Threat Identification and Avoidance system

The tankers are flying in the battle zone, therefore The threat to these aircraft come in the
form of air-to-air missiles, surface-to-air missiles, and one of the most dangerous threats,
the shoulder fired, infrared, man-portable air-defence missiles, commonly known as
MANPADS.. Due to a large number of aeroplanes in the proximity of the tanker, odd of a
collision increases the threat. Weather is also considered as threat air turbulence and bad
weather makes it difficult for the tanker to function and refuel the fighter jets, but these are
unpredictable and there is not a precise method to handle disturbances caused by the
nature.

To make the tanker safe from the enemy it first needs to identify it. The tankers are
equipped with radar and EO sensors, which locate and develop a visual image of objects
flying in the proximity of the tanker.

Radar is a mature object detection system which uses electromagnetic waves to detect the
location, speed, altitude, range and direction of a moving or a fixed object. It has been
developed for many years and hence is used as the primary system to detect objects.

Radar detector uses a radar gun to send out radio waves at a specific frequency. The signal
bounces off a targeted object and returns to the radar gun. This signal moves at a constant
speed (the speed of light), so a computer unit can calculate the time it takes for a signal to
return. If the target object is moving towards the radar gun, the frequency becomes higher
due to a phenomenon called the Doppler shift.

A radar set consist of basic components: something to generate radio waves, something to
send them out into space, something to receive them, and some means of displaying
information so the radar operator can quickly understand it.

The radar waves are generated by a piece of equipment called a magnetron. Radio waves
are similar to light. They are made up of fluctuating patterns of electrical and magnetic
energy, just like light waves, and they travel at the same speed—but their waves have much
longer wavelengths and higher frequencies.

Once the radio waves have been generated, an antenna, working as a transmitter, hurls
them into space. The radio waves travel outward from the antenna at the speed of light
(186,000 miles or 300,000 km per second) and keep going until they hit something. Then
some of them bounce back toward the antenna in a beam of reflected radio waves also
travelling at the speed of light. The speed of the waves is crucially important. If an enemy jet
plane is approaching at over 3,000 km/h (2,000 mph), the radar beam needs to travel much
faster than this to reach the plane, return to the transmitter, and trigger the alarm in time.
That's no problem, because radio waves (and light) travel fast enough to go seven times
around the world in a second! If an enemy plane is 160 km (100 miles) away, a radar beam
can travel that distance and back in less than a thousandth of a second.
The antenna doubles up as a radar receiver as well as a transmitter. In fact, it alternates
between the two jobs. Typically it transmits radio waves for a few thousandths of a second,
then, it listens for the reflections for anything up to several seconds before transmitting
again. Any reflected radio waves picked up by the antenna are directed into a piece of
computerized electronic equipment that processes and displays them in a meaningful form.
The receiving equipment filters out useless reflections, displaying only significant reflections
on the screen itself.

There's one more important piece of equipment in the radar apparatus. It's called
a duplexer and it makes the antenna swap back and forth between being a transmitter and
a receiver. While the antenna is transmitting, it cannot receive—and vice-versa.

The radar system is connected to the EO system which generated the image of the object
flying near to the tanker and transmits images in near real-time to a ground station or
satellite. The basic Electro-optical (EO) sensor is essentially a closed-
circuit television camera, usually with a magnification lens, helping the aircrew to locate and
identify targets. For night and adverse weather use, many EO sensors incorporate low-
light light-amplification systems. The radar supplements the basic visual EO with forward-
looking infra-red (FLIR) to aid in locating and identifying targets in darkness. Such systems
are sometimes called infrared search and track sensors.
An advanced multi-sensor EO uses five axis stabilization and high power optics, including
Super Narrow field of view, to support operation at extended range. The payload can be
configured with 6 (SAFIRE III) or 7 (SAFIRE HD) sensors including 3rd Generation FLIR, CCDTV
with haze penetration filters, I2CCD, colour spotter scope, laser pointer and illuminator, and
laser rangefinder.

The Star SAFIRE HD system uses a 1,500 mm focal length for mid-wave IR and coaxial “two-
in-one” telescope for the visible wavelengths sensors. The system facilitates high precision
geo-pointing, directing the payload to look at exact geographic coordinates. Feeds from
multiple sensors can be fused into a single image, to obtain optimal contrast and
presentation of hidden details, generating up to x3 more information compared to
conventional NTSC systems. Multiple video feeds from the different sensors can be
transmitted simultaneously over a single data link for further processing, storage and
display. The system carries both wide-area and narrow-beam covert laser illuminators to
support covert scene illumination and target pointing.

The EO system outlined would use optics to focus the target image onto the face of an
imaging device. This area is divided into an array of M x N pixels, each of which is sensitive
to brightness levels. The brightness is thus read off at each pixel, pixels accessed in some
particular scan pattern (see text) by the multiplexer (MUX) which is controlled by the
synchroniser (SYNC). The result is a video signal, containing image and synchronising
information, which is channelled to the pilot's Head Down or Head Up Display (HDD or
HUD). This transmitted image may undergo enhancement processing, to emphasise some
aspect of the target. The display receives brightness information at each pixel, as
determined by the synchroniser which analyses the incoming signal, extracting sync
information to control the multiplexer and thus select pixels. The Instantaneous Field Of
View (IFOV) of modern EO systems is very narrow, usually of the order of 1.5 to 0.5 degrees
of arc. Auto track capability is now standard in most systems.
Northrop AN/AXX-1 Television Camera System (TCS). TCS represents the TISEO/TCS family of
stabilised TV telescopes, used by the USAF and USN on air defence and air superiority
fighters. TCS provides sharp close-up images of hostile aircraft outside of visual range.

