Sank Physics

AUDISANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY::GUDUR
DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES

Engineering Physics
UNIT-1
WAVE OPTICS AND FIBER OPTICS
INTERFERENCE
INTRODUCTION:- Optics is a branch of physics which deals with light. The study of
light is divided in to two parts.
1. Geometrical optics
2. Physical optics
Geometrical optics deals with the image formation by optical system. Physical optics
deals with the production, emission and propagation of light, its nature and the study of
the phenomena of interference, diffraction & polarization.
We know that corpuscular theory of Newton satisfactorily explained rectilinear

propagation, reflection and refraction of light. But failed to explain interference
diffraction & polarization, where as Huygens wave theory successfully explained
reflection, refraction, total internal reflection, interference and diffraction.
Huygen’s wave theory:- According to Huygen’s wave theory the disturbance from
the source is propagated in the form of waves through space and the energy is
distributed equally in all directions. At any instant the direction of flow of energy is
perpendicular to the wave front “The locus of all the points which are in the same
phase is called wave front”.
Huygen’s principle:- According to this principle each point of a wave front is act as a
source of secondary wavelets and these spherical secondary wavelets coming from
these point spread out in all directions with the same speed of wave. The envelope of
all these wavelets gives the shape of the new wave front. It is called secondary wave
fronts.
Principal of superposition:- Where two (or) more waves passes through a medium
its particles are effected by each wave independently. At any time the resultant
displacement of a particle is the algebraic sum of the displacements of same particles
due to each waves in the absence of remaining waves. This is the principle of
superposition.
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If the two waves meet at a point with same phase difference then resultant
displacement is maximum, if the two waves meet at a point with phase difference 180 0
(out of phase) the displacement is minimum.
Consider two waves travelling simultaneously in a medium. At any point let y 1 be

the displacement due to one wave at any instant in the absence of the other and y 2 be
the displacement of the other wave at the same instant is the absence of the first wave.
COHERENCE (OR) Coherent Source:- When two light sources emit radiation of
same frequency and same amplitude with constant phase. They are said to be coherent
light sources. The light rays are called coherent light rays i.e. two sources emit
radiations of same colour (or) same wave length at constant phase difference.
Two independent light sources in practice will not satisfy the above conditions two
virtual sources are formed due to a single source are selected and are used as identical
coherent sources.
Interference:-
“The modification of intensity due to the superposition of two or more beams of light” is
called interference.
(Or)
Superposition of two or more coherent waves at a point with in a region of crossover is
known as interference.
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Interference in thin film by reflection:-

(Or)
Interference due to reflection (cosine law) (or) oblique incidence
Consider ABCD is a thin film of refractive index ‘µ’ and of thickness ’t’. Let a ray
is incident on this film obliquely such that making an angle ’i’ with the normal(N) drawn
to the surface of the film at ‘Q’. This ray will be partially reflected (QR1) & partially
transmitted (QS). Let the angle of refraction be ’r’. The second ray transmitted will be
partially reflected & partially transmitted at the lower surface at ‘s’, the reflected light
reaches the upper surface & will be transmitted ‘u’. GU is a normal. From the points G,U
there are two rays which are parallel & have no path difference between them and
these two will interfere and interference fringes are observed along the direction of R1
& R2. But before G & U there will be path difference between ray 1 and 2 i.e. ray 1
travelled a distance in medium.
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Reflected system:- The ray QR1 and UR2 constitute reflected system. To find the
path difference between these reflected rays UG drawn perpendicular to QR1 
  Path difference between them
= (QS+ SU) medium –(QG) air
=  (QS+SU)-QG
[ ∵ QS=SU ]
= (2QS) – (QG) (1)
From the right angled le QUG

QG
sin i =
QU
∵ QU = QF + FU
But QF = FU
QU = 2 QF
¿
righ
¿
¿
¿
[ ]
¿
¿
QG
⇒ sin i =
2 QF
¿
⇒ QG = 2 QF sin i
∵ From Snell ' s law
sin i
μ=
sin r
sin i = μ sin r
¿
righ
¿
[ ¿ ] [ ¿ ] ¿
¿
¿ ¿
¿
⇒QG=2 QF μ sin r →( 2)
From the right angled le QSF
QF QF
tanr = =
SF t
⇒QF=t tan r
Substituting in equation (2)
⇒QG=2 μ t tan r . sin r
⇒QG=2 μ t [ ]
sin 2 r
cos r
−−−−−−−−−−(3)
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From the right angled le QSF
SF t
⇒cos r= =
QS QS
t
⇒QS= −−−−−−−−−−−−−−(4 )
cos r
Substituting equation (3) and (4) in equation (1)
sin2 r
Δ=μ
2t
[ ]
cos r
−2 μt
cosr
2 μt
Δ= [ 1−sin2 r ] =2 μt . cos2 r
cosr cos r
Δ=2 μt cosr
This optical path difference is generally called “cosine law”
At Q the ray is reflected from optically denser medium and hence it suffers a
λ
2
sudden phase change ’’ i.e. an additional path difference of (path increases of
λ
2
).
λ
2 μt cos(r )−
2
Net optical path difference =
λ
Δ=2 μt cosr−
2
(i) Condition for brightness (or) bright band:-
The film will appear bright if the path difference

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2t
⇒ 2μtcosr=(2n+1)
[ ∵constructive int erference ]

Where n=0, 1, 2, 3, - - - - -etc
ii) Condition for dark band
The film will appear dark if the path difference
λ λ
⇒ 2t cos r - 2 = ( 2 n−1 ) 2
2 nλ
cos r=
⇒ 2t 2 where n= 0, 1, 2, 3, - - - - -ect
(Or)
2 μt cosr=nλ Where n = 1, 2, 3, - - - etc

[ ∵ DESTRUCTIVEINTERFERENCE ]
III) When compared to ‘ λ ‘if film thickness is extremely small then 2t cos r can be
neglected
λ
The net path difference Δ = 2t cos r- 2
λ
Δ=
2
Hence destructive interference will occur and the film will appear dark.
Newton’s rings:- (or) Formation of Newton’s Rings
If we place a Plano – convex lens of large radius of curvature on optically plane glass
surface, a thin film of air is formed between the curved surface of the lens and plane
glass plate. The thickness of air film is zero at the point of contact between them and
increases gradually if we move away from that point. When this film is viewed in the
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reflected monochromatic light, due to the interference alternate dark and bright
concentric rings are observed in this film. These are called Newton rings.
Newton’s Rings by reflected light:-

The light from monochromatic source is allowed to fall normally on a film with the help
of a glass plate ‘G’ which is inclined by 45 0 to the incident light on it. In fig (2) ray
( 1 ) (R1) and ray ( 2) ( R 2) are the reflected rays from the upper and lower
surfaces of the film corresponding to the incident ray. These rays (R 1& R2) interfere.
The effective path difference between interfering waves.
λ
Δ=2 μ t cos( r+α )+ −−−−−−−−−−−(1)
2
For normal incidence r=0 (i.e. the angle of refraction) and if the radius of curvature of
the lens is very large then is  is small.
⇒cos α=1 [ ∵ cos 0=1 ]
Then equation (1) can be written as
λ
 = 2t + 2 ------------ (2) [∵ μ=1 for air film ]
At the point of contact ‘0’ (between plate and lens) t=0, then from equation (2)
λ
Δ=
2
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This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence the central part is dark.
Case1:- condition for brightness
If =n [for brightness], then form equation (2)
λ
2 t+ =nλ
2
λ
⇒2 t=(2 n−1)
2
λ
⇒2 t=(2 n−1) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−(3)
2
This is the condition for brightness in reflected system.
Case2:- condition for darkness
λ
(2 n+1)
For this = 2
Hence from equation (2)
λ λ
⇒2 t+ =( 2 n+1)
2 2
λ λ
⇒2 t=nλ+ − ⇒2 t =nλ−−−−−−−−( 4 )
2 2
From equations (3) and (4) the bright or dark fringe of any particular order will occur
for a constant value of ‘t’. If the air film formed between lens and glass plate, thickness
‘t’ remains constant along a circle with its centre at ‘o’ the interference pattern (In
reflected light) is shown is the fig.
Theory of Newton’s rings

Radius of circular bright fringe (or dark fringe)
Let ‘R’ be the radius of Plano convex lens and O is the point of contact of lens and glass
plate. In fig ‘t’ is the thickness of the air film at a distance ‘r’ from ‘o’.
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From property of circle

AG ×GB =GO× GE
r×r =t ×( 2 R− t )
r 2 =2 Rt −t 2
¿
righ
¿
¿
¿
[ ¿ ] [ ¿] [ ¿] ¿
¿
¿
Generally we can write

r 2 =2Rt−t 2
as t is small t 2 can be neglected
⇒r 2=2 Rt
Newton’s Rings in Transmitted light:-
We know that the conditions for brightness & darkness are reversed in this case
compared with previous case (due to reflected light) so in this case the central spot is
bright and the pattern of Newton’s is as shown in the fig.
Determination of wave length of monochromatic light using Newton’s Rings:-
After doing all the adjustments as said earlier, alternate bright & dark rings are
formed with central dark spot. The microscope is focused on these rings. Suppose r m, rn
are the radii of mth and nth dark rings respectively then we can write.
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r 2=Rn λ and
n
r 2 =Rm λ
m
If Dm, Dn are the diameters of the mth & nth dark rings respectively, then
Dn 2
( )
2
=n Rλ and
Dm 2
( )
2
=mR λ
⇒ D 2 =4 nR λ = D 2=4 mR λ
n m
⇒ D 2 −D 2 =4 Rλ( n−m)
n m
D2n −D2m
∴ λ=
4 R (n−m)
With the help of travelling microscope diameters of different rings are measure.
If a graph is plotted between number of rings and square of the corresponding
diameters then the graph is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in the
figure.
From the graph, square of diameters (D 2) of different rings can be estimated and using
the above formula we can find the wave length of monochromatic light used (or) the
radius of curvature of Plano convex lens is determined, if ‘’ is known.
Formulas:-
1. Path difference in reflected system  = 2t cos r
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λ
2 μt cosr=(2 n+1)
2. Condition for Bright band [maximum reflection] 2
3. Condition for dark band [minimum reflection] 2t cos r = n
4. In Newton’s rings radius of bright fringe √

r= R(2 n−1)
λ
2
5. Radius of dark fringe r= √ Rn λ
2 2
Dn −Dm
λ=
6. 4 R(n−m)
PROBLEMS
Ex: 1. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 and thickness 5000A0 is exposed to white
light what wavelengths in the visible region are reflected?
λ
2 μt cos r=(2 n+1)
Sol: - The condition for maximum reflection is given by 2 where n
= 0, 1, 2, 3, ----- Given t = 5000A0 = 500010-10m
 = 1.33
Let us assume cos r = 1.
−10
4 μt 33×5000 × ¿
λ= =4×1.
( 2 n+1 ) ( 2 n+1 )
Then ¿
−10
26600×10 m
λ=
2 n+1
When n=0: λ1 =26600×10−10 m (I.R region)
−10
26600×10
n=1 : λ 2= =8866 . 7×10−10 m (I . R )
3
26600×10−10
λ3 = =5320×10−10 m(visible )
n=2 : 5
−10
26600×10
n=3 : λ 4 = =3800×10−10 (uvregion)
7
Of all wave lengths reflected 5320 A0 is the wave length in the visible region.
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Ex:-2 : A soap film of refractive index 4/3 and of thickness 1.5 10-4 cm is illuminated
by white light incident an angle of 600. The light reflected by it is examined by a
spectrometer in which is found a dark band corresponding to a wave length of 510-5
cm. Calculate the order of interference of the dark band?
Sol:- For a dark band 2t cos r=n

2 μt cos r
n=
i.e. λ
sin i
μ=
given i=600. Hence sin r
0
sin i sin 60 0 . 8660
⇒ sinr = = = =0 . 6511
μ 1. 33 1. 33
i.e r = 40.6
cos r = 0.759
−6
2×1. 33×1 .5×10 ×0 . 759
n=
5×10−7
Hence
n = 6.072
n = 6.
Ex: 3 A parallel beam of light  = 5890 A0, is incident on a glass plate ( = 1.5) such
that angle of refraction into glass plate is 60 0. Calculate the smallest thickness of the
plate which will make it appear dark by reflection.
[t = 3927A0]
Ex:4 calculate the thickness of air film at 10th dark ring in a Newton’s rings system
viewed normally by a reflected light of wave length 500 nm. The diameter of the 10 th
dark ring is 2 mm.
Dn 2 =4 nR λ
2
Dn2 ( 2×10 )
−3
(or ) R= =
Sol: we know 4 nλ 4×10×500×10−9
R=0.2 m
The thickness of the film at 10th dark ring is given by
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2
Dn
2t= 4 R
−3 2
Dn 2 ( 2×10 ) 4×10−6
t= = =
8R 8×R 8×0 . 2
−6
t=2. 5×10 m ⇒ t=2 . 5 μm
Ex:5 In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 15 th ring was found to be 0.59 cm
and that of 5th ring is 0.336 cm. If the radius of curvature of lens is 100 cm. find the
wave length of the light.
2 2
λ=
D −D n m
Sol: 4( n−m) R
Given D5=0.336 cm =0.33610-2m
D15 = 0.59 cm = 0.5910-2m
Therefore n=15;m=5
R=100 cm =1 m
2 2
( 0 . 59×10−2 ) −( 0 .336×10−2)
=
Hence  4×10×1
2 2
0 . 59 −0 .336
λ= ×10−4
40
−4
0 . 926×0−254×10
λ= =0 .588×10−6 m
40
λ=588 nm
Ex:6 Newton’s rings are observed in the reflected light of wave length 5900A 0. The
diameter of 10th dark ring is 0.5 cm. find the radius of curvature of the lens used?
Sol:- Dn =√ 4 nR λ
D 2=4 nR λ
n
D 2n
R=
4 nλ
Given n=10: D10 =0.5 cm =0.510-2 m
=5900 A0 =590010-10 m
2
( 0 . 5×10−2 )
R=
Hence 4×10×5900×10−10
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R=1.059 m
Ex:7 Newton’s rings are formed with reflected light of wave length 5.89510-5 cm with a
liquid between the plane and the curved surface. The diameter of the 5 th dark ring is
0.3 cm and the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 100 cm calculate the
refractive index of the liquid?
2
Dn nλ
= :μ=1 .310
Sol:- For nth dark ring 4R μ
Ex:8 In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 10 th ring changes from 1.40
cm to 1.27 cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate the
refractive index of the liquid?
Sol:- Diameter of nth dark ring is given by
4 nR λ 4 nR λ 1/2
D 2=
n μ
(or ) D n = ( μ )
4×10×R× λ 1/2
D=1 . 40×10 = −2
1 ( )( μ=1 forair )
4×10×R× λ 1/2
1
D =1. 27×10 = −2
μ ( )
1.4 1.4 2
Hence 1 . 27
=μ 1/2
( or) μ=
1. ( )
27
=1 .215
Previous Examination Questions
1. Explain the principle of superposition of waves
2. a) Explain the phenomenon of interference
b) What are the necessary conditions for obtaining interference fringes.

