Aerodynamics_ branch of science that deals

with the forces produced by air flowing over

specially shaped surfaces called airfoils.
Airfoils_ any surface designed to obtain a useful
reaction or lift from air passing over it.
Aircraft_ any weight carrying device designed
to be supported by the air.
Airplane_ it is an engine driven, fixed wing
aircraft heavier than air that is supported in
flight.
Lighter than Air_ device used to sustain in the
air by aerostatic lift.
Fuselage_ central structural component of the
aircraft; it houses the cockpit and the cabin.
Yaw_ left and right movement.
Pitch_ up and down movement
Wing_ part of heavier than air aircraft that
produces aerodynamic lift.
Aerodynamic Lift_ produces by the wing that
holds the aircraft in the air against the force of
gravity.
Flaps_ make up the inboard segment of the
wing trailing edge and is used to increase both
lift and drag.
Ailerons_ make up the outboard segment of
the wing trailing edge and moving in opposite
direction in roll or bank.
Spar_ run the length of the wingtip and bear
the major portion of the bending loads.
Skin_ bending or twisting of loads are
transferred to the metal skin absorbed by
tension or compression of skin.
Ribs_ maintains the shape of the wing and
stiffens the skin.
Wing root_ joint of the wing; section of the
wing nearest to the fuselage.
Wing tip bow or Tip fairing_ curve to give the
wing tip the particular shape.
Types of Flaps
 Plain
 Slotted
 Spilt
 Fowler

