and goods alike from natural disasters such as floods.
o A number of storehouses and warehouses for trade and commerce.
o Building up such infrastructure could have been to protect agricultural produce and
goods from natural disasters such as floods.
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Art and Culture
Warehouse in Lothal
Indus Valley Architecture – Dockyard at Lothal: o

Lothal is one of the southernmost cities of the
ancient Indus valley civilization, located in the
Bhal region of the modern state of Gujarat and
first inhabited c. 3700 BCE.
o Not all archaeologists are convinced that the
structure was used as a dockyard and some prefer
to refer to it as a large tank that may have been a
reservoir.
o It was excavated besides the river Sabarmati,
which has since changed course.
The structure's design shows a thorough study of
tides, hydraulics and the effect of sea water on
bricks.
The greatest work of maritime architecture before the birth of Christ.
Ships could have entered into the northern end of the dock through an inlet channel
connected to an estuary of the Sabramati during high tide.
The lock gates could then have been closed so the water level would rise sufficiently
for them to float.
An inlet channel 1.7 meters above the bottom level of the 4.26 meter deep tank
allowed excess water to escape.
Other inlets prevented siltation of the tanks and erosion of the banks.
After a ship would have unloaded its cargo, the gates would have opened and allowed
it to return to the Arabian sea waters in the Gulf of Combay.
Mauryan Architecture:
After end of Indus Valley Civilisation there was a
gap in architecture and thousand years
later Mauryan architecture was developed.
o The Mauryan Empire (4th to 2nd century
BCE), which was the first empire to rule over
most of the Indian subcontinent.
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Art and Culture
Art was divided between :

Court Art (Pillars, Stupas) :Well developed by Ashoka
Popular Art (Caves, Sculpture, Pottery)
Ashoka brought transition from wood to stone( Stone masterpieces and sculptures)
Mauryan Architecture: Pillars
Sandstone pillars of Mauryan were monolithic and
erected independently while Archamenian were
made of pieces and found with a building.
Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan
Empire with inscriptions engraved on them.
Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the
Mauryan dynasty who patronised the shraman
tradition.
Erection of pillars was a tradition prevalent in the Achamenian Empire (first
Persian Empire)as well.
The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, lion,
elephant etc.
E.g. Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankasa and Sarnath,
Vaishali.
Vaishali Rampurva Sankasa
Objective :
Symbolises state's power by being massive o
Made after Victory to commemorate
o Promotion of Buddhism and moral ideas

Features :
o Highly polished and bell shaped capital due to persian influence
o Made of Chunar sandstone.
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Sarnath Vs Vaishali
Erected after
Kalinga
massacre
Symbolises
last sermon by
the Budha and
Square abacus
National Emblem with circular

abacus (Lion, horse, elephant
engraved) symbolising Dhamma-
chakrapravartana

Mauryan Architecture: Pillars
Bull Capital at Rampura
o It is composed of a lotiform base, with
an abacus decorated with floral designs, and the realistic
depiction of a zebu humped bull.
o The abacus in particular displays a strong influence
of Greek art: it is composed of honeysuckles alternated
with stylized palmettes and small rosettes.
A similar kind of capital can be seen at the basis of the
Sankassa elephant capital.
Kept at Rashtrapti Bhavan.
Rock Cut Elephant Dhauli:
Dhauli hill is presumed to be the area where the Kalinga
The rock-cut elephant is the earliest Buddhist sculpture

of Odisha with elephant facing east.
The edicts here carry message for local administrator to
carry rule with gentleness and justice. A concern for the
whole world
Elephant symbolises Budha as he entered in his mother's
womb.
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Art and Culture
Mauryan Architecture: Stupa

A mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics, that is used as a place of
meditation.
The resting place of bones and ashes of monks and nuns.
Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath Stupa at Sanchi:

Buddha gave his first sermon Contains relics of Budha
Stupas were also build during Vedic period and flourished during Mauryan Age. o
Ashoka built maximum number of Stupa. E.g. Bairat (Raj), Sanchi (M.P.), Sarnath
(Bihar)
Amaravati Stupa : Ruined, May be founded Bairat Stupa: Ruins

by Ashoka Marble used instead of bricks.
Sanchi Stupa:
Stupa is made on lower base and was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and
later it was covered with stone
Huge hemispherical dome with a height of 12.2816.46 m (54.0 ft) consists of a
central chamber where the relics of Lord Buddha are placed.
The present hemispherical edifice is double in diameter of the original brick
structure built by Ashoka
Four ornamental gateways (Toranas)facing four directions depicting various events
from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas. Inanimate figures like that of a tree are
used here to symbolise Lord Buddha
Various designs and motifs are carved on the railing and the gates of the Stupa.
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Art and Culture
Balustrade surrounding the stupa and gateways were added in fist century BCE by
Satvanahna rulers.
Fundamental Features of A stupa :

A square railing (harmika):
The harmika (red highlights) is inspired by a square railing or fence that
surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.

A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra):
Triratna of Buddhism, which are the keys to a true understanding of the faith: (a)
Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha
(monastic community).

A hemispherical mound (anda) :
The anda’s domed shape (green highlights) recalls a mound of dirt that was used to
cover the Buddha’s remains

Enclosure wall with decorated gateways (toranas) at the cardinal directions.
The wall with its trademark three horizontal stone bars (in the top image) surrounds
the entire structure.

A circular terrace (medhi).
The terrace surrounded by a similar three-bar railing supports the anda and raises it
off the ground (black highlights); it likely served as a platform for ritual
circumambulation.
Stupa at Sanchi : Contains relics of Budha
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Art and Culture
Mauryan Architecture: Caves

The facade of the cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance.
The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable
movement.
o Start of rock cut architecture during Mauryan period Chandragupta Maurya
patronised Jainism and made caves for various sects like Ajivikas. Which were
Vihara Caves.
The interior hall of this cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. o
Artistic gateway and polishing inside the cave.
o These caves seem to be mentioned in "Mahabharatha" under name "Gorathgiri"
Lomus Rishi Caves near Gaya by Ashoka called Satgharwa means "seven houses"
four caves in Barabar and three in nearby Nagarjuni Hills
Post Mauryan Architecture: Caves:
o It is by and large narrative, describing scenes from myths and legends to do with
divine and semi-divine beings, and depicting signs and symbols.
It is structural art, meaning that it was originally part of architectural structures like the
gateways, railings and facades of stupas, chaityas, viharas and temples.
It is overwhelmingly religious in nature and predominantly Buddhist.
o It is regarded as popular art, representing the folk spirit of commoners, unlike
Mauryan art which was royal.
Post Mauryan period is recognised by Vihara and Chaitya Caves. o
Like Ajanta Caves 29 were Chaitya and 25 Vihara.
Ajanta Caves, cave 19
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Art and Culture
Post Mauryan Architecture: Ajanta Caves
Buddhist cave-shrines at Ajanta, many of which display
features of Gupta architecture.
o The earliest caves belonging to the Hinayana phase of
Buddhism, can be roughly traced back to the 2nd to 1st
century CE during the rule of Satavahana dynasty.
Between 5th and 6th century CE, patronised by the
Vakataka dynasty especially the Emperor, Harisena.
o The Vakatakas were contemporaries of
the Gupta emperors.
By then the “mythologizing tendency of Indian thought”
(Coomaraswamy) had already given birth to Mahayana
Buddhism from moreaustere Hinayana practices.
Accorded UNESCO World Heritage site status in 1983,

the ancient name of the site is untraceable today.
o State of Maharashtra in Aurangabad and a part of the Gautala Wildlife Sanctuary,
Build around 200 BCE - c. 600 CE.
Its current name is derived from a neighbouring village, the local pronunciation of
which is Ajintha.
1819, a British officer named John Smith, while hunting tigers, "discovered" the
entrance to Caves. The caves were well known by locals already.
Beautiful and unique cave paintings of Gupta period are hosted in Ajanta.
Post Mauryan Architecture: Karle Chaitya
The group at Karla is one of the older and smaller of
the many rock-cut Buddhist sites in Maharashtra,
but is one of the best-known because of the famous
"Grand Chaitya" (Cave 8), which is "the largest
and most completely preserved" chaitya hall of the
period, as well as containing unusual quantities of
fine sculpture, much of it on a
large scale.
o The Karla Caves are a complex of ancient Buddhist Indian
rock-cut caves at Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra.
The shrines were developed over the period – from the

2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.
The oldest of the cave shrines is believed to date back to 160
BC, having arisen near a major ancient trade route,
running eastward from the Arabian Sea into the Deccan.
Many traders and Satavahana rulers made grants for construction of these caves.
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Art and Culture
Post Mauryan Architecture: Nasik Vihara
A group of 24 caves carved between the 1st century
They are a significant group of early examples of Indian

rock-cut architecture initially representing the so-called
Hinayana tradition.
Most of the caves are viharas except for Cave 18 which is a
chaitya of the 1st century BCE.
The style of some of the elaborate pillars or columns.
o Their name has nothing to do with the characters
Pandavas in the Mahabharata.
These caves were carved and donated by various kings that ruled Nashik like The
Satavahanas, The Nahapanas, The Abhirs.
In some caves Jaina tirthankar also sculpted.
Called by different names: The Buddha Leni, or Nasik caves or Pandu Leni,or
Trirashmi Leni
Cave No.10 "Nahapana Vihara" Cave No.3 "Gautamiputra vihara"

Gupta Age Architecture:
The Gupta architecture is revealed through the cave and temple architecture of those
times, which also include two Buddhist stupas. The relics of the "Dhameka Stupa"
built of bricks the basement seems to have survived from Ashoka's structure: the
stone facing is chiseled and displays delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin.
Bagh Caves
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Art and Culture
o The caves of the Buddhist and Hindus sects

denote the architectural pattern of the Guptas.
o Ajanta and Bagh cave paintings denote the
Buddhist outline, which was very popular during
the Gupta period.
Hindu caves are found in Udayagiri, Bhopal.
Gupta Age Architecture-Udayagiri Caves:

Udayagiri caves contain iconography of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and
Matrikas) and Shaivism (Shiva).
They are notable for the ancient monumental relief sculpture of Vishnu in his
incarnation as the man-boar Varaha, rescuing the earth symbolically represented
by Bhudevi clinging to the boar's tusk as described in Hindu mythology.
o The Udayagiri Caves are twenty rock-cut caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh
from the early years of the 5th century CE.
They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India.
o They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period
monarch from its inscriptions.
The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of
Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I (c. 415-55).
o Out of twenty caves, of which one is dedicated to Jainism and all others to
Hinduism.
Some historians have suggested that the iron pillar in the courtyard of Quwwat-ul-
Islam at the Qutb Minar site in Delhi originally stood at Udayagiri.
Gupta Age Architecture-Bagh Caves:

The Bagh Caves are a group of nine rock-cut monuments, Buddhist in inspiration
,situated among the southern slopes of the Vindhyas in Bagh town of Dhar district
in Madhya Pradesh.
These are renowned for muralpaintings by master painters of ancient India.
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Art and Culture
The use of the word "cave" is a bit of a misnomer, since

these are not natural, but instead examples of Indian
rock-cut architecture.
The Bagh caves, like those at Ajanta, were excavated by
master craftsmen on perpendicular sandstone rock face of
a hill on the far bank of a seasonal stream, the Baghani.
All of them are 'viharas' or resting places of monks
monasteries having quadrangular plan. A small chamber,
usually at the back, forms the 'chaitya', the prayer hall.
Most significant of these five surviving extant caves is
the Cave 4, commonly known as the Rang Mahal (Palace of Colors).
These caves were dug out by Satvahanas. Cave paintings belong to Gupta period.
These were quarried in 5th -6th century AD.
Gupta Age Architecture-Elephanta Caves:
The main temple's orientation as well as the relative location of other temples are
placed in a mandala pattern.
Elephanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a collection of cave temples
predominantly dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Consists of Shaivite caves and a
few Buddhist stupa mounds.
They are located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves")
in Mumbai Harbour ,Mahārāshtra.
They were named Elefante – which morphed to Elephanta – by the colonial
Portuguese when they found elephant statues on it. They established a base on the
island, and its soldiers damaged the sculpture and caves. According to
Archaeological Survey of India and UNESCO, the site was settled in ancient times
and the cave temples were built between 5th and 6th century.
The earliest attempts to prevent further damage to the Caves were started by British
India officials in 1909. Contemporary scholars generally place the completion of
the temples to the second quarter of the 6th century and as a continuation of the
period of artistic flowering in the Gupta Empire era.These scholars attribute these
Cave temples to king Krishnaraja of the Kalachuri dynasty.
Nataraja Yogishvara The Elephant at Jijamata Udyaan
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Rock Cut Caves:

Rock-cut Hindu and Buddhist sculptures can be seen in these caves many of which
dates back to around the 3rd century BC during the reign of the Maurya Empire
(322–185 BCE).
Rock cut architecture started from Mauryan period reached climax in Gupta Age and
continued by other contemporary and later dynasties.
The western Deccan region saw initial excavation of caves. The region has the
early cave temples predominantly Buddhist shrines and monasteries that trace back
between 100 BC and 170 AD.
Many Jain cave basadi that is shrines and temples also form early example of rock
cut architecture.
Some of the other earliest cave temples reflecting cave architecture are situated in the
state of Maharashtra, Exclusively Buddhist , including the 2nd century BC Bhaja
Caves, the 1st century BC Bedse or Bedsa Caves, the Karla or Karle Caves dating
back between 2nd century BC to 5th century AD, the 1st century BCE to 10th
century CE developed Kanheri Caves and some of the Ajanta Caves tracing back
between 2nd century BCE to around 480 or 650 CE.
Bhaja Caves Bedsa Caves: Kanheri Caves: Satvahana

Satvahana Dynasty and Rashtrakut
Rock Cut Caves - Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves o
Formerly called Katak Caves or Cuttack caves,
are partly natural and partly artificial caves of
archaeological, historical and religious
importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in
Odisha, India.
o The caves are situated on two adjacent hills,
Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari
Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription.
o They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd century
BCE.
o It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain
monks during the reign of King Kharavela.
o Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
o The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions.
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The most important of this group is Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double

storeyed monastery. Other important caves include Hathi gumpha, Ananta gumpha,
Ganesha gumpha, Jaya Vijaya gumpha, Mancapuri gumpha, Bagh gumpha and
Sarpa gumpha.
Post Gupta Age Rock Cut Caves-Ellora Caves: o

The Kailasha temple, a chariot shaped monument
dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasha temple excavation
also features the gods, goddesses, and mythologies
found in Vaishnavism, Shaktism as well as relief
panels summarizing Ramayana and Mahabharat.
o There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated
from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills.]
o These consist of 12 Buddhist ,17 Hindu (caves 13–
and 5 Jain caves, with each group representing
deities and mythologies that were prevalent in the
1st millennium CE, as well as monasteries of each
respective religion.
o All of the Ellora monuments were built during Hindu dynasties such as the
Rashtrakuta dynasty, which constructed part of the Hindu & Buddhist caves, and
the Yadava dynasty, which constructed a number of the Jain caves.
Located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India, is one of the largest
rock-cut monastery-temple cave complexes in the world,
A UNESCO World Heritage Site, featuring Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments, and
artwork, dating from the 600-1000 CE period.
Although the caves served as monasteries, temples and a rest stop for pilgrims, its
location on an ancient South Asian trade route also made it an important
commercial centre in the Deccan region.
Post Gupta Age Rock Cut -Badami Caves:
Architectural style that developed during the 5th to 8th centuries known as the
Badami-Chalukya architecture. This site is representative of earliest examples
of Hindu temples.
The monuments are highly decorated with finely etched sculptures, elaborate
pillars, carved ceiling panels and ornate brackets.
Vibrant sculptures depicting Hindu themes are found in the Hindu cave temples like
the sculpture of Nataraja dancing Tandava in Cave 1 and that of Trivikrama in
Cave 2.
The Badami caves situated in the town of Badami in Karnataka, India, houses
Hindu, Jain and presumably Buddhist cave temples.
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The most remarkably carved cave in the site is Cave 3, the largest in the complex. It
showcases mythological representations associated with Lord Vishnu.
Questionary:
What is Indus Valley Architecture and Post Mauryan architecture?
Explain any two stupas that show the achievement of Mauryan
architecture?
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Chapter: 20
Indian Architecture
Part Two
Gupta Age- Temple Architecture:

The 'shikara' or top of the temple are the chief attractions about these constructions.
The horseshoe gavakshas arches and distinctive curved shikhara towers which are
frequently topped with a ribbed disk ornamentation known as an amalaka.
The talent of Gupta architect found expression in the sculpture of the 'dome'. o
It is perhaps important to note here that Hindu temples were not designed for
congregations but rather as the dwelling place (devalaya) of a deity.
o For the first time they initiated permanent materials like brick and stone, instead of
perishable materials like bamboo, wood etc.
o Structural temples, instead of cave temples were erected during this period for the
convenience of idol worship.
o The main temple or the 'Garvagriha' housed the image of God and the original
temple was connected to the hall by a vestibule.
o Not satisfied with caves the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-
standing Hindu temples and so they began a long tradition of Indian temple
architecture and established rules which were further followed.
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The stone temple in Deogarh of Dasavatara with its excellent carvings and panels
on the walls is extant remains of Gupta architecture.
o The high platform had reliefs running around it depicting scenes from the
Ramayana epic poem.
In the centre of the jagati (Platform) stood the principal shrine, which was without
windows and accessed by a flight of steps on all four sides. The temple carries
Vishnu, Brahma, Indra, Ganga, and Yamuna, as well as attendants and mithuna
couples and Vishnu Anantasayana panel.
One of the chief features of temple architecture was to write down texts around temple
buildings, which were faithfully followed in the later years.
Constructed using sandstone, granite, and brick, Gupta-era temples added to this
architectural heritage with horseshoe gavakshas arches and distinctive
curved shikharatowers which are frequently topped with a ribbed disk
ornamentation known as an amalaka.
Believers would also walk around the temple in a ritual act of worship.The Gupta style
was influenced by Kusana, Mathura, and Gandhara and borrowed the common
features of T-shaped doorways, decorated door jambs, sculpted panels with high-
relief figures, and laurel-wreath and acanthus motifs.
In Gupta architecture, the square was considered the most perfect form and temples
were designed to be appreciated from all sides so that each carries decorative
architectural features.
Vishnu Anantasayana panel: Sanchi (MP) Kankali Devi temple, Tigawa

Deogarh
Columns can support a pot-and-foliage capital, and roofs were generally flat, as in
surviving examples at Kankali Devi Temple at Tigawa, Jabalpur : Vaishnavism
tradition, One panel depicts image od Goddess Chamunda or Kankali Devi and
hence the temple got the name Kankali Devi temple. An image of Lord Vishnu
resting on the Adi-shesha can be seen on another panel. An image of Lord
Narasimha is installed inside the sanctum.
o Sanchi (MP) (temple 17): Tetra style prostyle Buddhist temple of classical
appearance built in 5th century CE.
Most temples also adopt a square plan with the single cubicle garbhagriha in the
centre. This is normally entered by a short columned porch set over a single, highly
decorated doorway with a projecting lintel.
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Gupta temples were dedicated to a large number of Hindu gods rather than a single
deity
The Brick temple at Bhitargaon in Kanpur (UP) : It is a rare early example of a Hindu
temple constructed entirely of brick, dating to the late 5th century CE. The oldest
and largest remaining brick/terracotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high
Shikhara.
The Chaumukhnath Temple at Nachna Kuthara (translated as 'man with four faces') is
dedicated to God Shiva and a linga with four faces is in its sanctum. It stands in
front of the 'Parvati Temple', but its sanctum image is missing.
Whether all temples had a second floor is difficult to determine, due to their often
ruinous condition. 5th century CE Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara (MP) The
temple facing west is built on a high platform called Jagati. Originally it was
having a double flat roof, but now, the upper roof is not present. The sanctum is
surrounded by a roofed pradakshina patha(circumambulation pathway).
The terracotta panel sculpture depicts both secular and religious theme such as
deities like ganesha adi virah mahisasaurmardani and river goddess. Myths and
stories representing abduction of Sita and the penance of nara and narayan
Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara Bhitargaon Temple
Other surviving temples are: the Parvati Temple at Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the
Ekkalinga Shiva Temple at Satana (MP), the Buddhist shrines of Bodh Gaya.
Accordingly, architectural sculpture represents a wide range of gods in scenes from
Hindu mythology.
Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath, Utter Pradesh : Partly built of stone and partly of brick. Its
stone basement has eight projecting faces with large niches for statuary and is
further adorned with delicately-carved floral and geometrical patterns.
Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, Bihar
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Art and Culture
According to tradition a large number of shrines and memorials were created at the
site to commemorate the incidents before and after enlightenment
The main brick built shrine known as the Mahabodhi temple. Its central tower,
standing on a high plinth, is about 55m high and is a straight-edged pyramid of
seven storeys, by pilasters and chaitya niches. Marking the location where the
Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
While Asoka is considered the Mahabodhi temple's founder, the current structure dates
from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. However this may represent a
restoration of earlier work of the 2nd or 3rd century.
Temple Architecture : Design
In the initial stages of its evolution, the temples of North
and South India were distinguished on the basis
of some specific features like sikhara and gateways.
Till about the 6th century A.D., the style of temple
architecture was similar both in the north as well as in
the south. It is only after this date that each began to
evolve in its own different direction.
For the present let it be understood clearly that the two
areas where temple architecture developed most
markedly were the Deccan and Orissa and in both
these areas the northern and southern style temples can
be found side by side.
In the north Indian temples, the sikhara remained the
most prominent component while the gateway was
generally unassuming. The most prominent features of
South Indian temples were enclosures around the
temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the devotees into
the sacred courtyard.
There were many common features in the Northern and the Southern styles. These
included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls
and the interior, and the range of decorative elements.
A hollow space without any embellishments situated at the centre of the temple,
usually below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity symbolises the
complex concept of Purusha or Purusa meaning the Universal principle,
Consciousness, the cosmic man or self without any form, however, omnipresent
and associates all things.
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Temple Architecture: Layout
Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit as a Yantra.
The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in the
design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality
and mathematical standards.
o The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with
intersecting diagonals which according to Hindu
philosophy symbolises the Purusha.
The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a
Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a
geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design
known as vastu-purusha-mandala, the name
of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu
meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle;
and Mandala meaning circle.
According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a
Hindu temple is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred
as Bhekapada and Ajira.
The square which is circumscribed by the Mandala circle and divided into perfect
square grids is held sacred. On the other hand, the circle is regarded as human and
worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such as the Sun, Moon,
rainbow, horizon or water drops.
The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its
perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought,
while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life.
The primary or the innermost square/s of the 64 grid model called Brahma Padas is
dedicated to Brahman.
The Garbhagruha or centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the
main deity.
The devotees circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas
with Devika Padas in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets
of Asuras and evils, on the outer side forming the last concentric square.
The outer concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of
Devas or Gods which is again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas,
with the ambulatory.
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Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called Mandapa meant for public rituals with the
ones in the east serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples.
Temple Architecture: Styles

A number of architectural texts known as the Shilpashastras were written
in early medieval times. These refer to three major styles of temple architecture,
Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara.
Nagara style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.
Dravida style with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers,
Vesara style is sometimes associated with the area between the Vindhyas and the Krishna
river.(Mixed)
Architecture features:
Antarala:
Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).
Garbhagriha:
It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum.
In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. o
Later it grew into a larger complex.
Urushringa:
o An Urushringais a subsidiary tower springing from the sides of the main shikhara
tower in the Hindu temple architecture of northern India.
Adhishsthana:
The Sanskrit term adhisthana is the name for initiations or blessings in Vajrayana
Buddhism. The term has various meanings, including the raised base on which a
temple stands.
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Amalaka:
It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
Ardhamandapa:
It is the entrance porch that form a transitional area between the mandapa and outside
world.
Mandapa:
It is a hall in the temple, forming a transitional space between the Mahamandapa and
Ardhamandapa.
Mahamandapa:
It is the temple’s main entrance hall, separated from the garbhagriha by an
Antarala. At Khajuraho, a Mahamandapa is indicated by the bumped out portions
which are perpendicular to the temple’s main axis.
Regional Schools of Nagar Style:
Kalinga/Odisha School :
The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra
Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture.
The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula, Pidha
Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local language.
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The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is
mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula
houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer
dancing and offering halls.
The prominent examples of rekha deula are Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar and
Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the prominent examples of Khakhara Deula is
Vaital Deula. The Konark Sun Temple is a living example of Pidha Deula.
There are no pillars. Interior walls plain and exterior are decorated with apsaras and
erotic figures like in Konark temple.
Chandella/ Khajuraho School:

o The Chandella architecture is different from their sandstone successors at
Khajuraho. Chandellas were creative builders in their major towns and
strongholds, above all in their capital, Khajuraho.
With the contemporary efforts of the Solankis in Gujarat and the Somavamshis in
Orissa, the great series of works of the Chandellas mark the culmination of
northern temple development. Interior as well as exterior walls are decorated with
integrated carvings of erotic theme sculptures.
The monuments of Khajuraho are divided into three groups west, east and south of the
modern village.
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The earliest structures are the Chaunshat-Yogini temple (Durga)and Lalguan of

Western Group. The Brahma Temple of easter group. central to Tantric cults, the
Khajuraho Chaunshat-Yogini has a broad terrace with an open court bordered by
unadorned cells for sixty-four avarana-devatas, the sacred number enshrined in the
Manduka Mandala
The early Chandella works have simplicity. The main series of these works begins
with Western group : the Lakshmana temple, the Vaishnavite foundation of
Yashovarman I, and continues with Dhanga's Shaivite Vishvanatha and Jaina
Parshvanatha, the Surya Chitragupta and the Vaishnavite Devi-Jagadamba of
Ganda, Kandariya Mahadev Temple. The Parshvanatha, the main temple of the
eastern group. Chaturbhuja Temple, This temple is located five kilometres from the
village of Khajuraho is the southern group of temples.
Chaunshat-Yogini temple Kandariya Mahadev
Lakshmana temple The Parshwanath
Solanki school / Maru Gurjar Style:

The Solanki style of temple architecture that flourished in Gujarat has all the
essential features of a north Indian temple, but bears the closest affinities to the
Rajasthan style.
The essential features of Solanki Architecture are a closed hall, a porch that is
connected both internally and externally. The walls of the Solanki temples
represent a beautiful shade of light and dark. Minute decorativeness and carvings.
Arch like effects. Ceilings carved to give dome effect. Walls of central shrine are
devoid of carvings.
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Ceiling of Dilwara Temple Sun Temple, Modhera