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c) Give the analytical treatment of interference of light and hence obtain the condition
maximum and minimum intensity
3. Describe the interference pattern obtained due to super position of coherent

sources?
4. (a) Define interference of light
(b) Define and explain the phenomenon of interference of light
5. With ray diagram discuss the theory of thin films and the condition for constructive
and destructive interference in case of reflected system.
6. Discuss the theory of Newton’s rings with relevant diagram?
7. Explain how Newton’s rings are formed in the reflected light?
8. Derive the expressions for the diameters of dark and bright rings?
DIFFRACTION
Introduction:- The bending of a wave front around on obstacle and deviation from
a rectilinear path is called diffraction. It is a common characteristic of all kinds of
waves.
The main cause of diffraction is limiting of wave front by an obstacle or an

aperture. The diffraction effects are observable and obtained when dimensions of
obstacles or aperture are comparable with wave length of waves concerned we can
easily get sound diffracted at obstacles of moderate dimensions. Since the wave
length of sound is large but in the case of light waves, it is not common to easily
observe the diffraction because the wave length is very small.
The diffraction is actually due to the mutual interference of secondary

wavelets originating from various points of the wave front which are not blocked
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by the obstacle or slits. That means diffraction is resultant effect produced by a

limited portion of waves front.
EXPLANATION:-1
‘S’ is a source of light, A B is an obstacle [opaque object], C D is a screen, as light

passes over AB it forms the shadow PQ of AB on the screen, According to
rectilinear propagation of light the shadow PQ should be completely dark and
regions above P and Q should be bright.
But on careful examination inside the shadow
a) The centre ‘o’ of the shadow is found to be bright i.e. ‘o’ is a bright band (or)
spot.
b) The central bright spot is surrounded by alternate bright and dark rings.
Hence there is spreading of light into the geometric shadow this property of light is
called diffraction
Example:-2
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S is a source of Monochromatic light, MN is an aperture, XY is the screen, AB is

the illuminated portion on the screen. Beyond A&B there is geometrical shadow;
because of the diffraction phenomena the shadow produced is not bright.
Diffraction effects are observed and obtained only when dimensions of obstacle
[slit (or) aperture] are comparable with wave length of light.
Definition:- “The spreading of wave into geometric shadow region when it passes
through a narrow openings (or) edge of an obstacle is known as diffraction “ and
the intensity distribution on the screen is known as diffraction pattern.
(Or)
The encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow when light passed
through narrow openings (or) fall on edges of obstacles is known as diffraction.
Example:-
1. The silver lining surrounding profile of the mountain just before sunrise.
2. The light noticed while looking a strong source of light with half covered
eye lids.
3. Coloured spectra that once seen while viewing the distance source of light
through a fine piece of cloth.
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4. X-ray diffraction through human body.
Classification of diffraction:- Basically the diffraction is classified into two types

they are
1. Fresnel’s diffraction
2. Fraunhoffer’s diffraction
1. Fresnel’s diffraction:- In this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed
at finite distance from the diffraction aperture, No lenses are used to make the
rays parallel, The incident wave front is either spherical or cylindrical. This
diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light.
2. Fraunhoffer’s diffraction:- In this class of diffraction the source and screen
are placed at infinite distance, lenses are used for focusing purpose. The
incident wave front is a plane wave front. This diffraction can be studied in any
direction.
3. Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit:- Consider ‘AB’ be a narrow slit of
width ’e perpendicular to the plane of the paper, let a plane wave front of
monochromatic light of wave length ' λ' propagating normally through the slit
be incident on it. The diffracted light be focused on the screen by convex lens,
The secondary wave lets travelling normal to the slit are brought to focus at p0.
p0 is the central bright image, the secondary wave lets which are making an
angle ‘ θ ’ with the normal are focused at p1. On the screen XY. The point p1 is
off minimum or maximum intensity depending upon the path difference
between the secondary waves coming from the corresponding point of the wave
front.
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To find the intensity at P1 draw a normal AC to the line BR as shown in the

figure. The path difference between the secondary wave lets from A and B in the
direction ‘ θ ’ i.e. BC= e sin θ
Corresponding phase difference

2π
= λ x path difference
In Δ ABC
BC
sin θ=
AB
BC = AB sin θ
BC =e sin θ
¿
righ
¿
2π ¿
×e sin θ ¿
[ ¿] [ ¿ ] [ ¿ ] ¿
= λ ¿
¿
If the width of the slit is divided into ‘ n’ equal parts ‘ a ’ is the amplitude of
each wave from each part, then the phase difference between any two
consecutive waves from these points .
1 1
= n [Total phase] = n
[ 2π
λ
×e sin θ ] = d [say]
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We Know that the resultant amplitude of ‘n’ Simple harmonic

nd
a sin
2
d
sin
Waves is R = 2 [formula]
Substituting ‘d’ value in above equations
R=
a sin
[ πe sin θ
λ ]
sin
[ πe sin θ
nλ ] [ ∴
nd n 1 2 π
= ,
2 2 n λ [ ]
e sin θ =
πe sin θ
λ ]
πe sin θ
=α
Put λ
a sin α
R=
α α
sin
α
()
n = if
α
n is small then
sin
n
=
n ()
a sin α na sin α
∴ R= =
α α
n
R= A
[ ]
sin α
α (1) [ na=A where A is the amplitude of
incident light]
2
Intensity
I=R =A
sin α
α
2 2
[ ] (2)
Condition for principal maximum (or) central maximum :-
Equation (1) can be written as
[ ]
3 5
A α α
R= α − + −−−−−−−
α 3! 5 ! [Expansion for sin α ]
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[ ]
2 4
A α α
R= 1− + −−−−−−−−
α 3! 5 !
In the above equation if ¿ =0 then R=A means R is maximum ,means the

secondary wave lets which are travelling normal to the slit will be focused at Po,
the resultant amplitude at that point is maximum.
Hence the intensity I = R2 =A2 = maximum
This maximum is known as principal maximum

∴ if α =0
πe sin θ
= 0 :sin θ=0
λ
θ =0
¿
righ
¿
¿
¿
[¿ ] [¿ ]¿
¿
¿
Condition for minimum intensity :-
In eq (2) if sin α=0, thenI=0
This is possible if α=±π ,±2 π ,±3 π −−−−−−−±mπ
πe sin θ
=±mπ +e sinθ=±mλ
Where m=1,2,3------------(or) λ
Where m=1,2,3---------
Thus we obtained the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal
maximum, for m=0 ,sin θ=0 which corresponds to principal maximum.
Condition for secondary maxima:- The position of secondary maxima can be

obtained by using the rule of maxima and minima of the given function. In
accordance tom that we can write
dI
=0
dα
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[ [ ]]
2
dI d 2 sin α
= A =0
dα dα α
⇒ A2
α [
2 sin α α cos α−sin α
α2
=0
]
[I.e. it leads to the condition for minimum intensity]
α cos α −sin α
=0
In the above equation either sin α=0 (or) α2
Here sin α=0 is not acceptable admissible because for this intensity is zero,
There -fore position of secondary maxima are given by
α cos α −sin α
⇒ =0
α2
⇒ α cos α −sin α=0
sin α
⇒ α=
cosα ⇒∴(α=tan α )
The value of ‘ ’satisfying the above equations are obtained graphically by

α
plotting the curves by taking y=α andy=tan α on the same graph as shown in fig
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The points of intersection of the two curves given the values of which satisfies the
equation.
3π 5 π
0,± ,± −−−−−−−−
α=tan α . the points of intersection are 2 2
We know that α=0 given principle maxima

3π 5π 7π
α=± ,± ,± −−−−−−−−
2 2 2 points has secondary maxima
α=0 =I0= A2 ( principal maximum )
2
[ ]
3π
sin( ) 2
=
A2 I0
=
3π 3π 22 22
α= 2
2 =I1= A 2
[1st secondary max]
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2
[ ]
5π
sin( ) 2 A2 I0
= =
5π 5π 62 62
α= 2
2 =I2= A2 [ 2nd secondary max]
From the above expression it is evident that most of the incident light is
concentrated in the principal maximum (I=A2)
Intensity distribution graph:-
The fog shows graph between intensity (I) and α values from graph we can say
that diffraction pattern consists of central maxima occurring in the direction of
incident planes and there are subsidiary maxima of decreasing intensity on either
sides of principal maxima at positions.
3π 5π
α=± ,± −−−−−−
2 2 Between subsidiary maxima
α=±π ,±2 π ,±3 π−−−−−−−
There are minima at
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Diffraction grating:- A glass plate with a very large number of closely spaced
parallel lines (about 6000 per cm) scrapped across it. They are used to produce a
spectrum , and thus analyse, a given light for the various wave lengths present in it.
Let ‘e’ be the width of the line and‘d’ be the width of the slit. Then (e+d) is known
as grating element, If ‘N’ is the number of lines per inch on the grating then,
N (e+d)=1” =2.54 cm
2 .54
e+d= N cm
There will be nearly 30,000 lines per inch of a grating. Due to the above fact, the
width of the slit it very narrow and is comparable to wave length of light. When
light falls on the grating the light gets diffracted through slit. As a result both
diffraction and interference of diffracted light gets enhanced and forms a
diffraction pattern, known as diffraction spectrum.
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Gratting spectrum:-
“The diffraction pattern formed with a grating is called grating spectrum”
The condition to form the principal maxima in a grating is given by

( e+ d ) sin θ=mλ . Where m=1,2,3---------- where (e+d) is the grating element and
the above equation is known as grating equation. If the number of lines in the
grating is very larger, then the maxima are sharp and bright. Lines parallel to the
grating lines called spectral lines. Different order bright lines are formed on both
sides of central maximum. Instead of monochromatic light if white light is used,
then light of different wavelengths are diffracted in different directions for each
order of diffraction as shown in figure.
For white light for particular order of n, the light of different wave lengths will be
0
diffracted in different direction at the centre θ=0 which gives the maximum of
all wavelengths which coincides to form the central image of the same colors that
of the light source this forms zero order, the principal maxima of all wavelengths
form the first , second-------order spectra for n=1,2,------
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The longer the wavelength, greater is the angle of diffraction. Thus the spectrum
consists of violet being in the inner most position and red being in the outer most
position. Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of
zero order. The maximum number of orders available with the grating is
( e +d )
nmax =
λ
Formulae
2π
×¿
λ
1 . Phase diff = path difference¿
2 . The condition for principal maximum in a Grating is (e+d) sin θ =
nλ
3 . The maximum number of orders available with the grating
( e +d )
nmax =
λ
1 1
( e+d )=
4 . N = e+d = N
PROBLEMS
1. A plane transmission grating having 4250 lines per cm is illuminated with a
sodium light normally. In the second order spectrum, the spectral lines are
deviated by 300, what is the wave length of the spectral line?
Sol:- N=4250 lines/cm

0
θ=30 ;n=2
(e+ d )sin θ=nλ
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1 1
=2 .353×10−4 cm
Each slit width (e+d) = N = 4250
−4 0
⇒2 .353×10 ×sin30 =2×λ
0
∴ λ=5882 A
2. A source of light having a wavelength of 600nm is incident on a slit with a width of 1

μ m. find the angular separation between the first order minima and central maxima of
either side.
Sol:- λ=600 nm=600×10−9 m

−6
e+d =1 μ m = 1×10 cm:n=1
nλ
sin θ=nλ=sin θ=
(e+d) ( e+ d )
⇒θ=sin−1
[ ]
nλ
e+ d
=sin−1 (0. 6 )=36 0 521
3. A plane grating having 10520 lines per cm is illuminated with light having a wavelength
of 5x10-5 cm at normal incidence. How many orders are visible in the grating spectra?
Sol:- N=10520 lines/cm

−5
θ=90 : λ=5×10 cm
1 1
⇒ ( e+d ) = = =9 . 506×10−5
N 10520
( e+ d ) sin θ 9 . 506×10−5 ×sin 90 0
⇒n= =
λ 5×10−5
⇒n=1 .901=2 ⇒n=2
In this grating two orders can be seen
4. A grating has 6000 lines/cm, find the angular separation between two wave lengths of
500 nm and 510 nm in the 3rd order.
Sol:- N = 6000x 102 m lines/cm = 6000x102 m

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n=3 : λ=500nm
⇒ ( e +d ) sin θ=nλ
1
nλ ∴ e +d =
N
⇒sin θ1 = =3×6000×10 2×500×10 N=
1
( e +d ) e+ d
¿
righ
−9 ¿
¿ ⇒ sinθ 1=0. 9 ⇒θ 1=sin−1 ( 0 . 9)=640 91 ¿¿ ¿
¿
[¿ ]¿
¿ ¿
¿¿¿ ¿
nλ
⇒sin θ 2= =3×6000×102 ×510×10−9
(e +d )
⇒sin θ 2=0 . 918 ⇒θ 2=sin −1 (0 . 918)
⇒θ 2=66 0 381
Angular separation between two wavelengths third
Order = θ2 −θ1
=660 381− 640 9