Plain flaps_ device is hinged to the trailing edge

of the wing and is the simplest method of
changing the camber of an airfoil of wing in the
retracted position.
Slotted flaps_ this type of device moves aft and
down when extended.
Split flaps_ flat surface hinged to or set to the
lower edge of the trailing edge of the wing.
Fowler flaps_ mechanism moves back ward on
the rollers in a track.
Ground turn/ Taxi
 Differential thrust
 Differential breaking
 Steerable nose wheel
Components of an Airplane
 Fuselage
 Wing
 Powerplant
 Empennage
 Landing gears
Wing configuration
 High
 Mid
 Low
Monoplanes_ single set of wings
Biplanes_ two sets of wings
The Empennage
Consists of Vertical stabilizer and Horizontal
stabilizer
Rudder_ attached in the back of the vertical
stabilizer; used to move the airplane’s nose left
and right.
Elevator_ attached in the back of the horizontal
stabilizer; used to move the airplane’s nose up
and down.
Trim tabs_ its purpose is to relieve pressure.
Stabilator_ replaces the elevator
Antiservo tab_ attached in the back of the
stabilator.
Landing gear_ absorbs the landing loads and
supports the airplane on the ground.
Types of Landing gears
 Conventional landing gear (tail wheel)
 Tricycle gear (nose wheel)
Classification of Landing gear
 Fixed
 Retractable
Shock struts_ designed to absorb bumps and
jolts
Two primary absorbing system
 Oleo
 O-Spring steel
Powerplant
 Propeller
 Engine
 Firewall
  Cowling also called nacelle
Firewall_ is located between the engine
compartment and the cockpit to protect the
occupants.
FAA_ Federal Aviation Administration
Category_ relates to the intended use of aircraft
and sets strict limits on its operation.
Normal and Utility_ categories are common to
most small airplanes.
Acrobatic_ aircraft have the fewest operating
limitations because their designed
requirements demand more strength than
those of the normal and utility category.
Commuter_ aircraft designed to carry
passengers ; limited to 19 seats and 19,000
pounds.
Transport_ refers to airliners and other large
aircraft.
Restricted_ is for special-purpose aircraft such
as agricultural spray planes or slurry bombers.
Limited_ refers to the military aircraft that are
now allowed to be used only for limited
purposes in civil aviation.
Provisional_ is really an interm measure for
newly designed aircraft which have not met all
the requirements for initial certification.
Experimental_ refers to a wide range of aircraft
such as amateur-homebuilt and racing planes.
Four forces of Flight
 Lift
 Drag
 Thrust
 Weight
Lift_ Upward force and opposes weight
Weight_ is not constant, caused by the
downward pull of gravity.
Drag_ is the retarding force or backward force
and opposes thrust
Thrust_ forward acting force produced by the
propeller.
Bernoulli’s principle (Daniel Bernoulli, Swiss
physicist)_ explains how air pressure decreases
as velocity increase.
Venturi_ tube that is narrower in the middle
than at ends.
Newton’s Third Law_ states that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Parts of an airfoil
 Leading edge
 Trailing edge
  Chordline
 Angle of attack
 Upper camber
 Lower camber
Leading edge_ part of the airfoil that meets the
airflow first.
Trailing edge_ part of the airfoil where airflow
in the upper camber joins the lower surface
airflow.
Chordline_ is an imaginary line drawn from
through leading edge and trailing edge.
Camber_ characteristic curve of the upper and
lower surfaces.
Relative wind_ is airflow that is parallel but
opposite to our flight path.
Angle of Attack_ angle between the chordline
and relative wind.
Planform_ refers to the shape of the airplane’s
wing when viewed from top.
 Straight
 Tapered
 Elliptical
 Sweptback
 Delta
Aspect ratio_ is the relationship between the
length and width of the wing.
Wing area_ is the total area of the wing.
Angle of Incidence_ is the angle between the
chordline and longitudinal axis.
2 ways to control lift
 Changing the airspeed
 Changing the angle of attack
Coefficient of lift_ is the way to measure lift
Stall_ separation of airflow from the wing’s
upper surface.
Parasite drag_ includes all drag created by the
plane, except that drag directly associated with
the production of lift.
Form drag_ is created by any structure which
protrudes into the relative wind.
Skin friction drag_ caused by the roughness of
the airplanes surface.
Interference drag_ occurs when varied currents
of air over an airplane meet and interact.
Induced drag_ is the main by product of the
production of lift
Total drag_ sum of parasite and induced drag.
Three axes of flight
Longitudinal axis_ ailerons control roll
movement about the axis.
Lateral axis_ elevator controls pitch movement
about the axis.
Vertical axis_ rudder controls yaw movement
about the axis.
Glide angle_ angle between the actual glide
path of your airplane and the horizon.
Best glide speed_ best speed of your airplane
that you can glide.
Lift-to-Drag ratio_ can be use to measure the
gliding efficiency of your airplane.
Glide ratio_ represents the distance an airplane
will travel forward without power.
Forces acting on a Turning airplane.
Centripetal force_ directed inward in the center
of rotation.
Centrifugal force_ directed outward in the
center of rotation.
Adverse yaw_ yawing tendency toward the
outside of the turn.
Overbanking tendency_ is caused by additional
lift on the outside or raised wing.
Stall_is the separation of airflow from the
upper camber and lower camber; loss of airflow
from the upper camber due to high angle of
attack thus lift is not produce.
Factors
1. Too much angle of attack
2. Weight/ Load factor
3. Tubulence_ no specific wind direction
Where turbulence occurs?- Clouds and
mountains
4. Flap setting
5. Turn
6. Snow/frost/ice
Seperation point_ point where separation of
airflow starts
Pointers:
 An airplane will stall if the critical angle of
attack is exceeded.
 It will stall at any airspeed if the critical
angle of attack is exceeded.
 It will stall at any altitude if the critical angle
of attack is exceeded.
Stalling speed_ is the speed where your
airplane can stall or specified speed.
Stall recovery:
1. Lower the nose to decrease the angle of
attack
2. Apply more power to accelerate the
airplane
Spin recovery:
 1. Push the yoke
2. Neutralize the ailerons
3. Move the rudder to opposite direction
of the spin