The Sun Temple, Modhera in Gujarat is an example of Solanki architecture
consists of three axially aligned elements: a five-bay mulaprasada with ambulatory
and superimposed garbhagrihas and matching attached closed hall, a detached,
cruciform open pavilion, and a free-standing torana.
The Navalakha temple at Sejakpur is amongst the finest Solanki Architecture, rivalling
the Modhera temple in size, but it is far overshadowed by the stupendous
Rudramala on the banks of the Sarasvati at Siddharpur.
Somnath Temple Jayastambh at Chittor
The Dilwara, Vemala Temple at Mount Abu (11th century) and the Somnath Temple at
Kathiawar (12th century) Jayastambh at Chittor are some of the best examples of
this style of architecture.
Temple Architecture : Dravida Style
The square-shaped temple called Vimana has one or more storied pyramidal roof
while its cell houses the image or emblem of the God.
Shikhara octagonal shape on Vimanam.
The Mandapas/Mandapams or porches are built in such a way that these precede and
cover the door that leads to the cell.
Dravidian temple architecture evolved in South India predominantly comprise of
temples built of sandstone, soapstone or granite.
The Chaultris or pillared halls employed for different purposes forms one of the
principal and constant features of this style.
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Temple tanks (Compulsary), wells, abodes of priests and other important buildings
form part of this temple style. The famous Virupaksh temple at Hampi typifies this
style.
Sculpture of Dwarpala instead of Mithuna in Nagar Style. Boundary walls in south
Indian temples were built in early medieval period where north Indian temples
were not walled.
Temple Architecture : Dravida Style
o In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varahamihira

is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual
from 6th century describing the design and
construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.
Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts are a

guidebook on Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra
design, construction, and sculpture and
joinery technique.
Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas.
The origins of the Draviḍa style can be observed in the Gupta period. Initiated by
Pallav and flourished by Cholas. The earliest extant examples are the 7th-century
rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram and a developed structural temple, the Shore
Temple.
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Subsequently, the style became increasingly elaborate the complex of temple buildings
enclosed by the court became larger, and a number of successive
enclosures, each with its own gateway (gopura), were added. By the Vijayanagar
period (1336–1565) the gopuras had increased in size so that they dominated the
much smaller temples inside the enclosures.
Bṛhadisvara temple at Thanjavur, built about 1003–10 by Rajaraja the Great, and the
great temple at Gaṅgaikondacolapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rajendra Cola.
Sangam period:
The Saluvannkuppan Murukan temple, unearthed in 2005, consists of three layers.
The lowest layer, consisting of a brick shrine, is one of the oldest of its kind in
South India, and is the oldest shrine found dedicated to Murukan.
From 300BCE - 300CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early
Chola, Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities
Murugan, Shiva, Amman and Thirumal (Vishnu) of the Tamil pantheon.
o Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur, Kaveri
poompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram.
It is one of only two brick shrine pre Pallava Hindu temples to be found in the state,
the other being the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur dedicated to Lord
Vishnu. Sculptures of erotic art, nature and deities from the Madurai Meenakshi
Amman Temple, and the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple date from the
Sangam period.
Pandya Period:
Srivilliputtur Andal Temple is the official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu. It
is said to have been built by Periyaazhvar, the father-in-law of the Lord, with a
purse of gold that he won in debates held in the palace of Pandya King
Vallabhadeva.The primary landmark of Srivilliputtur is 12-tiered tower structure
dedicated to the Lord of Srivilliputtur, known as Vatapatrasayee.
Other significant temples of the Pandyas include the famous Meenakshi temple in
Madurai.
Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple
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Srivilliputtur Andal Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple

The Pallavas:
o The Pallavas ruled from AD (600–900) and their greatest constructed
accomplishments are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital
Kanchipuram, now located in Tamil Nadu.
The rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site. Ratha temples are carved in the shape of chariots, the five monolithic
structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five Rathas, Panch Rathas or
the Pandava Rathas.
Cave temples carved into caves have panels of sculptures, pillared entrance and
Dwarpalas. Like Varaha cave temple.
Ganesh Ratha Varaha cave temple
Structural temples: built with cut stones as building blocks, rather than carved into a
rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (ratha temples) like the Shore Temple,
Olakkanesvara temple.
This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the
natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and
carved to give an external roof.
Shore Temple Rock Relief: Arjun Penance
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Art and Culture
Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called
Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II
(Rajasimha) is a fine example of the Pallava style temple.
The Cholas:
o The temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram was
intended to exceed its predecessor in every way.
Completed around 1030, only two decades after
the temple at Thanjavur and in much the same
style, the greater elaboration in its appearance
attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire
under Rajendra.
The Chola kings ruled from AD (848–1280) and revived Pallava architecture and
included Rajaraja Chola I (Rajraja) and his son Rajendra Chola who built temples
such as the Brihadeshwara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and
the Sarabeswara (Shiva)Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at
Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The first
three among the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola Temples among
the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
This temple has a larger Siva linga than the one at Thanjavur but the Vimana of this
temple is smaller in height than the Thanjavur Vimana.
Chola temples have huge lingam monolithic.
o The Ranganathaswamy Temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu at Srirangam and the
Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram which actually is home to the twin deities of
Siva and Vishnu.
The Vijayanagara:
The whole of South India was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire from (1343–1565
CE), who built a number of temples and monuments in their hybrid style in their
capital Vijayanagara in Karnataka.
Their style was a combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous
centuries. In addition, the Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades
(parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution.
Veerabhadra temple, Lepakshi The Balakrishna Temple at Hampi.
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Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya

and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.
Raya Gopurams at the Virupaksha Temple Horse Pillars

Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared
halls) and the Rayagopura (tower).
While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India,
nothing surpasses the vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at
Vijayanagara a UNESCO World Heritage Site. (Hampi)
In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but
later incorporated Dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. E.g. The
Prasanna Virupaksha temple
Temple Architecture : Vesara Style

Many temples in Central India and Deccan have
used the Vesara style with regional
modifications. The Papanatha temple (680 AD)
in particular and someo ther temples to a lesser
extent located at Pattadakal demonstrates
panache for this stylistic overlap‛.
o It emerged during early medieval period. It is a
hybrid style a mixture of both Nagara and
Dravida styles of temple architecture.
Temples built in the Deccan under the later Chalukyas of Kalyani and Hoysalas are
considered examples of this style.
Vesara style reduces the height of the temple towers even though the numbers of
tiers are retained. This is accomplished by reducing the height of individual tiers.
The semi circular structures of the Buddhist chaityas are also borrowed in this style, as
in the Durga temple of Aihole, Rameshwaram Cave Temple Ellora.
Most of the temples built in Halebid, Belur andSomanathapura are classified under
this style.
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The Badami Chalukyas:

o The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, Badami, Aihole and Mahakuta are their most celebrated monuments. E.g.
Virupaksha Temple
The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami,
Karnataka in the period 543 – 753 CE and spawned the Vesara style called Badami
Chalukya Architecture.
The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern
Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in the Malaprabha basin.
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal Lad Khan Durga temple, Aihole

Temple,
Aihole
Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha"
and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to Chalukyas.
The Lad Khan Temple, dedicated to Shiva, is one of the oldest Hindu temples and is
located in Aihole .It was built in the 5th located to the south of the Durga temple,
Aihole. The temple is named after a person named Lad khan, who turned this
temple into his residence for a short period and this is the oldest temple of Aihole.
The Rashtrakutas:
The Rashtrakutas who ruled the Deccan from Manyakheta, Karnataka in the period
753 – 973 CE built some of the finest Dravidian
monuments at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple), in
the rock-cut architecture idiom. The temple is a
splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of
the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu
mythology including Ravana, Shive and Parvati
while the ceilings have paintings.
Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana
temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka.
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The Gadag style:
The Western Chalukya architecture or Gadag style of
architecture is a specific style of decorative
architecture that originated from the old dravida
style and defines the Karnata dravida tradition.
Evolved during 11th century it prospered for around 150
years till 1200 CE during the reign of Western
Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of
A distinct feature of this style was articulation. Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi

and Saraswati temple in the temple complex of Trikuteshwara at Gadag are some
of the temples that illustrate this style.
The Hoysala:
o The finest examples of their architecture are
the Chennakesava Temple in Belur, Hoysaleswar
temple in Halebidu and the Kesava Temple in
The Hoysala kings ruled southern India during the

period (1100–1343 CE) from their capital Belur and
later Halebidu in Karnataka.
Shiv, Vishnu and Jain Dieties are common.
The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant
threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north.
Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct
Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata
Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an
independent architectural tradition with many unique features.
Temple base is star shaped, and not square shaped Open Mandapa, closed by a
compound wall.
Miniature shrines within compound wall, Temple wall profusely decorated with
royals, sages, dancers and even Kamasutra figures.
Gopuram usually seven storey Two Vimana and three Vimana structure- made from
single granite.
Questionary:
Write a short note: Gupta Age- Temple Architecture.

Explain any two Regional Schools Of Nagar Style.
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Chapter: 21
Indian Architecture
Part Three
Medieval Architecture:
o The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian
architecture, the Turks brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia,
Arabia and Central Asia.
They came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India.
The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural
styles : Indo Islamic Architecture
A large number of mosques of this period were constructed by destroying certain

portions of Hindu temples and making the necessary changes in the buildings
according to the Islamic requirements.
The spirit of toleration and harmony was also to a large extent responsible for the
synthesis of the two architectures.
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The rulers of the Sultanate were great patrons of architecture and under them the
process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in the
different kingdoms.
Craftsmen were mainly regional and unconsciously introduced Hindu architectural
designs in the Muslim buildings.
During the Mughal period the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the
greatest monuments of India were built.
Main features of Islamic architecture:
Another characteristic feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. o
The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum.
o The Mosque consisted of a large rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades
on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the direction to the
prayer.
o The call to the worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. In some mosques
there were many minerats.
o The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with geometrical
designs and lettering in calligraphic style.
o Some of these features were new to Indian architecture. The ancient Indian
buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while the Muslim
buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of adornment.
o When the new buildings began to be erected the two styles were gradually
synthesized into a new and unique style.
Indo Islamic architecture:
A sunshade or balcony was laid on cantilever brackets fixed into the projection from
the walls, which introduced the chajja (caves or sunshade).
In larger and more complex tombs, there is also a mosque, and well planned garden.
The mode, theme or motifs or ornamentation employed in Islamic
buildings also made a departure from the earlier vogues.
Although there exists some evidence to suggest that the true arch may have been
known in India earlier, it is the Muslims who are believed to have brought the
principle of building a true arch so as to hold up the roof or ceiling or a top part of
a structure, the bricks or stones laid to reproduce a curve, held together by the key-
stone on the top of the rise
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As among the Muslims the representation of living beings was taboo by way of
decoration or ornamentation, they introduced geometrical and arabesque patterns,
ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and floral life.
The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories -
Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate or the Imperial Style and the Mughal
Architecture.
Apart from these two there were regional architecture developed by other Muslim
rulers like in Deccan and Bengal.
The Imperial Style developed under the patronage of the Sultans of Delhi. The Mughal
Architecture was a blend of the Islamic Architecture of Central Asia and the Hindu
Architecture of India.
Delhi Sultanate Architecture:
The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly spread in and
around Delhi in North India and it gradually spread its
rule across various parts of the Indian subcontinent for
over three centuries starting from 1206 to 1526,
particularly during the Tughlaq Dynasty.
The rule of the sultanate comprised of five successive
dynasties starting from the Mamluk Dynasty whose
founder in Delhi, Qutubuddin Aibak, also the founder of the Turkic dominion in
north-western India, became the first sultan of Delhi.
The three of the other four successive dynasties namely the Khilji Dynasty, the
Tughlaq Dynasty and the Sayyid Dynasty respectively were also of Turkish origin.
The dynasty saw its fall under the reign of Ibrahim Lodi after it faced defeat at the
hands of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in 1526, which brought an end
of the Delhi Sultanate.
The last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate was an Afghan Pashtun dynasty called the Lodi
Dynasty that was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi.
The Qutb Complex
The ‘Qutb Complex’ comprising of a number of historically significant monuments and
buildings. Some of the important constructions of the complex include the
‘Qutb Minar’, the ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’, the ‘Tomb of Iltutmish’, the ‘Tomb
of Imam Zamin’, the ‘Iron Pillar’ of Delhi, and Major Smith's Cupola.
‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque:
It is regarded as the first mosque built in India; its
construction was delegated by Aibak, which started in
1193 and completed in 1197.
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Twenty seven Hindu temples, shafts of which adorn the inner and outer courtyard of
this Jami Masjid, were demolished to construct it. The style was Iranian, but the
arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way.
The Tomb of Iltutmish:
The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome, the
squinches again corbelled, and the intricate carving has
been described as having an "angular harshness", from
carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition.
‘Qutb Minar’:
‘Qutb Minar’ - The 73 m (240 ft.) colossal tower called
‘Qutb Minar’ made of red sandstone and marble
located within the complex stands as the
highest brick minaret in the world but it is also as one
of the most famous tourist attractions in India.
Construction of this UNESCO World Heritage Site was
initiated by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the founder of
the Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi, in 1200 AD and completed by his successor and
son-in-law Iltutmish in 1220 AD. This minaret was dedicated to Sufi Saint
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki.
Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan. In Both
The surfaces are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in
Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at
the top of each stage.
Alai Darwaza’:
o ‘Alai Darwaza’ within the complex forms the central
gateway from the southern side of the mosque. Built
in 1311 AD by Ala-ud-din Khilji, the second Khilji
Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, the gateway built of
red sandstone and white marble stands as the first
ever structure in India that incorporated principles
of Islamic architecture, both in its construction and
decoration.
Unique features of Khilji art including intricate patterns and embellishments are
visible from the monument. Very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible
from a certain distance or height.
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Adhai Din KaJhonpra:
Adhai Din KaJhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again
with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some
new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height.
It had large detached screens with pointed corbelled
arches added in front of them, probably under
Iltutmish a couple of decades later.
In these the central arch is taller, in imitation of
an iwan. At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are
tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.
o By around 1300 true domes and arches with
voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of
Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest
survival. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with
red sandstone and white marble, introduce what
was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic
architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles
used in Persia and Central Asia.
The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe
arch effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized
"spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds.
Jali, stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in
temples.
Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam:
The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to
1324) in Multan, the earliest major monument of
the Tughlaq dynasty. It was built for a Sufi
saint rather than sultan.
o The fortified city of Tughlaqabad built by
emperor Ghiyath ud Din Tughluq; the fourth
medieval city of Delhi called Jahanpanah.
The Ferozabad fort and palace constructed by Firoz Shah Tughlug, successor of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq, marks the architectural style of the Tughlug dynasty.
They look solid, surrounded, as they are, with bastions, thick and sloping walls, even
in the case of tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, making them into fortified
strongholds set in the middle of a moat, to make them unassailable.
The buildings have plain and austere surfaces of grey stone, cross vaults over large
halls, battered wall of enormous thickness, secret passage and hidden exits,
everything built with an eye on defence.
To a certain extent the Hindu trabeated construction is still used; there are false arches
and the dome is a typical importation from Syria and Byzantine.
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Adilabad Fort The Ferozabad fort

Mughal Architecture:
Tombs: Monumental structures over graves of
rulers and royalty was a popular feature of
medieval India.
They were not only intended to signify peace and
happiness in the next world, but also to showcase
the majesty, grandeur and might of the person
buried there.
Tombs, Taj Mahal, Akbar's Tomb and Humayun's Tomb.
Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was
subsequently placed with paradisiacal elements such as garden or near a water
body or both, as in the case of Taj Mahal.
Forts, such as Red Fort, Lahore Fort, Agra Fort and Lalbagh Fort. o
Mosques, such as Jama Masjid and Badshahi Masjid.
o The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian
architecture, is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum.
Although Sikander Lodi's tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is
Humayun's tomb which strikes a new note.
o It is a memorial erected by a devoted wife for her imperial husband and is
magnificent, grand and impressive. Raised on a vast platform, the tomb proper
stands in the centre of a square garden, divided into 4 main parts by causeways
(Charbagh) in the centre of which ran shallow water-channels.
o The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over
a high square terrace, raised over a series of cells which are like a musical
composition.
o The octagonal form of the central chamber containing the cenotaph, is inspired by
Syrian and earlier Islamic models.
o The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over
a high square terrace, raised over a series of cells which are like a musical
composition.
o The octagonal form of the central chamber containing the cenotaph, is inspired by
Syrian and earlier Islamic models.
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Art and Culture
It is for the first time that pink sandstone and white are used with admirable effect, the
white is used cleverly to emphasise, surround and underline doors and windows,
strengthening the design.
The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions, in the
arched alcoves, corridors and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris)
which give it a pyramidal shape from a distance.
A double dome is built of two layers.
There is one layer inside which provides ceiling to the interior of the building. The
other layer is the outer one which crowns the buildings. Used in tombs like
Sikander Lodi but first time at a matured stage here.
Taj Mahal:
It was built for the wife of Shah Jahan, who died in 1631. The main ideas and themes
of garden tombs had already been explored by earlier Mughal emperors, and this
was the culmination of all those previous works into a national landmark. The 171
meter white tomb rises above a reflecting pool it is dream in marble just a time
architect of Islamic culture.
Red Fort:
Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1639,
when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Originally red and white,
the Shah's favourite colours, its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad
Lahauri, who also constructed the Taj Mahal.
Red Fort is known for its gardens (most of which were destroyed by the British) and a
water channel called the Stream of Paradise. This water channel connects many
pavilions, an architectural style owned by the Mughals.
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Art and Culture
Red Fort pietra dura
This kind of architecture went on to inspire the construction of many edifices and
gardens in the post-independence era.
The fort was also embellished with floral decorations and precious ornaments. It is
said that the Kohinoor diamond was part of the decoration that made the interiors
look ostentatious.
Agra Fort:
Agra Fort was built in the year 1573 under the reign
of Akbar. The fort houses numerous impressive
structures like the Jahangir Mahal, Khas Mahal,
Diwan-i-Khass, Diwan-i-Am, Machchhi Bhawan
and Moti Masjid.
Bricks formed the base of Agra Fort’s structure.
The entire fort was built using the red sandstone.
This appearance of the fort underwent a major
change during the reign of Shah Jahan.
o Lahore Fort and Lal bagh forts are other
examples of Forts built by Mughals.
Fatehpur Sikri
One of the architectural gems of the Mughal
Empire is the city of ‘Fatehpur Sikri’ located in
the Agra. Built by Emperor Akbar as his Capital
City from 1569 AD to 1574 AD, the city served
its purpose from 1571 to 1585 and comprised of
several edifices that were significant both in
terms of religion and secularism.
Some of the important buildings and constructions within the city are the 15-storied
high semi octagonal gateway called ‘Buland Darwaza’, also referred as the ‘Gate
of Magnificence’ that forms the main entrance to the palace of the city portraying a
remarkable blend of Hindu and Persian styles of architecture.
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o The ‘Jama Masjid’ also referred as the ‘Friday Mosque’ reflecting Iranian
architecture in some of its designs; and the ‘Tomb of Salim Chisti’ housing the
grave of the Sufi saint Salim Chisti.
Mughal gardens :
Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the

Mughals in the Persian style of architecture.
This style was heavily influenced by the Persian
gardens particularly Charbagh structure.
Quadrilateral garden layout based on the four
gardens of Paradise mentioned in the Quran.
Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made
within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains
and canals inside the gardens. The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described
his favourite type of garden as a charbagh.
The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in
many ways. The standard Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture,
layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including
numerological and zodiacal significances connected to family history or other
cultural significance, were often juxtaposed.
The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can be found
in the number of terraces or in garden architecture such as octagonal pools.

Provincial Mughal Architecture:
Mandav:
o Mandu was established by Raja Bhoj, gained prominence during the Mughal rule
in the medieval period. The city has beautiful architectural wonders
o It was a complex mix of official and residential-cum-pleasure palace,
pavilions.Local stone and marble were used to great advantage.
Jahaj Mahal :
It is known as "Ship Palace" as it is on the narrow strip of
land between the waters of the Munj and Kapur tanks.
Hindola Mahal:
This building is "T" - shaped in plan, with a main hall and a
transverse projection. The side walls are strengthened
with massive sloping buttresses which have given the
name "swinging" (Hindola) palace to the building.
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Tomb of Hoshang Shah:
India's first marble structure, it is one of the most refined examples of Afghan
architecture. Its unique features include the beautifully proportioned dome,
intricate marble lattice work and porticoed courts and towers. The finial of the
dome is crowned with a crescent, a feature which seems to have been imported to
Mandu.
Rupmati's Pavilion:
o The building has undergone two or three stages of
construction in different periods.It is said that Rupmati
came here daily from the palace nearby to have a view of
river Narmada, which is seen from here on a clear sunny
day.
Bijapur :
Indo Islamic architecture in Bijapur, a city in the state of Karnataka flourished under
the Muslim rulers in the medieval period. This city first experienced its
Islamic architecture in the end of 13th century under Allaudin Khilji.
o However, Bijapur was decked and dotted with wonderful Indo Islamic
architectures during reign of the Adil Shahi dynasty in the 15th to 17th century.
The city's greatest architectural remains are minarets, domes and echoing burial
chambers like Gol Gumbaz, Ibrahim Rauza, Malik-e-Maidan, Upri Buruj, Chand
Bawdi, Asar Mahal, Gagan Mahal, Barakaman, Jumna Mosque, Jal Manzil, Sat
Manzil, Jod Gumbaz and Anand Mahal.
It is the mausoleum of Muhammed Adil Shah, the 7th sultan of the Adil Shahi
Dynasty of Bijapur.
Gumbad is a square building topped with a circular drum over which rests a majestic
dome, giving the building its nomenclature.
It is built of dark grey basalt and decorated plaster work. o
The dome of Gol Gumbad is the largest in the world.
Modern Architecture
Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of British on the Indian soil, was from
the social point of view, a creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of
stone.
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Art and Culture
Architectural material was stone; tools, chisel and hammer, and the aim was
glorification. In contrast, the every-day needs of a common man were ruthlessly
neglected.
o Then the British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first introduction
to elementary modern building construction and planning was introduced into
India.Apart from self-serving military cantonments and civil lines, they also left the
basic problems well alone.
The most significant architectural phenomenon that took place during the first half of
this century in this country was building of Imperial Delhi by Sir Edward Lutyen.
CST, Mumbai
In the beginning of the colonial rule there were attempts at creating authority through
classical prototypes. In its later phase the colonial architecture culminated
into what is called the Indo-Saracenic architecture.
The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and
western elements.
The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian
buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government
buildings.
Such buildings began to be built in large numbers over the whole empire. Colonial
architecture in India followed developments not only from metropolis but also took
inspiration from existing architecture in India.
o The historic station that once remained headquarters of the ‘Great Indian
Peninsular Railway’ and was rebuilt to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen
Victoria today stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the busiest railway
station in India.
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Art and Culture
Victoria Memorial:
From the mid nineteenth century it became a norm
for the Anglo-Indian church builders to follow the
model set by the revivers of the many combinations
of Gothic art in England.
In many buildings imperialism was the sole guiding
force rather than practicality. On many occasions
heavier styles than Gothic were employed. This can
be seen in the Mutiny Memorial Church at Kanpur and the last garrison church in
New Delhi.
The Italian Gothic was seen to be well adapted to conditions in India. The British not
only left an imprint of legacy and culture but also of their unique architectural
styles manifested from the colossal and magnificent buildings and infrastructures
that are palpable from their erstwhile colonies.
‘Chepauk Palace
o ‘Chepauk Palace’ situated in Chennai (erstwhile
Madras) was the first Indo-Saracenic building.
Many other buildings of Chennai portraying this
architecture that are now categorised as Heritage
buildings include the ‘Madras High Court’,
‘Chennai Central Station’ and the ‘Victoria Public
Hall’ among others. Other prominent buildings and
structures across India showcasing this unique style includes the ‘Taj Mahal Palace
Hotel’ in Mumbai, the ‘Mysore Palace’, the ‘Victoria Memorial’ in Calcutta, the
‘Khalsa College’ in Amritsar and the ‘Mumbai GPO’ to mention a few.
Pottery Classification India:
Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and reconstructing the past. o
It reflects the social, economic and environmental conditions of an age.
o Pottery or ceramics or ceramic art refers to the creation of objects that are made up
of hard brittle material produced from non-metallic minerals by moulding them
while the material is wet and then firing them at high temperatures. They are often
made up of clay, porcelain, steatite, etc.
o Understanding of presence of fire, cooking, storage, sedentary or migratory
populace, social stratification can all be developed via studying pottery.
o For people, pottery provided opportunity to store, cook, transport, trade and
essentially became an expression of artistic creativity.
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Art and Culture
Neolithic Age:
Considered the last part of the Stone Age or the New
Stone Age. The Neolithic period is significant for its
megalithic architecture, the spread of agricultural
practices, and the use of polished stone tools.
first reference of pottery
hand-made pottery later footwheel is also used. o
coarse handmade pottery - bowls, jars, vessels
o various colors such as red, orange, brown, black and
cream.
o Material – clay mixed with mica and
sand o Pottery is devoid of any painting.
o In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed
into wet clay for decoration.
Chalcolithic Age
Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use
of metals. First metal to be used was copper and the
culture of that time is called Chalcolithic cultre. The
presence of painted pottery is a hall mark of the
Chalcolithic period.
Ahara Culture: The sites of Ahar Culture were
Aahar (Rajasthan), balathal, Gilund etc. The pottery is black and red ware.
Kayatha Culture: Located in Chambal and its tributaries, the sturdy red slipped
ware with chocolate designs is main feature.
Malwa Culture: Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat. One of the largest
Chalcolithic settlements. Their pottery was red or orange, and painted with
geometric, floral, animal, and human designs in black.
Svalda Culture: The well-known sites are in Dhulia district of Maharashtra.
Pictographic (Red & Black) pottery.
Prabhas & Rangpur Culture: Both of them are derived from the Harappa
culture. The polished red ware is the hall mark of this culture.
Indus Valley Civilization : Early period
During the Indus Valley Civilization, there is proof of
pottery being constructed in two ways, handmade and
wheel-made.
Most popular design is a series of intersecting circles.
Other designs included tree pattern, the chase board
pattern, figures of animals and birds.
The pottery itself seems to fulfil both a utilitarian and
decorative function. Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed.
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Art and Culture
Harappa pottery includes Red Ware, Black and Red Ware,

Buff Ware and Grey Ware.
Perforated pottery was also found may be used for
straining liquor.
Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass
thrown) revealing some form of control and leaving
less space of individual creativity.
o Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites reveals economic
stratification in the society.
Thin pottery plaques, rectangular in shape found in Indus Valley. They were probably
used as writing tablets, similar to the wooden tablets in current use in North India.
Late Harappa:
Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late

Harappan cultures(1900BC- 1200BC) were primarily
chalcolithic. Some specific chalcolithic sites show the
elements of late Harappan(like use of burnt bricks,
etc). These sites have OCP.
Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel
Found in Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from
north Iranian plateau.
Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery Also found in Swat Valley. This
shows a connection that Swat Valley was associated with Harappa.
Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with Vedic people have
been found in conjunction with some late Harappan pottery. It has less intricate
designs as compared to the early and mature periods suggesting a dilution of the
rich culture.
Vedic Era – PGW:
The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals are absent. Hence it is
considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. The Later Vedic sites are considered iron-
phase of PGW.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine grey coloured pottery, painted with geometric
patterns in black.
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Art and Culture
Vedic material culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara grave
culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.
Geographical locations– Punjab, Haryana and upper Ganga Valley.
The pottery is so fine that the walls of the pots are referred to as being eggshell thin in
section.
The existence of this highly specialised pottery suggests that it might have been made
for either a ritualistic purpo.se or for the royalty Pottery resembling PGW has not
been found in any earlier period or in any period thereafter.
Later Vedic Era – NBPW:
The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of
pottery – Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware,
painted grey ware and red ware.
Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th
century BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of
urbanization. This era marked the beginning of the
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
o It is Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent peaked
from c. 500–300 BC, coinciding with the emergence of
16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India, and
the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.
The surface of NBPW which is strikingly lustrous in

nature. About ninety percent of the pottery is jet black, brownish black or bluish
black.
Megaliths Culture:
o This culture is placed between- 3rd Century BC to
1st Century AD. Megaliths refers to monuments
constructed of big (mega) stones (lith).
This culture is particularly known for its large stone graves.
In the South this age is characterized by the use of iron.
The pottery has been typecast according to its appearance.
A large amount of this pottery has been found in South India, where originally it was
thought to have been of foreign origin.
However it is now believed that because of its quantity, spread and indigenous
shapes, only the influence on the techniques and design may have been imported.
Prominent among these pottery types are Rang Mahal Pottery, Russet Coated Painted
Ware, Rouletted Ware, Red Polished Ware and Stamped Pottery.
Throughout the period mentioned above and till around the tenth century AD, Red
Ware has remained the predominant ware.
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Today also the rural craftsman is working with terracotta, and Red Ware is an
important part of every Indian's life.
Some of the most popular forms of pottery include unglazed pottery, glazed pottery,
terracotta, and papier-mache.
Unglazed pottery
Unglazed pottery, the oldest form of pottery practiced in
India, is of three types. First is paper thin pottery,
biscuit-colored pottery decorated with incised patterns.
Next is the scraffito technique, the matka pot is
polished and painted with red and white slips along
with intricate patterns. The third is polished pottery,
this type of pottery is strong and deeply incised, and has stylized patterns of
arabesques.
Glazed pottery
Glaxed Pottery era of pottery began in the 12th century AD.
This type of pottery contains a white background and
has blue and green patterns. Glazed pottery is only
practiced in selected regions of the country.
Terracotta
Terracotta is the term used for unglazed earthenware, and
for ceramic sculpture made in it. Several vigorous local
popular traditions of terracotta folk sculpture remain
active today, such as the Bankura horses. Deities are
created with moulded clay on a flat surface. They are
then fired and painted in bright colours.
papier-mache it is a composite material consisting

of paper pieces or pulp, sometimes reinforced
with textiles,bound with an adhesive, such as glue, starch,
or wallpaper paste.
Questionary:
Write Short note: Delhi Sultanate Architecture Pottery