1
¿ ¿ ¿¿ ¿=2 0 291 ¿¿
5. Find the highest order that can be seen with a grating having 15000 lines/inch. The wave
length of the light used is 600 nm.
−9
Sol:- λ=600 nm=600×10 m
1
N= =15000
e +d lines/inch
15000
=5906
= 2. 54 lines/cm
2
=5906×10 m
e+ d 1
nmax = =
λ Nλ
1
nmax =
5906×102 ×600×10−9
Engineering Physics
OPTICAL FIBER
Introduction:-
Optical fibre:- An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide system through which optical signals
are transmitted through longer distance. The light travels through optical fiber by the principle of
“Total Internal Reflection” (TIR).
Principle of optical fibre (or) principle of total internal reflection:-

Consider any two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 such that n1>n2. Let a light ray AO
travelling from the medium n1 is incident at an angle ‘i’. Let ‘r’ be the angle of refraction in
medium n2.
If i=C and r=900 then apply Snell’s law. We get
 n1 sin i=n 2 sin r

⇒n 1 sinθ c=n2 sin 900
n
sin θc = 2
n1
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θc =sin−1
[]
n2
n1
Where c is called critical angle.
From the above figures
1. When i<c the light ray refracts into medium n2 as shown in fig (1).
2. When i=c the light ray travels along the boundary of two media as shown in
fig (2).
3. When i>c the ray totally reflects back into same medium n1 as shown in fig (3).
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. The extra ordinary feature of TIR is
that there will be no loss of energy during every reflection. Hence the information is
carried through longer distances through optical fibers with no loss.
Construction and description of optical fiber:- The optical fiber mainly consists of 5 parts as
shown in figure. They are
1. Core
2. Cladding
3. Silicon coating and buffer jacket
4. Strength material
5. Outer jacket
Core: - This is in the inner part of optical fiber. This is a cylindrical material which is made up of
pure glass (or) plastic with high quality. Its thickness is around 50 m. Its refractive index is
denoted by n1.
Cladding: - Cladding is a cylindrical part surrounding the core. It is also made up of glass or
plastic like core but with less refractive index. It’s refractive index is denoted by n 2. (n1>n2). The
thickness of cladding is around 100 to 150 m.
Silicon coating: - Silicon coating is provided around cladding to improve transmission of light
signal. Buffer jacket protects the optical fiber from the moisture.
Strength material: - This provides toughness and strength to the optical fibre and makes it
flexible.
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Outer jacket: The total optical fiber is covered by black poly urethane outer jacket. Because of
this, optical fiber cable will not be damaged during pulling, bending or rolling.
Based on the material of the core and cladding optical fibres are two types
1. Glass fiber
2. Plastic fibre
Glass fiber:if the optical fibres are made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides and silica glases then
it is called Glass fibre.The most common material used in glass fibre is silica whose refractive
index is 1.458 at 850nm.
To produce core and cladding of slightly different refractive indices ,either florenen or
various oxides such as B2O3,GeO2 or P2O5 are added to silica.
Ex:1. GeO2-SiO2 core; SiO2 Cladding
2. P2O5- SiO2 core; SiO2 Cladding
Optical fibres are also made of silicates like soda -lime silicates, germane silicates and various
borosilicates.
Plastic fibre: plastic fibers are usually made of plastics which are of low cost.
Ex:1.A polystyrene core(n1=1.60) and a methylmethacrylate cladding (n2=1.49)
2. A polymethylmethacrylate core(n1=1.49) and a cladding made of co polymer(n2= 1.40)
The plastic fibers can be handled without special care due to their toughness and durability
Classification (or) types of optical fibers:- Optical fibers are classified depending on refractive
index and the mode of transmission.
Depending upon refractive index they are classified into two types.
1. Step index fiber
2. Graded index fiber.
Depending upon the mode of transmission they are divided into two types. They are
1. Single mode fiber.
2. Multimode fiber.
Classification of optical fiber on the basis of refractive index Profile:
Step index fibre:- In step index fiber the entire core has uniform refractive index and undergoes
a sudden step change at the cladding boundaries. Since the refractive index profile is in the form
of a step, these fibers are called step index fibers.
In single mode step index optical fiber a single ray enters into the fiber and travels in a single
path and form the output signal. The input signal matches with output signal. The core diameter
is about 8 - 10m. There is only one specific direction for the propagation of light. The
transmission of light is by total internal reflection. So, it is a reflective type optical fiber. Lasers
are used as light source.. The light signal travel through core medium in the form of meridonial
rays. These fibers are used in submarine system
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The transmission of light signal in a step index fibre is shown in the above fig. The light rays
travel linearly along the axis of fibre. A step index fibre is less expensive than other types of
fibre.
Multimode step index optical fiber:
In multimode step index fiber width of core is large. Signals are in the form of pulses
representing 0’S and 1’S.The signals travel in different paths. At the receiving end Ray (1)
reaches first which travels along the fiber axis than Ray(2) which travels zig-zag after some time
delay. Due to path difference between the light rays they superimposed to form the output signal
and the signals are overlapped. There by the signals get distorted known as intermodal
dispersion. The propagation of light ray is due to multiple reflections so it is called reflective
type optical fiber. The light rays travel through the core is the form of meridonial rays.
The number of possible propagation modes in the core is called V – number.

2π
It is given by V= a(NA)
λ
where a = radius of core
NA = numerical aperture
 = wavelength of light
The number of modes through step index fiber is V 2 /2
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Disadvantages
 In multimode step index optical fiber it is different to retrive the information carried by the
distorted output signal.
 Intermodel dispersion occurs in the fiber which reduces the transmission rate and capacity of
the fiber.
 No focusing of light takes place.
 Attenuation is more.
 Signal distortion is more.
Graded index fibre:-

Q. Explain why graded index optical fiber is of refractive type.
In graded index fibre the refractive index of the core changes in a parabolic manner. i.e.,
the refractive index is maximum at the centre of the core and decreases gradually and is
minimum at the boundary of the core and cladding. The light signals travel in a helical or spiral
manner as shown in the figure.
The light ray bends away from the normal and finally bends towards the axis and moves towards
the core – cladding interface at the bottom, again it bends in the upward direction. Thus the light
takes sinusoidal path due to refraction. This fiber is of refractive type.
When two light rays (1) and (2) making different angles with the axis enter into the fiber, they
adjust their velocities and came to focus at the same time. Thus, there is no intermodal
dispersion.
The output signal matches with the input signal.The number of possible modes through graded
2
V
index fiber is 4 where V is V-number (put of parameter)
Advantages:
 There is no intermodal dispersion.
 It is easy to be retrieve data from the signals.
 Signal distortion is very low.
 Refocusing of light rays takes place.
 Attenuation is less
 The transmission rate and the capacity of the fiber is more.
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Disadvantages:
 Numerical Aperture is less
Difference between single of mode and multimode optical fiber:
Single mode Multi mode

1. Supports only one modeof light 1. Many mode of propagation of light
2. Diffraction of R.I of core and cladding is less 2. Large
3. Diameter of core 8-10um 3. Diameter of core 50 – 200m.
4. No. signal distortion& dispersion 4. There is signal distortion
5. Launching of light is difficult 5. Launching of light is Easy
6. Fabrication of the fiber is difficult 6. Fabrication of the fiber is Easy
7. V- number ≤ 2. 405 7. V- number 2.405.
Comparison between step index fibre and graded index fibre
Step index fibre Graded index fibre

1. The refractive index of core is 1. The refractive index of core varies
uniform throughout core and radially. (Parabolic manner
undergoes sudden step change at the throughout the fibre.
boundary of core and cladding.
2. The diameter of core is about 100m 2. The diameter of the core is about
in case of multimode fibre and about 50m in case of multimode fibre .
10m in case of single mode fibre.
3. The light rays propagate through it in 3. The light rays propagate through it in
the form of meridonial rays. the form of skew rays (or) helical
rays.
4. Signal distortion is more. 4. Signal distortion is very low.
5. Attenuation is more. 5. Attenuation is less.
6. Numerical aperture is more. 6. Numerical Aperture is less.
Expain Aceptance angle(or) Acceptance cone with numerical aperture:

Definition: - It is defined as the maximum angle of incidence of light ray from air into the
core such that it travels throughout the core and cladding medium.
Explanation:-Consider a part of an optical fiber as shown in the figure let n0,n1 and n2 be
the refractive indices of air, core and cladding respectively . Let AO be the light ray
Engineering Physics
Which is travelling from air and is incident at the core at an angle of 0, the light undergoes
the refraction into the core. Let r be the angle of refraction as shown in the fig. Let OB be
the refracted ray, the ray OB again incident at the boundary of core and cladding at an
angle of 1.
From the fig. from triangle OBC
r+1+900=1800
r=90-1  (1)
1=90-r
If 90-r is equal to the critical angle then the refracted ray OB travels along the boundary of
core and cladding as shown in the above fig.
At the point ‘O’ applying Snell’s law
n0 sin θ 0 =n1 sin θr →( 2 )
n1
sin θ0 =
( )
n0
sin θr
Applying Snell’s law at point B. we have

n1 sin θ1 =n2 sin 900
n
⇒ sin θ1 = 2
n1
√ √
n 22 n 2 −n
1 22
cos θ1 = √ 1−sin θ1 = 1− 2
2
=
n1 n
12
From (2)
n0 sinθ 0 =n1 sin ( 90−θ1 )
⇒n 0 sin θ0 =n1 cos θ1
√ n12−n22
⇒n 0 sin θ0 =
( n1 ) n1
√n 12−n22
⇒sin θ 0=
n0
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⇒θ 0=sin−1
√ n1 2−n22
n0
Here 0 is called acceptance angle.
Acceptance cone:
Rotating the acceptance angle about the fibre axis we get a cone that cone is called
Acceptance cone. The light which is incident with in the cone is accepted by the optical
fibre.
Numerical Aperture:-[NA]
It is defined as the light gathering (collecting) capacity of an optical fiber. Numerically it
is equal to the sine of acceptance angle.
NA= sin ( acceptace angle)=sin(θ0 )
NA=
[
sin sin −1
√ n12−n22
n0 ]
√n12−n22
NA= n0
Fractional change in refractive index:-[]:-
It is defined as the ratio of difference of refractive indices of core and cladding to
refractive index of the core.
n1 −n2
Δ=
n1
⇒n 1−n2= Δn1
1 √
n 2 −n 2
2
n0 =1
NA= n0
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√ 1 22
⇒ NA = n 2 −n
⇒ NA =√ ( n1 + n2 )( n1−n2 )
If n1 ≃n2
NA= √ 2 n1 Δn 1
NA=n1 √2 Δ
Explain Optical fibers in communication system with suitable diagram:-

Optical fiber communication is the transmission of information by an optical signal through
optical fibers over long distance. The system mainly consists of the following parts as shown in
the following fig. They are
1. Encoder
2. Transmitter
3. Optical fibre (or) wave guide
4. Receiver
5. Decoder
1. Encoder:- It is an electronic system that converts analog information like voice, picture etc.
into binary data.
2. Transmitter:- It consists of two parts. There are
 Electric circuit
 Light source
Electric circuit:- It supplies electric signals to the information coming from encoder these
signals are converted into light signals by the light source, these light signals are fed to the
optical fibre.
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3. Optical fibre:- It is a wave guide which carries the information in the

form of light signals through long distances.
4. Receiver:- It consists of two parts namely
 Photo detector
 amplifier
The photo detector converts the light signals received from the wave guide and converts into
electrical signals. The amplifier amplifies the electrical signals to suitable levels and feeds them
to the decoder.
5. Decoder:- It converts the received electrical signals into analog information.
Advantages of optical fibres in communication system:-

a) Wider band width:-A large no of signals can be transmitted at the same time.
b) Low loss: - In optical fibres the loss during transmission is very very less; repeaters (or) boosters
have to be used for every 1000 km.
c) Good Insulation: - Optical fibres are electrically insulators and they are not affected by
lightening, storms etc.
d) Less weight:- Because they are light in weight and small in size and flexible, Optical fibres are
useful than copper cables.
e) Long life:- Optical fibres have longer life, less maintenance, low cost and high quality in
transmission.
Attenuation (or) Losses in Optical fibres:-
Attenuation is loss of power in an optical signal as it propagates through the fiber. It is
called fiber loss.
Attenuation loss= -10 log

[ ]
Pout
Pin
dB
where
Pin= power launched on optical fibre
Pout=power emerged out of optical fibre.
Fiber losses are three types. They are

1. Distortion loss
2. Transmission loss
3. Radiation loss
1. Distortion loss: - When an optical signal propagates through the fibre from one end to other
end, the input signal will not be same as output signal. This is because of the difference in the
refractive index of the core medium. This is called distortion.
2. Transmission loss:- This is of two types
They are 1. Absorption loss 2. Scattering loss
1. Absorption loss: - Every material in nature absorbs few wave length of light when light falls
on it. In the same way the core of the optical fibre also absorbs few wave lengths of optical
signal when it passes through it.
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2. Scattering loss: - Since there is no ideal crystal in nature, every crystal has certain defects in
it; an optical fibre is made up of glass when light signal passes through it. The light signals
are scattered by the defects in the core material.
3. Radiation loss (or) Bending loss:- This loss is due to bending of fibre. When the fibre
cables are bent for more turns then fluctuations happen in the light signal and the signals
escape from the fibre cables. This loss can be removed by coveringS the optical fibre by
suitable sheath .
Applications of optical fibres:-