Left turning tendencies

Propeller-driven airplanes are subject to several
left-turning tendencies caused by a
combination of physical and aerodynamic
forces.
1. Torque
2. Gyroscopic precession
3. Asymmetrical thrust
4. Spiraling slipstream
Torque_ the clockwise action of the spinning
propeller causes a torque reaction which tends
the airplane to move counterclockwise about
its longitudinal axis.
Gyroscopic precession_ is the reaction of the
force applied to a gyro acts in the direction of
rotation and approximately 90 degrees ahead
of the point where force is applied.
Asymmetrical thrust_ results from the
descending propeller blade on the right
producing more thrust than the ascending
blade on the left.
P-factor_ makes an airplane yaw about its
vertical axis to the left.
Spiraling slipstream_ produced by the propeller
which wraps around the fuselage and strikes
the left side of the vertical fin and pushes the
tail to the right and yaws the nose to the left.
Ground effect_ the earth surface interferes
with the airflow and actually alters the three
dimensional airflow pattern around the
airplane.
Wingtip vortices_ are caused by the air
beneath the wing rolling up and around the
wingtip.
Upwash_ is the deflection of the oncoming
airstream upward and over the wing.
Downwash_ is the downward deflection of the
airstream as it passes over the wing and past
the trailing edge.
Average relative wind_ the downwash of the
airstream causes the relative wind to be
inclined downward in the vincinity of the wing
Induced angle of attack_ is the angle between
the free airstream relative wind and average
relative wind.
Stability _ Characteristic of an airplane in flight
that causes it to return to the condition of
equilibrium, or steady flight after it is disturbed.
Maneuverability_ characteristic of an airplane
that permits you to maneuver it easily or allows
you to withstand the stress resulting from
maneuvers
Controllability_ capability of the airplane to
respond to your control inputs specially with
regards to attitude and flight path.
Static Stability_ initial tendency that an object
displays after its equilibrium is disturbed.
Positive static stability_ the airplane tends t
return to its original attitude after
displacement.
Negative static stability_ tends to move farther
away from the original attitude following
disturbance.
Neutral static stability_ the airplane tends to
remain in its displayed attitude.
Dynamic stability_ the time required for your
airplane to respond to its static stability.
Positive dynamic stability_ tendency to return
to its original attitude or through a series of
decreasing oscillations.
Negative dynamic stability_ oscillations
increasing in magnitude as time progresses.
Neutral dynamic stability_ the airplane
attempts to return to its original state of
equilibrium, but the oscillations is neither
increasing nor decreasing in magnitude as time
passes.
Longitudinal stability_ it involves pitching
motion or tendency of an airplane about the
lateral axis.
Center of Pressure_ it is the point along the
wing chordline where lift is considered to be
concentrated.
Tail down force_ the downward force
Thrustline_ is determined by where the
propeller is mounted and by the general
direction in which thrust acts.
Canard_ is a stabilizer that is located in front of
the main wings.
CG range_ is the distance between the forward
and aft limit
Lateral stability_ is the stability about the
airplanes longitudinal axis
Dihedral_ is the upward angle of the airplane’s
wing with respect to the horizontal
Keel effect_ is the steadying influence exerted
by the side area of the fuselage and vertical
stabilizer.
Sweepback_ wings are taper backward from
the root of the wing to the wingtips.
Directional Stability_ Stability about the
vertical axis
Dutchroll_ combination of rolling/yawing
oscillations caused byyour control input or
windgusts.
Spiral Instability_ is associated with airplanes
with strong directional stability in comparison
with lateral stability.
Balance_ the center of gravity is slightly
forward to the center of pressure.
Side slip_airplane with spiral instability is
disturbed from the state of equilibrium
Spin_ is aggravated stall which results from
auto rotation.
Phases of spin:
Incipient_is a portion of spin from the time
airplane stall and rotation starts until the
spin is fully developed
Fully developed_means the angular
rotation rates, airspeed, and vertical speed
are stabilized from turn to turn and the
flight path is close to vertical.
recovery