By using integrated radar and EO sensor system the tanker can sense and identify physical
threats enabling it to avoid them. There is no specific system to deal with bad weather or air
turbulence. During the refuelling process disturbance should be minimum, hence in a bad
weather condition the aircrafts cannot be refuelled. To avoid such a situation the tankers
need to change their mission path and opt for a different mission profile for the time.
Traffic Alert and collison avoidance system (TCAS)

It is an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air

collisions between aircraft. It monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft
equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic control, and
warns pilots of the presence of other transponder-equipped aircraft which may present a
threat of mid-air collision (MAC).

The system identifies the location and tracks the progress of aircraft equipped with beacon
transponders. The receiver and display indicates approximate bearing and relative altitude
of all aircraft within the selected range, usually about forty miles. Further, the system uses
colour coded dots to indicate which aircraft in the area pose a potential threat. The intruder
target is plotted and the system is able to tell whether the aircraft if climbing, diving, or in
straight and level flight. Once this is determined, the system will advise whether to execute
an evasive manoeuvre that will de conflict the aircraft from the intruder. The system is
capable of interrogating Mode-C and Mode-S system. Mode-S data link will enables the
aircraft in transmitting its GPS position and velocity vector to other TCAS-equipped aircraft
thus providing much more accurate information.
Ground Proximity Warning System

The system essentially monitors the airplane's location and altitude, providing a map-type
display of surrounding terrain and sounding an audible alert if the airplane approaches too
close to terrain, a body of water or a tall structure. The computer analyzes a number of
parameters including aircraft configuration, speed proximity to the terrain and decent rate
in order to issue appropriate warnings. The system automatically provide, as a minimum,
warnings under the following circumstances

 Excessive Decent Rate.

 Excessive Terrain Closure Rate.
 Altitude Loss After Take - Off or Go Around.
 Unsafe Terrain Clearance during High Speed Flight or While Not in the Landing
Configuration.
 Below Glide slope Deviation Alert.

Defensive System

The tankers carry a huge amount of fuel and due to safety reasons the tanker cannot be
equipped with weaponry. To defend it from the enemy and missiles tankers have missile
approaching system and countermeasures to detect and divert or disable the missile.
Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures (LAIRCM) system has been used as the defensive
system for the tanker fleet. The LAIRCM system is a laser-based, IR countermeasure system
designed to enhance individual aircraft survival by providing an effective defensive
capability for tanker specifically protecting against vehicle launched and shoulder-fired, IR
missiles. The LAIRCM system autonomously detects and declares IR missile threats, then
tracks and emits IR laser energy to disrupt and jam the missiles' guidance, causing even the
most advanced heat-seeking missiles to miss its target. The LAIRCM offers pilots not only
the ability to defeat heat-seeking missiles, but also provides upgraded missile warning
systems. LAIRCM consists of five subsystems.

LAIRCM

Ultra-violet Infrared laser

Countermeasure Control Indicator
missile warning Sensors Jam source
processors Unit
system subsytem

The Diagram below depicts the sequence of events that take place when the system senses
a threat.
Ultraviolet missile warning system

The LAIRCM consist if an ultraviolet missile warning system which detects the presence of
missiles targeting the tanker. The radar detects the missile but due to high velocity of the
missile and small time response the missile warning system is also installed for a fast
response time against nearby missile launches. It operates in solar blind UV spectral
wavelength and hence has no natural (sun) false alarms. They have a very good probability
of warning in high clutter background environment.

It can sense the approaching threat and direct the sensors and the countermeasure
processor toward the threat. It is viable to use this technology compared to infrared
detectors as it has a simpler system and due to its wave-length region reduces the false
alarms.

Sensors

The EO sensors and radar system as described earlier are the basic sensor system present in
the tankers to sense and form image of the approaching threat. Multiple sensors have been
used for full coverage of the tankers surroundings.
After the missile warning system alerts the system of the approaching threat the sensor
detect the threats coordinates, velocity, and time to impact and develop a visual image.

Countermeasure Processor and Control indicator unit

A directional, laser-based, closed-loop infrared countermeasure system is used to defeat

infrared missiles. In a closed-loop system, the incoming missile is identified and the
countermeasure system generates or tunes a jam code according to the specific incoming
missile. The optimized jam code is directed at the missile which executes a maximum turn-
away from its intended target. An additional feature of closed-loop techniques is the ability
to monitor the classification and identification process during the jamming sequence. This
provides a direct observation of the countermeasure effectiveness as well as an indication
of the necessary corrective action required for the jam code.

Infrared laser missile Jammer

The basic countermeasure is a flare, but infrared sensors that operate on multiple
wavelengths often can discriminate between flares and aircraft. In any case, flares
essentially are limited to deceptive decoy (i.e., confusing the threat as to which target is
real) or sacrificial decoy (i.e., convincing the threat that the decoy is the real target)
functions.
More advanced countermeasures, against missiles believed to be using infrared homing, are
specifically intended to dazzle or damage infrared missile seeker heads, using an arc lamp at
first, and later a laser.
Directed infrared countermeasures begin by requiring precise threat location. Once such
information, the countermeasure system aims a beam of visible or invisible light, to which
the missile seeker is sensitive, directly into it. Such beams are most commonly generated
by lasers, but can use other intense sources such as arc lamps.
This places far more energy into the seeker than is possible with a flare. As a result, the
seeker may overload and lose track, or actually be destroyed.
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http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Infrared_countermeasures

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