1. Sensors: - Optical fibres can be used as sensors in some devices to sense certain things like
pressure, voltage (or) current. The information is then given to a processor.
2. Data link: - They are used in the data communication as they perform good than metal
cables. Using optical fibres there will be no cross talk etc.
3. Local Area networks: - Optical fibres are used in local area networks through which
information can be exchanged very fast.
Medical Applications:-
1. Optical fibres are used in endoscope to view the internal parts of human body.
2. The functioning of heart, respiratory system and pancreas can be investigated.
3. They are used in the treatment of ulcers and cancers.
Fibre Optic Medical endoscope:-
Fibre optic medical endoscopy is used to provide direct images of internal parts of the
body. This technique can also be used to remove particles and inject fluids into the body. This
instrument can be used to view the intestine, stomach, heart and lungs.
Formulae: -
sini
n=
1. Snell’s law:- sin r where i= angle of incidence
r= angle of refraction
2. ⇒n 1 sini =n2 sin r
3. i+r=900
4. n1>n2 where n1= refractive index of core
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n2= refractive index of cladding
5.
θc =sin−1
[] n2
n1
6.
θ0 =sin
−1
[ √ n12−n 22
no ]
7. NA=sin (θ0 )
NA=
√ n12−n 22
8. no
n1 −n2
Δ=
9. n1
10. NA=n1 √2 Δ
Problems
1) Find the  of an optical fibre if the refractive index of core and cladding are 1.563 and 1.498
respectively.
n1 −n2 1 .563−1. 498
Δ= ⇒ =0. 041
Sol:- n1 1. 563
2) Find the acceptance angle of a fibre having the refractive indices 1.563 and 1.498
respectively.
−1 √ 1
n 2 −n 2
2
θ0 =sin
n 2
Sol:- 0
n0=refractive index of air =1

−1
0=acceptance angle =
sin √ n12−n22
sin−1 √(1.563 )2−(1.498 )2 =260 491
3) An optical fibre has a core of refractive index 1.55 and cladding material of 1.50 where the
light is launched from air in to the fibre. Find NA.
Sol:- √
NA= n 2 −n 2
1 2
⇒ √(1.55 )2 −(1 .5)2

=0 . 39
4) An optical fibre acceptance angle is 260 81. Calculate its numerical aperture
0 1
Sol:- NA=sin ( θ0 )=sin (26 8 )=0 . 45
5) An optical fibre has refractive indices 1.53 and 1.42 respectively. Find the critical angle of
core and cladding.
Sol:- n1=1.53
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n2=1.42
θc =sin−1
[]
n2
n1
θc =sin−1
0
[ ]
1. 42
1. 53
1
θc =68 . 14
6) A light ray enters the core of refractive index 1.55 from a medium of refractive index 1.6 at
an angle of incidence of 600 .Calculate the angle of refraction at the interface.
Sol: - Apply Snell’s law
n0 sin i=n1 sin θ1
0
1. 6 sin 60 =1 .55 sin θ1
1. 6 √ 3
× =sin θ1
1 . 55 2
θ1 =630 381
7) An optical fibre has NA 0.2 and cladding refractive index is 1.59. Find the acceptance angle
of the fibre in water which has refractive index 1.33.
Sol: - NA=1.2
n2=1.59
n0=1.33
n1=?
2
√n1 2 −n22 2
n 2−n
1 2
2 n 2 −(1 . 59)
1
⇒( 0 . 2) ⇒ ⇒
n0 n 2 ( 1 .33 )2
NA= 0
⇒0 . 04 (1 . 33)2 ⇒ n 2 −( 1 .59 )2
1
n 2 ⇒ 0 . 04( 1 .33 )2 +(1 . 59)2
1
n 2=2 . 25 n1=1 . 61
1
θ0 =sin−1 (NA )
¿ sin−1 (0 . 2)
¿ 110 . 531
8) The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is 0.39. If the difference in refractive indices of its
core and cladding is 0.05. Then find refractive index of core.
Engineering Physics
Sol: - NA=0.39
n1 −n2 =0 . 05
n1 =?
√ n12−n22 =0 .39 but n0 =1
n0
√
NA= n 2 −n
1 22
⇒ √ (n1 + n2 )(n1−n2 )=0 . 39
(0 . 39)2
(n1 + n2 )= n2 =1. 494
0 . 05
⇒ n1 + n2=3 . 04
n1 −n2 =0 . 05
2 n1=3. 092
n1 =1. 546
9) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding of an optical fibre with N.A of 0.33 and
their fractional difference of refractive indices is 0.02.
Sol: - NA=0.33
n1 −n 2
Δ= =0. 02
n1
n1 −n2 =0 . 02 n1
⇒n 1−0 . 02 n1 =n2
⇒0 . 98 n1 −n2 =0
n1 −n2
=0 . 02
n1
1. 65−n2 =0 . 033 ⇒n 2=1 . 617
NA=n1 √ 2 Δ
0 . 33=n1 √2(0 . 02)
0 . 33
n1 = =1 . 65
0.2
10) The NA of optical fibre is 0.39. If the difference in refractive indices of the material of its
core and cladding is 0.05. Find refractive index of core.
Sol:- NA = 0.39
n1 −n2 =0 . 05
n1 =1. 546
11) A signal of 100 mw is injected in to a fibre. The out coming signal from the other end is
40mw. What is the loss in dB?
Engineering Physics
Sol: - Power launched in to the fibre Pin=100mw

Power emerged out from the fibre =Pout=40mw
p out
Attenuation loss= -10 log

( )
p in
dB
40
= −10 log ( )
100
dB
=3.97 dB .
1. (a) Explain the principle of an optical fiber.

(b) Describe the fiber construction.
2. (a) What is the acceptance angle of an optical fiber and derive an expression for it.
(b) A fiber has a core refractive index of 1.44 and cladding refractive index of 1.4. Find its
acceptance angle.
3. (a) What is the numerical aperture of an optical fiber and derive an expression for it.
(b) An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.55 and cladding refractive index of 1.50.
Find its numerical aperture.
4. (a) Describe briefly the different types of optical fibers with neat diagrams.
(b) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding of an optical fiber with a numerical
aperture of 0.33 and their fractional change of refractive indices being 0.02.
5. a) Derive an expression for the N.A. of an optical fibre?

b) Explain the advantages of optical communication system?
6. a) Derive the expressions for
 Acceptance angle
 Numerical aperture
b) Describe different types of fibres by giving the refractive index profiles and propagation
details.
7. a) What are the important features of optical fibres.
b) Describe the communication process using optical fibres.
c) Write the uses of optical fibres in different fibres.
8. a) Distinguish between light propagation in

1. Step index optical fibre
2. Graded index optical fibre
b) Write a note on fibre optic medical endoscopy.
9. a) Derive expressions for

1. NA 2.
b) Write a note on the applications of optical fibres.
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c) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding of an optical fibre with N.A of 0.33
and their fractional difference of refractive indices is 0.02.
10. a) Explain the principle behind the functioning of an optical fibre.

b) Derive an expression for acceptance angle for optical fibre. How is it related to Numerical
aperture.
c) An optical fibre has NA 0.2 and cladding refractive index is 1.59. Find the Acceptance
angle of the fibre in water which has refractive index 1.33.
11. a) Explain the basic principle of an optical fibre.

b) Describe graded index optical fibre and explain the transmission of signal
through it.
c) What are different loses in optical fibers. Write brief note on each.
12. a) Explain difference between step index fibre and graded index fibre.
b) What are the advantages of an optical fibre communication system over
Conventional one.
13. Define the construction of a typical optical fibre and give the dimensions of the various parts.
14. With the help of suitable diagram, explain the principle, construction and. working of an
optical fibre.
Engineering Physics
UNIT-II
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
Dielectrics:- Some insulators even though they do not have free electrons exhibit some electrical
behaviour in the presence of an external electric field. Such insulators are called “Dielectrics”.
Ex:- Glass, mica, paraffin, wax, transformer oil, ceramics, wood, paper etc..
Electric dipole:- A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by some distance is
called an electric dipole.
Dipole moment:- It is defined as the product of charge and the distance between two charges.
μ=q×d
 is a vector quantity.
Unit:C-m
Permittivity:- It is the property of a dielectric medium or material due to which it allows the
electric lines of forces to pass through it. If the permittivity of a dielectric is more, it indicates
that it can be easily polarisable.
−12
Permittivity of free space ¿0 =8 . 854×10 Farad/m
Relative permittivity (∈r ) or Dielectric constant (K):-
It is defined as the ratio between permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space.
K=¿ r = ¿
¿0
Di-electric polarization:- It is a process in which dipoles are produced in a dielectric material
when an external electric field is applied on it.
Polaris ability :-():- The dipole moment induced in a dielectric material is directly
proportional to the intensity of applied electric field.
μ α E
μ=αE
Where  = proportionality constant called polarisability.
μ
α=
E
q×d
α=
(v /d )
2
α=
q×d
v
2
[ ∵ C=
q
v ]
α=cd
Unit:-F-m2
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Polarization vector( ): -The average dipole moment present per unit volume of a
dielectric is called polarization vector( ).
If there are ‘n’ number of charges per unit volume of a dielectric then p=n/ unit volume.
C−m C
3
= 2
Unit:- m m
Electric susceptibility:- ( χ)
When a dielectric medium is placed in an external electric field of intensity ‘E’ then the
polarization produced is directly proportional to the product of permittivity & applied electric
field.
pα E
p= χE
Where χ is a proportionality constant called electric susceptibility.
p
χ=
E
Definition:- The ratio between polarization vector to the intensity of the applied electric field is
called electric susceptibility.
pα ∈0 E
p= χ ∈0 E
p
χ=
¿0 E
Displacement vector or flux density:- (D)
The no of electric lines of force crossing normal per unit area in an electric field is called
electric displacement vector or electric flux density.
Mathematically it can be stated as
q
2
D= 4 πr
1 q
4 π ∈¿ r 2
But E= ¿
⇒ D=¿ E [∵ ∈r ¿ ¿ ]
¿0
⇒ D=¿0 ∈r E
⇒ D=¿0 ∈r E+¿0 E−¿ 0 E
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⇒ D=¿0 E (∈r −1)+¿0 E [ ∵ χ =¿r −1 ]

⇒ D=¿0 Eχ +¿ 0 E
D=¿ 0 E+ p
and D=¿0 ∈r E
⇒∈0 ¿r E=¿ 0 E+ P
⇒∈0 (∈r −1 )E=P
P
⇒∈r −1=
¿0 E
⇒∈r −1= χ
⇒∈r ¿ 1+ χ
Internal fields in dielectric:- (Lorentz method)
Let a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there be an
imaginary spherical cavity around the atom ‘A’ inside the dielectric. It is also assumed that the
radius of the cavity is large compared to the radius of the atom.
The internal field at the atom site ‘A’ can be considered to be made up of the following four
components namely E1,E2,E3 & E4.
Field E1:-
E1 is the field intensity at ‘A’ due to the charge density on the plates. From the field
theory.
D
E1 =
¿0
D=¿ 0 E+ P
P+¿0 E
E1 =¿
0
P
E1 =E+ −−−−−−−−−(1 )
¿0
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Field ‘E2’:-
E2 is the field intensity of ‘A’ due to the charge density induced on the two sides of the
dielectric.
−P
E2 =
¿0
Field ‘E3’:-
E3 is the field intensity at ‘A’ due to other atoms contained in the Cavity.
We are assuming a cubic structure.
So E3=0 because of symmetry
Field ‘E4’:-
E4 is the field intensity due to polarization charge on the surface of the cavity and was
calculated by Lorentz as given below.
The enlarged view of the cavity is shown in fig.
If ‘dA’ is the surface area of sphere radius ‘r’ lying between  and +d where ‘’ is the direction
with reference to the direction of applied force. Then
dA=2(PQ)(QR)
PQ
sin θ=
But r
⇒ PQ=r sin θ
QR
dθ= ⇒QR=r . d θ
r
Hence dA= 2π r sin θ. r.dθ
2
dA=2 π r sin θ dθ
The charge ‘dQ’ on the surface ‘dA’ is equal to the normal components of the polarization
multiplied by the surface area. dq=P cosθ×dA
2
dq=P(2 π r sinθ cos θ dθ )
The field due to this charge at ‘A’ denoted by ‘dE4’
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dq×1×cos θ
dE4 =
4 π ∈0 r 2
P cos θ . sin θ .2 π r 2 dθ cos θ
dE 4 = 2
4 π ∈0 . r
P
dE 4 = cos 2 θ sin θ dθ
2 ∈0 ¿
¿
Thus the total field E4 due to the charges on the surface of the entire cavity is obtained by
integrating within the limits 0 to .
P
dP 4 = cos2 θ sin θ dθ
2∈0 ¿
¿
π
P P
¿∫ dE 4 =∫ cos 2 θ sin θ dθ = ∫ cos 2 θ sin θ dθ
2 ∈0 ¿ 2∈0 ¿ 0
¿
Π
2 ∈0 ¿[
−P cos 3 θ
3 ] 0
=
−P
6 ∈0 ¿
[−1−1 ]
¿
P
=¿=
3∈0 ¿
¿
P
Ei = E+
3∈0 ¿
Internal field (or) Lorentz field ¿
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UNIT-III
PRINCIPLES OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
Introduction:-
In the beginning of 19th century the study of energy distribution in the spectrum of black body
radiation become insoluble. Classical as well as Newtonian mechanics failed to explain it. Hence
in 1900 Maxplanck explained the spectrum of black body radiation with a new theory called
Quantum theory. In Greek quantum means discrete (or) Integral (or) whole. From 1901 onwards
Quantum theory become a major part of physics to explain a number of problems like Bohr’s
theory and Hydrogen spectrum, photo electric effect, Compton effect
Waves and particles:-
Nature is mainly made up of two components i) Matter ii) Radiation.
Matter (or) particles has mass (m), velocity (v) and momentum (p) where as radiation has
wave nature which has amplitude (A), frequency ( ϑ ) , wave velocity (ω), phase (). In some
phenomenon radiation like light exhibits wave nature and in other phenomena like photo electric
effect and Compton effect it exhibit particle nature. This was observed by de-Broglie and he put
forward the idea of dual nature of the matter.
De-Broglie hypothesis (Dual nature of matter):-
In 1924, Louis de-Broglie put forward a hypothesis which states that the radiation behaves as
particle under some situations and as wave in certain situations. Then matter also exhibits both
type of nature i.e. particle and wave called Dual Nature. The waves associated with matter are
called matter waves.
De-Broglie derived an equation for the wave length of matter waves from Einstein’s
mass-energy relation and Planck’s quantum theory.
According to planks’ quantum theory, the energy of the each photon is given by
E=h ϑ ------------ (1)
Where h= Planck’s constant
ϑ = frequency of photon
2
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation E=mc −−−−−−−(2)
Where m=mass of photon
C= velocity of photon
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From (1) and (2)
hϑ=mc 2 [∵ c= ϑλ ]
hc
⇒ =mc 2
λ
h
⇒ λ=
mc
h
⇒ λ= [ ∵ p=mc= momentum of photon ]
p
In the same way if an electron with a charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ moves with a velocity ‘v’
h h
λ= = −−−−−−−(3 )
under a potential difference ‘V’ then mv p
Equation (3) is called De-Broglie equation.
If ‘E’ is the energy of the electron in a potential field (or) electrical field (B) then
Ε=eV −−−−−−−(4 )
1
Ε= mv 2 −−−−−−−(5 )
2
The kinetic energy of electron
Where ‘v’ is the velocity of electron.
From equation (4) & (5)