Classification India
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 22
Science and Technology in Ancient India

Indian Scince and Tech.:

Like people in any other part of the world Indians too,
have a rich legacy of scientific ideas. A desire to now
the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and
observation have always generated scientific temper.
This has led to the assumption that truth lay in the real
world with all its diversity and complexity.
It has been the responsibility of scientists to unravel
the mystery behind the truth and utilise available resources for the progress of
humanity.
Indus Valley Science and Tech:
The civilization was ahead of its time in regards to city planning, sanitary systems,
public utilities and so on and henceforth.
o A system of technical standardization, using weights and measures, enabled
gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement
for construction.
o Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by
includingartificial reservoirs at Girnar and an early canal irrigation system, wells,
tanks and other water storage and conservation systems.
One of the earliest known docks is at Lothal (2400 BCE), located away from the main
current to avoid deposition of silt. Had knowledge relating to tides in order to build
such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as
exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.
Cartography , representations of cosmos is believed to have been developed in this
age. Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple
subdivisions in case of some devices.
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Vedic Period:
The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains
rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar
to the Sulba Sutras.
o Astronomical text Vedanga Jyotiṣ attributed to
Lagadha details several astronomical attributes
generally applied for timing social and religious events. o
Baudhayana ( 8th century BCE) composed the
Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples,
such as (3,4,5 )as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem and a formula for
the square root of two.
It also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for
empirical observation, the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months,
and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhikamasa.
Vedic Period: Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Early
records of veterinary medicine and leprosy is described in the medical treatise of
Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE). It contains description of 1120 illnesses, 700
medicinal plants, a detailed study on Anatomy, 64 preparations from mineral
sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources. Earliest references to
diseases and medicines are found in Atharva Veda.
Cataract surgery was done by physician Sushrut (6th century BCE) using a tool called
the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the
cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter
and then bandaged.
His most well-known contribution to plastic surgery(repair of ears, nose and lips) is
the reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.
Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushrut
mentions 121 surgical instruments and the methods of operations, bone setting,
cataract and so on. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites).
A statue dedicated to Sushruta at Haridwar
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Art and Culture
Vedic Period:
o During the 5th century BCE, the
scholar Panini had made several discoveries in
the fields of phonetics, phonology, and
morphology.
o The ancient Persians had also attempted to
reduce zinc oxide in an open furnace but had
failed. Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is
the world’s first known ancient zinc smelting
site.
o The distillation technique of zinc production
goes back to the 12th Century AD and is an
important contribution of India to the world of
science.
Metal currency was minted in India before the
5th century BCE, with coinage (400 BCE—100 CE) being made of silver and
copper, bearing animal and plant symbols on them.
The distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the 12th Century AD and is
an important contribution of India to the world of science.
The Vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and
the process of dyeing.
India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique
derived from a long experience of ancient alchemy.
Maha Janapadas:
Javika at the court of Bindusara was a renowned physician. Atreya dealt with
principles of Ayurveda and taught the subject at Taxila. His teachings were
collected by his pupil Agnivesa and complied by Charaka in Charaka Samhiita
during 2nd CE. It describes in detail all stages from diagnosis to treatment and also
the process/procedure involved in preparation of medicine. He described enzymes
required for digestion and metabolism and identified twenty types of
disease causing germs and their shapes, sizes and colour.
The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The use
of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain started.
During the 1st millennium BCE, the Vaisheshika School of atomism was founded. The
most important proponent of this school was Kanada, an Indian philosopher who
lived around 200 BCE. The school proposed that atoms are
indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed.
First Centuary CE glass was being used for ornaments and casing and due to contact
with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and local artisans learnt
methods of glass molding, decorating and coloring
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Art and Culture
Wootz originated before the beginning of the Common Era. Wootz was exported and
traded throughout Europe, China, the Arab world, and the Middle East.
Post Maha Janapadas:
The mining and processing of diamonds started in Golconda.
Diamonds were then exported to other parts of the world.
The origins of the spinning wheel probably happened in India.
The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device
known as charkhi, the "wooden-worm-worked roller".
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron,
copper, silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze were
taking place. The Iron pillar of Delhi was erected at the
times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413), which stood without rusting for
around 2 millennium.
Pingala (300-200 BCE) was a musical theorist in his work on the enumeration of
syllabic combination, Pingala stumbled upon both the pascal triangle and binomial
Coefficients. A description of binary numbers is also found in the works of Pingala.
Negative numbers and the subtrahend had been used in East Asia since the 2nd
century BCE, and Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the
7th century CE
The first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of
positive and negative numbers.
The binary number system was first described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his
book Chandahsastra, which is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the
study of poetic metres and verse).
Post Maha Janapadas: Mathematics
The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system,
the decimal system and the use of zero.
Apastamba in second century BC introduced practical geometry involving acute
angle, obtuse angle and right angle.
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Art and Culture
This knowledge helped in the construction of fire

altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The
notations and the numerals were carried to the West
by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman
numerals.
Zero was discovered in India in the second century
BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the
very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number;
hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of
using zero with other numbers.
o The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematic,
mentioned by Pingala. Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers
were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and Hemacandra.
Post Maha Janapadas: Astronomy
Indian astronomy has a long history stretching from
pre-historic to modern times. Some of the earliest
roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the
period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.
o Aryabhattiya contains separate sections on
astronomical definitions, methods of determining
the true position of the planets, description of the
movement of the sun and the moon and the
calculation of the eclipses.
Aryabhatta (499 AD) discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle,
which led to the origin of Trigonometry, functions of sine and versine, from which
it was trivial to derive the cosine, were used. He formulated the area of triangle.
Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which
became a guideline for later astronomers. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct
departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientific
explorations.
The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was stated by Bhaskara II, in
the 12th century.
Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is pioneering work in the
field of astronomy.
His observation that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around
the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion.
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Medieval India:
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the
nobles to supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal household and
government departments.
The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as
centres for technical and vocational training to young men.
New influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European influence. o
The maktabs and madrasas came into existence that followed a set curricular.
Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important
subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy,
accountancy, public administration and agriculture were included in the course of
studies for primary education.
Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet
science did not make much headway during this period.

Medieval India:
Biology:
o Similarly, there were advancements in the field of Biology. Akbar showed special
interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses.
o Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of
weeding and hybridisation.
o He described about thirty-six species of animals and fifty-seven that of plants.
Mathematics:
Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this period. In the
early medieval period the two outstanding works in mathematics were Ganitasara
by Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication,
division, numbers, cubes, square roots, and mensuration and so on.
Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, containing a
number of illustrations.
Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of
Persian technical terms.
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Art and Culture
Akbar ordered the introduction of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in

the educational system.
Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognised as
an authority.
Chemistry:
An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir,
Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore
became well known centres of paper production.
The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country,
differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder gunpowder using
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in and its use in guns. Indian craftsmen learnt the
technique and evolved suitable explosive compositionsThe principal types of
fireworks included those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of
fire, blazed with various colours and ended with explosion.
Tuzuk-i--Baburi gives an account of the casting of cannons. The melted metal was
made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down.
The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of which is attributed to the
mother of Nurjehan.
Astronomy:
Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period. In astronomy, a
number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions
appeared.
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Art and Culture
Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. o

Both lunar and solar calendars were in use.
o Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical
instrument called Yantraja.
o Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and
almanac-makers.
Nilkantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta.

Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic
knowledge as well.
Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatoriesin Delhi,
Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
Medicine:
The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as it did in the
ancient period because of lack of royal patronage.
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Pulse and
urine examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes.
o The Sarangdhara Samhita recommends use of opium for medicines. The
rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines including
metallic preparations.
The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the thirteenth century, includes use of opium in
its material medica and urine examination for diagnostic purpose. The drugs
mentioned include metallic preparation of the rasachikitsa system and even
imported drugs.
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Art and Culture
Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majinye Diyae, incorporating the

Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi,
dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources.
The Musalajati-Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad,dedicated to Darashikoh deals
with Greek medicine.
Agriculture:
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural
practices was more or less the same as that in early
India. Some important changes occurred in the
introduction of new crops, trees as well as
horticultural plants by foreign traders.
o The introduction of new crops, trees and
horticultural plants. The principal crops were wheat,
rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds,
cotton,sugarcane and indigo.
The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir
maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon
fromTamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts from Kerala were becoming
increasinglypopular.
Systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of
the sixteenth century.
In the field of irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket made of leather)
and dhenkli, were used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen, which continued
to be the means of irrigation.
Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the
important new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.
The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the production of opium
from the poppy plants. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great
success.
Persian wheel was used in and around Agra region.
In the medieval period, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by the State
which brought about a system of land measurement and land classification,
beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers.
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Art and Culture
Questionary:
With reference to the scientific progress of ancient India, which of
the statements given below are correct? (2012)
Different kinds of specialized surgical instruments were in common use
by 1st century AD.
Transplant of internal organs in the human body had begun by the
beginning of 3rd century AD.
The concept of sine of an angle was known in 5th century AD.
The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals was known in 7th century AD.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 Only
(b) 3 and 4 Only
(c) 1,3 & 4 Only
(d) 1,2,3,4
Discuss the developments in the field of Medicine during the
medieval period.
Describe the education system that developed during the medieval
period.
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 23
Scientists Of Ancient India
Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India.
Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well
as various branches of Science.
Buadhayan:
Buadhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several
concepts in Mathematics, which were later
rediscovered by the western world.
o Buadhayan ( 8th century BCE) composed the
Baudhayana Sulba Sutra(way before Pythagoras gave
theorem), which contains examples of simple
Pythagorean triples, such as (3,4,5 )as well as a
statement of the Pythagorean theorem i.e.
The sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square
produces an area double the size of the original square.”
It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean Theorem (for the sides of a
rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle
makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.
Buadhayan gives a formula for the square root of two and method of circling a square
and first to calculate value of pie.
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Art and Culture
Aryabhatta:
o Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician,
astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a
pioneer in the field of mathematics.
At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a
summary of mathematics of his time. There are
four sections in this scholarly work.
Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out
the exact distance between the earth and the moon.
o Astronomy was called Khagolshastra. Khagol was the famous astronomical
observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied.
Astronomy helped to have accurate calendars, a better understanding of climate and
rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choice of crops, fixing the dates of
seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation of time and casting of horoscopes for
use in astrology.
In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by
alphabets. In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern
day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita
(algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy. Aryabhatta showed that
zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol.
Knowledge of astronomy, particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of
great importance in trade, because of the requirement of crossing the oceans and
deserts during night time.
He also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight. o
He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse.
o Area of a triangle, led to the origin of Trignometry, functions of sine and versine,
from which it was trivial to derive the cosine, were used.
o Theory : ‘earth is round and rotates on its own axis’ He explained that the
appearance of the sun moving from east to west is false
o Aryabhattiya contains separate sections on astronomical definitions,methods of
determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun
and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
o First satellite sent into orbit by India has been named after Aryabhatta.
Brahmgupta and Bhaskaracharya:
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights
far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication,
he used place value in almost the same way as it is
used today.
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Art and Culture
Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC.

Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first
book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number; hence,
Brahmgupta is considered as the man who found zero.
He gave rules of using zero with other numbers.
Although Invention of zero is attributed to unknown
Indian.
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He
was born at Bijapur, Karnataka. He is famous for his
book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic),
Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of
planets).
The Surya Siddhanta written by him calculated time taken by the Earth to orbit the
Sun was determined by him.
Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic
equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European
mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle.
Mathematics in Jain literature:
There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain
literature (500 B.C -100 B.C).
Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They
have also described fractions, algebraic equations,
series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very
interesting manner.
o Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara
Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first textbook on
arithmetic in present day form.
The current method of solving Least common Multiple
(LCM) of given numbers was also described by him.
Kalikal Sarvagnya (all-knower in the dark period)Shri
Hemchandracharya: a 11th centuary Jain Saint scholar,
poet, and polymath who wrote on grammar,
philosophy, prosody, contemporary history and texts
on science and logic
He was the first one to put non-violence on a political platform. He was the
architect of the greatness and unity of Gujarat. In the field of metaphysics, he was
a Yogi. His work Yoga-Shastra, a treatise on yoga, is very famous.
Following the earlier Gopala, he described Fibonacci sequence before Fibonacci. The
work was presented around 1150, about fifty years before Fibonacci(1202).
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Art and Culture

Kanad and Nagarjun:
Kanad:
o Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika
School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His
original name was Aulukya.
o He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was
interested in very minute particles called “kana”.
o According to Kanad, material universe is made up of
kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any
human organ. They are indivisible and indestructible.
Nagarjun:
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his
experiments was to transform base elements into gold,
like the alchemists in the western world.
o Even though he was not successful in his goal, he
succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine
used in making imitation jewellery.
In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for
the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
Varahmihira:
Varahamihira was another well known scientist of the
ancient period in India. He lived in the Gupta period.
Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of
hydrology, geology and ecology.
He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and
plants could be the indicators of the presence of
underground water.
He gave very important information regarding termites (Deemak or insects that
destroy wood), that they go very deep to the surface of water level to bring water
to keep their houses (bambis) wet.
He gave a list of six animals and thirty plants, which could indicate the presence of
water.
The earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihsssssira in his Brhat Samhita,
defines signs of earthquakes.
He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities,
underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.
Jyotish (Astrology), which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It was
presented scientifically in a systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira.
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
Medical science in Ancient India (Ayurveda & Yoga)
Sushruta:
o Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He
considered surgery as “the highest division of the
healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He
studied human anatomy with the help of a dead
body.
o He lived in the 6th century BC, nearly 150 years
before Hippocrates, and left a book, the 'Sushruta
Samhita,' explaining his surgical methods. He is
called as father of Surgery.
o In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the
purpose of its detailed study has also been described.
In his book, Sushruta described how to pull teeth, how to fix broken bones, and how
to fix blockages of the intestines.
Sushruta was the first physician to advocate what is today known as the 'caesarean'
surgery. He was also an expert in removing kidney stones, and locating and treating
fractures.
In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of twenty-six
kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over 760
plants are described.
Cataract surgery was done by physician Sushrut (6th century BCE) using a tool called
the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the
cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter
and then bandaged.
His most well-known contribution to plastic surgery(repair of ears, nose and lips) is
the reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.
Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some
serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the
damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder.
Charak:
Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of
medicine. He was the Raj Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court
of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable book on
medicine.
His Charak Samhita book on medicine has the description
of a large number of diseases and causes as and the
treatment.
He was the first to talk about digestion, metabolism and
immunity as important for health and so medical science.
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In Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather
than simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of
Genetics.
He studied the anatomy of the human body and various organs, and calculated 360 as
the total number of bones, including teeth, present in the human body.
Pingala:
Pingala (300-200 BCE) was a musical theorist in his work on the enumeration of
syllabic combination, pingala stumbled upon both the pascal triangle and Binomial
coefficients.
The binary number system was first described by him, in his book Chandahśāstra,
which is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic
metres and verse).
Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written.
Pingala is credited with using binary numbers in the form of short and long
syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), a notation similar to
Morse code.
The Chandahsastra is a work of eight chapters in the late Sūtra style, not fully
comprehensible without a commentary. The 10th century mathematician
Halayudha wrote a commentary and expanded it.
Pingala's work also contains the Fibonacci numbers, called matrameru.
Jayadeva:
o This method for obtaining integer solutions was
developed by Brahmagupta, 7thcentury CE. Jayadeva
later generalized this method for a wider range of
equations, which was further refined by Bhāskara II
(explicit solutions) in his Bijaganita treatise.
The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve
in determinate quadratic equations, including the
Pell’s equation.
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Art and Culture
Jayadeva was a ninth-century Indian mathematician, who further developed the cyclic
method (Chakravala method) that was called by Hermann Hankel "the finest thing
achieved in the theory of numbers before Lagrange (18th century)". He also made
significant contributions to combinatorics.
Bhaskar One:
o Bhaskara I, (629 CE), Indian astronomer and
mathematician who helped to disseminate the
mathematical work of Aryabhata.
His fame rests on three treatises he composed on the works
of Aryabhata. Two of these treatises, known today as
Mahabhaskariya (“Great Book of Bhaskara”) and
Laghubhaskariya (“Small Book of Bhaskara”), are
astronomical works in verse, while Aryabhatiyabhashya (629) is a prose
commentary on the Aryabhatiya .
He also includes a remarkably accurate approximation for the sine function: in modern
notation, sin x = 4x(180 − x)/(40,500 − x(180 − x)), where x is in degrees.
In his commentary on the Aryabhatiya, Bhaskara explains in detail Aryabhata’s
method of solving linear equations and provides a number of illustrative
astronomical examples.
Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the
planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the Moon are among
the topics Bhaskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.
Bhaskara particularly stressed the importance of proving mathematical rules rather
than just relying on tradition or expediency.
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Questionary:
Match List I ( Finding/Invention/Calculation ) with

List II ( Ancient Indian Scholar ) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the lists (prelims 2006)
 List II
List I
( Finding/Invention/ Calculation) (Indian Scholar )
A. Time taken by the Earth 1. Aryabhatta
to orbit the Sun
B. Calculation of the value of 2. Bhaskaracharya
(’pi’)
C. Invention of the digit zero 3. Budhayana
D. The game of snakes and 4. Gyandev
ladders
Code : A B C D
2413
1324
2314
1423
Who among the following invented Zero?

Aryabhatta
Varahamihira
Bhaskara I
An unknown Indian
What are the theories given by Aryabhatta in the field of astronomical

science?
Discuss Varahamihira’s contributions to scientific knowledge.
What does Bhaskaracharya’s Siddanta Shiromani deal with?
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Chapter: 24
Education system in Ancient and

Mediaeval India
Education is a learning experience. But learning takes place at all times in one’s life.
However, whereas some other learning experiences could be of a random or
accidental nature, an educational experience is usually a deliberate and pre-
designed programme with the purpose of affecting certain pre-determined
behavioral changes in an individual. Culture is the sum total of the accumulated
experiences and achievements of previous generations inherited by succeeding
generations as members of society. The structured process of passing on this
collective pool of experiences and achievements may be called education. Hence
education is not only a means of passing on cultural beliefs and ideas, but it is also
shaped by cultural beliefs since it is a product of culture.
Vedic Period:
Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who
gathered around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the
family.Such a place was called Gurukul.
The Gurukul functioned as a domestic school, an ashrama, where the children’s
learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as well as
attention to the students. Pupils were used to divide work and help the Guru in
Daily Life.
Education was primarily the privilege of the upper castes. Learning was an intimate
relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the GuruShishya Parampara.
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The process of learning generally began with a

religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred
thread ceremony). Later subjects like
Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came to be
taught and studied.
At the end of studies, pupil would be ready to
offer gurudakshina (one time fees) to the guru.
The gurudakshina is a traditional gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks.
Sanskrit was language of Vedic education system and Pali was language of Buddhist
education system.
Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas
and Dharmashastras, fully or partially. Later subjects like Grammar, Logic, and
Metaphysics came to be taught and studied.
Aims of Education during Vedic Period in India: The

following are the aims of education in Vedic period:
The aim of Vedic education was to realise the supreme and achieve the supreme
consciousness.
Inculcation of spirit of piety and righteousness was the aim of education.
Preservation and spread of ancient culture was the aim of ancient education system.
The Chief aim was to unfold The Spiritual and moral power of the individual
during Vedic period.
The objective of education was perfection of physical mental and intellectual
personality of the student.
Formation of good and moral character was also another aim of Vedic education. o
Inculcation of social and civil duties was one of the Aims in Vedic period which
was necessary for a better future life.
o For the development of Vocational efficiency healthy positive attitude and dignity
of labour were fostered in pupils during Vedic period.
Salient points of Vedic system of education:
The ancient Indian education emerged from the Vedas as they were the main
sources of Indian philosophy of life.
The attitude of people towards life was intellectual and spiritual, rather than
materialistic. Their objective was to attain salvation through education and that to
through religious education.
Indian culture surcharged with religious feelings and it was assigned prominent
place in the field of education.
Much emphasis was laid on the formation of character though ‘plain living and high
thinking’.
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The basis of admission was moral fitness and unimpeachable conduct. The pupils
belonging to a lower order of moral conduct was forbidden to live in the house of
the preceptor.
The discipline of Brahmacharya or Celibacy was compulsory for all. Education helped
in the observance of celibacy, control over senses and purity of life.
Mauryan period:
o During the Mauryan and the post-Mauryan
periods, the Indian society went through a phase
of intensive change.
With the growth of urban centres and trade, the
mercantile community came to acquire an
important position. As a result, the guilds of the
merchants began to play an active role in
providing education.
They became centres of technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining,
metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were new formulations in
building and architecture.
The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help
them in ocean navigation.
Medical knowledge began to be systemised as Ayurveda. The elements formed the
basis for the Indian medical system.
A right combination of the three was necessary for a healthy body. Knowledge of the
medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage.
The astronomers and cosmologists began a debate on “time” (kala). This helped in
the development of a sharp sense of “time” (kala) in comparison to the past.
o ‘Charaka’ became famous for medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for surgery. ‘Charak
Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and exhaustive work on medicines.
After Upanayana the prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a
study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and politics.
Education of those times was primarily life skills based which is so different from
what education is today.
The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes were Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha
(lore) of elephants and chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing),
Langhana (jumping) and Tairana (swimming).
Gupta period:
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different
dimension. Buddhist monasteries admitted students for ten years.
Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of instruction. The Jains used
Sanskrit literature like ‘Adipurana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for educational purposes in
the earlier phase.
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The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were

copied and stored. The monasteries had libraries.
Important manuscripts were copied and stored
But to make education more popular, the medium was
changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like
Tamil, Kannada and so on.
Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written
on palm leaves that were tied together and were known as “granthas”.
Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost royal patronage and their monasteries started
declining as centres of education and learning.
o The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and Buddhist
monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashramas for educational purposes.
The teachers were often attracted students from far and wide. In South India centers of
learning were known as Ghatikas (colleges attached to the temples
emergedas new centres of learning)
In the Gupta period, women were allowed to have education.
o There were the Agrahara villages which had learned Brahmans who were
supported by the revenues of these villages assigned to them for maintenance by
the state.
Children used to write either on wooden boards in colour or by the finger on the
ground covered with sand. Excellence in metallurgy is proved by the Iron Pillar,
Delhi of King Chandra.
Brahmins were eligible for all types of education, while the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas
were eligible only for some items of learning. But the Sudras were deprived
completely from any light of education.
Post Gupta period in the reign of Harsha, education encouraged at all levels; education
was given in temples and monastries and higher education in universities like
Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang spent several years there studying Buddhists sculptures
Education in Medieval period:
o With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate,
Islamic system of education was introduced.
As a result, scholars from countries like Samarqand,
Bukhara and Iran looked up to the Indian scholars
for guidance.
Education in medieval India was designed on the lines of the tradition of education
developed under the Abbasids of Baghdad.
Amir Khusrau, an exemplary personality, not only developed the skill of writing prose
and poetry but also devised a new language which suited the local conditions.
Some contemporary historians like Minhajus-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani and Afif have
written about Indian scholarship
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The institutions that provided school education were

known as ‘makhtabs’, while those of higher learning
were called ‘madrasas’. The ‘makhtabs’ were
generally run by public donations while ‘Madrasas’
were maintained by the rulers and nobles.
There were six different types of institutions:

Those established and maintained by nobles and rulers,
Those which were started by individual scholars with the help of state assistance or
donations,
Those that were attached to the mosques,
Those that were attached to the tombs,
Those that were started and maintained by individual scholars, (vi) those that were
attached to the Sufi hospices.
The famous ‘madrasas’ were the Muizzi, the Nasiri and the Firuzi madrasas in Delhi,
Mohammed Gawani’s madrasa in Bidar and Abul Fazl’s madrasa in
Fatehpur Sikri.
The main feature of the Muslim educational system was that it was traditional in
spirit and theological in content. The traditional (Manqulat) and the rational
(Maqulat) sciences.
The curriculum was broadly divided into two categories: the traditional (Manqulat)
and the rational (Maqulat) sciences.
Traditions, law and history and literature came under the traditional sciences.
Logic, philosophy, medicine, mathematics and astronomy came under rational
sciences.
Later, rational sciences came to be emphasized more than the traditional sciences. o
When Sikander Lodi invited the brothers Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah
from Multan to Delhi. They introduced the study of philosophy and logic in the
curriculum.
o The Mughal rulers were great patrons of learning and literature. This period saw
the rise of Urdu as a language which came out of a long contact between Persian
and Hindi.
o Babar wrote his own biography known as Tazuk-i-Babari. The Mughal Emperor
Humayun introduced the study of mathematics,astronomy and geography in the
‘madrasas’ in Delhi.
o This helped in reducing the bias in the existing education system.
o In the eighteenth century some nobles were against the introduction of Western
methods in education which involved inquiry, observation, investigation and
conducting experiment.
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o Akbar added subjects like accountancy, public

administration, geometry and built a workshop near
his palace.
Akbar’s attempt to introduce secular and scientific
system of education was not liked by the orthodox
Sections. Akbar’s efforts ushered in a change
which continued for centuries.
Many Hindus took to learning Persian and a number of translations from Sanskrit to
Persian were made.
Memorising, discussing and writing out the lessons were the basis of instruction in
the Muslim ‘madrasas’.
Akbar patronised many scholars such as Abul Fazal, Faizi, Raja Todar Mal, Birbal and
Rahim. They were among the nine gems of his court who helped in spreading
culture and education.
Akbar gave grants to educational institutions. He started a College near Jama
Masjid.Generally the temples and mosques were the centre of elementary
education.
Questionary:
Briefly describe the development of education in the Ancient period?