1
Ε=eV = mv 2
2
1
⇒meV = m2 v 2
2
2 2
⇒m v =2 meV [ ∵ p=mv ]
⇒ p2 =2 meV
⇒ p=√2 meV
The wave length  associated with the electron moving with velocity V.
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h h
λ= ⇒ λ=
p √2 meV
‘V’ being the voltage applied on the electron
Substituting the values of h, m and e we get

6 .625×10−34
λ=
√ 2×9 .1×10−31×1. 6×10−19×V
6 .625×10−34×10 25
¿
√ 2×9 . 1×1. 6×√ V
1. 227×10−9
¿
√V
12. 27 A 0
λ=
√V
Matter waves: -
The waves that are associated with moving particle of mass ‘m’ are called matter waves.
Properties of matter waves:-
1. Lighter the particle greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2. Smaller the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
3. When v=0, then = and when v= and =0 then the waves becomes
Undetermined.
4. These waves are generated by the motion of the particle.
5. Matter waves are independent of change of particle i.e. these waves are produced
whether the particles are charged or uncharged.
6. Velocity of matter wave depends on velocity of matter particle.
7. The velocity of matter waves is greater than velocity of light.
A particle in motion is associated with matter waves having two different velocity one referring
to the particle and other referring the wave.
2
E= hϑ and E=mc
hϑ=mc 2
ϑ=mc2 /h→(1 )
The wave velocity w is given by
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w= ϑλ
mc 2
= . λ [ ∵ from (1 )]
h
mc 2 h
¿
h
.
mc [ ∵ λ=
h
mc ]
w=c
w=ϑ . λ
2
=
mc h
h
2
.
mv [
λ=
h
mv ]
c
w=
v
The velocity of matter wave is also known a phase velocity or wave velocity.
8. The Amplitude of finding the particle at a particular time and region.
Wave packet: -
The region where the matter waves constructively interfere is called “wave packet”.
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle:-
Statement:-
According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle it is impossible to determine exact the
position and momentum of a particle with all accuracy at the same time.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle is the result of dual nature of De-Broglie. It is proposed
by Heisenberg in the year of 1927. According to De-Broglie the matter waves associated with
moving particle superimpose over a certain region called “wave packet”. The probability of
finding the particle inside the wave packet is maximum.
1. According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle if the wave packet is the smaller one then we
can find the position of the particle with accuracy but cannot determine its momentum with all
definiteness because the particle moves with large velocity.

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2. If the wave packet is sufficiently large then the momentum of the particle can be found. Since
the particle moves with less velocity but we cannot locate its position with maximum accuracy.
Hence x and p are the uncertainties in measuring the position and momentum of the particle
inside the wave packet. Then according to Heisenberg uncertainty principle
ℏ
Δx . Δp≥
2
h
ℏ=
2π
h
Δx . Δp≥
4π
If x is large, p is small and vice versa. The same relation can be applied to energy, time
angular momentum, angle also. If E and t be the uncertainties in energy and time respectively.
ℏ
ΔΕ . Δt≥
2
h
⇒ΔΕ . Δt≥
4π
Similarly, J and  be the uncertainties in angular momentum and angle. Then

h
ΔJ . Δθ≥ .
4π
Explanation:-
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Consider an imaginary microscope having high resolving power. The position of an electron can
be resolved by the microscope only when a photon is scattered by an electron into the
microscope lens.
The resolving power of the microscope is

λ
Δx=
2 sin θ
Where x is the distance between two points.
Therefore x is taken as the uncertainty in the measurement of the position of the electron.
Let us consider the scattering of electron by a photon. The electron is viewed by
microscope only when the scattered photon enters the objective lens of the microscope through
AB. The momentum imparted by the photon of the electron is (h/ ). The x- component of
the momentum along OA is (-h/) sin. The x- component of momentum along OB is (h/) sin.
 Change in momentum of electron is

h
ΔP= sin θ−
λ
−h
λ [
sin θ
]
2h
= sin θ
λ
The product of the uncertainties in position and momentum is

λ 2h
Δx×ΔP= × sin θ
2 sinθ λ
=h
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Applications of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:-
1. Non existence of electrons and existence of protons and neutrons in the nucleus can
be explained by using this principle
2. Binding energy of electron can be calculated.
3. The radius of first orbit in hydrogen spectrum can be calculated.
4. Frequency of radiation of light from an excited atom can be calculated.
Differences between matter waves and electromagnetic waves:-
Matter Waves Electromagnetic Waves
1. Waves associated with a moving particle are 1. Waves in which electric field and magnetic
called matter waves. field are perpendicular to each other.
2. Matter waves are produced by the motion of 2. Only charged particles produce
particles whether they are charged or electromagnetic waves.
uncharged.
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3. Matter waves travel with a velocity greater 3. Electromagnetic waves travel with velocity
than velocity of light. equal to velocity of light.
4. Velocity is not constant. 4. Velocity is constant.
5. Wavelength of the particle depends on mass 5. Wavelength depends on energy of the
and velocity. particle.

h h hc
λ= or λ= λ=
mv mc E
.
Physical significance of wave function:-
According to Heisenberg theory and Schrödinger, a group of matter waves are associated with
moving particle. The situation to explain the particle is complex and hence a function ‘ ’ is
introduced called wave function.
1. According Schrödinger, the wave function ‘’ is amplitude of matter waves in space.
‘’ is a complex number.
=a+ib, it is a complex number
Complex conjugate *=a-ib,
*=(a+ib)(a-ib)=a2+b2, a,b are real and positive
2. The probability of finding a particle is given by *=//2.
Where * is complex conjugate of . Hence * is real.
3. When //2 is multiplied by charge of a particle gives charge density of the particle.
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4. //2 gives the probability of finding the particle but not exact position.
5. The probability of a particle in a volume dx,dy,dz is / /2 dxdydz. If the particle is certainly
found somewhere in the wave packet then //2 dxdydz=1 this is normalization condition.
Characteristics of wave function ( ):-
1.  Must be finite value function.
2.  Must be single valued.
3.  Must be continuous.
4. =0 at the boundaries.
Derive the equation for Schrodinger’s time independent wave :-
Based on De-Broglie idea of Matter waves Schrödinger’s developed a mathematical equation
which was important as Newton’s law of motion in classical mechanics. It can be derived as
follows.
According to De-Broglie for a particle of mass ’m’ moving with a velocity ‘V’.The
De-Broglie’s wave length is given by

h h
λ= = −−−−−−−−(1)
mv p
h
p=
λ
The kinetic energy of an electron is gives as

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1
K . E=T = mv 2
2
1 m
T = mv 2 ×
2 m
2 2
1m v
T= [ ∵ p=mv ]
2m
p2
T=
2m
Substituting the value of p

2
T= 2
h
λ (2 m)
−−−−−−−(2) ∵ p=
h
λ [ ]
Consider the wave function = (r,t) which is given by
ψ (r ,t )=ψ= A sin [ ]
2 πx
λ
−−−−−−−(3)
Where A= amplitude of the wave.
Differentiating equation (3) w.r.t ‘x’

∂ψ
∂x
=A [ ]
2π
λ
cos
2 πx
λ
Again differentiating the above equation w.r.t ‘x’

∂2 ψ
∂x 2
=− A [ ][ ]
2π 2π
λ λ
sin (
2 πx
λ
)
∂2 ψ 4 π2 2 πx
∂x 2
=− A 2 sin
λ λ ( )
From equation (3)
∂2 ψ 4 π2
=− 2 ψ
∂ x2 λ
1 −1 ∂ 2 ψ
=
λ2 4 π 2 ψ ∂ x 2
Substituting the value of is 2 from equation (3)

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2 mT
=
[ ]
−1 ∂2 ψ
h2 4 π 2 ψ ∂ x 2
−h2
T= 2
[ ]
∂2 ψ
4 π (2 m)ψ ∂ x2
−ℏ2 ∂ 2 ψ
T=
[ ][ ]
2 mψ ∂ x2
∵ ℏ=
h
2π
But the total energy of the particle
T . E=PE+KE
⇒ E=V +T
⇒T =E−V
−ℏ2 ∂2 ψ
⇒ E−V =
( )
2 mψ ∂ x2
∂2 ψ 2 m
⇒ 2 + 2 ( E−V )ψ=0−−−−−−−−(4 )
∂x ℏ
2m
∇2 ψ + (E−V )=0
ℏ2
Equation (4) represents the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation.
∇ 2 is laplacian operator
2 2 2
∇ 2 =∂ 2 + ∂ 2 + ∂ 2
∂x ∂ y ∂z
∇=i ∂ + j ∂ +k ∂
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Application of Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation:-
(OR)
Particle in one dimensional potential well (or) box:-
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Consider an electron of mass ‘m’ in an infinitely deep in one dimensional potential box as
shown in the fig. Let ‘L’ be the width of the box along X-axis. The electron is confined within the
walls of the box and moves along it’s width from x=0 to x=L. The electron will not stay near the
walls and it gets reflected at the walls. Hence the probability of finding the electron “outside the
walls” and “at the walls” is zero.
The potential of electron is constant everywhere in the box and hence taken as zero. 
V=0
The boundary conditions are
V(x)=0 where 0xL (electrons inside and outside the walls)

V ( x )=∞ where x< 0 and x≥L (electrons outside the walls)
The motion of electron in one dimensional according to Schrodinger’s time
independent wave equation.

∂2 ψ 2 m
+ [ E−V ] ψ=0−−−−−−−(1)
∂ x2 ℏ2
Inside the box V=0

∂2 ψ 2 m
+ [ E ] ψ=0−−−−−−−(2 )
∂ x2 ℏ2
2mE 2
2
=K called ital wave ` ital vector
Where ℏ
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2π
K=
λ
∂2 ψ
2
+K 2 (ψ )=0−−−−−−(3 )
∂x
Equation (3) is a second order differential equation in x and the solution is given by
ψ= A sin Kx+ B cos Kx−−−−−(4 )
A,B are any arbitrary constants from the boundary conditions
2
1. When x=0;at the walls ψ=0 ⇒|ψ| =0
x=L; at thewalls ψ=0⇒|ψ|2 =0

2. When
When x=0
⇒0= A sin k (0 )+B cosk (0 )⇒ B=0
When x=L
⇒0= A sin k ( L )+B cos k ( L) [ ∵ B=0 ]
0=A sin k( L)
KL=0
Substituting the value of B in equation (4)
ψ= A sin kx
at x=L⇒ ψ=0 ⇒0= A sin kL ⇒sin kL=0 ⇒kL=nπ
nπ
⇒ K = −−−−−−−−(5)
L
From the normalization condition we know that the probability of finding the electron.
X= L
∫ ||ψ|( x)|2 dx=1

X =0
L
∫ A2 sin2
0
[ ]
nπx
L
dx=1
[ ]
2nπx
⇒A ∫ 2
L 1−cos ( ) dx=1
L
0 2
L
A2
⇒ ∫ 1−cos
2 0
2 nπx
L [ ( )]
dx=1
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L
[ ]
2 nπx
⇒
A 2
x−
sin (L ) =1
2 2nπ
L 0
2
A
⇒ [ L−0−(0−0 )] =1
2
A2L
⇒
2
2
=1 ⇒ A2 = ⇒ A=
L
2
L √
2
ψ ( x )= sin
L √nπx
2 ( )
This is the equation for wave function in one dimensional potential box.
The wave function n and corresponding energies En which are often called Eigen functions and
Eigen values describe the quantum state of a particle.
Eigen values:-
2 mE
2
=K 2
We know that ℏ
2 mE n2 π 2
⇒ 2 = 2
ℏ L
∵ K=[ nπ
L
from (5) ]
2 2 2
ℏ n π
⇒ E= 2
L ( 2 m)
2 2 2
h n π
E= 2 2
4 π L (2 m)
∵ ℏ 2= [h
2π ]
2 2
n h
E=
8 mL 2
n2 h 2
E= where n=1,2,3−−−−
Energy of the particle inside well 8 mL 2
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h2
E1 =
8 mL 2
22 h 2 4 h2
E2 = = =4 E1
8 mL 2 8 mL 2
32 h2 9 h2
E3 = = =9 E 1
8 mL 2 8 mL 2
n can take only integer values i.e. n=1, 2, 3………
‘n’ is not as ‘0’ because there is no body in the nature that has n=0.
UNIT-IV
SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction:-
The Solids are classified in to 3 types on the basis of conduction mechanism, they are
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors
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In conductors large number of free electrons is available which are useful for the electrical
conduction mechanism. These materials have very low resistivity and high conductivity.
In insulators no free electrons are available hence these are not useful for the electrical
conduction mechanism. These materials have very high resistivity and almost zero conductivity.
Semi conductors have intermediate properties of conductors and insulators. These materials
behave as insulators at low temperatures and as conductors at high temperatures.
Classification of solids into insulators, semi conductors, Conductors:-

Depend on the magnitude of forbidden energy gap the solids are classified into 3 types they are
1. Insulators
2. Semi conductors
3. Conductors
1.Insulators:-
In insulators the forbidden energy gap is very large (>5ev). Due to this fact electrons cannot
jump from valence band to conduction band. In insulators the valence electrons are bound very
tightly to their parent atoms, for example in case of glass the valence band is completely full at
00K and energy gap between V.B and C.B is order of 10ev. Even in the process of high electric
field the electrons do not move from valence band to conduction band. Hence no conduction
through them hence they are insulators.
2. Semi conductors:-
In semi conductors the forbidden energy gap is very small. When a small amount of energy is
supplied the electrons can easily jump from valence band to conduction band. A semi conductor
material is one whose electrical properties lie between insulators and conductors. At 0 0K there
are no electrons in conduction band and valence band is completely filled. Hence 0 0K semi
conductor be haves like an insulator.
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Ex:- germanium, Silicon

Forbidden energy gap for Ge is 0.72ev.
Forbidden energy gap for Si is 1.1ev.
3. Conductors:-
In case of conductors both V.B and C.B are overlapped with each other. No forbidden energy
gap between them. The electrons from valence band freely enter in to conduction band.
In conductors due to absence of forbidden energy gap. There is no structure to establish holes.
The total current in conductors is simply a flow of electrons.
Semiconductors are two types. They are

1. Intrinsic semiconductors (pure)
2. Extrinsic semiconductors (impure)
1. Intrinsic semiconductor:-
A pure Si (or) Ge semiconductor which behaves insulator at 0K and conductor at high
temperatures is called intrinsic semiconductors.
Explanation:- At 0K the valence band is completely filled with electrons and conduction band is
completely empty in semi conductors. But at room temperature due to the increase of internal
energy of valence electron they jump from valency band into conduction band and equal number
of holes present in the valency band still by supplying the extra energy to the valence electrons.
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Some more electrons jumps into the conduction band creating equal number of holes in the
valency band there by it become a conduction of electricity.
In intrinsic semiconductors number of holes present in valency band and number of electrons
present in conduction band are equal and the Fermi level lies in the middle of two bands.
Note:-
1. Electron density (or) concentration in conduction band
3/2
n=ne=2 [ 2 ∏ me KT
h 2
¿
] e
E F−E
KT
C
2. Hole density (or) concentration in valency band

3 /2
p=n p =2 [ 2 ∏ mh KT
h 2
¿
] e
EV −E
KT
F
Ev + E c
E F=
3. Position of Fermi level 2
4. Intrinsic carrier concentration
ֶ
−E g
n
2
= A T 3 e KT [ E g=Ec −E v ]
3
m¿e m¿h ¿ 2
A= 4 [ 2 πK 3
¿ ¿
h2
A= Constant value of semi conductor
n= Intrinsic carrier concentration which indicates thermally generated electrons and
holes.
2. Extrinsic semiconductor:-
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Addition of suitable impurities to ‘Ge’ or ‘Si’ to increase its electrical conductivity is called
doping. This impure Ge and Si semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are two types
1. n-type semiconductors
2. p-type semiconductors
1. n-type semiconductors:-
When pentavalent impurities like P, As, Sb, Bi, are doped to pure Ge and Si, its four valence
electrons makes covalent bonding with neighbouring four Ge atoms and fifth electron is free
becoming conduction electron. At room temperature due to thermal agitation some of the
electrons at valency band jump in to conduction band creating equal number of holes in valency
band. Since every impurity atom adds one electron in conduction band. Majority charge carriers
are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes. Hence this type of semiconductor is called
n-type semiconductor since pentavalent impurity donating a free electron it is called donor
impurity. As shown in figure the Fermi level is towards conduction band.
In the energy level diagram the energy level of 5th electron is called “donor level”.
The donor level is so close to the bottom of the conduction band, most of the donor level
electrons are excited in to conduction band at room temperature. Hence in n-type semiconductor
electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
2. p-type semiconductor:-
When a trivalent impurity like Al, Ga, I, B are doped with pure Ge (or) Si its three valence
electrons have covalent bonding with neighbouring three Si (or) Ge atoms and covalent bonding
of fourth atom ,electron is deficient by hole. So due to each impurity atom one hole arises. Hence
majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are electrons. It is called p-type
semiconductor. Since trivalent impurity accepts electrons it is called acceptor impurity. It is
shown in the figure. Fermi level shifts towards valence band.
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The energy level of the impurity atoms is called acceptor level even at relatively low temperature
these acceptor atoms get ionized taking electron from valence band and thus giving rise to holes
in valence band for conduction. Hence in p-type semiconductor holes are majority carriers and
electrons are minority carriers.
NOTE:-
Ed + E c
E F=
1. In n-type semiconductor 2
2. Density of electrons in the conduction band
3 /4
n= ( 2 N d )
1/2
[ 2 πm e KT
h2
Ev + Ea
¿
] [ exp
Ed −E c
2 KT ]
E F=
3. In p-type semiconductor 2
4. Density of holes in the valence band
3/4
1/2
p=( 2 N a )
[ 2 πm h KT
h2
¿
] [ exp
Ev −E a
2 KT ]
Law of mass action:-
The electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are given by
the following expressions.
3/2
n=ne=2 [2 πm e KT
h2
¿
] [ ]
3/2
exp
E F−E c
kBT
−−−−−−−−(1)
p=n p =2
[ 2 πm h KT
h2
¿
] [ ] exp
E V −E F
K BT
−−−−−−−−−(2)
In intrinsic semiconductor n=p

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Hence n=p= ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

2
(1)(2)  n.p= ni
[ ]
3 EV −EC
i h [
2 π KT
∴ n 2 =4 2
] ( me mh ) 3/2
¿ ¿ exp
KT
[ ]
3 −E g
=4 2
h[
2 π KT
] ( me mh )
¿ ¿
3/2
exp
KT
Where Ec −E v =E g is the forbidden energy
[ ]
3 /2 −E g
Hence
ni =2
[ 2 π KT
h2 ] ( me mh )
¿ ¿
3/4
exp
2 KT
This is constant at constant temperature. If impurity is added to increase ‘n’ there
will be decrease in ‘p’ so that product ‘np’ remains constant. This is called “law of mass action”.
Electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor:
Let a potential difference V is applied to intrinsic semiconductor.It establishes an electric field E

and the charge carriers are forced to drift .The drift velocity is given by
Vd=µE
Where µ=Mobility of charge carriers
Let n be the concentration of electrons in semiconductor, then the current density due to an
electron is given by
Jn = n e V d
= n e µn E--------------------------(1)
Where µn=Mobility of electron
Similarly the current density due to holes is given by
Jp = p e µp E-------------------------(2)
Where p= hole concentration

µp=Mobility of hole
Total current density J = Jn + J p

= n e µn E + p e µp E
= ( n µn + p µp)eE-----------------(3)
But total current density
J=σE ---------------------------(4)
Where σ is total conductivity
From eq (3) and (4) we get
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σ = (n µn + p µp)e-----------------------(5)
For an intrinsic semiconductor n=p=ni
σ= ni e (µn + µp)--------------------------(6)
but
−Eg /2 K B T
ni=(NCNV)1/2e e
−Eg /2 K B T
σ =(NCNV)1/2e(µn + µp) e
−Eg/2 K B T
σ = A e
Where A= (NC NV)1/2 e( µn + µp)=Constant
Drift current:-
Definition:- It is defined as flow of electric current due to motion of charge carriers under the
influence of an external electric field.
Explanation:-
Under the influence of an external electric field the charge carriers are forced to move in a
particular direction constituting electric current (conductivity). This phenomena is known as the
drift. Let there be ‘n’ electrons in a semiconductor under the electric field
‘E’, they are drifted with a drift velocity ‘vd’ then the current density J=nevd, Where e is charge
of an electron
J nev d
σ= =
Then conductivity E E
The drift velocity is also given by vd=n E
Where n=mobility of electrons
J=nen E
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neV d ne μn E
∴ σ= = =ne μ n
E E
1 1
and p= =
σ ne μn
In case of a semiconductor the drift current density due to electrons is given by
J n (drift )=nμ n eE
The drift current density due to hole is
J p (drift )= pμ p eE
Then the total drift current density
J =J n +J p
J =nμ n eE+ pμ p eE
J =eE(nμ n + pμ p )
J
σ = =e( nμn + pμ p )
E
For an intrinsic semiconductor n=p= ni then σ i =ni e ( μn + μ p )
Diffusion current:-
Due to non–uniform carrier concentration in a semiconductor the charge carriers moves from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. This process is known as
diffusion of charge carriers.
Diffusion current is not formed in metals but found only in semiconductors. The diffusion
current is due to non-uniform concentration gradient of charges carriers.
The diffusion current density Jn for electrons is proportional to concentration gradient. i.e.
∂n
J n α−
∂x
∂n
Jn=−D n
∂x
∂n
Jn=−Dn (−e )
∂x “Indicates the decrease in higher concentration”
∂n
Jn=eD n −−−−−−−−−−(1)
∂x
Where Dn=diffusion constant of electrons
The diffusion current density of holes is given by
∂p
J p =−eD p −−−−−−−−(2)
∂x
Where D p =diffusion constant of holes
Einstein Relation:-
The relation between the mobility () and diffusion co-efficient (D) of a semi conductor
are known as Einstein relation.
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Explanation:-
At equilibrium with no applied electric field if the charge distribution is uniform there is no net
current flow. Any disturbance in equilibrium state leads to diffusion of charge carriers resulting
diffusion current, which creates the internal electric field. This field causes the drifting the
charge carriers resulting in a drift current. At equilibrium condition drift current and diffusion
currents are balance each other.
i. e ., J n =J n
drift diffusion
∂n
⇒nμ n eE=eD n −−−−−−−−−(1 )
∂x
Where E=internal electric field

⇒ The force on excess electrons F=neE−−−−−−(2)
eDn ∂n
⇒ F= −−−−−−−−( 3)
μn ∂ x
From kinetic theory of gases the force on gas molecules (charge carriers) is given by
∂n
F=K B T −−−−−−−−(4 )
∂x
eD
KB T = n
From equations (3) & (4) we get μn
μn K B T
⇒ Dn =
e
Dn K B T
= −−−−−−−−−−(5)
μn e
D p KB T
= −−−−−−−−(6)
Similarly for holes we get μ p e
Comparing (5) & (6) we get
Dn D p
=
μn μ p
D n μn
=
D p μp
The above relation is known as Einstein’s relation.
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Hall Effect:-
When a metal [conductor] or semiconductor carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic
field an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current
and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect and the generated voltage is
called “Hall voltage”.
Explanation:-
Let us consider conducting sample as a rectangular and assume that its sides are aligned with the
co-ordinate system as shown in the figure. Now let us assume that the conventional current is in
the positive X-direction. This implies that the electrons are moving with certain velocity ‘v’ in
the negative X-direction. Then each electron will experience a force of ‘Bev’ in the down ward
direction (i.e. in the Y-direction).
This causes the entire electron current to be deflected towards the bottom face of the
sample making that side more negative than the top one. A potential difference is established
between the top and the bottom faces of the specimen, this potential difference develops a field
EH from top to bottom of the sample. This would in turn develop a force of eE H on the electrons
in the upward direction. Equilibrium between this force and the force due to magnetic flux
occurs at certain stage then
eEH =Bev ----------- (1)
EH=Bv -------------- (2)
If JX is the current density due to electrons in the X-direction then
J X =nev−−−−−−−−(3 )
Where ‘n’ is the concentration of charge carriers, substituting the value of v from (3) in (2) and
rearranging we have
BJ
E H = X −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 4 )
ne
1
ne of the above equation is known as the hall co-efficient and is denoted by R H.
The factor
The equation (4) will now become
E H =R H J X B−−−−−−(5 )
Thus Hall-coefficient can be given as

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EH
RH=
JXb
1
R H = −−−−−−−−−−−(6 )
ne
Generally for n-type material since the Hall field is developed in negative direction compared to
the field developed for a p-type material.
E 1
R H =− H =−
BJ X ne
Hence
For p-type material since the current is entirely by holes
E 1
RH= H =
BJ X pe
Applications of Hall effect:-

The Hall effected can be used
1. To the find out whether given semiconductor is n-type (or) p-type.
2. To find out the carrier concentrations i.e. by measuring Hall co-efficients the carrier
concentration of a semiconductor can be determined.
3. To find out the mobilities and conductivities.
If the conduction is due to one type of carrier i.e. for example electrons we have
σ
σ =ne μ ⇒ μ= =σ . R H
ne
Where =mobility
4. To measure the magnetic flux density using a semi conductor sample of known Hall
coefficient the magnetic flux density can be deduced from the formulae.
E
RH= H
RH . J
EH
B=
RH . J
1. a)Describe the intrinsic conductivity in an intrinsic semiconductor.

b) Derive an expression for intrinsic carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor.
2. a) Explain the concept of drift and diffusion current. How they are different?
b) Write notes on intrinsic semiconductors.
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c) Explain the charge neutrality in an intrinsic semiconductor.
3. a) Distinguish between n- and p-type semiconductors.

b) Explain the detailed mechanism of current conduction in n- and p-type semiconductors.
c) Explain the charge neutrality in an intrinsic semiconductor.
4. a) What is doping ? Explain how the doping makes a semiconductor more useful.
b) Explain the physical mechanism of conduction in semiconductors.
c) Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors with suitable examples.
5. a) Explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors with diagrams.

b) Derive continuity equation for charge carriers in a semiconductor.
6. a) Describe the drift and diffusion currents in a semiconductor and deduce expression.
b) Deduce Einstein’s Relation.
7. a) State and explain Hall Effect and derive equation for Hall coefficient.
b) The RH of a specimen is 3.66x10 – 4 m3C-1. Its resistivity is 8.93x10 – 3-m.
UNIT-V
LASERS AND NANOPHYSICS
Introduction:
Laser is the outstanding invention in the 20th century. The word laser means “Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”. In 1954 Charles H.Townes Operated a
micro wave device for “Micro wave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
(MASER) In 1960 T.H. Maiman first achieved laser action
Characteristics of Laser: -
Laser when compared to ordinary light has some outstanding characteristics. They are
1 High directionality(less divergence)
2 High monochromaticity
3 High Brightness
4 High Coherence
1. Directionality: During the propagation of a laser beam its angular speed is very less and
the beam occupies the less area. Hence it travels along only a particular direction through
longer distances.
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Explanation:- In ordinary light divergence of light takes place as it propagates through

the medium For laser Radiation also this divergence takes place as it propagates through
the medium like in below figure
The Laser light of wavelength λ emerges through laser source aperture
diameter d then it propagates as parallel beam up to d 2∕ λ (Small valves) and gets
diverged The angle of divergence of a laser beam is expressed as
arc d 2−d 1
ϕ = =
radius s 2−s 1
Where d1,d2 are the diameters of the laser spots measured at distances s1 and s2from the
Laser aperture
For Laser light ∅=10 -3 radians
It clear from the above value, that the divergence is low and it is highly directional
2 Monochromaticity: The property of exhibiting single wave length is called