Discuss the steps undertaken in the field of education with the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in medieval India?
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Chapter: 25
Famous universities of ancient India
Nalanda University:
Nalanda is an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India from 427 to 1197.
Nalanda was established in the 5th century AD in Bihar, India. It was devoted to
Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics,
astronomy, politics and the art of war.
Nalanda was the world’s first university to have residential quarters for both students
and teachers. It also had large public lecture halls. Students from countries like
Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey came to study in this
university.
o The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms,
lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books
and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections.
Predominantly it was a Buddhist centre of learning but education imparted was
secular.
The library of this university was the largest library of the ancient world and had
thousands of volumes of manuscripts on various subjects like grammar, logic,
literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine.
The library complex was called Dharmaganja, and had three large buildings: the
Ratnasagara, the Ratnadadhi, and the Ratnaranjaka.
o Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the Shailendra dynasty of
Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex. However, it was
later sacked by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193, a
milestone in the decline of Buddhism in India.
Mahavira is several times mentioned as staying at Nalanda, which was evidently a
center of activity of the Jains.
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According to the Kevatta Sutta, in the Buddha’s time, Nalanda was already an
influential and prosperous town, thickly populated, though it was not until later
that it became the center of learning for which it afterward became famous.
Takshashila University:
Takshashila, was an early Buddhist centre of learning.
According to available references it is dated back to at
least the 5th century BC. Some scholars date
Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC.
Where the students from all across the world used to
come to attain specialization in over 64 different fields
of study like Vedas, grammar, philosophy, ayurveda,
agriculture, surgery, politics, archery, warfare, astronomy, commerce, futurology,
music, dance, etc.
Takshashila’s is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya.
Taxila is also described in some detail in the Buddhist Jataka tales as the capital of the
kingdom of Gandhara and a great learning center.
Chinese travellers like Fa Hian (Faxain) and Huien Tsang (XuanZang) also speak of
Takshashila in their writings. The city was named for Bharata’s son Taksha, its first
ruler, according to Ramayan.
Famous graduates of this University include the ones like Chanakya, Panini,
Charaka, Vishnu Sharma, Jivaka etc.
This is the world’s oldest university.
It is considered a place of religious and historical sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists
and was the seat of Vedic learning where the emperor Chandragupta Maurya was
taken there by Chanakya to learn in the institution.
The institution is very significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the
Mahayana sect of Buddhism took shape there.
Some scholars date Takshashila’s existence back to the 6th century BCE or 7th
century BCE.
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen.
The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and
elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school
of military science.
Vikramashila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during late
8th century and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.
It was located in the Bhagalpur district of modern day Bihar. It gave direct
competition to Nalanda University.
This university was well known for its specialized training on the subject of Tantra
(Tantrism).
It has revealed a huge square monastery with a cruciform stupa in its center, a library
building and cluster of votive stupas.
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One of the most popular graduates from this University was Atisa Dipankara, a
founder of the Sharma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism who also revived the
Buddhism in Tibet.
The remains of the ancient university have been partially excavated in Bhagalpur, and
the process is still underway.
To the north of monastery, a number of scattered structures including a Tibetan and
a Hindu temple have been found. The entire spread is over an area of more than
one hundred acres.
Important center of Buddhist learning and championed the cause of Hinayana
Buddhism between.
Cinese traveler Itsing who visited this university during the 7th century describes it as
a great center of learning.
For some time, the university was so good that it was even considered to be a rival to
Nalanda, in Bihar, in the field of education.
Valabhi University:
o Valabhi University was established in
Saurashtra of modern Gujarat at around 6th
century and it flourished for 600 years till the
12th century.
o Gunamati and Sthiramati, the two famous
Buddhist scholars are said to have graduated
from this University. This University was
popular for its training in secular subjects and
students from all over the country came to study in this University.
Because of its high quality of education, graduates of this University were given
higher executive posts by the king .
Brahmanical sciences were also taught here along with the doctrines of Buddhism. o
Apart from religious sciences, courses offered included Nīti (Political Science,
Statesmanship), Varta (Business, Agriculture), Administration, Theology, Law,
Economics, and Accountancy.
o Valabhi was visited by Hiuen Tsiang (Xuanzang), a Chinese pilgrim, in the 7th
century and by Yijing towards the end of the century
o The 7th century, there were more than 6000 monks studying in the place. Some
100 monasteries were provided for their accommodation, as, the citizens of
Valabhi, many of whom were rich and generous, made available the funds
necessary for running the institution. The Maitraka kings, who ruled over the
country, acted as patrons to the university.
o The defeat of its patron kings had definitely led way to the slow death of all its
educational activities in the 12th century.
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Somapura University:
It was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during
late 8th century in Bengal and flourished for 400 years
till 12th century. The University spread
over 27 acres of land of which the main complex was
21 acres was one of the largest of its kind.
o It was a major center of learning for Buddhism,
Jainism and Hinduism. Even today one can
find ornamental terracotta on its outer walls depicting the influence of these three
traditions.
It is one of the largest and best known Buddhist monasteries in the Indian
subcontinent with the complex itself covering more than 20 acres, almost a million
square feet (85,000 sq. meters).
With its simple, harmonious lines and its profusion of carved decoration, it influenced
Buddhist architecture as far away as Cambodia. It was closely linked with the
contemporary Buddhist centers of fame and history at Bodhgaya and Nalanda,
many Buddhist treatises were completed at Paharpur, a center where the
The Mahavihara is important for the three major historical religions in the region,
serving as a center for Jains, Hindus, and Buddhists.
It is one of the five great Mahavihara, or monasteries, which were established in
ancient Bengal during the Pala period.
Included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Today it is one of the prime tourist
destinations in Bangladesh.
The Somapura Mahavihara was inhabited steadily for a few centuries, before being
abandoned in the 12th century following repeated attacks and being burnt nearly to
the ground in the 11th century by the Vanga army. About a century later
Vipulashrimitra renovated the Vihara and added a temple of Tara.
The Mahavihara was entirely covered by grass over the centuries after its
abandonment, and it was more or less forgotten at that point.
Jagaddala University:
It was founded by the later kings of the Pala dynasty,
famously believed to be King Ramapala (c. 1077-
1120), which was the largest construction works
undertaken by the Pala Kings.
Jagaddala Mahavihara was a Buddhist monastery and seat
of learning in Varendra, a geographical unit in present
north Bengal in Bangladesh.
According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila,
Nalanda, Somapura, Odantapura, and Jagaddala.
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The five monasteries formed a network; “all of them were under state supervision”
and their existed “a system of co-ordination among them and it was common for
great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.
Jagaddala specialized in Vajrayana Buddhism. A large number of texts that would later
appear in the Kanjur and Tengjur (The Tibetan Buddhist canon) were known to
have been composed or copied at Jagadala.
o It is likely that the earliest dated anthology of Sanskrit verse, the
Subhaṣitaratnakoṣa, was compiled by Vidyakara at Jaggadala toward the end of the
11th century or the beginning of the 12th.
In 1999 Jaggadala was submitted as a tentative site for inclusion on the list of
UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Odantapuri University:
Odantapuri was a Buddhist Mahavihara in what is
now Bihar, India. It was established by the Pala
Emperor Gopala I in the 8th century.
Ancient Odantapuri University Ruins located on
Hiranya Prabat in Bihar sarif is also known as
odantpura vihar or odantapuri Buddhist mahavira.
Founded in the 8th century by emperor Gopala of
Pala Dynasty, it flourished for 400 years till the 12th century.
It was basically one of the sixth universities in ancient India established primarily for
the purpose of propagating Buddhist learning and teachings.
Apart from this, It is also regarded as the second oldest university after Nalanda
established in ancient times.
According to Tibetan books, there were 12000 students at odantpuri. Acharya Sri
Ganga who used to be a professor at the Vikramashila University was a graduate of
this Odantapuri University and regarded as one of the famous alumni of this
university.
Pushpagiri University:
It was established in 3rd century and flourished
for the next 800 years till 11th century. The
university campus was spread across three
adjoining hills – Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and
Udayagiri.
Pushpagiri University was established in ancient
Kalinga kingdom (modern day Odisha) and was
spread across Cuttack and Jajpur districts.
This was one of the most prominent centers of higher education in ancient .
The Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited this university in 639 CE.
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Lalitgiri is said to have been commissioned by early 2nd century BCE itself and is the
oldest Buddhist establishments in the world.
Contained several stupas, monasteries, temples, and sculptures in the architectural
style of the Gupta period. The architectural remnants found in Lalitgiri remind one
of the Gandhar & Mathura craftsmanship.
Recently a few images of Emperor Ashoka have been discovered here, and it has
been suggested that the Pushpagiri University was established by Emperor Ashoka
himself.
One could observe the evolution of Buddhism from the Theravada sect with its austere
and plain worship of a stupa to the growth of Mahayana and Vajrayana
(tantric) sects with their elaborate pantheon of Bodhisattvas and other deities.
The Buddhist treasures unearthed from here also include a large number of gold &
silver articles, a stone container, earthen pot and traces of Kushana dynasty and
Brahmi script. A massive image of the Buddha is a unique find; the image has
pursed lips, long ears, and wide forehead.
Iconographic analysis indicates that Lalitgiri had already been established during the
Sunga period of the 2nd century BC.
The main stupa at Lalitgiri is 15 meter in diameter and is constructed in Sanchi style.
Telhara University:
Ruins of Telhara University were found in January 2014 during excavation of a 45-
foot high mound.
Telhara is a village in the Nalanda district of Bihar.
the Telhara University is older than fourth century’s Nalanda University and
seventh century’s Vikramshila University.
Archaeologists placed the Telhara University back to first century AD to Kushan
Empire. It is said the university was built by one of the descendents of Magadha
ruler Bimbisara.
Chinese traveller Heuen Tsang visited Telhara in the 7th century AD and he
describes Telhara or Tilas-akiya as containing a number of monasteries or viharas
accommodating about 1,000 monks studying in Mahayan.
Nalanda and Vikramshila University were set on fire by Turkish Muslim army under
Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193. During the excavation work, the team members stumbled
upon a 1.5-foot-thick layer of ash, suggesting that Telhara University was also
burnt by Khilji on his way.
Destruction and Revival:
For instance, the Munshiganj Vihara discovered as recently as March 23, 2013 in
Bengal is said to have been established in 9th century and was home to 8000
students who came from faraway places like China, Tibet, Nepal and Thailand.
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The universities like Nalanda, Vikramashila etc were

destroyed around this period during the
Muslim invasion of India by the fanatic Bakhtiyar
Khilji from Turkey in 1193 CE.
Dharmapala of Pala dynasty alone is said to have
established 50 mega learning centers across his
kingdom, and they have been as huge and as
popular as the ones mentioned above.
After APJ Abdul Kalam mooted the idea of Nalanda University’s revival in 2006, the
school woke up from its long slumber. With the cooperation of the government
of Bihar and the Government of India, 450 acres of land were identified for a new
structure in Rajgir to come up around Nalanda’s remains.
According to DC Ahir, the destruction of these centres of learning at Nalanda and
other places across northern India was responsible for the demise of ancient Indian
scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.
In 2010, the parliament of India passed a bill approving the plans to restore the ancient
Nalanda University as a modern Nalanda International University dedicated for
post-graduate research.
Many East Asian countries including China, Singapore, and Japan have come
forward to fund the construction of this revived Nalanda University.
In September 2017, the Indian central government started to consider a proposal to
revive the ancient university of Valabhi.
Questionary:
Define any four university of ancient India.
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Chapter: 26
Fairs and Festivals India
Fairs and Festivals:

India is a land of Festivals and celebrations.
Indian diversity is well manifested in its fairs and
festivals.
Festivals in India can be categorised according to
Culture, region, religion or states.
During festivals their celebrations reflects vigour
and enthusiasm of people and communities.
Festivals bring fresh air to the life of people,
refresh their routines, charge them and keep the life moving towards its goals.
Andhra Pradesh:
Ugadi:New Year's Day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra
Deccan festival: Celebrated in Hyderabad for 5 days. Deccan festival is an exclusive
festival sponsored by the Andhra Pradesh Department of Tourism in the month of
February.
Lumbini festival:
The Lumbini Festival in Andhra Pradesh is celebrated every year to relive the
Heritage of Buddhism in the state. It celebrated in Nagarjunasagar.
Rayalaseema Food and Dance festival:
Celebrated every year in the month of October. The main aim of the festival is to
honor and celebrate the flourishing and exquisite art and cuisine of Rayalaseema.
Visakha Utsavam:
Visakha Utsav is a tourism event . Main aim of the utsav is to promote the culture,
arts, crafts, music and dance of Andhra Pradesh.
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Sankranti:
Sankranti is commenced from the beginning of "Dhanurmasam'. The celebrations last
for 3 to 4 days; the first day is Bhogi, the second day being Sankranti and the third
day as Kanuma. The fourth day, "Mukkanuma.
Other festivals are :

Pitr-Paksha- Mahalaya Amavasya, Noopuraraavam , Bhishma Ekadasi, Sri Rama
Navami Festival, Vinayaka Chaturthi, Durga Festival, Nagula Chavithi, Var Laxmi,
Toli Ekadashi.
Telangana:

Bonalu:
o Bonalu is folk festival, which is very famous in
the Telangana region. The word "Bonalu" is
derived from "Bhojanalu" meaning food, which is
offered to the Goddess.
o It is celebrated during the month of 'Ashadh'. This
one-month long festival is marked by devotional
singing and ritualistic worship to the village deities
"Yellamma", "Mahankali", "Maisamma",
"Pochamma", and "Gundamma". Other festivals are :
o A typical feature of the Bonalu festival are the `Ghatams' or decorated pots filled
with flowers, which are carried on the heads by the women folk in a procession.
o Eruvaka is a festival, which is especially celebrated by the farmers of coastal areas
of Andhra Pradesh. It is celebrated on 'Eruvaka Purnima', which falls either in May
or in the early part of the June when farmers embellish their cattle and implements,
sow samples of seed called "Navadhanya" and pray for good harvest.
Batakamma:
Batakamma is a special festival celebrated with
religious fervour in the Telangana region.
Batakamma means 'immortal woman'. It is a month
long festival where Goddess Batakamma's idol is
worshipped and is made to float on the rivers and
lakes. Basically, this is a floral festival. It falls on
'Asvija Shuddha Dasami' (September -October).
Kodi pandaalu:
Kodi Pandaalu or Cock fighting as it is popularly known, is a rural sport that involves
betting on the fight between two cocks.
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
ASSAM:
Bihu:
o Bihu is the most important non-religious festival. People of this state observe it
every year irrespective of their class and caste.
o The Bihus are the national festivals of Assam. There are three such festivals in
Assam: in the months of 'Bohaag' or Baishagu ('Baisakh', the middle of April),
'Maagh' (the middle of January), and 'Kaati' ('Kartik', the middle of October). Each
Bihu coincides with a distinctive phase in the farming calendar.
Ali-Al-Lvigang :
The spring descends to rejuvenate life again. Mishing tribe celebrates it on the first
Wednesday (Lvigang Lange) of the month of 'Ginmur Polo' (February - March).
Ali means root, seed; 'Ali' means fruit and 'Lvigang' means sow that is why
ceremonial sowing of paddy starts on this day.
The Baikho or the springtime festival is only celebrated as "Khoksi Puja" to propitiate
the goddess of wealth, 'Baikho'. But unfortunately the pomp and grandeur of
Baikho are not to be seen now a day in the villages.
Karam Pooja :
Celebrated by tea tribes with a view of propitiating Mother Godess.
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Dehing Patkai Festival:
Held during the month of January, in the district of Tinsukia, the festival is organized
by the Government of Assam itself. The state hosts a wide variety of cultural and
adventure sports like Kayaking, Parasaiwing, and wike angwing.
Majuli Festival:
Shaped by the mighty Brahmaputra, the Majuli Island rests in the arms of the
vivacious river. River Luit becomes the host of the festival with preparations of the
customaries taking place at its bank.
Ambubashi Festival:
Hosted in the Kamakhya Devi temple in Guwahati, the Ambubashi Mela is organised
during the monsoon season, every year.
Others:
Heleibambe, Khong Kepang Kennyu,Nyada,Pi-Pe, Rajni Gabra & Harni Gabra,
Rongker And Chomangkan, Siami, Dosa Thoi! Long Nai, Bash Puja.

Arunachal Pradesh:
Losar Festival
The Losar festival of the Monpas, which is their New Year, is celebrated for
duration of 8 to 15 days. On the eve of the festival people clean out their homes to
usher in the New Year and to discard the old. The dirt and the grit of the old year
are considered to symbolise ill health.
Reh Festival:
Appeasement of the deities who control the peace and prosperity of the people is the
thought behind the six-day celebrations of the Reh festival, essentially associated
with the Idu Mishmis. The festival comes to an end with great fanfare and the
priest dance performed during the six days is its special attraction.
Ojiyale:
The Wanhos celebrate their most popular festival, Ojiyale during March-April, for a
period of six to twelve days interspersed with prayer, song and dance. Villagers
exchange bamboo tubes of rice beers a mark of greeting and good will. Pig's skin is
offered to the village chief as a mark of respect.
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Tamladu:
o Another important festival is Tamladu, essentially celebrated by the Digaru
Mishmis tribe. During the festival, prayers are offered to the God of Earth and the
God of Water for protection against natural calamities. The supreme - Lord
Jebmalu, is worshipped and welfare of human beings, the standing crops and
domestic animals.
Sangken Festival:
o Sangken festival is an occasion to bathe the images of Lord Buddha ceremoniously.
This also heralds the New Year and people sprinkle water on each other as a sign
of merriment. One of the groups celebrates Mopin for wealth, prosperity, good
health and universal happiness. Smearing of rice powder on each other's faces
marks the beginning of the festival, which is celebrated for five days.
Khan Festival:
The Khan festival is an occasion for the reunion of the people. Besides the usual
festivities, the significance of the festival lies in the ceremony whereby the priest
ties a piece of wool around everybody's neck. The belief is that the enchanted
thread will bring good luck to each of them.
Mol Festival :
The Mol festival of the Tangs as is also celebrated for three days to welcome the New
Year.
Nyokum:
Celebrated by Nyshi tribe. All god and goddess of universe are worshipped especially
the Godess of Nyokum.
o Others: "Solung", "Mopin", "Boori Boot", "Dree", "Nechi Dau", "Khan", "Kshyat-
Sowai", "Loku", "Longte Yullo", "Nyokum",, "Si-Donyi“.
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 Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

 Island tourism festival:
o (Months: December - January) This fortnight long festival organized by
the Andaman & Nicobar Administration every year during the months of
December - January, is the main festival of the islands. The festival comprises an
exhibition, cultural programmes, competitions, etc.
Government agencies and private entrepreneurs from the islands and mainland India
also attend the exhibition organized during the festival.
The exhibition highlights the developmental aspects of these islands. Cultural troupes
and artistes of national and international fame are invited to perform during the
festival apart from performances by the talents of the islands including tribals. The
festival projects the image of the islands as an eco friendly tourist destination.
SUBHASH MELA:
(Month: January ) Subhash mela is organised in Havelock Island every year on the
birth anniversary of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. It’s a weeklong festival filled
with cultural programmes.
VIVEKANANDA MELA:
(Month : January) Vivekananda Mela is organised at Neil Island to celebrate the
birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda.
Bihar:
Chaat Festival:
Observed mostly by the people of North Bihar, it is dedicated to the worship of the
Sun God and therefore, is also known as ‘SuryaShashti’.
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Chhath is considered to be a means to thank the Sun for bestowing the bounties of life
on earth, as also for fulfilling particular wishes.
Rajgir Dance Festival:

The colourful festival of dance and music, Rajgir Dance Festival is held at Rajgir, the
ancient capital of the Magadha kings. Department of Tourism, Bihar organises
every year, this vibrant festival of classical and folk dances at Rajgir - the land
where the Buddha meditated and preached.
Sama Chakeva:
During the winter when the birds migrate from the Himalayas towards the plains, the
celebration of Sama-Chakeva takes place.
Shravani Mela:
This festival or rather Mela is observed every during the month of Shravan (July-
August). It is an important month-long ritual which is held along a 108 km long
route linking towns of Deogarh and Sultanganj.
Sonepur Cattle Fair:
This fair of Bihar has its root in ancient mythology and folklore. The Sonepur
Cattle fair is the Asia’s largest cattle fair which takes place in the town of Sonepur
in Bihar.
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Bihula:
The Bihula festival is mainly prominent in the Bhagalpur district of Bihar. This
festival is rather famous in the Eastern Bihar and has various myths associated
with it. People pray to the Goddess Mansa to protect their families. This festival is
held during the month of August each year. The festival celebrates the brilliant
Manjusha Art (They are temple-shaped boxes comprising eight pillars).
Others:
Saraswati Puja around Jan-Feb; Teej in August; Diwali in Nov; Chhath Puja in Nov.

Gujarat:
Navratri:
o Navratri festival is the most dynamic festivals in
Gujarat and other parts of India. Navratri, meaning
'nine nights', is an ancient and colourful festival. It
honors the one divine 'Shakti' or Force, which supports
the entire universe, and is personified as the Mother
Goddess. People do Durga Pooja, and enjoy with
music and play dandiya and Garba.
Kutch Utsav (Rann Utsav):
To promote Kachchh as a destination, TCGL (Tourism
Corporation of Gujarat Ltd.) offers the Rann Utsav, a desert
festival which is a jamboree of folk dances, music concerts,
'sindhi bhajans', Kachchhi food festivals and stalls selling and
demonstrating the various beautiful craft of Kachchhi like
embroidery, 'bandhini' (tie-and-dye), black-printed fabrics,
leather embroideries, wood carving, silver, metal ware and
shell craft.
Rath Yatra:
It is said in the Bhagvath Purana that Kansa had sent
Akrur to Gokul for bringing Sri Krishna to Mathura.
As Krishna had left with his brother Balram by a
chariot leaving behind the Gopis and Gopals weeping,
the day is celebrated in remembrance of this most
touching separation and farewell. Every year, the idols
of Lord Krishna, Balaram and Subhadra from
Jagannath Mandir are traditionally installed on huge chariots. Devotees pull the
chariots in a 'yatra' (procession) through the streets.
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International Kite Festival:
International Kite Festival is held at Ahmedabad on
Makar Sankranti is a festival that heralds a change of

season marking the movement of the sun into the
northern hemisphere - a celebration to mark the end of
winter.
Others are Bhadra Purnima, Dance Festival Modhera etc.

Haryana Festivals:
Guga Navami:
o Guga is supposed to be the greatest of the snake-kings. He is worshipped
throughout the district in the Hindu month of Bhadon, corresponding with the
month of August. His shrine known as 'Mari' is a cubical building with a minaret
on each corner and a grave inside.
Teej:
It is celebrated to welcome 'Sawan' or the rainy season, Monsoon. After first showers
of Sawan, a small red insect called 'Teej' in Haryana comes out from soil. Swings
are set up in the open courtyards. Girls apply henna on their hands and feet and are
excused from household chores on this day.
Every year, the birth of Srimad Bhagwad Gita is celebrated as the Gita Jayanti. A visit
to Kurukshetra during the festival is a spiritually elevating experience. The
environment of the town is immersed in sanctity.
The Festival of Gardens:

The Festival of Gardens, a three-day celebration, which is organised in the last week
of February, is also on the national calendar of festivals. Earlier, it was known as
Rose Festival and intended to encourage people to walk through the Rose Garden
and enjoy the beauty of roses.
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
Himachal Pradesh Festivals:
Baisakhi:
o Baisakhi is one of Himachal's most important festivals. Rooted in the rural agrarian
tradition, it bids a final farewell to winter. People take purifying dips in the water,
numerous village fairs complete with wrestling, dancing and archery are also held
on this day.
Lohri:
Winter chill outdoors contrasts well with the warmth of the fireplace indoors.
Festivities take a head start with Lohri celebrations when people, young and old,
volunteer to sing folk songs by the side of bonfire at night. Rest of them join
dance sequences to the tunes of occasional crackling sound of blazing fire.
Halda:
Halda is a popular festival of Lahaul valley and serves as an inclination of the New
Year. It is celebrated sometime in the month of January, the exact date being
decided by the Lamas. A private celebration among the Lahauli people, the
festivities are dedicated to "Shiskar Apa", the Goddess of wealth in the legalistic
pantheon.
Losar(Famous Tibetan New Year):

This festival is celebrated for the welcome of the winter season. The local deity is
worshipped with the hope that the winter would be happy and prosperous for the
local people.
More traditionally, over two hundred deities converge on Kullu for its unusual
Dussehra Celebrations. They pay homage to Lord Raghunathji while Music
and colour fill the "Silver Valley".
Phaulaich:
It is a locally called "Ookayand" of 'Ukyam", a combination of two words 'Oo' and
'Kayang'. 'U'-stands for flowers and 'Kayang' for festival - festival of flowers - to
see flowers. This festival is celebrated throughout Kinnaur district.
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
Jammu and Kashmir:
Ladakh:
o An ancient tradition started by the kings of Ladakh , Docmoche is celebrated every
year in February with great pomp and fervour. The courtyard of the chapel below
the gates of the Leh of the Leh Palace comes alive with the music of drums and the
thumping steps of the masked Lamas from different monasteries performing the
sacred dance-drama.
GALDAN NAMCHOT: Tsongkhap's Birthday And Buddhahood

o This socio-religious event is celebrated to observe the birthday and the
Buddhahood of Tsongkhapa- the Tibetan saint-scholar who founded the Gelukpa
school of Tibetan Buddhism during the 14th century. The Gelukpa School later
developed as the dominant monastic order in Central Tibet. Namchaot heralds the
beginning of the New Year celebrations, which continue till the festival of
Dosmoche.
PHYANG TSEDUP : Pilgrimage To The Thangka
Phyang is one of the two Dringungpa Monasteries in Ladakh. This monastery 17-km
west of Leh, holds its festival in July/august. Like other monastic festivals, sacred
dance-dramas or 'chhams' form the core of this festival.
YURU KABGYAT:
o This 2-day festival is celebrated during July, in the spectacularly situated
monastery of Lamayuru, about 127-km west of Leh.
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Kerala Festivals:
Onam - The National Festival of Kerala:
A legend of Onam is about the sweet memories of distant past when Mahabali, a
celebrated emperor of the Asuras (demons) was supposed have ruled over Kerala.
His period is believed as the golden age in the history of the country. A popular
folk song narrates the glories of that period.
Vishu:
Among the various Hindu festivals in Kerala, Vishu occupies a unique position in
more than one respect. As symbol of the unostentatious Keralite, Vishu is free from
the usual pomp and show and merry-making associated with other festivities. The
first day of the Malayalam month of medam is the unchangeable day of Vishu,
whereas other festivals are determined according to the lunar asterisms on which
they fall.
Miladi Sherif :
Muslims all over the world celebrate the birth of the Prophet in various ways. In
Kerala the practice of large scale celebration of the Prophet's birthday is of recent
origin.
Thiruvathira:
The Thiruvathira festival falls on the asterism Thiruvathira in the Malayalam month of
Dhanu (December-January). The Ardra Darshan celebrated in Tamil Nadu
corresponds to Thiruvathira of Kerala. It is considered to be high auspicious to
worship Siva and the devotees go to the temple before sunrise for 'darshan'.
Aaranmula Boat Race:
It is staged each year in the scenic village of Aaranmula in August/ September. This
river carnival is part of the Aaranmula Temple festival. Masses throng the shores of
the River Pamba to watch an imposing cluster of snake boats called
'Palliyodams‘.
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Nehru Trophy Boat Race:
It is the most famous of the boat races of Kerala. This annual regatta is held on the
Punnamada Backwaters of Alappuzha district on the second Saturday of August.
The famous Ayyappa temple at Aarattupuzha is just 14 kms from Thrissur, and
celebrates its annual pooram festival during March. The final pooram is conducted
with sixty one caparisoned elephants bearing bright coloured umbrellas and
parasols, presenting an unparalleled spectacle.
Jagannatha Festival:
o Jagannatha Festival is a colourful eight-day festival, which is held in the
Malayalam month of Kumbham (February/ March) at the Jagannatha Temple at
Madathiparambu.
The Oachira Temple:

It is the venue of the famous Oachirakkali (Oachira dance) held in June, a sort of
ancient choreographed mock battle. Unlike other temples, there is no shrine or idol
at the oachira temple, located nearly 32 kms from Kollam.
EDATHUA PERUNAL:
Situated on the banks of the Pamba river, this massive
shrine at Edathua- 23 kms south-east of Alappuzha,
resembles the churches of medieval Europe. During
the feast, the statue of St. George, decked in gold
regalia, is carried out and placed on the dais in the
centre of the basilica.
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Art and Culture
Easter:
which falls in April is a major religious festival for the Christians in Kerala. This
solemn celebration of the resurrection of Christ is undertaken with religious
fervour by Christians of all sects. Unlike Christmas with its festive mood, Easter
has a ritualistic sobriety.
'Machattuvela':
'Machattuvela' also known as 'Machattu Mamangam', is
celebrated with great pomp, pageantry and splendour on
the last day of the five-day annual festival at Machattu
Thiruvanikavu Temple near Vadakkancherry, Thrissur
Sabarimala Temple festival:
The Sabarimala Temple festival is celebrated in honour of
Lord Ayyapa who is revered by all in India. Sabarimala
is a renowned pilgrim centre atop the rugged hills of the
Western Ghats. This holy shrine is dedicated to Lord
Ayappa. The main pilgrimage is undertaken between
November and January.