Monochromaticity a Laser beam will have single wavelength and it is monochromatic.
Ex: Ruby Laser = 6943A0
Semiconductor Laser = 8000A0
Explanation:- In Laser radiation all the photons emitted between discrete energy levels
will have same wave length As result the radiation is monochromatic in nature, If the
higher energy level has closely spaced energy levels then from the transition from each
level to lower energy level emits photons of different frequencies and wavelengths
Let the spread in frequency and wavelength be ν + ∇ ν and λ + Δ λ the frequency
spread
∇ ν is related to its wavelength spread Δ λ as
Δ λ =- (c/ ν 2 ¿ ∇ ν
For Laser Δ λ =0.001nm It clear that laser radiation is highly monochromatic
2. Brightness: Due to its directionality the intensity of Laser beam is very more. Hence its
brightness is high. Hence laser is used for welding and cutting purposes.
Explanation:-Let there be’ n’ number of coherent photons of amplitude ‘a’ in the emitted
laser radiation ,These photons reinforce with each other and the amplitude of the
resulting wave becomes na and hence the intensity is proportional to n 2a2 Thus, due to
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coherent additions of amplitude and negligible divergence the intensity or brightness

increases enormously
4 Coherence: When two or more waves have same frequency and have same phase (or)
Zero phase difference then those waves are called coherent waves. In a Laser beam all the
Laser waves exactly have same phase..
Coherence is of two types.
Temporal Coherence: If it is possible to predict the amplitude and phase at a point on the
wave w.r.t. another point on the same wave, then the wave is in temporal coherence. For
laser radiation, all the emitted photons are in phase, the resultant radiation has temporal
coherence.
Spatial Coherence: If it is possible to predict the amplitude and phase at a point on the
wave w.r.t. another point on the second wave, then the waves are said to be in spatial
coherence. For laser radiation, all the emitted photons are in phase, the resultant radiation
has spatial coherence.
Hence laser is highly coherent.
The interaction of light with matter is responsible for Laser action. When light
travels through the medium through three different processes. They are
1. Absorption
2. Spontaneous Emission
3. Stimulated Emission
1. Absorption: Consider a system having two energy levels E 1 and E2. E1 is the ground state
(or) lower energy level and E2 is the higher energy level. When a photon of an energy h
γ is incident on an atom in the energy level E 1, the atom absorbs the photon energy and
jumps to E2. This process is called absorption It is denoted by
This process of exciting the atom to higher energy level by absorbing the stimulating
photon is known as stimulated absorption of radiation, The number of stimulated absorptions
depend upon the number of atoms per unit volume N 1 in E1 and the number of photons per unit
volume of incident radiation i.e. . Incident radiation density u( ϑ ¿ i.e.
Number of stimulated absorption ∝ N1
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∝ u ( ϑ¿
∝ N1 u ( ϑ ¿
= N1B12 u ( ϑ ¿
Where B12 is Known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated absorption of radiation
Emission: Any atom (or) ion when it is excited to a higher energy level, it can stay there
only for a time 10-8sec. After the completion of this time the atom returns back to the
ground state by releasing the absorbing photon in the form of light energy (radiation).
This energy is equal to the difference in the energy level It is denoted by h.
Emission is of 2 types
(i) Spontaneous emission (ii) Stimulated emission
(i) Spontaneous emission: It is defined as an emission in which the atoms makes a

transition from higher level to the lower energy level by itself after the completion of
10 – 8s. Here the radiation emitted is not coherent.
(or)
The emission of photon by an atom without any external agent is called spontaneous
emission. The is represented by
Ex: Radiation emitted by glowing electric bulb and glowing candle.
Explanation:- Let us consider two energy levels 1 and 2 of some given atom , its energy
being E1 and E2, Since E2> E1 the atom will tend to decay on its own level 1 The
Corresponding energy difference (E2- E1) must therefore be released by the atom,
When this energy is delivered in the form of an electromagnetic wave or photon the process
is called Spontaneous emission.
The energy difference is given by E= E2- E1
h ϑ=¿ E2- E1
ϑ = E2- E1 /h
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The number of Spontaneous emission of radiation depends on the number of atoms per
unit volume in E2, i.e. N2
Number of Spontaneous emissions ∝ N2
= N2A21
Where A21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient of Spontaneous emission of radiation
A*- h +A
(ii) Stimulated emission: The emission process in which an atom in excited level is
brought down to the ground level by an external force before the completion of 10 – 8 s is
called stimulated emission.
Consider a system having two energy levels E1 and E2. Suppose an external
photon of energy h is incident on the atom in E2, then the atom comes down to the
ground state E1 there by emitting a photon. The first photon incident on the atom is called
incident photon and the emitted photon is called stimulated photon. These two photons
have same frequency and they vibrate in same phase. Hence stimulated emission emits
coherent radiation.
This transition emits a photon of energy E= E2- E1
h ϑ=¿ E2- E1
ϑ = E2- E1 /h
The number of stimulated emissions depends on the number of atoms in the higher
energy level E1 , i.e.,N2 and the incident radiation density u ( ϑ ¿
Number of stimulated absorption ∝ N2

∝ u ( ϑ¿
∝ N2 u ( ϑ ¿
= N2B21 u ( ϑ ¿
Where B21 is Known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation
In this process , in addition to emitted photons , there will be incident photons ,All these
photons have same energy and same frequency and are in phase, As they reinforce together ,it
results in high –intensity monochromatic and coherent radiation , i.e, Laser radiation .
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Ex: Emission of laser beam
Difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. Emission of a photon by an atom 1. The emission of two photons by an
without any external force is called atom when it is present at excited state
“Spontaneous emission”. due to action of external force in called
“Stimulated emission”.
2. Light emitted through this process is 2. Light emitted through this process is
incoherent. coherent
3. The net intensity proportional to the no 3. The net intensity of light is proportional
of radiating atoms. to the square of no. of atoms radiating
4. Light resulting through this process is light.
not monochromatic 4. Light resulting through this process in
5. Less directionality chromatic.
6. Light from sodium lamp (or) mercury 5. High directionality
lamp 6. Light from a Laser source.
7. Proposed by Bohr. 7. Proposed by Einstein.
Population Inversion:
Usually the number of atoms in the Excited State is less than the number of atoms in the
Ground State. The stage of making the number of atoms more in the high energy level than
the lower energy level is called as population inversion.
Explanation:
Consider a system having energy levels E1, E2 and E3. The number of atoms present in any
energy level is called its population. Let N1, N2 and N3 be the population of E1, E2 and E3. In
general the population of lower energy levels will be more than the population of higher energy
levels (i.e.) N1 > N2 > N3. This is because the stability is more at lower energy levels. But in an
active system the population is higher energy level will be more than the population in lower
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energy level. The higher energy level in which population inversion is reached is called Meta
stable state.
To get laser emission (stimulated emission) N 1>N2 i.e. the population of the higher
energy level (E2) should be greater than the population of the lower energy level (E 1) , In general
the population inversion of a lower energy level will be greater than that of the higher energy
level The stage of making the population of the higher energy level to be greater than the
population of the lower energy level is known as population inversion The process of sending
atoms from E1 to E2 to get population inversion is known as pumping
According to Maxwell Boltzmann statistics the population N1 of an energy level E1 at a

temperature T is given by
N 1 =N 0 e
−E1
K BT [ ]
Where N0 = the population at absolute zero.
Methods of achieving population inversion (or) Pumping Processes:

There are four methods of achieving population inversion. They are
1. Optical Pumping
2. Electric discharge method
3. Inelastic atom –atom collision
4. Chemical reaction
1. Optical Pumping: In optical pumping process, an external light source is used to

supply energy to active medium to produce population inversion.
Eg. Xenon flash tube is used in Ruby laser.
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2. Electric discharge method: In this method electrons directly excite the active atoms
to higher energy state. Thus population inversion is achieved.
Eg. This method of pumping is used in gaseous ion lasers.
3. Inelastic atom –atom collision: In this method electric discharge is used to cause
collisions and excitation of atoms. In this method two types of gases are used.
In first step during electric discharge A gets excited to A * due collisions with
electrons.
A + e → A* + e 1
In the second step the excited A* atoms collide with B atoms so that B atoms are
excited to higher energy state.
A* + B → A + B*
Eg. This method is used in He-Ne laser.
4. Chemical reaction: In this method the molecules undergo chemical reactions in
which one of the product of the reaction excites an atom to an excited state under
appropriate conditions.
Eg. H2 + F2 → 2HF + Heat
In HF chemical laser the HF molecules are excited to higher energy state with the
help of heat energy released due to chemical reaction.
Explain Construction and Components of Laser system:

Laser system has three important components. They are
1. Source of energy
2. Active medium
3. Optical Cavity or Resonator
OPTICAL CAVITY
Source of Energy:
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To get laser beam population inversion should be achieved. The source of energy
supplies sufficient amount of energy to the active medium. Thereby, the atoms or
molecules get excited and population inversion is achieved.
Active Medium:
In this medium stimulated emission of radiation takes place. After absorbing
energy the atoms get excited to higher energy levels. During the dexcitation of atoms
laser beam is produced.
Optical Cavity (or) Resonator:

The active medium is enclosed in a resonator. The resonator
consists of perfect reflecting mirror at the left end and partial reflective mirror at the right
end. The reflecting portion of the mirror reflects the incident radiation and enhances the
stimulated emission process. As a result laser beam is produced at the non- reflecting end.
Basic Definitions:
Life Time:
The duration of time spent by an atom in the excited state is known as life
time of that energy state.
Metastable state:
The excited state which has longest life time is called metastable state.
Active Medium:
A system in which population inversion is achieved is known as active
medium.
Pumping:
The process of achieving of population inversion is known as Pumping.
RUBY LASER: [Solid Laser]

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Ruby laser is a solid laser developed by Maiman in 1960. It is a pulsated laser used for several
industrial purposes.
Apparatus: Source of energy: - Xe flash bulb
Active medium : - Ruby rod
Construction: The experimental apparatus consists of a ruby road (Al2O3 + Cr2 O3) whose length
is about 5 to 15 cm and diameter is 0.5cm. The rod is fully coated with silver on one side and
partially coated on the other side. A xenon flash bulb is arranged around the rod from which
green colour xenon light is emitted. A cooling arrangement is provided to keep the experimental
setup at normal temperature.
Working: The chromium atoms in ruby rod for three energy levels E1, E2 and E3, when the
xenon flash bulb is switched on the light from the bulb are incident on the chromium atom
present in the ground state. The chromium atoms get excited from E1 to E2 and E3. The atoms
present in the energy level E3 come down to E2 after 10 – 8s.This transition is radiation less. Hence
this radiation will make the population of E2 more than the population of E1. The atoms spent
more time in E2 hence E2 is metastable state. At this position when a light photon from the xenon
flash bulb is incident on the atoms present in E2 stimulated emission takes place and a laser beam
of wave length 6943A0 is emitted.
A part of laser beam comes out through ruby rod and another part is again incident
to the atoms present at E2. In this way a pulsated laser beam is produced for every 10 nano
second
He – Ne Laser:
Gas laser was invented in 1961 by William Bennet. It is four level laser system, it is useful in
making holograms etc.
Source of energy : RF oscillator
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Active medium : He + Ne gas mixture

Cavity : Quartz discharge tube with reflectors
Construction:
The apparatus consists of a quartz discharge which is 80cm long and 1.5cm in diameter. He and
Ne gas mixture is taken in the ratio of 10:1 in which He is maintained under a pressure of 1mm
of Hg and Ne under a pressure of 0.1mm of Hg. The ends of discharge tube are arranged with
reflector window on one side and partial reflector window at the other side. The gas mixture is
excited by applying voltage to the electrodes through a radio frequency oscillator.
Working: When a voltage in applied to the electrodes Helium atoms first gets excited because
they are maintained at high pressure. Helium has three energy levels [He 1, He2, He3] in which
He2 and He3 are meta stable state. Ne has 6 energy levels Ne 1, Ne2, Ne3, Ne4, Ne5 and Ne6. Here
the energy of Ne6 is equal to energy of He3 and energy of N4 is equal to energy to He2 the excited
He atoms spent a long time in He 2 and He3 meta stable states and while returning down they
excited Ne atoms to higher energy levels. In Ne Ne6 and Ne4 are meta stable states hence
population inversion is achieved in Ne4 and Ne6 stimulated emission takes place at Ne6 and a
laser beam is produced when the atoms come from Ne 4 to Ne3 ordinary light of wave length
1150A0 is emitted and from Ne2 to Ne1 the emission irradiation less .
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Semi conductor Laser (or) Ga As Laser:
A semiconductor laser is a laser system in which the active system is a semiconductor.

Semiconductor laser system is of two types
i) Homo polar junction laser system
ii) Hetero polar junction laser system
A homo polar junction (laser) semiconductor is a P-n junction semiconductor in which

both p-type and n-type semiconductor are made of same materials.
A hetero polar p –n junction is a p-n junction semiconductor in which p-type and n-type
are made of different materials.
Construction:
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A hetero junction laser has a single plate of GaAs of thickness 0.5 mm is cut. The plate consists
of two parts the upper part acts like a p-type material made up of Ga and the lower part acts like
a n-type material made up of GaAs. An electric current is applied to the GaAs plate between the
electrodes provided at the top and bottom of the GaAs crystal.
Working Principle:
When a current is passed through a p – n junction the recombination of holes and electrons takes
place at the junction releasing certain amount of heat energy. This energy is called activation
energy. But in the case of other p-n junctions like GaAs When electric current is applied
recombination of electrons and holes takes place releasing energy in the form of light. Photons
are emitted during the recombination process. If this light is made to pass through the p-n
junction again and again it will stimulate other holes and electrons to recombine. Hence
stimulated emission takes place there by releasing a laser beam. The semiconductor lasers are
100% efficient. In a semiconductor laser homo polar junction is not used because they are not
100% coherent and they are not continuous in nature. Hetero polar junction is used because they
are 100% efficient and highly coherent and they give continuous output.
Applications and Lasers:

(i) Lasers in Industry:
* Lasers are used in industries for cutting, welding, drilling purposes
* Lasers are used in diamond cuttings
* Lasers are used in military and defence purposes to detect missiles [LIDAR Technology]
* Lasers are used in making holograms
* Lasers are used in writing CD’s and DVD’s
* Lasers are used in communication through optical fibers to transfer data fast from one place to
another place
* Lasers are used to study the structure of chemical compounds
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(ii)Lasers in Medicine
* Lasers have wide range of medical applications
* Lasers are used to remove “cataract” (or) any other disorders in eyes
* Lasers are used in scissor less operations
* Lasers are used in angioplasty to detect and cure heart problems
* Lasers are used in curing cancer tumors and to remove stones from kidneys
PROBLEMS
Ex: 1 A semiconductor diode Laser has a peak emission wave-length of 1.55m. Find its band
gap in e v.
Sol:  = 1.55m = 1.55x10 – 6m
h = 6.625x10 – 34J-sec
c = 3x108m/sec
hc 6 . 625×10−34×3×108
E=hγ= =
λ 1. 55×10−6 ×1 . 6×10−19
E = 0.801eV
Ex: 2 Calculate the wave length of emitted radiation from GaAs which has a band gap of 1.44eV
Ex: 3 A He – Ne Laser emits light of wave length 632.8nm and has an out put power of 2.3w.
How many photons are emitted in each minute by this laser when operated?
Sol:  = 632.8m = 632.8x10 – 9m
E = nh
nh γ nhc
P= =
t λ(t )
P . λ 2. 3×10−6 ×632. 8×10−9
⇒n= =
hc 6 .625×10−34×3×108
⇒n=
Review Questions
1. (a) Describe the important characteristics of laser beam.

Engineering Physics
(b) Explain the process of stimulated absorption of radiation along with its importance.
2. (a) Describe the process of spontaneous emission of radiation.

(b) Explain the process of stimulated emission of radiation and mention its advantages with
respect to spontaneous emission of radiation
3. (a) Derive the relation between the various Einstein’s coefficients of absorption and emission
of radiation.
(b) Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiations.
4. (a) Explain the importance of population inversion in emission of laser beam.

(b) Describe various methods of achieving population inversion.
5. a) Explain the characteristics of Lasers.

b) Describe the construction & Working of He-Ne laser
c) Write any four applications of lasers
6. a) What is population inversion relating to Laser action? Explain.

b) Show that the rate of probability of stimulated emission and absorption are equal when the
system is in equilibrium [Einstein’s coefficient
7. a) Describe the construction and working of a homo junction semiconductor diode laser.
b) Explain the application of lasers in industry scientific and medical fields.
8. a) What is population inversion?

b) With a neat sketch explain the construction & Working of Ruby Laser.
NANO TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION:- The concept of Nanotechnology was first developed at the university of
Tokyo. In Greek Nano means ‘Dwarf’. Nano means 10-9 [a billionth part].
Engineering Physics
Nano technology is a branch of engineering that deals with the Nano level of matter
where the properties are dependent on size. Nano technology is also called “Messoscopic
Physics”
A Nano particle is a cluster [group of identical] of atoms whose size is around 1 to 2 nm

which can accommodate around 50 atoms.
Nano Materials:- Nano materials can be defined as those materials which have structured
components in size less than 100 nm at least in one dimension.
1. Nano materials which exist in one dimension are layers such as thin films or surface coatings
2. Nano materials that exist in two dimensions are Nano wires and Nano tubes.
3. Nano materials exist in three dimensions are particles such as precipitates, colloids and
quantum dots.
Nano Science:- It is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular
and micro molecular scales where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale. It is
the study and understanding properties of the nano particles.
Properties of Nano materials:- Depending upon the size of the particles in the material we can
explain physical, electronic, mechanical, optical, magnetic and chemical properties.
1. Physical properties:- The physical properties of Nano materials are different from the
properties of materials of bulk size. In Nano materials the inter atomic distance decreases
and hence the meeting point also decreases considerably as shown in the adjacent graph.
2. Chemical properties:- In Nano materials the surface area increases and due to this their
catalytic properties will be more effected. Materials which are inert and Nano-reactive
will become more reactive at their Nano level.
Nano particles of iron (Fe) behave as very good catalyst when compared to iron in
bulk size. Most of the materials do not absorb hydrogen in bulk size. But nano particles of
metals absorb hydrogen in large amounts.
3. Electrical properties:- In Nano materials the energy levels will become narrow and very
close to each other. Hence their electrical conductivity changes. The electrical
conductivity of Nano particles of metals decreases but the conductivity of Nano particles
of ceramics increases.
Engineering Physics
4. Optical properties:- Nano materials have interesting optical properties. The Nano
particles of gold having diameter around 100 nm appear orange in colour nano particles
of gold having 50 nm appear green in colour. Thus the Nano particles of materials can be
made to emit or absorb specific colours of light.
5. Magnetic properties:- The magnetic properties like coercivity, susceptibility of nano
materials increases as their surface area increases. Nano particles of non-magnetic
materials also behave like as shown in the given table.
Metal Bulk Nano size (cluster)

Na, K Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Fe, Co, Ni Ferromagnetic Super paramagnetic
Cr Anti ferromagnetic Paramagnetic
Rh Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
6. Nano materials are hard, Tough and ductile in nature.
Why Nano materials exhibit different properties

(or)
Reasons for the different properties of Nano materials
The two main reasons due to which the properties of Nano materials are different from the
materials in bulk size are
1. Increase in the surface area to volume ratio:-
Nano materials have larger surface area when compared to same material in bulk from. This is
because all the inner atoms are brought to the surface of the material hence their surface area
increase. Due to this the chemical properties of Nano materials changes largely.
2. Quantum confinement effects quantum size:-
In Nano materials electron energy levels are compressed and are brought very close to each
other. Hence the material acts as semiconductor and insulators like conductors at their Nano
level. This effect is called quantum confinement.
Fabrication or production or preparation of Nano materials:-
Nano materials can be synthesized by “top down” or “bottom up” techniques. The following are
the methods used in the preparation of Nano materials.
Top down and bottom up techniques:
Engineering Physics
Bottom up Top down
Nano Particles Bulk

Atoms
Many techiniques including both top down and bottom up approches have been
developed and apply for the synthesis of nano particles. In the top down approach a block of bulk
material is whittled to get the nano sized particle. The top down approches include milling or
attrition. The Nano particles producted by the attrition have the relatively broad size distribution
and various particle shape or Geornetry, Nano particles thus prepared by this method are
commonly used in the preparation of the narrow composites & Nano grined bulk materials.
In the bottom up approach where the individual atom & molecules are palced are self
assembled, here the molecule or atomic building blocks fit together to produce Nano particles,
bottom up approaches are more favourable and popular in the synthesis of Nano particles &
many methods have been developed.
Any method that is capable of producing very fine grain sized can be employed for which t
1. Sol-gel
2. Ball milling (grinding)
1. Sol –gel:- Initially a homogeneous solution (sol) of a material is prepared and used as a
precursor indication for nano fabrication. The sol is deposited on a suitable substrate by
spraying (or) dipping. It is kept for a while for gelation (gel). During this ‘gelation time’ the
material gradually loses its fluidity and undergoes a transition from viscous liquid state to
elastic solid state. The desired nano particles are finally fabricated from the gel.
2. Ball milling:- This is a top down technique. In this method small metallic balls are made to
rotate with large velocity in special drums and are allowed to fall on a solid with large force.
The ball crushes the solid and nano particles of the solid are formed.
Ex:- nano particles of cerium oxide and zinc oxide (zno) are produced.
Applications of nano materials:-

 Nano materials are small materials with big future. They have large surface area & very
small in size.
 Magnets made from nano materials of samarium cobalt have very good magnetic properties.
They are used in “magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)”.
Engineering Physics
 Ceramic tiles are hard and easily breakable but at nano level they become flexible and can be
easily bent. Hence nano ceramics materials are called “super plastics”.
 Nano particles of silicon nitride and carbide are used in auto mobile springs and ball
bearings which do not require lubricants.
 Nano particles of iron oxide are used in lipstick pigments which are not harmful.
 Nano particles of clay are used in car bumpers.
 Layers of nano particles are coated over auto mobiles which are scratch resistant.
 Nano particles of fiber are used in textile industry to produce clothes which are strain
resistant and water proof.
 Nano particles of silica are used in making paints that change their colour according to the
temperature of the surroundings. Nano particles are used in producing paints of unusual
colours.
 Nano particles are used in sunscreen lotions.
 Nano tubes are used as filters to filter air and water.
 Nano particles of silver are used in making fabrics which are anti bacterial and kills germs.
Presently Pockers Company is making use of this technology in their cloths.
Information technology:-
 Nano particles are used for information storage.
 There are used in Optoelectronic devices.
 CNT’s are used as emitters.
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS
 Nano porous membranes may be used for filtering pathogenic bacteria. (cure for cholera and
hepatitis)
 By using nano material, repair of damaged retinas can be done.
 Artificial tissues also prepared by using nano materials.
 Hyperthermia can be done (tumor destruction via heating) by using nano materials.
 Gold nano particals are widely used in immunehistro chemistry to identify protein- protein
interaction.
 Nano particles are used to diagnoses and treatment of diseases such as cancer or viral
.infections.
Bio-medicals:-
 Nano crystalline silicon carbide material is used in the preparation of artificial heart valves.
 Nano particles are used as agents in cancer therapy.
 Bio sensitive nano particles are used for tagging of DNA and DNA chips.
Energy storage:-
 Nano materials are used in fuel cells, solar cells and in capacitors.
 Nano particles are used in the fabrication of ionic batteries.
 Nano materials are used in hydrogen storage devices.
Engineering Physics
Nano science:-
 Nano science refers to the science and manipulation of chemical and biological structures
with dimensions in the range from 1-100 nm on the scale new properties [electrical,
mechanical, optical, chemical & biological] that are fundamentally different from bulk
properties can emerge.
Nano science is about creating and organizing nano structures into large and
more complex functional structures and devices. It is a new way of thinking about making
complex devices and materials by controlling the function of matter at the controlling length
scale. The “nano” length scale requires the involvement of chemical concepts at the atomic
and molecular level. The nano science ultimately combines the science and engineering of
manmade and biological entitles controlled at the nanometer scale and assembled into
complex engineered structures and interact with surroundings at dimensions from that of
molecule to that of human and beyond.
Nano Technology:-
Nano technology refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an
atomic and molecular scale. Generally it is approximately 100 nm or smaller and involves
developing materials or devices within that size.
Two main approaches are used in nano technology, bottom-up approach materials which
assemble themselves chemically. In the “top-down” approach nano objects are constructed from
larger entities without atomic level control. For this latest tools such as Atomic Force
Microscope (AFM) Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are used examples of nano
technology include the manufacture of polymers based on molecular structure and assign of
computer chip layouts based on surface science.
“Nano Technology “mainly consists of the processing of separation, consolidation and
deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule. It not only allows making many high
quality products at very low cost but also allows making new nano factories at low cost and rapid
speed.
Engineering Physics

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AUDISANKARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY::GUDUR

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES

We know that corpuscular theory of Newton satisfactorily explained rectilinear

Consider two waves travelling simultaneously in a medium. At any point let y 1 be

Interference in thin film by reflection:-

From the right angled le QUG

From the right angled le QSF

Substituting in equation (2)

⇒QG=2 μ t tan r . sin r

From the right angled le QSF

Substituting equation (3) and (4) in equation (1)

This optical path difference is generally called “cosine law”

(i) Condition for brightness (or) bright band:-

The film will appear bright if the path difference

[ ∵constructive int erference ]

ii) Condition for dark band

The film will appear dark if the path difference

2 μt cosr=nλ Where n = 1, 2, 3, - - - etc

Newton’s rings:- (or) Formation of Newton’s Rings

Newton’s Rings by reflected light:-

Theory of Newton’s rings

From property of circle

Generally we can write

Determination of wave length of monochromatic light using Newton’s Rings:-

4. In Newton’s rings radius of bright fringe √

Sol:- For a dark band 2t cos r=n

Previous Examination Questions

1. Explain the principle of superposition of waves

2. a) Explain the phenomenon of interference

b) What are the necessary conditions for obtaining interference fringes.

3. Describe the interference pattern obtained due to super position of coherent

The main cause of diffraction is limiting of wave front by an obstacle or an

The diffraction is actually due to the mutual interference of secondary

by the obstacle or slits. That means diffraction is resultant effect produced by a

‘S’ is a source of light, A B is an obstacle [opaque object], C D is a screen, as light

But on careful examination inside the shadow

S is a source of Monochromatic light, MN is an aperture, XY is the screen, AB is

4. X-ray diffraction through human body.

Classification of diffraction:- Basically the diffraction is classified into two types

To find the intensity at P1 draw a normal AC to the line BR as shown in the

Corresponding phase difference

We Know that the resultant amplitude of ‘n’ Simple harmonic

Substituting ‘d’ value in above equations

Condition for principal maximum (or) central maximum :-

Equation (1) can be written as

In the above equation if ¿ =0 then R=A means R is maximum ,means the

Hence the intensity I = R2 =A2 = maximum

This maximum is known as principal maximum

Condition for minimum intensity :-

In eq (2) if sin α=0, thenI=0

This is possible if α=±π ,±2 π ,±3 π −−−−−−−±mπ

Condition for secondary maxima:- The position of secondary maxima can be

⇒ α cos α −sin α=0

The value of ‘ ’satisfying the above equations are obtained graphically by

We know that α=0 given principle maxima

Intensity distribution graph:-

“The diffraction pattern formed with a grating is called grating spectrum”

The condition to form the principal maxima in a grating is given by

position. Spectra of different orders are situated symmetrically on both sides of

Sol:- N=4250 lines/cm

2. A source of light having a wavelength of 600nm is incident on a slit with a width of 1

Sol:- λ=600 nm=600×10−9 m