Maharashtra Festivals:
Ashadhi Ekadashi:
o Ashadhi Ekadashi is more of a religious procession
festival and is celebrated during the months of June-
July (Aashaadh Shukla paksha). The eleventh day
(bright) of Ashadh is known as the great Ekadashi or
Mahaekadashi. This day Vishnu falls asleep to wake
up four months later on Prabodhini Ekadashi in the
Kartik month. This period is known as Chaturmas and
coincides with the rainy season.
Ganesh Chaturthi
Ganesh Chaturthi is one of the most popular of Hindu
festivals. This is the birthday of Lord Ganesha and is
known as the day most sacred to Lord Ganesha.
Ganga Dashahara:
Ganga Dashahara dedicated to honour the river Ganges. People believe that by bathing
in the Ganga sins are washed away. So, the first ten days of the month Jyeshth
(May-June), they celebrate it.
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Art and Culture
Gudhi Padwa:
Gudhi Padwa heralds the advent of a prosperous new year and is considered as one of
the most auspicious days by Hindus. With this day begins the new season, the
spring.
The Elephanta Festival:
It is a festival of Music and Dance organised by the
Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation
(MTDC). This festival is held annually in the month of
February. The Elephanta Island, the tranquil abode of
Lord Shiva, just one-and-a-half-hour's journey by
motor launch from Mumbai is the favoured destination
for this festival.
Palkhi:
Palkhi, a unique feature of Maharashtrian culture, is a 1000-year-old tradition
followed by the warkaris (people who follow the wari, a fundamental ritual).
People collectively go singing and dancing, chanting Dnyanba-Tukaram in what
are called as Dindis (organised group of warkaris) to the holy town of Pandharpur
in Hindu months of Ashadh (June-July) and Karthik (November-December).
Nag Pancahmi:
Nag Pancahmi is marked as worship of snakes. In Hindu mythology, the cobra has a
special significance and the earth, it is believed, rests on the head of 'Shesha' - the
thousand-hooded cobra. It is a festival in the honour of the Snake God, Shesha
Nag.
The full moon day of the month of Shravan is celebrated with characteristic fervour in
different parts of Maharashtra and is known variously as Narali Pournima,
Shravani Pournima, Rakhi Pournima or Raksha Bandhan. 'Naral' means 'coconut',
and Narali Pournima is thus called because people make offerings of coconuts to
the sea-god on this day.
ORISSA Festivals: o
Ashokashtami:
o Ashokashtami is the car-festival of Lord Shiva celebrated with great enthusiasm at
Bhubaneswar and is considered to be the most important festival of Lord Lingaraj.
On the eighth day of the month of Chaitra the representative deity of Lingaraj Sri
Chandrasekhara is drawn on a car from near the temple to the temple of
Rameswara.
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Art and Culture
Dhanu Yatra:
Dhanu Yatra relating to the episode of Lord Krishna's visit to Mathura to witness the
ceremony of 'Bow' organised by 'Kansa' as described in the "Bhagawat Purana" is
colourfully observed at Baragarh in Sambalpur district. The town of Baragarh
becomes Mathura.
Hingula Yatra or "Patua Yatra“:
Most of the festivals prevalent among the low-caste Hindus are either associated with
the worship of 'Shakti' or Shiva It is believed to have grown out of the mass
religious culture of the people under the spell of Tantrism in the remote past.
Karama festival:
The "Karma" or "Karama festival" is widely prevalent among the tribal people of
Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, Bolangir, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar. The low-
caste Hindus of the areas also observe it. The aboriginal people of Bihar and
Madaya Pradesh also observe this festival.
Kedu:
Kedu is the most important festival of the 'Kondhs' of Phulbani, where they are largely
concentrated. They are also found in certain areas of the districts of Ganjam and
Koraput. The festival is held in different villages in different years.
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The most important festival of the 'Ho', 'Oraon', 'Kisan' and 'Kol' tribes is known as
Magha Parab, which is a harvest festival. The festival is observed in honour of the
village deity, Mother Goddess who bestows them with good fortune and protects
them from calamities.
o The most important festival of western Orissa comprising the districts of
Sambalpur, Bolangir, Sundargarh, Kalahandi and some areas of Phulbani, is
"Nuakhia". Generally it takes place in the bright half of the month of 'Bhadrab' or
'Bhadra' on an auspicious day fixed by the astrologers. Most of the houses are
cleaned, neatly plastered and decorated by the housewives. On this occasion old
and young, all wear new clothes.
Orissa is a land of innumerable fairs and festivals celebrated round the year but the
most spectacular of them is the Rath Yatra, hitherto known as the Car Festival to
western world.
The 'Amavasya' (last day of the dark fortnight) in the month of 'Jyestha' is known as
"Savitri Amavasya" or "Savitri Brata". This day is most auspicious for the married
Hindu women with husbands alive. They observe it as a vow with great devotion
and pray for the long life of their husbands.
TamilNadu Festivals:
Pongal:
Pongal is an important festival of Tamil Nadu, which
is celebrated to mark the withdrawal of the
Southeast monsoons as well as the reaping of the
harvest. It falls in the month Thai and is strictly a
rural festival.
Thaipusam:
Thaipusam is a festival from Tamil Nadu associated with penance and atonement.
Thaipusam is the feast for the son of Shiva, Lord Subramanya. Celebrations of this
festival are carried out at almost all the temples of Lord Subramanya.
The Natyanjali festival:
o The Natyanjali festival dedicated to the Cosmic
Dancer (Lord Shiva) is celebrated every year
during February-March in Chidambaram. Lord
Nataraja, according to Hindu mythology is the
cosmic dancer. He is also called "the Lord of
Dances".
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The Chithirai festival:

o The Chithirai festival is held in the Madurai
temple. The festivity starts from the Tamil month
Chithirai (April-May) and ends on the tenth day.
The celebration is filled with pomp and festivity.

Sikkim Festivals:
Saga dava:
o On this day in different years of his life, Lord Buddha took birth, achieved
enlightenment and attained nirvana. These three important events are celebrated in
this festival. A procession carries the holy books of the teachings of Buddha from
the Tsuklakhang monastery.
Lhabab Dhuechin:
The festival symbolises the descent of Lord Buddha from the heaven. Lha - means
"Heaven" ; Bab - means "Descent.“
Drupka teshi:
Falls on the fourth day of the sixth Tibetan month, around august, celebrates Buddha's
first preaching of the four "Noble Truths" to his first five disciples in deer park at
Sarnath.
Phang lhabsol:
Popularised by the third Chogyal of Sikkim, Chakdor Namgyal, the snowy range of
Kanchendzonga is worshipped for its unifying powers. This festival marks the
signing of the treaty of brotherhood between the Lepchas and Bhutias by "Kye
Bhumsa" and "Thekong Tek".
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Losoong:
The famous Bhutia festival marks the end of the harvest season and also the end of the
Tibetan year. Chaam dancings at the monasteries at Palace (Tsuklakhang),
Phodong and Rumtek, archery competitions and other festivities mark the
occasion. The dances symbolise the exorcizing the evil spirits of the year and the
welcoming of the good spirits of the New Year.
Dasain:
More or less occurring a few weeks before Losoong, Dasain is the main festival of
the Hindu Nepalese in Sikkim. This too signifies the victory of good over evil. The
elders of the family apply 'Tika' on the young and bless them.
Bumchu:
Bum - means "Pot or Vase" Chu - means "water" , Bumchu is celebrated at Tashiding
in the month of January-February. During this festival, the lamas of the monastery
open the pot containing the holy water. The level of water in the pot foretells the
future for the forthcoming year. If the water is to the brim, it prophesises bloodshed
and disturbances; if the pot is almost dry it signifies famine and if it is half full, it
foretells a year in which peace and prosperity will prevail.
Tihaar:
Corresponding to the Indian festival of Diwali, Tihaar is also celebrated as the festival
of lights in Sikkim with the lighting of lamps accompanied with traditional
caroling called "Deusi" and "Bhailo".
Tendong lho rum faat:
Specific to the Lepchas, this festival marks the celebration of the Tendong hill.
According to legend, the hill had risen like a horn during a great flood to save the
Lepchas.
Meghalaya Festivals:
Garo Hills

Wangala:
o Wangala or Dance of Hundred Drum festival is an
important event of the Garos. This festival marks
the end of a period of toil, heralding a yield of good
harvest. It is performed in honour of 'Satyong', the
God of fertility. People, young and old dressed in
their in their colourful costumes and feathered head
dress, dance to the beat of long cylindrical drums.
Held annually in November, the festival may last for a week.
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Art and Culture
Doregata Dance:
Doregata Dance festival is another interesting dance where, while dancing the women
try to knock off the turbans of their male partner using their head. If the women
succeed, it is followed by peals of laughter.
Chambil Mesara Or Pomelo Dance:
The Chambil Mesara or Pomelo Dance is a solo dance-form, which requires skill. The
performer dangles a 'Pomelo' on a cord tied to his waist and then hurls it around
without any perceptible movement of the hips. Expert dancers can hurl two
separate fruits hung on a cord.
Khasi Hills
Nongkrem Dance:
o Nongkrem Dance is a religious festival in
thanksgiving to God Almighty for good harvest,
peace and prosperity of the community. It is held
annually during October/ November, at Smit, the
capital of the Khyrim Syiemship near Shillong.
o An important feature of the festival is the
'Pomblang' or goat sacrifice offered by the
subjects to the 'Syiem' of Khyrim, the administrative head of the Hima (Khasi
State). "Ka Syiem Sad", the eldest sister of the king is the chief priest and caretaker
of all ceremonies. The festival is conducted along with the 'Myntries' (Ministers),
priests and high priest where offerings are made to ancestors of the ruling clan and
the deity of Shillong.
Shad Suk Mynsiem:
One of the most important festivals of the Khasis is "Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem" or Dance
of the joyful heart. It is an annual thanksgiving dance held in Shillong in April.
Men and women, dressed in traditional fineries dance to the accompaniment of
drums and the flute. The festival lasts for three days.
Manipur Festivals:
Yaoshang (Holi)- Festival Of Manipur Hindus:
o Celebrated for five days commencing from the full moon day of Phalguna
(February/March), Yaoshang is the premier festival of Manipur. The Thabal
Chongba - a kind of Manipuri folk dance, where boys and girls hold hands together
and sings and dance in a circle, is particularly associated with this festival.
Yaoshang to Manipur is what Durga Puja is to Bengal, Diwali in north India and
Bihu to Assam.
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Kut-Festival Of Kuki-Chin-Mizo:
It is an autumn festival of the different tribes of Kuki-Chin-Mizo groups of Manipur.
The festival has been variously described at different places amongst different
tribes as Chavang Kut or Khodou etc. It is a happy occasion for the villagers whose
food stock is bountiful after a year of hard labour. It is observed on the 1st
November every year.
Gang-Ngai-Festival Of Kabui Nagas:
Celebrated for five days in the month of December/January, aGang-Ngai is an
important festival of the Kabui Nagas. The festival opens with the omen taking
ceremony on the first day and the rest of the days are associated with common
feast, dances of old men women and of boys and girls, presentation of farewell
gifts etc.
Chumpha:
Chumpha is the festival of Tangkhul Nagas and is celebrated for seven days in the
month of December. The festival is held after harvest and the last three days are
devoted to social gatherings, religious rituals and rejoicings. Unlike other festivals,
women play an exceptional role in the festival.
Cheiraoba- The Manipur New Year:
During the festival special festive dishes are prepared which are first offered to
various deities. Celebrated during the month of April, a part of the ritual entails
villagers climbing the nearest hill tops in belief that it will enable them to rise to
greater heights in their worldly life.
Kang - The Rath Yatra Of Manipur:
One of the greatest festivals of the Hindus of Manipur, athis
festival is celebrated for ten days in the month of July.
Lord Jagannath leaves his temple in a car known as
‘Kang’ in Manipur pulled by devotees who vie with one
another for this honour.
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Lui-Ngai-Ni:
It is a collective festival of the Nagas observed on the 15th day of February every
year. This is a seed-sowing festival after which tribes belonging to the Naga group
begin their cultivation. Social-gathering, songs, dances and rejoicing highlight the
festivity. The annual festival also plays a great role in boosting the moral and
strengthening the bond of Naga solidarity.
Lai-Haraoba:
Lai-Haraoba is a Manipur temple festival, celebrated
to worship the sylvan deities known as Umang Lai.
This festival represents the worship of traditional
deities and ancestors. A number of dances by both
men and women are performed before the primeval
divinities. The Lai Haraoba of God-Thangjing is the
ruling deity of Moirang and his worshipping
festivals attract huge gatherings.

Mizoram Festivals:
Chap-char Kut:
o There are, in connection with the plantation of crops,
three types of feasts called Chap-char Kut, Mim Kut
and Pawl Kut. Chap-char Kut is the most significant
spring festival held in between the cutting of junges
and burning of jhums which is usually done in the last
part of February and first part of March every year.
o This festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm and
splendor. The meaning of the Chap-char Kut is cutting down of bamboo tree or
other jungle tress and waiting for burning for jhum. The general belief of the Mizos
behind the celebration of this festival is that it would yield a good harvest in their
field.
Pawl Kut:
The next festival Pawl Kut is celebrated during the month
of September to January when rice harvest is almost
reaped. This festival is also celebrated with much
enjoyment and feasting. This festival is mainly for the
children. The following festival Min Kut is held
during the month of August to September when the
maize harvest is reaped. This festival is also
celebrated with much pomp and fun. They mainly consume rice-beer during the
celebration.
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Anthurium:
Anthurium Festival, MizoramAnthurium Festival is an
Indian regional festival organised by the Tourism
Department of the Government of Mizoram. It is a three
day-long cultural event in Mizoram.
This culturally rich state of North East India organizes this
festival every year to promote tourism in the state and
also encourage Anthurium cultivation in Mizoram. This
is made to mirror the tribal culture of Mizoram.
Thalfavang Kut:
It is one of the most colourful festivals of Mizoram which
is celebrated by the farmers. It is usually celebrated
when the farmers have completed weeding the field.
Nagaland Festivals:
Moatsu:
This festival is celebrated with much pomp and show by
the Ao tribe in the state of Nagaland in the first week
of May every year and is one of the most famous
festivals of Nagaland. During this festival the rites and
rituals are performed by the Nagas with much
veneration. After the sowing is over the Nagas observe
Moatsu Song with great excitement and vigor.
Tsungrem Mong:
Tsungrem Mong, one of the cherished festivals of Nagaland is a much-awaited festival
of the Ao tribe and is observed in the month of August according to the English
calendar, just after the millet has been sown. This is one of the special thanksgiving
festivals of Nagaland and is also regarded as a prayer for a copious yield of crops.
Nazu:
This grand festival is celebrated by the Pochury tribe of Nagaland with much
enthusiasm. It is reckoned as one of the most important festivals of Nagaland. It is
indeed a gala event and is observed for a span of ten days at a stretch with much
glitter and gaiety. The dancers adorn themselves with vibrant colored attires and
glittering accessories. The harmonious movements of hands and legs along with
the songs of different tunes and beats are especially noticeable in the dance form
displayed by them.
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Bushu:
Bushu is actually a post harvest festival and is celebrated by the Kachari tribe
belonging to Nagaland in the month of January according to the English calendar.
This grand festival can be distinctly categorized into three different varieties
namely, 'Hangsho', 'Surem' and 'Jidep Jiba'. A feast of rice and meat followed by
other social activities characterizes this grand festival. Competitions, traditional
sports and other cultural activities are also held during the festive celebrations.
Sekrenyi:
This is one of the most important festivals of Nagaland celebrated in the month of
February by the Angamis tribe. This festival, also known as Phousyni by the
Angamis is celebrated for a span of ten days. The religious rites and rituals are
observed by the tribe with much veneration. The best part of the festival is the
Thekra Hie where the youth of the village accumulate and sing traditional songs
throughout the day.
Tuluni:
This is one of the most important festivals of the Sumi Nagas in the state of Nagaland.
This grand festival is celebrated during the second week of July, which is also
regarded as a season of bounty in the state. Rice beer is served in a goblet made
with the leaf of plantain. During this festival the young engaged couples exchange
basketful of gifts. It is also a time of unrestrained merriment for the baby-sitters.
Yemshe:
This grand festival celebrated by the Pochury tribe of Nagaland in the month of
October is indeed a time of festivity. The arrival of the new harvest is welcomed
with much exuberance and ebullience during this festival.
Hornbill:
This festival is organized by the Government of Nagaland and is celebrated grandly in
Kohima every year between the first and the fifth days in the month of December.
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This is one of the colorful festivals of Nagaland and it mainly aims at protecting and
sustaining the richness of the Naga heritage and traditions. Another aim of this
festival is to have all the tribes of the state assimilate in a common get together to
reflect the true secular spirit of the state. Traditional arts like paintings,
woodcarvings and sculptures are also featured in this festival.

Tripura Festivals
Kharchi Puja:
o This is one of the most important festivals of Tripura
and is basically celebrated by the tribal and non-tribal
groups with equal joy and excitement. The term 'khya'
signifies earth, so the festival of Kharchi Puja means
the worship of the Earth, which sustains life with all
her resources. It is observed in the month of July at the
region of Agartala. The festive celebrations are spread
over a period of seven days and takes place mainly in the temple premises.
Thousands of devotees participate in this festival to make it a grand success.
Garia Puja:
This festival is celebrated in the season of autumn. It
usually falls in the months of September/October and
is one of the most auspicious festivals of Tripura. It is
celebrated on a grand scale with puja pandals doted in
every nook and corner of the state. The grand festive
celebrations stretch over a period of four days and
commemorate the defeat of the demon Mahisasura at
the hands of Goddess Durga, who is also believed to be the incarnation of power.
Ker puja:
o Ker pujagenerally starts about fifteen days after
Kharchi Puja. The guardian deity of Vastu Devata is
Ker. It is a firm belief of the locals that the former
rulers used to perform this Puja for the welfare of the
common mass. The literal meaning of 'ker' being a
specified area, two time-honored beliefs lie behind the
ritualistic invocation.
Questionary:
Write a short note:(a) Maharashtra Festivals
Sikkim Festivals
Arunachal Pradesh Festivals
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Chapter: 27
Government Institutions Related to Art

and Culture
Pre Independence:
The Asiatic Society, 1784:
The Asiatic Society was founded by civil servant Sir
William Jones on 15 January 1784 in a meeting presided
over by Sir William Jones, Justice of the Supreme Court
of Judicature at Fort William at the Fort William in
Calcutta, then capital of the British Raj, to enhance and
further the cause of Oriental research.
The Indian Museum Kolkata 1814:
Founded in 1814 at the cradle of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal. Indian Museum is the earliest and the largest
multipurpose Museum not only in the Indian
subcontinent but also in the Asia-Pacific region of the
world. With the foundation of Indian Museum in 1814,
the Museum movement started rolling in India and
through the years from then, got a new fillip and great
momentum. Since then, it has so magnificently developed and culminated into the
fruitful existence of more than 400 museums in the country.
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Archaeological Survey of India, 1861

The Archaeological Survey of India was eventually
formed in 1861 by a statute passed into law by Lord
Canning with Cunningham as the first Archaeological
Surveyor. In 1871, the Survey was revived as a
separate department and Cunningham was appointed
as its first Director-General. To this day, Alexander
Cunningham is revered as the "Father of Indian
Archaeology“.
o Alexander Cunningham realised the need for a permanent body to oversee
archaeological excavations and the conservation of Indian monuments and used his
stature and influence in India to lobby for an archaeological survey.
The credit for excavation and exploration of some of the heritage sites that today carry
the UNESCO heritage tag goes to Alexander Cunningham. These include
Sarnath, Sanchi, Mahabodhi temple at Body Gaya and Deogarh temple.
It regulates all the archaeological activities in the country as per the provisions of the
Ancient monuments, Archaeological sites and Remains Act 1958 and Antiquitiese
and Treasure Act ,1972 that prevents illegal export of Indian
antiquities from India.
Works under ministry of culture, as an attached office.
Country is divided in 27 circles for smooth functioning of ASI.
Includes 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national
importance.
Its main Functions are:

Exploration and excavation of ancient sites
Specialized study of inscription and various phases of Indian architecture o
Maintenance of Archaeological site Museums
o Preservation, conservation and environmental development of centrally protected
monuments and sites, including World Heritage Monuments and antiquities
o Maintenance of gardens & development of new gardens surrounding centrally
protected monuments and sites
o Operation of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act
o Research and Training in different areas of Archaeology
Kalakshetra Foundation, 1936:
Kalakshetra Foundation, formerly simply Kalakshetra is
an arts and cultural academy dedicated to the
preservation of traditional values in Indian art and
crafts, especially in the field of Bharatanatyam dance
and Gandharvaveda music.
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Based in Chennai, India, the academy was founded in January 1936 by Rukmini
Devi Neelakanta Sastri and her husband Arundale.
Under Arundale's guidance, the institution achieved national and international
recognition for its unique style and perfectionism. She invited not only the best
students but also noted teachers, musicians and artists to be a part of this
institution.
National Archives of India, 1891:
The National Archives of India is the custodian of the
records of enduring value of the Government of India.
Established on 11 March 1891 at Calcutta (Kolkata) as
the Imperial Records Department, the National
Archives of India is the custodian of the records of
enduring value. It is the biggest archival repository in
South Asia. It has a vast corpus of records viz., public
records, private papers, oriental records, cartographic records and microfilms,
which constitute an invaluable sour.e of information for scholars/administrators
and other users of archives.
Anthropological Survey of India, 1945:
In 1916, the Zoological and Anthropological sections of
the Museum together became a new entity the
Zoological Survey of India. Later, in 1945, the
Anthropology section formed into an independent
body, the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), is
the apex Indian government organisation involved in
anthropological studies and field data research for
human and cultural aspects, working primarily in the fields of physical
anthropology and cultural anthropology.
While maintaining a strong focus on indigenous populations, it also attempts to
document the cultures of other communities and religious groups.
Post Independence:
Central Board of Film Certification, 1952:
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) was set up
under the Cinematograph Act 1952. CBFC certifies
films for public exhibition in India. It consists of a
chairperson and twenty five other non -official
members. Its headquarters is in Mumbai.
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It has nine regional offices in Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Cuttack, Guwahati,

Hyderbad, Mumbai, New Delhi and Thiruvananthapuram. It is a statutory body
under Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Sangeet Natak Academy, 1953:
o The Sangeet Natak Akademi - India's national
academy for music, dance and drama - is the first
National Academy of the arts set-up by the Republic
of India. It was created by a resolution of the (then)
Ministry of Education, Government of India The
Academy became functional the following year, with
the appointment of its first Chairman, Dr P.V.
Rajamannar, and the formation of its all-India council of representatives, the
General Council. Since its inception the Akademi has been functioning as the apex
body of the performing arts in the country, preserving and promoting the vast
intangible heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in the forms of music,
dance and drama.
Sahitya Academy, 1954:
The Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of
Letters, is an organisation dedicated to the promotion
of literature in the languages of India. It is supported
by, though independent of, the Indian government. It
is in Rabindra Bhavan near Mandi House in Delhi.
The Sahitya Akademi organises national and regional
workshops and seminars; provides research and travel
grants to authors; publishes books and journals, including the Encyclopaedia of
Indian Literature; and presents the annual Sahitya Akademi Award of Rs. 100,000
(approx. USD 1,500 (in year 2013)) in each of the 24 languages it supports, as well
as the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship for lifetime achievement.
The Lalit Kala Akademi or National Academy of Art, 1954: o The

Lalit Kala Akademi or National Academy of Art
is India's national academy of fine arts. It is an
autonomous organisation, established in New Delhi in
1954 by Government of India to promote and
propagate understanding of Indian art, in and outside
the country.
o LKA provides scholarships and a fellow program, and
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sponsors and organises exhibitions in India and overseas. It publishes a bilingual
journal. It is funded by the Union Ministry of Culture.
Its headquarters are at Ravindra Bhawan, Ferozshah Road, New Delhi. In April 2015,
Government of India took over management control of Lalit Kala Akademi citing
complaints regarding alleged administrative and financial irregularities in its
functioning.
National School of Drama, 1959:
The National School of Drama is one of the foremost
theatre training institutions in the world and the only
one of its kind in India. It was set up by the Sangeet
Natak Akademi as one of its constituent units in 1959.
In 1975, it became an independent entity and was
registered as an autonomous organization under the
Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860, fully financed
by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.
o Training in the School is highly intensive and is based on a thorough,
comprehensive, carefully planned syllabus which covers every aspect of theatre
and in which theory is related to practice. As a part of their training, students are
required to produce plays which are then performed before the public.
The India International Centre (IIC), 1962:
The India International Centre (IIC) is a well known non-
official organisation situated in New Delhi, India. Its
foundation stone was laid in 1960 by Japanese prince
Akihito, now Emperor, who had come for his
honeymoon, and it was inaugurated in 1962.
It is a unique establishment in that it serves as a meeting
place for the various cultural and intellectual
offerings the city has to offer, while maintaining its non-official character, non-
aligned motivations and remains uncommitted to any particular form of
governmental, political, economic or religious affiliation.
According to its official blurb, the centre is alluded to as 'Triveni', which in
Sanskrit means 'a structure of three'. It provides three activity streams:
The Intellectual Stream, which is supported with the organisation of seminars,
symposia, meetings, discussions, and a well stocked library that also helps publish
papers.
The Cultural Stream, through events like dance recitals, film screenings, and
drama.
The Social Stream, through its hostel and catering facilities which brings together
people in a pleasant setting.
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National Film Development Corporation Limited (NFDC), 1975: o The

National Film Development Corporation Limited
was incorporated in 1975. It was formed by the
Government of India with the primary objective of
planning and promoting an organized, efficient and
integrated development of the Indian film industry.
NFDC was reincorporated in the year 1980, by merging
the Film Finance Corporation (FFC) and Indian Motion
Picture Export Corporation (IMPEC) with NFDC. The erstwhile Film Finance
Corporation was set up in the year 1962.
o It was formed with the primary objective of extending finance to young talented
film makers for film production. It functions in areas of film financing, production
and distribution under Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
o The Indian Motion Picture Export Corporation was an autonomous body. It was set
up to regulate the import and export of films and canalization of raw stock into the
country. The NFDC has so far produced over 200 films. The Corporate office of
NFDC is at Worli, Mumbai. It has three Regional Offices at Chennai, Kolkata and
Delhi and a Branch Office at Thiruvananthapuram.
The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT), 1979:
o The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training
(CCRT) is one of the premier institutions working in
the field of linking education with culture. Established
in 1979, pioneered by Smt. Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyay and Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan, it functions
as an autonomous organization under the aegis of
Ministry of Culture, Government of India. At the
philosophical core of the CCRT lies a commitment to holistic education,
encompassing the cognitive, emotional and spiritual development of children. To
this end the CCRT conducts education grounded in cultural knowledge and
understanding as conducive to clarity, creativity, independence of thought,
tolerance and compassion.
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), 1984: o The
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
(INTACH) was founded in 1984 in New Delhi with the
vision to spearhead heritage awareness and
conservation in India. Today INTACH is recognized as
one of the world’s largest heritage organizations, with
over 190 Chapters across the Country.
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In the past 31 years INTACH has pioneered the conservation and preservation of not
just our natural and built heritage but intangible heritage as well.
o Headquartered in New Delhi, it operates through various divisions such as
Architectural Heritage, Natural Heritage, Material Heritage, Intangible Cultural
Heritage, Heritage Education and Communication Services (HECS), Crafts and
Community Cell, Chapters, INTACH Heritage Academy, Heritage Tourism,
Listing Cell and Library, Archives and Documentation Centre.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, 1985:
A premier government-funded arts organization in India.
It is an autonomous institution under the Union
Ministry of Culture. It was established in the memory
of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, with Kapila
Vatsyayan as its founding director.
The IGNCA was launched on 19 November 1985 by
Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi at a function where
the symbolism of the components was clearly articulated at different levels. The
elements - fire, water, earth, sky and vegetation - were brought together. Five rocks
from five major rivers - Sindhu (Indus), Ganga, Kaveri, Mahanadi and the
Narmada (where the most ancient ammonite fossils are found) were composed into
sculptural forms. These remain at the site as reminders of the antiquity of Indian
culture and the sacredness of her rivers and rocks.
Indian Council for Cultural Relations:
It was founded on 9 April 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, the first Education Minister of independent India.
An autonomous body to establish and promote cultural
relations and exchanges between India and other
countries. It has overseas offices at Suva (Fiji), San
Francisco (US), Georgetown (Guyana). It organises
Nehru Memorial award for International Understanding. It has established
cultural centers for Indians abroad.
Indian Council of Historical Research:
It enunciates and implements a national policy of
historical research and encourages scientific writing of
history. It gives grants for seminars, research
activities, and publications in the field of history. It
maintains a large and expanding library cum
documentation centre exclusively for researchers and
scholars.
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Indian Institute of Islamic Studies Set up in 1963, at New Delhi, its main objects are to
promote the study of Islamic culture and civilization, to promote intercourse
between scholars and institutions engaged in Islamic studies in different countries
and focus on India's contribution to Islam. It has 5000 plus manuscripts in Arabic
and Persian.
National Gallery of Modern Art:
The National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA), New Delhi
was founded in 1954. The main aim of t he
NGMA is the promotion and development of
contemporary Indian Art. The NGMA's important
collections includepaintings , sculpture , graphic arts
and photographs. NGMA organizes exhibitions from
its collection and under Cultural Exchange
programme periodically. The foremost responsibility of the NGMA is the ensure
quality and to set and maintain standards of excellence.
National Mission for Manuscripts:
The National Mission for Mansuscripts was launched in
February, 2003 by the Ministry of Culture to save the
most valuable of our cultural inheritance, i.e.,
manuscripts. The mission seeks to unearth and
preserve the vast manuscript wealth of India. An
ambitious five year project, the Mission seeks not
merely to locate catelogue and preserve India ’s
manuscripts but also to enhance access, spread a wareness and encour age their use
for ducational purpose.
The blueprint for establishing the National Museum in Delhi was prepared by the
Maurice Gwyer Committee in May 1946. On August 15, 1949, the National
Museum, New Delhi, was inaugurated in the Rashtrapati Bhawan by Shri R.C.
Rajagopalachari, the Governor-General of India. The foundation of the present
building was laid by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, on May
12, 1955.
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An Exhibition of Indian Art, went on display in the galleries of Burlington House,

London in Delhi. An exhibition was organized in the the RashtrapatiBhawan
(President’s residence), New Delhi in 1949, which turned out to be a great success.
This event proved responsible for the creation of the National Museum.
The Government Museum or Madras Museum is a museum of human history and
culture located in the neighbourhood of Egmore in Chennai, India. Started in 1851,
it is the second oldest museum in India after the Indian Museum in Kolkata.
It is particularly rich in archaeological and numismatic collections. It has the largest
collection of Roman antiquities outside Europe. Among them, the colossal
Museum Theatre is one of the most impressive.
The National Art Gallery is also present in the museum premises. Built in Indo-
Saracenic style, it houses rare works of artists like Raja Ravi Varma
Questionary:
What is meant by post independence?

What is Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage
(INTACH)?
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Chapter: 28
Indian Social Structure. Socio-Cultural

Issues in Contemporary India
Social Structure:
Social structures are not immediately visible to the untrained observer, however, they
are always present and affect all dimensions of human experience in society.It is
helpful to think about social structure as operating on three levels within a given
society: the macro, meso, and micro levels.
o Social structure is the organized set of social institutions and patterns of
institutionalized relationships that together compose society. Social structure is
both a product of social interaction and directly determines it.
On the macro scale, social structure is the system of socioeconomic stratification (e.g.,
the class structure), social institutions, or, other patterned relations between large
social groups.
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On the meso scale, it is the structure of social network ties between individuals or
organizations.
On the micro scale, it can be the way norms shape the behaviour of individuals
within the social system.
Each society has a pattern of organization, which has structures that result from
association of individuals with one another.
Social structure is an abstract phenomenon. It denotes external aspects of society. o It
may be a group, institution, an association, community, or an organization all of
which are parts of social structure through which it functions.
Social Structure in India:
o Social structure, in sociology, the distinctive, stable
arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a
society interact and live together. Social structure is often
treated together with the concept of social change, which
deals with the forces that change the social structure and
the organization of society.
India is a country where people have come to acquire
multiple identities based on region (e.g. North India, North East India,Deccan and
South India), language (e.g. Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu), religion (e.g. Hindu,
Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh), etc.
Each set of these and other identities corresponding to a distinct set of social relations,
i.e., a distinct social structure. The structure of Indian society has been
changing over time.
In India, there is disagreement about who is indigenous. Many hundreds of groups of
indigenous peoples, known as 'Scheduled Tribes' or 'Adivasi', today are formally
recognised in the Indian constitution.
These groups have a shared history in terms of their status in Indian society.
Originally, each group had its own distinct system of social organisation. Over
time, as different people invaded and colonised parts or all of the Indian
subcontinent, other systems of social organisation have affected the Adivasi.
Social differentiation in India: o

Features of Tribe:
 
All members are related to each other by blood.
All members are equal in status
 
All members believe that they have descended from a common ancestor
All members have equal access to the resources

The sense of private property is least visible

Social differentiation exists only on the basis of age and sex.
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Such tribes existed during the Vedic period. The major

differentiation existed between people on the basis of
‘varna’ or colour. Thus, the people who did not belong to
the Vedic tribes were termed as dasa varna.They are said
to have had an alien language, a dark complexion and
worshiped different gods.
This initial differentiation later developed into a complex
‘varna system’, which in place of the Tribe had divided society into Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra categories.
These categories emerged principally because of frequent tribal wars.The members of
the Brahman ‘varna’ usually functioned as priests. The Kshatriyas were associated
with the political functions, the Vaishyas were mostly agriculturists and the.
Shudras were the servile class. The first two ‘varnas’ exploited the most numerous
and productive Vaishya varna, whereas the three in unison exploited the Shudras.
Caste System in India:
We look into our Vedas and Purana's we come to know that
we had different caste system back then we have today.
It was defined as a Varna system. In Rig Veda there is
10th Mandala written about the varna System.
Which describe that Humans are divided in to 4 Varna.
The Varna system which started according to division of
labour now transformed to caste system which started
fixing the type of work by birth.
Jainism and Budhism in post Vedic age challenged this rigid social order of Indian
Society.
‘Varna/Jati’ system underwent further changes when new groups such as the
Shakas, Kushanas, and Parthians and Indo-Greeks people arrived in India.
Growth of urbanisation, craft production, and trade resulted in the rise of guilds or
‘shreni’ which in later times became castes. Growth of urbanisation, craft
production, and trade resulted in the rise of guilds or ‘shreni’ which in later times
became castes
The number of castes increased manifold because of the growth of a number of
crafts, arrival of new elements in the population, inter-caste marriages and
inclusion of many Tribes into caste hierarchy.
The Dharmashastras and the Smritis tried to fix the duties of each caste. The relations
between castes were generally governed by the rules of endogamy,
commensality and craft-exclusiveness.
In modern times the caste system acquired some new features. Thus, the idea of
‘surnames’ was also added. One particular caste or sub-caste came to acquire one,
sometimes more, ‘surnames’. However, ample variation is found in this matter.
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Caste system underwent more complexity and changes in next centuries. Some
merged together others got differentiation and so on. India throughout the territory
was engraved in Caste System. It has got regional variations like in north India ,
Vaishya kept on dominating the picture while in south Brahmins have been the
same.
Caste and anti-caste movements of the modern period resulted in the formation of
further new castes. Thus the Brahma-samajis acquired status which is very similar
to a caste.
Hence difficult to define caste in a precise manner. It is a rigid system where inter
dinning and inter marriages are not allowed. It had been so exploitating that it has
resulted in complete exclusion of some communities based on their birth.
Purity, Pollution and Untouchability:
Untouchability is a direct product of the caste system. It
is not merely the inability to touch a human being of
a certain caste or sub-caste. It is an attitude on the
part of a whole group of people that relates to a
deeper psychological process of thought and belief,
invisible to the naked eye, translated into various
physical acts and behaviours, norms and practices.
The concept of purity and pollution in Indian society is best reflected in the formation
of a category known as untouchables. The people who are excluded
from the Brahmanical society.
Sometimes they were called the fifth varna (panchamd). Chandala is the term used
loosely for many types of untouchables. They were not allowed to reside in the
caste villages and had to stay in special quarters outside the main settlements.
Their main task was to carry and cremate the corpses. The law-books have
prescribed that they should be dressed in the garments of the corpses they
cremated, should eat food from broken vessels and should wear only iron
ornaments.
Although the practice of untouchability is considered a crime by Indian Lay
System but in rural areas it still continues. Mahatma Gandhi initiated a campaign
against this practice. He preferred to call them harijans.
o Harijans are considered polluted people at the lowest end of the caste order. The
jobs considered polluting and impure are reserved for Dalits, and in many cases
Dalits are prevented from engaging in any other work.
Slavery:
In India, the slaves were generally employed as domestic servants and personal
attendants.The slave was, in fact, a subordinate member of his master’s household.
The masters hadno rights over the lives of their slaves.
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The Sanskrit word for slave is ‘dasa’ which initially

meant a member of the people captured by migrating
Aryan hordes. Many such ‘dasas’ were reduced to
bondage.
The slave was, in fact, a subordinate member of his
master’s household. The masters’ hadno rights over
the lives of their slaves.
There were no slave markets in the early periods, however in the early centuries of the
Christian era, there was trade in slave-girls between India and the Roman empire in
both directions. Arthshhastra talks about slavery in the form of dasa and
their rights.
The Sultans of Delhi kept a large number of slaves (Bandagans). However, their
situation was quite different. One of the slaves named Malik Kafur became the
commander-in chief of Alauddin Khilji.
Slave trade also presents during British times and Slaves were sent to Europe from
India. However was attacked by Lord Cornwallis in a proclamation.
The slave trade is now completely prohibited. Child Labour and Bondage system had
been representing slavery in its dark form.
In modern India rituals like Devdasis are live example of slavery and exploitation
present till date even after having laws and remedies.
Jajmani System:
Jajmani system or Yajman system was an Indian

economic system in which lower castes performed
various functions for upper castes and received
grain in return.
It is a socio-economic institution of the pre-industrial
self-subsistent village economy. The term
‘Jajmani’ is derived from a Vedic term ‘Yajman’
which means a patron, who employs the services of a Brahmin for the performance
of sacrifices or other religious ceremonies? The Jajmani system is essentially based
on caste system.
Jajmani system is a patron-provider system, in which landholding patrons (jajmans)
are linked through exchanges of food for services with Brahmin priests, artisans
(blacksmiths, potters), agricultural labourers, and other workers.
A jajman is usually under obligation to pay the customary fees even when the Brahmin
does not perform the ceremony. Religiously, it is an institutional arrangement that
makes the Brahmin dependent for subsistence on the jajmans, who constitute his
clients. From religious, the term passed onto socio-economic relations.
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The relationship between the ‘served’ castes and the ‘serving’ castes was not based on
contract, nor was it individual and temporary. It is a permanent relationship,
which is caste-oriented.
This system of durable relation between a landowning family and the landless
families, which supply them with goods and services, is called the ‘jajmani sys-
tem’.
In the jajmani system, the high caste landowning families are rendered services and
products by the lower castes. The serving castes are called kamins, whereas the
served castes are known as jajmans. The kamins are paid in cash or kind for their
services.
o Jajmani Relations are Permanent, hereditary and involves Barter System. It
provides job security to the Kamins and strengthen their relations with Jajman.
Family and Marriage:
o A joint family is one in which two or more
generations live under one roof or different roofs
having a common hearth. This family is generally
patriarchal and patrilineal, that is, the father or the
oldest male member is the head of the house and
administrator of the property and the headship
descends in the male line.
In modern towns a large number of nuclear families exist which consist of wife,
husband and the children. Such families are also patriarchal and patrilineal. the
family it is the primary unit of the society.
The traditional Indian family is a large kinship group commonly described as joint
family.
o The members of the family are bound together by ‘Shraddha’, the rite of
commemorating the ancestors. ‘Shraddha’ defined the family; those who were
entitled to participate in the ceremony were ‘sapindas’, members of the family
group.
The bond between the members of the family gave a sense of social security to its
members. At the time of festivals and marriages, the responsibilities were shared
reinforcing the family bond.
Depending on its nature, marriage is of many kinds such as hypergamous (man of so
called high caste and woman of low caste) or anuloma and hypogamous (man of
low caste and woman of high caste) or pratiloma based on an alliance between
different varna/ caste; monogamous, polygamous and polyandrous based on the
number of spouses.
Families are the result of a very important ‘samskara’ ceremony known as marriage.
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Examples of all kinds of marriages can be found in the

Indian society. Traditionally speaking, marriages were
arranged by the parents of the couple who usually
belong to the same caste, but of different
‘gotras’ (persons having common ancestor).
Tribal Comminuties:
Tribes have their roots in the soil dating back to a very
early period. They live in relative isolation in the
hills and forests. In terms of their cultural ethos
(language, institutions, beliefs and customs), their
lifestyle is very different from the other section of
society.
These peoples are the descendants from a country’s
aboriginals. Indigenous peoples are strikingly
different and diverse in their culture, religion, social and economic organisations.
They are still being exploited by the outside world.
Government of India has specified 427 communities and has included them in the
schedule of tribes. These tribes are known as scheduled tribes. They are entitled to
special protection and privileges under the constitution of India.
Numerically, the most important tribes are the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santhals, the
Minas, the Mundas, the orgons.
Total population of Scheduled Tribes is 84,326,240 as per the Census 2001 which
accounts for 8.2% of the total population of country. The share of the Scheduled
Tribe population in urban areas is a meager 2.4%.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of scheduled Tribes followed by Bihar. Bastar
district of Madhya Pradesh consists of largest number of Scheduled Tribes.
There are no Scheduled Tribes in Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh, Pondicherry, and
Haryana.
Andhra Pradesh:
Andh, Sadhu Andh, Bhagata, Bhil, Chenchus (Chenchawar), Gadabas, Gond, Goundu,
Jatapus, Kammara, Kattunayakan, Kolawar, Kolam, Konda, Manna Dhora,
Pardhan, Rona, Savaras, Dabba Yerukula, Nakkala, Dhulia, Thoti, Sugalis.
Arunachal Pradesh:
Apatanis, Abor, Dafla, Galong, Momba, Sherdukpen, Singpho.
Assam:
Chakma, Chutiya, Dimasa, Hajong, Garos, Khasis, Gangte.
Bihar:
Asur, Baiga, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Gond, Parhaiya, Santhals, Savar.
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Chhattisgarh:
Agariya, Bhaina, Bhattra, Biar, Khond, Mawasi, Nagasia.
Goa:
Dhodia, Dubia, Naikda, Siddi, Varli.
Gujarat:
Barda, Bamcha, Bhil, Charan, Dhodia, Gamta, Paradhi, Patelia.
Himachal Pradesh:
Gaddis, Gujjars, Khas, Lamba, Lahaulas, Pangwala, Swangla.
Jammu and Kashmir:
Bakarwal, Balti, Beda, Gaddi, Garra, Mon, Purigpa, Sippi.
Jharkhand:
Birhors, Bhumij, Gonds, Kharia, Mundas, Santhals, Savar.
Karnataka:
Adiyan, Barda, Gond, Bhil, Iruliga, Koraga, Patelia, Yerava.
Kerala:
Adiyan, Arandan, Eravallan, Kurumbas, Malai arayan, Moplahs, Uralis.
Madhya Pradesh:
Baigas, Bhils, Bharia, Birhors, Gonds,Katkari, kharia, Khond, Kol, Murias.
Maharashtra:
Bhaina, Bhunjia, Dhodia, Katkari, Khond, Rathawa, Warlis.
Andman (Negritos) :
Great Andamanese, Onges, Jarawa, Sentinelese,
Nicobar (Mongoloids): o
Shompens and Nicobarese
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Mizoram:
Chakma, Dimasa, Khasi, Kuki, Lakher, Pawai, Raba, Synteng.
Nagaland:
Angami, Garo, Kachari, Kuki, Mikir, Nagas, Sema.
Odisha:
Gadaba, Ghara, Kharia, Khond, Matya, Oraons, Rajuar, Santhals.
Manipur:
Aimol, Angami, Chiru, Kuki, Maram, Monsang, Paite, Purum, Thadou.
Meghalaya:
Chakma, Garos, Hajong, Jaintias Khasis, Lakher, Pawai, Raba.
Rajasthan:
Bhils, Damaria, Dhanka, Meenas(Minas), Patelia, Sahariya.
Sikkim:
Bhutia, Khas, Lepchas.
Tamil Nadu:
Todas, Kotas, Badagas
Socio Cultural Issues in India:
Child marriage:
Child marriage refers to the marriage of individuals below the prescribed limit of age.
Marriage is to be considered legal as per the Indian Law, when the groom’s age is
21 and above and bride’s age is 18 and above.
Caste system:
Caste system is a system of defining class or assigning status to individuals from the
time of birth. In India, the caste system is mainly profession based. India has been
a victim of caste system since ages.
Illiteracy :
Illiteracy refers to the inability to read and/or write. The problem of illiteracy is a
major social issue in India. The problem has spread through-out the country in a
wide way. It is one of the most dangerous obstacles in the economy’s growth.
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Poverty:
Poverty refers to a situation when people’s basic needs are not fulfilled. When people
doesn’t have the necessary food to eat or clothes to wear or shelter to stay then its
called poverty. Life becomes very difficult for people with income are below the
poverty line (BPL).
Child labour:
Child labour is a system of involving children in any economic activity. Children at
the age of playing engage themselves into economic activity for their family. Child
labour can be seen throughout the country in a wide way.
Gender inequality at work:
Inequality at work refers to any type of discrimination in working environment based
on caste, gender, race, colour, etc. But gender inequality at work means
discrimination or unequal treatment between male and female workers.
Low status of women:
Low status of women refers to the inferior position of women (in comparison to men)
in the society. This reflects the narrow mindset of the society. It is seen all over the
country, but widely prevalent in the backward areas.
Dowry system:
Dowry is one of the most evil practices that are prevalent in the Indian society. Dowry
system is actually the transfer of money, property and other valuable assets of
bride’s family to the groom’s family on the eve of marriage.
Communalism:
The aggressive attitude of one community towards the other creates tension and
clashes between two religious communities. Hundreds of people die in communal
riots. It breeds hatred and mutual suspicion. Communalism is an issue that needs to
be tackled and eradicated. It poses a great challenge to democracy and unity of our
country.
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Sanitation and cleanliness:

Sanitation and cleanliness is a basic problem and
one of the important social issues of our country.
People should clean their areas and take care of
personal hygiene to stay healthy and away from
any diseases.
Beggary:
Beggary is another social problem in our country. People who are in extreme
situation of need and poverty are called beggars. The state of being a beggar is
called beggary.
Juvenile delinquency:
Juvenile delinquency is also termed as Teenage Crime. Basically, juvenile
delinquency refers to the crimes committed by minors. The crimes by teenage boys
or girls are generally done without having proper knowledge of it as they know
very little about the world.
Questionary:
How did Varna System transformed in to Caste System in India?
“Dowry is a social problem.” Elaborate.
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Chapter: 29
Spread of Indian Culture Abroad,
Greater Asia in context of Indian culture
and Indian civilisation
Spread of Indian Culture Abroad:

India had been in contact with the outside world commercially right from about the
middle of the third millennium B.C. Even though India is surrounded by sea on
three sides and the Himalayan in the north but that did not stop Indians from
interacting with the rest of the world.
Seal of Indus Valley found in Mesopotamia proves trade contact between the two
civilisations.
India had been in contact with the outside world commercially right from about the
middle of the third millennium B.C. Even though India is surrounded by sea on
three sides and the Himalayan in the north but that did not stop Indians from
interacting with the rest of the world.
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However, the most remarkable aspect of this contact has been the spread of Indian culture
and civilization in various parts of the world, especially Central Asia, South
East Asia, China, Japan, and Korea etc.
Indians travelled far and wide and left their cultural footprints wherever they went. In
return they also brought home ideas, impressions, customs and traditions from
these distant lands.
What is most remarkable of this spread is that it was not a spread by means of
conquest or threat to life of an individual or society but by means of
voluntary acceptance of cultural and spiritual values of India.
They travelled especially to the islands of Java, Sumatra and Malaya. This is the
reason why these countries were called Suvarnadvipa (suvarna means gold
and dvipa means island).
The kingdom of Kalinga had trade relations with Sri Lanka duringthe time of
Emperor Ashoka. Wherever the traders went, they established cultural links with
those places.
Spread of Indian Culture in Ancient times:
In ancient times, traders from India went to distant lands in search of new
opportunities in business. They went to Rome in the west and China in the east.
They travelled to countries like Indonesia and Cambodia in search of gold.
The kingdom of Kalinga had trade relations with Sri Lanka duringthe time of
Emperor Ashoka. Wherever the traders went, they established cultural links with
those places.
In this way, the traders served as cultural ambassadors and established trade
relations with the outside world.
Spread of Indian Culture: China
The contact between India and China began around the
2nd Century B.C. Indian culture first entered China
with two monk scholars Kashyapa Martanga
and Dharmarakshita who went to China in AD 67
on the invitation of the Chinese Emperor Ming Ti.
o After Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita,
there was a continuous flow of scholars from India
to China and from China to India. . The Chinese were a highly cultured people.
They listened to the thrilling stories of the Buddha with great attention.
They were followed by a number of teachers from universities like Nalanda,
Takshila, Vikramashila and Odantapuri.
The two best known Chinese pilgrims who paid visits to India were Fa-hien and
Hiuen-Tsang.
The Chinese carried along not only hundreds of Buddhist scripts but also learnt
Sanskrit and Pali languages so that they could understand these texts.
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Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan in the sixth century from China. Along with the
spread of Buddhism to these countries the Indian culture also found its way in
these lands. In subsequent centuries Buddhism also spread to Mongolia.
The Buddhists philosophy appealed to the Chinese intellectuals because they already
had a developed philosophical school in Confucianism.
In the fourth century AD Wei Dynasty came to power in China. Its first Emperor
declared Buddhism as the state religion. This gave an impetus to the spread of
Buddhism in China.
A scholar named Bodhidharma went to China from Kanchipuram. He went to
Nalanda, studied there and left for China. He carried the philosophy of Yoga with
him and popularized the practice of ‘dhyana’, (meditation), which was later known
in China as ch’an.
Colossal images were carved on the rocks and caves were beautifully painted from the
inside. Dun-huang, Yun-kang and Lung-men are among the most famous cave
complexes in the world. Indian influences are quite evident on these complexes.
The two way traffic of scholars and monks was responsible for cultural contacts and
exchange of ideas.
Spread of Indian Culture : Korea
Korea is situated on the Northeast of China. Korea
received Indian cultural elements through China.
Sundo was the first Buddhist Monk who entered
Korea, carrying a Buddha image and sutras in AD
352.
In AD 404, an Indian monk built two temples in the
Pyongyang city in Korea. He was followed by a
number of teachers from India.
o They brought philosophy, religion, the art of making images, painting, and
metallurgy. Many scholars came to India from Korea in search of knowledge. They
were trained in astronomy, astrology, medicine and in several other fields of
knowledge.
Monasteries and temples acted as centres of devotion and learning all over Korea.
A large number of Buddhist texts were translated there. The philosophy of ‘dhyana
yoga’ reached Korea in the eighth to ninth century AD.
The kings and queens, princes and ministers, even warriors began to practise yoga to
be brave and fearless.
Spread of Indian Culture: Tibet
Tibet is situated on a plateau to the north of the Himalayas. The people of Tibet are
Buddhists.
India was the first to bring civilization to Tibet. Till the 7th century A-D.
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Tibet had not seen the ray of civilization. Throughout the

Pala period Tibet was in close touch with India,
particularly with the Universities of Nalanda and
Vikramshila.
o A number of Buddhist monks visited Tibet and
preached the principles of Buddhism there.
The King Strong- tstan Gampu introduced the new
faith in his kingdom and adopted Indian alphabets and formed the Tibetan
grammar.
A number of Indian religious and secular works were translated into Tibetan
language. These works are preserved in two collections entitled Tanjur and Kanjur.
According to this tradition, ninety-six thousand Sanskrit books were translated into
Tibetan.
Spread of Indian Culture: Nepal
Nepal came under the influence of Buddhism during the
times of Ashoka. It is said that Ashoka not only
exercised suzerainty over Nepal but also paid a
personal visit to this kingdom along with his daughter
Charumati and son-in-law Devapal Khattiya.
During his visit he constructed a number of stupas and
viharas. Samudragupta also received regular tribute
from Nepal.
But it was following the invasions by the Muslims that a large number of
Brahmans and Rajputs fled to Nepal and sought shelter there.
They carried along with them the Indian philosophy, religion, literature and art.
Hinduism became the prevailing religion in this kingdom and a large number of
temples were constructed which bear close resemblance with those of India.
Spread of Indian Culture : Ceylon
o Asoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter
Sanghamitra to Ceylon as Buddhist missionaries. They
successfully converted the ruler of Ceylon
(Devanampriya Tissa) to Buddhism and for a long
time thereafter the people of Ceylon remained under
the cultural influence of India.
With Buddhism, Indian Art forms also reached Sri
Lanka, where the themes, styles and techniques of paintings, dance, folklores and
art and architecture were taken from India.
Subsequently, the Hindu culture and traditions also found their way into Ceylon and
exercised deep influence on the religion, literature, philosophy and fine arts of
Ceylon.
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The first monasteries built there are Mahavihar and Abhayagiri.

The most renowned paintings of Sri Lanka are found in the cave-shelter monasteries at
Sigiriya. Figures painted in the cave are in the Amaravati style of India.
Spread of Indian Culture : Afghanistan
o Afghanistan and Central Asia were brought into intimate
contact with India during the time of the Mauryan emperor
Chandragupta, whose empire extended beyond the Hindukush.
Both the Mauryan and Kushan Empires included Afghanistan in
their territory. Even before it became a part of the Indian
empire, Afghanistan was under deep influence of the Indian
culture.
During the reign of his famous grandson Ashoka, the Buddhist
missionaries were sent in large number and spread the gospel of Buddha as well.
We find large number of Buddhist monasteries in Afghanistan which were the centres
of Indian learning and culture and exercised tremendous influence on the
people of the region.
Though initially Buddhism was more popular in Afghanistan but subsequently
Hinduism became predominant, particularly in the Kabul valley.
Spread of Indian Culture: Silk Route
o Traders to and from China regularly crossed the
Central Asia despite hardships. The route that was
opened by them later became famous as the Silk
Route. In later times, the same route was used by
scholars monks and missionaries. The route served as a
great channel for the transmission of cultures of then
known world. The impact of Indian culture was felt
strongly in Central Asia.
Among the kingdoms of Central Asia, Kuchi was a very important and flourishing
centre of the Indian culture. It was the kingdom where the Silk Route bifurcates
and meets at the Dun-huang caves in China again.
Khotan was famous for its silk industry, dance, music, literary pursuits, and
commercial activities and for gold and jade exports. The history of the Indo-
Khotanese relationship is witnessed by a continuous flow of teachers and monks
from India to Khotan.
A large number of Sanskrit manuscripts, translations and transcriptions of Buddhist
texts in Sanskrit were discovered from the monasteries buried in sand.
Discoveries of ancient stupas, temples, monasteries, images and paintings found in all
these countries.
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Spread of Indian Culture: Myanmar
People and culture of India began to reach Myanmar in the
beginning of the Christian era. Myanmar is situated on
the route to China. People coming from the port
towns of Amaravati and Tamralipti often settled down
in Myanmar after the second century AD.
In Burma, Pagan was a great centre of Buddhist culture
from the eleventh to the thirteenth century. It is still
famous for its magnificent Pagodas. King Aniruddha was a great builder who built
Shwezegon Pagoda and about a thousand other temples.
Indian traditions were quite strong at the Burmese court. Up to the recent times the
court astrologers, soothsayers and professors were known to be brahmins called
ponnas.
Most of them were believed to be from Manipur. Pundits were said to be very active.
They were also known for their knowledge of science, medicine, and astrology.
Spread of Indian Culture : Thailand
o Till the year 1939, Thailand was called Siam, its
original name. Indian cultural influences began to
reach there in the first century AD. It was first carried
by Indian traders, followed by teachers and
missionaries.
The Thai kingdoms were given Sanskrit names such as
Dwaravati, Shrivijay, Sukhodaya and Ayutthiya.
The names of their cities also indicate a strong cultural interflow. For example,
Kanchanaburi is from Kanchanapuri, Rajburi is from Rajpuri, Lobpuri is Lavapuri,
and names of the cities like Prachinaburi, Singhaburi are all derived from Sanskrit.
Even the names of the streets like Rajaram, Rajajrani, Mahajaya and Cakravamsha
remind us of the popularity of the Ramayana.
Brahminical images and Buddhist temples began to be constructed in third and fourth
century AD. The earliest images found from Thailand are those of Lord
At different points of time, the Thai kingdom was shifted from one place to another. At
every place a number of temples were built. Ayutthiya (Ayodhya) is one such place
where large number of temples still stands though today most of the
temples there are in ruins.
There are four hundred temples in Bangkok, the present capital of Thailand.
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Spread of Indian Culture : Combodia
Throughout Cambodia's long history, religion has been a
major source of cultural inspiration. The famous
kingdoms of Champa (Annam) and Kamhuja
(Cambodia) were ruled by the kings of Indian origins.
The history of deep-rooted cultural relationship
between India and Cambodia goes back to the first and
second centuries AD.
In Kambuja, Kaundinya dynasty of Indian origin ruled from the first century A.D. o
Cambodians constructed huge monuments and embellished them with sculptural
representations of Shiva, Vishnu.
o Buddha and other divinities from Indian Epics and the Puranas. The episodes from
these texts were chosen by the kings to symbolise great historical events. Sanskrit
remained their language for administration till the fourteenth century.
o Angkor Vat is supposed to be the abode of Vishnu, that is, Vaikunthadhama. Its
five towers are said to be the five peaks of the Sumeru Mountain. The king
Suryavarman is portrayed there as an incarnation of Vishnu who had attained a
place in heaven because of his meritorious deeds.
o Another grand temple constructed at Yashodharapura in the eleventh century,
known as Baphuon, is embellished by scenes from the epics such as the battle
between Rama and Ravana, Shiva on mount Kailasha with Parvati and the
destruction of Kamadeva.
Spread of Indian Culture : Vietnam (Champa)
Champa or South Annam is situated to the east of
Cambodia. The first Hindu dynasty was established by
Sri Mara in the second century A.D. A number of
Sanskrit inscriptions throw light on the history of
Twelve Indian dynasties ruled over Champa and by the

thirteenth century Champa was annexed to Cambodia.
o Indian culture was carried to the distant land of Vietnam by a number of
enterprising traders and princes who migrated and established themselves as
pioneers in the field of politics and economics.
o They named the cities there as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya, Kauthara and
Panduranga.
The people of Champa are called Cham. They built a large number of Hindu and
Buddhist temples. The Cham people worshipped Shiva, Ganesha, Saraswati,
Lakshmi, Parvati, Buddha and Lokeswara. Images of these deities and Shivalingas
were housed in the temples.
Most of the temples are in ruin now.
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Spread of Indian Culture : Malaysia
Malaysia was known to us since ancient times. There are
references in the Ramayana, the Jataka stories,
Malindapanha, Shilapadikaram, Raghuvamsha and
many other works.
The Head of a Nandi made of granites tone, a relief of
Durga image, Ganesha and Shivlingas belonging to
the seventh and eighth centuries.
Brahmi, in its late form, was the script of ancient Malaysia. Tablets of Buddhist texts
written in a script that resembles old Tamil have been found at Kedah. Sanskrit was
one of the source languages for them.
Evidence of Shaivism has been discovered in Kedah and in the province of Wellesly.
Female figurines with trident have been unearthed.
Till today a fairly large number of Sanskrit words can be seen in their language, for
example, svarga, rasa, guna, dahda, mantri, dhipati, and laksha. Hanuman and
Garuda were known in Malaysia for their superhuman qualities.
Spread of Indian Culture: Indonesia
In the field of religious architecture, the largest Shiva
temple in Indonesia is situated in the island of Java. It
is called Prambanan. It was built in the ninth century.
It has a Shiva temple flanked by Vishnu and Brahma
temples. Opposite these three temples are temples
constructed for their vahanas.
They are Nandi (Bull) for Shiva, Garuda for Vishnu
and Goose for Brahma. In between the two rows are the temples dedicated to
Durga and Ganesh, numbering eight in all, surrounded by 240 small temples.
A large number of scriptural works have been found from Java. They are mostly
written on palm leaves in their ancient script called Kawi. Kawi script was devised
on the basis of Brahmi.
Perhaps no other region in the world has felt the impact of India’s culture and religion
as South East Asia. The most important source of study of the remains of
this cultural intercourse and impact are the Sanskrit inscriptions written in Indian
script.
The most popular form of amusement was the shadow play called Wayung (like the
Indian puppet shows) where the themes are derived mainly from the epics –
Ramayana and Mahabharata, still very popular in South East Asia.
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Spread of Indian Culture: Arab
The fruitful cultural intercourse between India and
In the field of astronomy, two important works namely the

Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta better known to the Arab
world as Sindhin and Khandakhadyaka (known as
Arkand) were brought to Baghdad by embassies from
Sindh.
o Arabs acknowledged their debt to India by calling mathematics ‘hindisa’
(pertaining to India).Indian mathematics, in fact, became their favourite field of
study and discussion, its popularity being enhanced by the works of Alkindi among
others.
Aryabhatta’s and Varahamihira’s works on astronomy were also studied and incorpor
n logic, ated into the scientific literature of the Arabs.
The Sushruta Samhita was translated by an Indian called Mankh in Arabic.
The other fields of Indian knowledge they studied included works on snake poison,
veterinary art and books ophilosophy, ethics, politics and science of war. In the
process their vocabulary was also enriched considerably.
Spread of Indian Culture: Rome
It was Southern India which had the monopoly of the
products that were in great demand in the West. In fact,
the first three centuries of the Christian era saw a
profitable sea-borne trade with the West represented
mainly by the Roman Empire which had become
India’s best customer.
In ancient India the term ‘yavana’ was used for people
belonging to Western Asia and the Mediterranean region and included Greeks and
Romans. Some historians feel that the ‘yavana’ bodyguards might have included
Roman legionaries.
o Items like pepper,betel, spices, scents and precious stones like beryl, gem,
diamond, ruby and amethyst,pearls, ivory, silk and muslins were in great demand
in West. The trade with Rome was bound to bring in gold to India which gave her a
favourable position in trade and established a stable gold currency for the Kushana
Empire of those days.
The importance of trade with foreigners was quite high as one can understand from
the number of ambassadors that were either sent to or received by the Indian kings.
A Pandya king sent an ambassador to Roman Emperor Augustus of the first
century BC.
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The volume of trade with Rome was so high that to facilitate its movement, ports like
Sopara, and Barygaza (Broach) came to be built in the west coast, while the
Coromandalcoast in the east carried on trade with “Golden Chersonese
(Suvarnabhumi) and GoldenChyrse (Suvarnadvipa)”.
Spread of Indian Culture : Romas or Gypsies
Some groups of Indians went abroad as wanderers. They
called themselves Romas and their language was
Romani, but in Europe they are famous as Gypsies.
They went towards the West, crossing the present-day
Pakistan and Afghanistan. From there, their caravans
went through Iran and Iraq to Turkey.
It took them almost four hundred years to spread to
these countries. By that time, though they had forgotten their original home, they
did retain their language, customs, ways of living, and their professions.
Travelling through Persia, Taurus Mountains and Constantinople, they spread to many
countries of Europe. Today they live in Greece, Bulgaria, States of former
Yugoslavia, Romania, Hungary, the Czechand Slovak Republics, Russia, Poland,
Switzerland, France, Sweden, Denmark and England.
The Romas are known for their dance and music as well. It is said that every
Romamusician is a splendid artist.
Questionary:
What were the various modes through which Indian culture spread
abroad?
Describe the religious architecture of Indonesia?
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Chapter: 30
UNESCO’s Tangible & Intangible

Cultural Heritage in India
Unesco’s World Heritage:

In November 1972 the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
inaugurated the list by adopting a treaty known as the
World Heritage Convention. Its continuing goal is to
recruit the world community in identifying cultural
and natural properties of "outstanding universal
value.”
From masterpieces of creative genius to beautiful
natural landscapes, these sites reveal the most
compelling chapters of Earth's history.
Nations lobby hard to get their glorious buildings, wilderness, and historic ruins on
the list, a stamp of approval that brings prestige, tourist income, public awareness,
and, most important, a commitment to save the irreplaceable.
UNESCO officials do not see the list as a mere trophy case of superlative places.
World Heritage status commits the home nation to protect the designated location.
And if a site—through natural disaster, war, pollution, or lack of funds—begins to
lose its value, nations that have signed the treaty must assist, if possible, in
emergency aid campaigns. 193 of the world's nations have signed the treaty.
As of 2018, there were 1,073 properties on the World Heritage list: 832 of cultural
significance, 206 of natural significance, and 35 of mixed value.
Nominated sites must be of “outstanding universal value” and meet at least one of
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the ten criteria.
Cultural:
Represents a masterpiece of human creative genius and cultural significance
Exhibits an important interchange of human values, over a span of time, or within a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology,
monumental arts, town-planning, or landscape design
To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a
civilization which is living or which has disappeared.
Is an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural, or technological
ensemble or landscape which illustrates a significant stage in human history.
Is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use
which is representative of a culture, or human interaction with the environment
especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change.
Is directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with
beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance.
Natural:
Is an outstanding example representing major stages of Earth’s history, including
the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of
landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features.
o Is an outstanding example representing significant on-going ecological and
biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water,
coastal and marine ecosystems, and communities of plants and animals.
Contains superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and
aesthetic importance.
o Contains the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation
of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.
Italy has 53, China has 52, Spain has 46, Germany has 43, France has 43 and India has
39 sites.
Unesco’s Intangible Cultural Heritage:
The term ‘cultural heritage’ has changed content considerably in recent decades,
partially owing to the instruments developed by UNESCO. Cultural heritage does
not end at monuments and collections of objects.
The importance of intangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself
but rather the wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from
one generation to the next. The social and economic value of this transmission of
knowledge is relevant for minority groups and for mainstream social groups within
a State, and is as important for developing States as for
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developed ones.
It also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and
passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social
practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and
the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts.
While fragile, intangible cultural heritage is an important factor in maintaining

cultural diversity in the face of growing globalization. An understanding of the
intangible cultural heritage of different communities helps with intercultural
dialogue, and encourages mutual respect for other ways of life.
In 2001, UNESCO made a survey among States and NGOs to try to agree on a
definition, and the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage
was drafted in 2003 for its protection and promotion.
Intangible cultural heritage is:

Inclusive:
We may share expressions of intangible cultural heritage that are similar to those
practised by others. Whether they are from the neighbouring village, from a city on
the opposite side of the world, or have been adapted by peoples who have migrated
and settled in a different region, they all are intangible cultural heritage: they have
been passed from one generation to another, have evolved in response to their
environments and they contribute to giving us a sense of identity and continuity,
providing a link from our past, through the present, and into our future.
Intangible cultural heritage does not give rise to questions of whether or not certain
practices are specific to a culture. It contributes to social cohesion, encouraging a
sense of identity and responsibility which helps individuals to feel part of one or
different communities and to feel part of society at large;
Traditional, contemporary and living at the same time:
Intangible cultural heritage does not only represent inherited traditions from the past
but also contemporary rural and urban practices in which diverse cultural groups
take part.
Representative:
o Intangible cultural heritage is not merely valued as a cultural good, on a
comparative basis, for its exclusivity or its exceptional value.
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It thrives on its basis in communities and depends on those whose knowledge of

traditions, skills and customs are passed on to the rest of the community, from
generation to generation, or to other communities.
Community-based:
Intangible cultural heritage can only be heritage when it is recognized as such by the
communities, groups or individuals that create, maintain and transmit it without
their recognition, nobody else can decide for them that a given expression or
practice is their heritage.
Tangible
Cultural (29)

Agra Fort (1983)

Ajanta Caves (1983)

Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at
Nalanda, Bihar (2016)

Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989)
 
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park(2004)
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria
Terminus) (2004)
 
Churches and Convents of Goa (1986)
Elephanta Caves (1987)
 
Ellora Caves (1983)
Fatehpur Sikri (1986)
 
Great Living Chola Temples (1987,2004)
Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986)
 
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984)
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987)

Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013)
 
Historic City of Ahmadabad (2017)
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1993)

Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986)
 
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)
Mountain Railways of India (1999,2005,2008)

Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi (1993)

Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat (2014)

Red Fort Complex (2007)
 
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003)
Sun Temple, Konârak (1984)

Taj Mahal (1983)

The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern
Movement (2016)
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Art and Culture
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010)
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (2018)
Natural (7):
Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area (2014)
Kaziranga National Park (1985)
Keoladeo National Park (1985)
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (1988,2005)
Sundarbans National Park (1987)
Western Ghats (2012)
Mixed (1)
Khangchendzonga National Park (2016)
Intangible (13):
Tradition of Vedic chanting (2008)
Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana (2008)
Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre (2008)
Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India
(2009)
Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala (2010)
Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan (2010)
Chhau dance (2010)
Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-
Himalayan Ladakh region, Jammu and Kashmir (2012)
Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur (2013)
Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of
Jandiala Guru, Punjab (2014)
Yoga (2016)
Nawrouz, Novruz, Nowrouz, Nowrouz, Nawrouz, Nauryz, Nooruz, Nowruz,
Navruz, Nevruz, Nowruz, Navruz (2016)
Kumbh Mela (2017)
Cultural Heritage Of India:
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park:
A concentration of largely unexcavated archaeological,
historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled
in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric
(chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu
capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the
state of Gujarat.
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The site also includes, among other vestiges, fortifications, palaces, religious
buildings, residential precincts, agricultural structures and water installations, from
the 8th to 14th centuries.
The Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important
shrine, attracting large numbers of pilgrims throughout the year. The site is the
only complete and unchanged Islamic pre-Mughal city.
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi
On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km from
Bhopal, the site of Sanchi comprises a group of
Buddhist monuments (monolithic pillars, palaces,
temples and monasteries) all in different states of
conservation most of which date back to the 2nd and
1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in
existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India
until the 12th century A.D.
Agra Fort:
Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important
16th-century Mughal monument known as the Red
Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone
encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls,
the imperial city of the Mughal rulers. It comprises
many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace
and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience
halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques.
Ajanta Caves:
The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the
2nd and 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th
and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated
caves were added to the original group. The paintings
and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of
Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic
influence.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus): o The

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as
Victoria Terminus Station, in Mumbai, is an outstanding
example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in
India, blended with themes deriving from Indian
traditional architecture.
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The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, became the symbol of
Bombay as the ‘Gothic City’ and the major international mercantile port of
India.
The terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878, according to a High Victorian
Gothic design based on late medieval Italian models. Its remarkable stone dome,
turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to
traditional Indian palace architecture.
It is an outstanding example of the meeting of two cultures, as British architects
worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian architectural tradition and idioms
thus forging a new style unique to Bombay.
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar: o The

Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar,
in north-eastern India. It comprises the archaeological
remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating
from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.
o It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and
educational buildings) and important art works in
stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the
most ancient university of the Indian Subcontinent.
o It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted
period of 800 years. The historical development of the site testifies to the
development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and
educational traditions.
Churches and Convents of Goa:
The churches and convents of Goa, the former capital of
the Portuguese Indies – particularly the Church of
Bom Jesus, which contains the tomb of St Francis-
Xavier – illustrate the evangelization of Asia. These
monuments were influential in spreading forms of
Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all the
countries of Asia where missions were established.
Elephanta Caves:
The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea of Oman close
to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art linked to
the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art has found one of its
most perfect expressions, particularly the huge high
reliefs in the main cave.
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Ellora Caves:
These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more
than 2 km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high
basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra.
Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments
dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the civilization
of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora complex
a unique artistic creation and a
technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and
Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient India.
Fatehpur Sikri:
Built during the second half of the 16th century by the
Emperor Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory)
was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some
10 years. The complex of monuments and temples, all
in a uniform architectural style, includes one of the
largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid.
Great Living Chola Temples:
The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of
the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south
India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes
three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the
Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara
Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the
Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
The Temple of Gangaikonda cholapuram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in
1035. Its 53-m vimana (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward
curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur.
The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a
24-m vimana and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant
achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.
Group of Monuments at Hampi:
The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of
the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its
fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and
palaces which won the admiration of travellers between
the 14th and 16th centuries.
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Art and Culture
Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a
period of six months before being abandoned.
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram:
o This group of sanctuaries, founded by the Pallava kings,
was carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in
the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its
rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas
(cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the
famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of
Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of
Shiva.
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal:
Pattadakal, in Karnataka, represents the high point of an
eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the
Chalukya dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of
architectural forms from northern and southern India.
An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as
a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there. One masterpiece
from the group stands out – the Temple of Virupaksha,
built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate
Hill Forts of Rajasthan:
The serial site, situated in the state of Rajastahan,
includes six majestic forts in Chittorgarh;
Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar; Jaipur, and
Jaisalmer. The ecclectic architecture of the forts, some
up to 20 kilometres in circumference, bears testimony
to the power of the Rajput princely states that
flourished in the region from the 8th to the 18th
centuries. Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centres, palaces, trading
centres and other buildings including temples that often predate the fortifications
within which developed an elaborate courtly culture that supported
learning, music and the arts.
Some of the urban centres enclosed in the fortifications have survived, as have many
of the site's temples and other sacred buildings. The forts use the natural defenses
offered by the landscape: hills, deserts, rivers, and dense forests. They also feature
extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in use today.
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Art and Culture
Historic City of Ahmadabad:
The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by Sultan
Ahmad Shah in the 15th century, on the eastern bank
of the Sabarmati river, presents a rich architectural
heritage from the sultanate period, notably the Bhadra
citadel, the walls and gates of the Fort city and
numerous mosques and tombs as well as important
Hindu and Jain temples of later periods. The urban
fabric is made up of densely-packed traditional houses (pols) in gated traditional
streets (puras) with characteristic features such as bird feeders, public wells and
religious institutions. The city continued to flourish as the capital of the State of
Gujarat for six centuries, up to the present.
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi:
This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural

significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the
Indian subcontinent. It inspired several major
architectural innovations, culminating in the
construction of the Taj Mahal.
Khajuraho Group of Monuments:
o The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella
dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only
about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and
belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism. They
strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The
Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures
that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art.
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya:

The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy
sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and
particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first
temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century
B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th or 6th
centuries. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built
entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late
Gupta period.
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Art and Culture
Mountain Railways of India:

o This site includes three railways. The Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway was the first, and is still the most
outstanding, example of a hill passenger railway.
Opened in 1881, its design applies bold and ingenious
engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an
effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great
beauty.
The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long metre-gauge
single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the
difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was
completed in 1908. Mountain Railways of India (India) our place The World
Heritage Collection
This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest
technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track
working rail link built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland
town of Shimla is emblematic of the technical and material efforts to disenclave
mountain populations through the railway. All three railways are still fully
operational.
Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi:
Built in the early 13th century a few kilometres south of
Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m
high, tapering from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to
14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular and rounded
flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains
funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-
Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art
(built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in
northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples.
Red Fort Complex:

The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of
Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal
Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive
enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an
older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in
1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex.
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Art and Culture
The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water

channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise). The Red Fort is
considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity which, under the Shah
Jahan, was brought to a new level of refinement.
The planning of the palace is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals
architectural elements typical of Mughal building, reflecting a fusion of
Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions The Red Fort’s innovative planning and
architectural style, including the garden design, strongly influenced later buildings
and gardens in Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra and further afield.
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills of the
Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the
central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone
outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five
clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings
that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right
through to the historical period. The cultural traditions
of the inhabitants of the twenty-one villages adjacent to the site bear a strong
resemblance to those represented in the rock paintings.
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat o

Rani-ki-Vav, on the banks of the Saraswati River, was
initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th
century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of
subterranean water resource and storage systems on
the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed
since the 3rd millennium BC. They evolved over time
from what was basically a pit in sandy soil towards
elaborate multi-storey works of art and architecture.
o Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction
and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex
technique and great beauty of detail and proportions. Designed as an inverted
temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is divided into seven levels of stairs
with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than 500 principle sculptures
and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular
imagery, often referencing literary works. The fourth level is the deepest and leads
into a rectangular tank 9.5 m by 9.4 m, at a depth of 23 m. The well is located at
the westernmost end of the property and consists of a shaft 10 m in diameter and
30 m deep.
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Art and Culture
Sun Temple, Konrak:

On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of
the rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental
representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24
wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is
led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it
is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.
Taj Mahal
An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra
between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal
emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife,
the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and
one of the universally admired masterpieces of the
world's heritage.
The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to
the Modern Movement:
Chosen from the work of Le Corbusier, the 17 sites comprising this transnational
serial property are spread over seven countries and are a testimonial to the
invention of a new architectural language that made a break with the past. They
were built over a period of a half-century, in the course of what Le Corbusier
described as “patient research”.
The Complexe du Capitole in Chandigarh (India):
The National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo (Japan), the House of Dr Curutchet in
La Plata (Argentina) and the Unité d’habitation in Marseille (France) reflect the
solutions that the Modern Movement sought to apply during the 20th century to the
challenges of inventing new architectural techniques to respond to the needs of
society. These masterpieces of creative genius also attest to the internationalization
of architectural practice across the planet.
Palace of Assembly at the Capitol Complex
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Art and Culture
The Complexe du Capitole:
It is a government compound. It is spread over an area of around 100 acres and is a
prime manifestation of Chandigarh's architecture. It comprises three buildings,
three monuments and a lake, including the Palace of Assembly or Legislative
Assembly, Secretariat, High Court, Open Hand Monument, Geometric Hill and
Tower of Shadows.
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur:
o The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical
observation site built in the early 18th century. It
includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments.
They are monumental examples in masonry of known
instruments but which in many cases have specific
characteristics of their own. Designed for the
observation of astronomical positions with the naked
eye, they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations. This is the
most significant, most comprehensive, and the best preserved of India's historic
observatories. It is an expression of the astronomical skills and cosmological
concepts of the court of a scholarly prince at the end of the Mughal period.
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai: o

Having become a global trading centre, the city of
Mumbai implemented an ambitious urban planning
project in the second half of the 19th century. It led to
the construction of ensembles of public buildings
bordering the Oval Maidan open space, first in the
Victorian Neo-Gothic style and then, in the early 20th
century, in the Art Deco idiom.
o The Victorian ensemble includes Indian elements suited to the climate, including
balconies and verandas. The Art Deco edifices, with their cinemas and residential
buildings, blend Indian design with Art Deco imagery, creating a unique style that
has been described as Indo-Deco. These two ensembles bear testimony to the
phases of modernization that Mumbai has undergone in the course of the 19th and
20th centuries.
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
Natural Heritage Of India:
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
o On a gentle slope in the foothills of the Himalayas,
where wooded hills give way to alluvial grasslands and
tropical forests, the Manas sanctuary is home to a great
variety of wildlife, including many endangered species,
such as the tiger, pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros and
Indian elephant.
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks o

Nestled high in West Himalaya, India’s Valley of
Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of
endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural
beauty. This richly diverse area is also home to rare
and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black
bear, snow leopard, brown bear and blue sheep. The
gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National
Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park.
Together they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of
the Zanskar and Great Himalaya, praised by mountaineers and botanists for over a
century and in Hindu mythology for much longer.
Sundarbans National Park
The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km2 of land and water
(more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh)
in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area
of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered
species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic
mammals, birds and reptiles.
Western Ghats:
Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of
the Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of
immense importance with unique biophysical and
ecological processes. The site’s high montane forest
ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather
pattern. Moderating the tropical climate of the region,
the site presents one of the best examples of the
monsoon system on the planet. It also has an exceptionally high level of biological
diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the world’s eight ‘hottest
hotspots’ of biological diversity.
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The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial
tropical evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally
threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species. Grass Hills view
from Akkamalai © S. Thangaraj Panner Selvam, Forest Ranger, Ulandy
Range, Topslip
Khangchendzonga National Park:
o Located at the heart of the Himalayan range in
northern India (State of Sikkim), the
Khangchendzonga National Park includes a unique
diversity of plains, valleys, lakes, glaciers and
spectacular, snow-capped mountains covered with
ancient forests, including the world’s third highest
peak, Mount Khangchendzonga. Mythological stories
are associated with this mountain and with a great number of natural elements
(caves, rivers, lakes, etc.) that are the object of worship by the indigenous people
of Sikkim. The sacred meanings of these stories and practices have been integrated
with Buddhist beliefs and constitute the basis for Sikkimese identity.
Khangchendzonga National Park: India-Nepal border at Boktok © FEWMD

Intangible Heritage Of India:
Kumbh Mela (2017)
o Kumbh Mela (the festival of the sacred Pitcher) is the largest
peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth, during which
participants bathe or take a dip in a sacred river. Devotees believe
that by bathing in the Ganges one is freed from sins liberating
her/him from the cycle of birth and death. Millions of people
reach the place without any invitation. The congregation includes
ascetics, saints, sadhus, aspirants-kalpavasis and visitors.
o The festival is held at Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik every four years by
rotation and is attended by millions of people irrespective of caste, creed or gender.
Its primary bearers, however, belong to akhadas and ashrams, religious
organizations, or are individuals living on alms. Kumbh Mela plays a central
spiritual role in the country, exerting a mesmeric influence on ordinary Indians.
o The event encapsulates the science of astronomy, astrology, spirituality, ritualistic
traditions, and social and cultural customs and practices, making it extremely rich
in knowledge. As it is held in four different cities in India, it involves different
social and cultural activities, making this a culturally diverse festival.
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Knowledge and skills related to the tradition are transmitted through ancient religious
manuscripts, oral traditions, historical travelogues and texts produced by eminent
historians. However, the teacher-student relationship of the sadhus in the ashrams
and akhadas remains the most important method of imparting and safeguarding
knowledge and skills relating to Kumbh Mela.
Navruz:
New Year is often a time when people wish for prosperity
and new beginnings. March 21 marks the start of the
year in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iran (Islamic
Republic of), Iraq, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is referred to as
Nauryz, Navruz, Nawrouz, Nevruz, Nooruz, Novruz,
Nowrouz or Nowruz meaning ‘new day’ when a variety of rituals, ceremonies and
other cultural events take place for a period of about two weeks. An important
tradition practised during this time is the gathering around ‘the Table’, decorated
with objects that symbolize purity, brightness, livelihood and wealth, to enjoy a
special meal with loved ones.
Yoga:
The philosophy behind the ancient Indian practice of
yoga has influenced various aspects of how society in
India functions, whether it be in relation to areas such
as health and medicine or education and the arts.
Based on unifying the mind with the body and soul to
allow for greater mental, spiritual and physical
wellbeing, the values of yoga form a major part of the
community’s ethos.
Yoga consists of a series of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, word chanting and
other techniques designed to help individuals build self-realization, ease any
suffering they may be experiencing and allow for a state of liberation.
Traditionally, yoga was transmitted using the Guru-Shishya model (master-pupil)
with yoga gurus as the main custodians of associated knowledge and skills.
Nowadays, yoga ashrams or hermitages provide enthusiasts with additional
opportunities to learn about the traditional practice, as well as schools, universities,
community centres and social media.
Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making
among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab:
The metals used – copper, brass and certain alloys – are
believed to be beneficial for health.
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The process begins with procuring cooled cakes of metal that are flattened into thin
plates and then hammered into curved shapes, creating the required small bowls,
rimmed plates, to larger pots for water and milk, huge cooking vessels and other
artefacts. Heating the plates while hammering and curving them into different
shapes requires careful temperature control, which is achieved by using tiny wood-
fired stoves (aided by hand-held bellows) buried in the earth. Utensils are manually
finished by polishing with traditional materials such as sand and tamarind juice.
Designs are made by skilfully hammering a series of tiny dents into the heated
metal.
Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur: o

Sankirtana encompasses an array of arts performed to
mark religious occasions and various stages in the life
of the Vaishnava people of the Manipur plains.
Sankirtana practices centre on the temple, where
performers narrate the lives and deeds of Krishna
through song and dance. Sankirtana has two main
social functions: it brings people together on festive
occasions throughout the year, acting as a cohesive force within Manipur’s
Vaishnava community; and it establishes and reinforces relationships between the
individual and the community through life-cycle ceremonies. It is thus regarded as
the visible manifestation of God. Sankirtana works in harmony with the natural
world, whose presence is acknowledged through its many rituals
Buddhist chanting of Ladakh:
o Buddhist chanting of Ladakh recitation of sacred
Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region,
Jammu and Kashmir:In the monasteries and villages
of the Ladakh region, Buddhist lamas (priests) chant
sacred texts representing the spirit, philosophy and
teachings of the Buddha. Two forms of Buddhism are
practised in Ladakh – Mahayana and Vajrayana – and
there are four major sects, namely Nyngma, Kagyud, Shakya and Geluk. Each sect
has several forms of chanting, practised during life-cycle rituals and on important
days in the Buddhist and agrarian calendars.
Chanting is undertaken for the spiritual and moral well-being of the people, for
purification and peace of mind, to appease the wrath of evil spirits or to invoke the
blessing of various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, deities and rinpoches. The chanting is
performed in groups, either sitting indoors or accompanied by dance in monastery
courtyards or private houses.
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Chhau dance:
Chhau dance is a tradition from eastern India that enacts
episodes from epics including the Mahabharata and
Ramayana, local folklore and abstract themes. Its
three distinct styles hail from the regions of Seraikella,
Purulia and Mayurbhanj, the first two using masks.
Chhau dance is intimately connected to regional
festivals, notably the spring festival Chaitra Parva.
Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan:

Songs and dances are an expression of the Kalbelia
community’s traditional way of life. Once professional
snake handlers, Kalbelia today evoke their former
occupation in music and dance that is
evolving in new and creative ways.
o Today, women in flowing black skirts dance and
swirl, replicating the movements of a serpent, while
men accompany them on the ''khanjari'' percussion instrument and the ''poongi,'' a
woodwind instrument traditionally played to capture snakes. The dancers wear
traditional tattoo designs, jewellery and garments richly embroidered with small
mirrors and silver thread.
Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala: o

Mudiyettu is a ritual dance drama from Kerala based on
the mythological tale of a battle between the goddess
Kali and the demon Darika. It is a community ritual in
which the entire village participates. After the summer
crops have been harvested, the villagers reach the
temple in the early morning on an appointed day.
Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas,
India:
Every year in late April, the twin villages of Saloor-
Dungra in the state of Uttarakhand (northern India)
are marked by Ramman, a religious festival in honour
of the tutelary god, Bhumiyal Devta, a local divinity
whose temple houses most of the festivities.
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Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre:
Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre, which is practised in the
province of Kerala, is one of India’s oldest living
theatrical traditions. Originating more than 2,000
years ago, Kutiyattam represents a synthesis of
Sanskrit classicism and reflects the local traditions of
Kerala.
Tradition of Vedic chanting:
The Vedas comprise a vast corpus of Sanskrit poetry,
philosophical dialogue, myth, and ritual incantations
developed and composed by Aryans over 3,500 years
ago. Regarded by Hindus as the primary source of
knowledge and the sacred foundation of their religion,
the Vedas embody one of the world’s oldest surviving
cultural traditions. The Vedic heritage embraces a
multitude of texts and interpretations collected in four Vedas, commonly referred
to as “books of knowledge” even though they have been transmitted orally.
Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana o

Ramlila, literally “Rama’s play”, is a performance of
then Ramayana epic in a series of scenes that include
song, narration, recital and dialogue. It is performed
across northern India during the festival of Dussehra,
held each year according to the ritual calendar in
autumn. The most representative Ramlilas are those of
Ayodhya, Ramnagar and Benares, Vrindavan, Almora,
Sattna and Madhubani. This staging of the Ramayana is based on the
Ramacharitmanas, one of the most popular storytelling forms in the north of the
country.
Questionary:
Explain in detail: Traditions of India that find a place in the

UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
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Art and Culture
Chapter: 31
Award and Honours by
Government of India
Awards and Honours:

The Awards and Honours in India given to individuals or
sometime to the organisation for a variety of services
to the Republic of India.
There are mainly four types of awards given in India i.e.
Civilian awards, Military Awards, Leadership
awards, Literature awards and Particular awards like
sports, police, bravery etc.
From making films to the service of the nation, the achievement awards aim at
acknowledging the best.
India has produced a legacy of brave hearts since times immemorial. Probably there is
not enough space to measure their sacrifices.
However, we cannot close our eyes to those people who have made our country
proud by excelling in their own fields and bringing us international recognition.
India provides valuable citizens with utmost care and dignity. The power of man and
his contribution towards the society make it a better place to live in.
Bharat Ratna:
The Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of the country, was instituted in the year
1954. Any person without distinction of race, occupation, position, or gender is
eligible for this award. The award is given “in recognition of exceptional
service/performance of the highest order”.
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It is a merit-based award and is presented to the winners
without any distinction of position, race, sex, or
occupation.
o Prior to 2011, the award was only given for achievements
in the fields of science, arts, literature, and public
services. However, in December 2011, achievements in
“any field of human endeavour” was also included
thereby expanding the criteria of the awards.
Every year, a maximum of three awards are presented. The Bharat Ratna awards are
given by the President of India; however, the recommendations are made by the
Prime Minister.
There is no written provision that Bharat Ratna should be awarded to Indian citizens
only. The award has been awarded to a naturalized Indian citizen, Agnes Gonxha
Bojaxhiu, better known as Mother Teresa (1980) and to two non-Indians - Khan
Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Nelson Mandela (1990).
On conferment of the award, the recipient receives a Sanad (certificate) signed by
the President and a medallion.
The award does not carry any monetary grant. The award cannot be used as a prefix or
suffix to the recipient’s name. However, should an award winner consider it
necessary, he or she may use the following expression in their biodata or
letterhead or visiting card etc. to indicate that he or she is a recipient of the award:
‘Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President’ or ‘Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award’.
Obverse: An image of the Sun along with the words "Bharat Ratna", inscribed in
Devanagari script, on a peepal (Ficus religiosa) leaf
Reverse: A platinum State Emblem of India placed in the centre with the national
motto, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari script.
It is awarded in recognition of exceptional service/performance of the highest order in
any field of human endeavour. On conferment of the award, the recipient receives a
Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a medallion. It is not
mandatory that this award should be given every year.
o The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari,
philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and scientist C. V. Raman, who were
honoured in 1954.
Since then, the award has been bestowed upon 45 individuals, including 12 who were
awarded posthumously.
The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in
January 1955 to permit them. Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became
the first individual to be honoured posthumously.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended
from July 1977 to January 1980, during the change in the national government; and
for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995, when several public-
interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards.
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In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40,
became the youngest recipient; while social reformer
Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th
birthday.
o In 1992, the government's decision to confer the award
posthumously on Subhas Chandra Bose was opposed
by those who had refused to accept the fact
of his death, including some members of his extended family. Following a 1997
Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Bose's award was
cancelled; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred.
Last awarded
2014 C.N.R.Rao, Sachin Tendulkar
2015 Madan Mohan Malaviya (Posthumous) Atal
Bihari Vajpayee
Padma Awards:
Padma Awards were instituted in the year 1954. These awards have been
announced every year on Republic Day.
The Awards are given in three categories:
Padma Vibhushan (for exceptional and distinguished service),
Padma Bhushan (distinguished service of higher order) and
Padma Shri (distinguished service).
The award seeks to recognize achievements in all fields of activities or disciplines
where an element of public service is involved.
While national honours, the Padma awards do not include cash allowances,
benefits, or special concessions in rail/air travel.
The Padma Awards are conferred on the recommendations made by the Padma Awards
Committee, which is constituted by the Prime Minister every year. The Padma
Awards Committee is headed by the Cabinet Secretary and includes Home
Secretary, Secretary to the President and four to six eminent persons as members.
The recommendations of the committee are submitted to the Prime Minister and
the President of India for approval.The nomination process is open to the public.
Even self-nomination can be made.
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o All persons without distinction of race, occupation,

position or sex are eligible for these awards. However,
Government servants including those working with
PSUs, except doctors and scientists, are not eligible for
these Awards.
The award seeks to recognize works of distinction and is
given for distinguished and exceptional achievements/service in all fields of
activities/disciplines. An illustrative list of the fields is as under:
Social work (includes social service, charitable service,
contribution in community projects etc.)
Public Affairs (includes Law, Public Life, Politics etc.)
Science & Engineering (includes Space Engineering,
Nuclear Science, Information Technology, Research &
Development in Science & its allied subjects etc.)
Art (includes Music, Painting, Sculpture, Photography,
Cinema, Theatre etc.)
Trade & Industry (includes Banking, Economic Activities, Management, Promotion of
Tourism, Business etc.)
Medicine (includes medical research, distinction/specialization in Ayurveda,
Homeopathy, Sidhha, Allopathy, Naturopathy etc.)
Literature & Education (includes Journalism, Teaching, Book composing,
Literature, Poetry, Promotion of education, Promotion of literacy, Education
Reforms etc.)
Civil Service (includes distinction/excellence in administration etc. by Government
Servants)
Sports (includes popular Sports, Athletics, Adventure, Mountaineering, promotion of
sports, Yoga etc.)
Others (fields not covered above and may include propagation of Indian Culture,
protection of Human Rights, Wild Life protection/conservation etc.)
The recipients are also given a small replica of the medallion, which they can wear
during any ceremonial/State functions etc., if the awardees so desire. The names of
the awardees are published in the Gazette of India on the day of the presentation
ceremony.
A higher category of Padma award can be conferred on a person only where a period
of at least five years has elapsed since conferment of the earlier Padma award.
However, in highly deserving cases, a relaxation can be made by the
Awards Committee.
The awards are presented by the President of India usually in the month of
March/April every year where the awardees are presented a Sanad (certificate)
signed by the President and a medallion.
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The award does not amount to a title and cannot be used

as a suffix or prefix to the awardees’ name.
The total number of awards to be given in a year
(excluding posthumous awards and to
NRI/foreigners/OCIs) should not be more than 120.
The award is normally not conferred posthumously.
However, in highly deserving cases, the Government
could consider giving an award posthumously.
Gallantry Awards:
Gallantry awards are also known as Military Awards. o It
is conferred to army personnel for acts of extreme
valour, courage and self sacrifice while fighting with
enemies.
o Wartime Gallantry Awards in order of merit are :
Param Vir Chakra, Mahavir Chakra and Vir Chakra.
o Peacetime Gallantry Awards in order of merit are:
Ashok Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra.
o They are awarded at different types as war time and peacetime awards. They are
produced at Indian government Mint Of Kolkata.
o These gallantry awards are announced twice in a year - first on the occasion of the
Republic Day and then on the occasion of the Independence Day.
o Peacetime distinguished service awards: Paramt Vishisht Seva Medal, Ati Vishisht
Seva Medal and Vishisht Seva Medal.
o Order of precedence of these awards is the Param Vir Chakra, the Ashoka Chakra,
the Mahavir Chakra, the Kirti Chakra, the Vir Chakra and the Shaurya Chakra.
o Gallantry awards along with some other Defence Distinguished Service awards are
conferred to the awardees/Next-of-Kins (NoKs) by the President at the Defence
Investiture Ceremony held every year at the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
o However, the Param Vir Chakra and the Ashoka Chakra are conferred by the
President to the awardees/NoKs on the occasion of the Republic Day Parade at the
Rajpath.
o Order of precedence of these awards is the Param Vir Chakra, the Ashoka Chakra,
the Mahavir Chakra, the Kirti Chakra, the Vir Chakra and the Shaurya Chakra.
Param vir chakra:
Medal: Circular in shape, made of bronze, one and three eighth inches in diameter
and shall have embossed on the obverse four replicas of "Indra's Vajra" with the
State Emblem embossed in the centre. On its reverse, it shall have embossed
“PARAM VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English with two lotus flowers
between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.
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Ribbon: Plain purple coloured ribbon.

o Bar: If any recipient of the Chakra shall again
perform such an act of bravery as would have made
him or her eligible to receive the Chakra, such further
act of bravery shall be recorded by a Bar to be
attached to the riband by which the Chakra is
suspended, and for every such additional act of
bravery, an additional Bar shall be added, and any
such Bar or Bars may also be awarded posthumously.
Conferred to personnel for act of extreme bravery, valour, courage or self sacrifice
for saving others on front of enemy whether at land, sea or air.
Till date 21 officers have been awarded this Chakra.
The PVC is the equivalent award of the Medal of Honour in the United States, and the
Victoria Cross in the United Kingdom.
One amongst the luminous recipients of this honour was Flying Officer Nirmal Jiit
Singh Sekhon, who was awarded the Param Vir Chakra posthumously in the year
1971. He is the lone Indian Air Force officer to have been honoured with the
Param Vir Chakra till date.
Mahavir Chakra:
Medal: Circular in shape and of standard silver, one and
three eighth inches in diameter, and shall have
embossed on the obverse a five-pointed heraldic star
with the points of the star just touching the rim. The
star shall have in the centre a domed gilded State
Emblem. On the reverse, it shall have embossed
“MAHA VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English
with two lotus flowers between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.
Ribbon: The ribbon is of a half-white and half-orange colour. Conferred to personnel

for act of conspicuous gallantry in front of enemy whether at land, sea or air. Lt
Colonel Dewan Ranjit Rai was first awarded for Indo Pak Kashmir War 1947.
Bar: If any recipient of the Chakra shall again perform such an act of bravery as
would have made him or her eligible to receive the Chakra, such further act of
bravery shall be recorded by a Bar to be attached to the riband by which the Chakra
is suspended, and for every such additional act of bravery, an additional Bar shall
be added, and any such Bar or Bars may also be awarded posthumously. For every
Bar awarded a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when
worn alone.
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Vir Chakra:
Vir Chakra is an Indian gallantry award presented for
acts of bravery on the battlefield.
three eighth inches in diameter, and shall have
embossed on the obverse a five-pointed heraldic star
with the points of the star just touching the rim. The
star shall have in the centre a Chakra and within the
Chakra shall be a domed centre piece bearing the gilded State Emblem. On the
reverse, it shall have embossed “VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English with
two lotus flowers between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.
Ribbon: The ribbon is of half blue and half orange in colour.

Conferred to personnel for act of gallantry in front of enemy whether at land, sea
or air.Subedar Nadikerianda Bheemaiah was first recipient awarded for 1947
Kashmir War.
Bar: If any recipient of the Chakra shall again perform such an act of bravery as
would have made him or her eligible to receive the Chakra, such further act of
bravery shall be recorded by a Bar to be attached to the riband by which the
Chakra is suspended, and for every such additional act of bravery, an additional
Bar shall be added, and any such Bar or Bars may also be awarded posthumously.
For every Bar awarded a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the
riband when worn alone.
Ashoka Chakra:
Medal: Circular in shape, one and three eighth inches in
diameter, with rims on both sides. The medal shall be
of gold gild. On the obverse of the medal shall be
embossed a replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre,
surrounded by a lotus wreath. Along the rim, on the
inner side, shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers
and buds. On its reverse shall be embossed the words
“Ashok Chakra” both in Hindi and English the two versions being separated by
two lotus flowers.
Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into two equal segments by an orange
vertical line.
o The Ashoka Chakra (alternative spelling: Ashok Chakra) is India's highest
peacetime military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or self-
sacrifice away from the battlefield.
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It is the peace time equivalent of the Param Vir Chakra, and is awarded for the "most
conspicuous bravery or some daring or pre-eminent valour or self-sacrifice"
other than in the face of the enemy.
The decoration may be awarded either to military or civilian personnel. Ashok Chakra
is equivalent to US Army's peacetime Medal of Honor and the British George
Cross
Flt. Lt. Suhas Biswas was the first Indian Air Force officer to be awarded the Ashoka
Chakra.
Eligibility:Officers, men and women of all ranks of the Army, the Navy and the Air
Force, of any of the Reserve Forces, of the Territorial Army, Militia and of any
other lawfully constituted forces.
Members of the Nursing Services of the Armed Forces.
Civilian Citizens of either sex in all walks of life and members of Police Forces
including Central Para-Military Forces and Railway protection Force
Kirti Chakra:
three-eighth inches in diameter, with rims on both
sides. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed a
replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre, surrounded
by a lotus wreath. Along the rim, on the inner side,
shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers and buds. On
its reverse shall be embossed the words “KIRTI
CHAKRA” both in Hindi and English, the two versions being separated by two
lotus flowers.
Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into three equal parts by two orange vertical
lines.
The Kirti Chakra is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous
action or self-sacrifice away from the field of battle.
It may be awarded to civilians as well as military personnel, including posthumous
awards.
It is the peacetime equivalent of the Maha Vir Chakra.
Before 1967, the award was known as the Ashoka Chakra, Class II.
o Recommendations received in respect of civilians from the State
Governments/Union territory Administra-tions and Ministries/Departments of the
Central Government are processed by the Ministry of Defence for the consideration
of the Central Honours and Awards Committee chaired by the Defence Minister.
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Shurya Chakra:
Medal: Circular in shape and made of bronze, one and
three-eighth inches in diameter, with rims on both
sides. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed
a replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre, surrounded
by a lotus wreath. Along the rim, on the inner side,
shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers and buds.
On its reverse shall be embossed the words
“SHAURYA CHAKRA” both in Hindi and English, the two versions being
separated by two lotus flowers.
Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into four equal parts by three vertical lines. o
The Shaurya Chakra is an Indian military decoration awarded for valour,
courageous action or self-sacrifice away from the field of battle.
o It may be awarded to civilians as well as military personnel, including posthumous
awards.
It is the peacetime equivalent of the Vir Chakra.
Before 1967, the award was known as the Ashoka Chakra, Class III.
Leadership Awards:
The Gandhi Peace Prize named after Mahatma Gandhi,

is awarded annually by the Government of
India. Instituted in 1995.
As a tribute to the ideals espoused by Gandhi, the
Government of India launched the International
Gandhi Peace Prize in 1995 on the occasion of the
125th birth anniversary of Mohandas Gandhi. This is
an annual award given to individuals and institutions for their contributions
towards social, economic and political transformation through non-violence and
other Gandhian methods. The award carries 1 Crore (10 million) in cash,
convertible in any currency in the world, a plaque and a citation. It is open to all
persons regardless of nationality, race, creed or gender.
A jury consisting of the Prime Minister of India, the Leader of the Opposition in the
Lok Sabha, the Chief Justice of India and two other eminent persons decides the
awardee each year.
First recepeint: Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian politician who served as
the leader of Tanzania, and previously Tanganyika, from 1960 until his retirement
in 1985.
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Art and Culture
o The Indira Gandhi Peace Prize or the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace,
Disarmament and Development is the prestigious award accorded annually by
Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust to individuals or organisations in recognition of
creative efforts toward promoting international peace, development and a new
international economic order; ensuring that scientific discoveries are used for the
larger good of humanity, and enlarging the scope of freedom.
The prize carries a cash award of 2.5 million Indian rupees and a citation. A written
work, in order to be eligible for consideration, should have been published. The
panel constituted by the Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust consists of prominent
national and international personalities including previous recipients. The
recipients are chosen from a pool of national and international nominee.
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship:
The Sahitya Akademi Fellowship is an Indian literary
honour bestowed by the Sahitya Akademi, which is
the Indian National Academy of Letters.
o This honour is reserved for `the immortals of literature'
and limited to twenty-one only at any given time.
o The Akademi states that, "the highest honour
conferred by the Akademi on a writer is by electing
him as its Fellow.
The first Fellow of the Akademi, S. Radhakrishnan, was elected as Fellow in 1968,
fourteen years after the Akademi was constituted. He was appointed "in
recognition of his outstanding contribution to Indian thought and to the tradition of
universal humanism".
The first woman to be elected Fellow was Mahadevi Varma, in 1979,
The Executive Board of the Akademi recommends the names of literary persons to
be elected as Fellows and Honorary Fellows to the General Council. The General
Council, who operates for the period of five years, holds an authority to elect a
fellow based on the recommendation made by the Executive Board.
In 1994, the Akademi began the practice of holding an event called 'Samvad' in
which Fellows read from their work, and each reading was followed by discussions
with a panel of critics and writers.
In addition to twenty-one fellowships to Indian nationals, the Sahitya Akademi has
also instituted three fellowships to international writers and scholars. Honorary
fellowships, Ananda Coomaraswamy Fellowship, Premchand Fellowship.
394
Art and Culture
National Sports Awards:
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna: It is the highest sporting
honour of the Republic of India.
o It is awarded annually by the Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Sports. The recipient(s) is/are selected by a
committee constituted by the Ministry and is honoured
for their "spectacular and most outstanding
performance in the field of sports over a period of four
years" at international level.
As of 2017, the award comprises a medallion, a certificate, and a cash prize of 7.5
lakh (US$11,000). Instituted in 1991–92, consider the performance over a period
of four years.
Not more than two sportspersons nominated for each sports discipline. A twelve-
member committee evaluates the performances of a sportsperson at various
International events like Olympic Games, Paralympic Games, Asian Games, and
Commonwealth Games.
The committee later submits their recommendations to the Union Minister of Youth
Affairs and Sports for further approval.
The first recipient of the award was Chess Grandmaster Viswanathan Anand, who was
honoured for the performance in the year 1991–92. In 2001, sport shooter Abhinav
Bindra, then aged 18, became the youngest recipient of the award. Usually
conferred upon only one sportsperson in a year, a few exceptions have been made
when multiple recipients were awarded in a year.
Dronacharya award :
It is sports coaching honour of the Republic of India. The
award is named after Drona, often referred as
"Dronacharya" or "Guru Drona", a character from the
Sanskrit epic Mahabharata of ancient India.
o Two awards are designated for the lifetime
contribution in coaching where the achievements in
producing "outstanding sportspersons" over a period
of 20 years or more are considered.
It is awarded annually by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. Recipients are
selected by a committee constituted by the Ministry and are honoured to have done
"outstanding and meritorious work on a consistent basis and enabled sportspersons
to excel in international events" over a period of four years.
The award comprises a bronze statuette of Dronacharya, a certificate, ceremonial
dress, and a cash prize of 5 lakh .
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Art and Culture
Instituted in 1985, the award is given only to the disciplines included in the events like
Olympic Games, Paralympic Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games,
World Championship and World Cup along with Cricket, Indigenous Games, and
Parasports.
The first recipients of the award were Bhalachandra Bhaskar Bhagwat (Wrestling),
Om Prakash Bhardwaj (Boxing), and O. M. Nambiar (Athletics), who were
honoured in 1985.
The Arjuna Awards:
The Arjuna awards are given by the Ministry of Youth
Affairs and Sports, Government of India to recognize
outstanding achievement in sports. Started in 1961, the
award carries a cash prize of ₹ 500,000, a bronze statue of
Arjuna and a scroll.
Over the years the scope of the award has been expanded and a
large number of sports persons who belonged to the pre-
Arjuna Award era were also included in the list.
Further, the number of disciplines for which the award is given was increased to
include indigenous games and the physically handicapped category.
The Government revises the criteria for the Arjuna Award over the years. As per the
revised guidelines, to be eligible for the Award, a sportsperson should not only
have had good performance consistently for the previous four years at the
international level with excellence for the year for which the Award is
recommended, but should also have shown qualities of leadership, sportsmanship
and a sense of discipline.
From the year 2001, the award is given only in disciplines falling under the
following categories:
Olympic Games / Asian Games / Commonwealth Games / World Cup / World
Championship Disciplines and Cricket, Indigenous Games, Sports for the
Physically Challenged.
Dhyan Chand Award :
It is the lifetime achievement sporting honour of the Republic of India. The award is
named after Dhyan Chand (1905–79), an Indian field hockey player who scored
more than 1000 goals during a career which spanned over 20 years from 1926 to
1948.
It is awarded annually by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. Recipients are
selected by a committee constituted by the Ministry and are honoured for their
contributions to sport both during their active sporting career and after retirement.
The award comprises a statuette, a certificate, ceremonial dress, and a cash prize of 5
lakh.
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Art and Culture
Instituted in 2002, the award is given only to the

disciplines included in the events like Olympic Games,
Paralympic Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth
Games, World Championship and World Cup along
with Cricket, Indigenous Games, and Parasports.
o The first recipients of the award were Shahuraj Birajdar
(Boxing), Ashok Diwan (Hockey), and Aparna Ghosh
(Basketball), who were honoured in 2002.
Dada Saheb Phalke Awards:
It is India's highest award in cinema. It is presented
annually at the National Film Awards ceremony by the
Directorate of Film Festivals, an organisation set up by
the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
o The recipient is honoured for their "outstanding
contribution to the growth and development of Indian
cinema" and is selected by a committee consisting of
eminent personalities from the Indian film industry.
The Dadasaheb Phalke Award is India's highest award in cinema. It is presented
annually at the National Film Awards ceremony by the Directorate of Film
Festivals, an organisation set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
The award comprises a Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus) medallion, a shawl, and a cash
prize of 1,000,000.
First presented in 1969, the award was introduced by the Government of India to
commemorate Dadasaheb Phalke's contribution to Indian cinema.Phalke (1870–
1944), who is popularly known as and often regarded as "the father of Indian
cinema", was an Indian film-maker who directed India's first full-length feature
film, Raja Harishchandra (1913).
The first recipient of the award was actress Devika Rani, who was honoured at the
17th National Film Awards. As of 2017, there have been 49 awardees. Among
those, actor Prithviraj Kapoor (1971) and actor Vinod Khanna are the only
posthumous recipients.
Questionary:
Which is the highest award given in India?

Briefly define: What is National Sports Awards?
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Art and Culture

࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿t⏖剚 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿uൈൈㅔ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿vᛢ䦍 ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿w⼌ ࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿࿿x测

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or

5888 ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or

23 The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our cultural

Visual Art Performing Art Misc (Art and culture)

23 Introduction Indian culture:

5888 Influence of Geography on Culture:

5888 How Does Earth's Surface Affect Culture?

o The art of making two- or three-dimensional

Cupules at Darakti chattan Rock Cave Painting

23 The realistic rendering of these animals in various moods is

5888 Objective of the seals:

5888 Mohenjo-Daro Seals:

Bison Seal Unicorn Seal

Totem Animal Nude Male Diety

Faience button seal Unicorn seal Zebu Bull Seal (humped)

23 Terracotta representations of human form are crude in the IndusValley.

5888 Indus Valley Sculpture : Bronze Sculptures

Bronze statuette of a girl.

23 Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati :Schools of Sculpture developed in

5888 Gandhara school:

The stupas at Amravati are predominantly made of a distinctive white marble. o

What caused the collapse of the Harappa?

Development of Medieval School:

Sun Temple Konark Laxman Temple Khajuraho

Medieval Sculpture in different regions:

Gyraspur: Maladevi Temple Kandariya Mahadev temple at

Sculptures of Khajuraho(Hindu Temples)

Marriage of Siva and Parvati Ravana shaking mount Kailasa.

King of the Naga and his queen Mahishamurti

East India: Assam

Kamakhya Temple Sculptures carved on the temple

East India: Orissa

Nayika: Ling raja Temple Bhuvneshwar

Mahishasuramardini: Mamlapuram Girigovardhana panel

The figure sculpture of the Pallava is natural in pose and modelling.

Mohini : Chennakeshava Temple, Belur

Hampi: Capital of Vijaynagar

It began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and

"Triumph of labour' by D.P. Roy

‘The Santal Family’ and Young Girl by Ramkinkar Baij

Altogether in a different vein, but an equally expressive work is a bust of a buoyant

What is Medieval Sculpture? Explain Medieval Sculpture in different

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY: Indus Valley Civilisation o

Scholars divide the Vedic period into the earlier

Indians also learnt the art of making well-shaped and

Ashoka attempted to educate his subjects by

ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS o The

The area which lies to the south of the river Krishna

Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression in

Nalanda became a great centre of learning during

Where were the most of the sites of Harappa civilization found?

History and Culture through the Ages:

Describe the political situation of India in medieval

The Town People:

The five fundamental principles of Islam are:

BHAKTI DEVELOPMENT: SAINTS

Who brought Hindu followers to Islam by their attitude of piety,

The system of governance was instituted in 1858

Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in abolishing the

Press and the growth of modern indian languages and literature: o In