PANIC NOTES

Everything in the History syllabus summed up into ~1 hour of reading time*

*based on average reading WPM

Section 1

Decline of the Mughals:

Reasons #
Aurangzeb’s religious reforms
Reinstituted Jizya Tax on non-Muslims.
Destroyed Hindu Temples
Enforced Islamic Laws
Banned Suttee (Hindu Tradition)
All of which led to Hindu’s (who formed a large part of India) agitation.

Aurangzeb’s wars.
Fought a war against the Rajputs
Attempted to expand North (in a campaign against NWFP pathans) Numerous Rebellions (Sikhs, Satnamis, Jatts). The
Maratha War which was the costliest.
^All these wars resulted in heavy taxes, and emptied the Mughal treasury. Leaving the Mughal Empire in economic
misery.

Aurangzeb’s love for luxury.

Built palaces, spend huge sums on himself.
^E.g Pearl Mosque for his own private prayers in Dehli made him unpopular. Furthered economic decline.

Indefinite law of succession.

The dead Mughal emperor’s sons would fight for power.
He tried preventing this by dividing the empire between his 4 sons. Didn’t work
Muezzin was first emperor. Died. His sons fought. In 10 years, 12 claimed the throne. These wars cost a lot. Weakening
the economy. Many capable soldiers, nobles died. Le the empire divided and weak.

Lazy ass successors.

Were lazy, incompetent. Unable to control government.
Handed the government over to the mansabdars (Nobles put in charge, system started by Akbar. These were o en
corrupt, disloyal and sought their own gains) these o en corrupt nobles grew in power. Some princes and rulers were
assassinated by courtiers. Such as Farukhsiyar and Alamgir
Thus, there was an imbalance of power. Any emperor who would take control could not rule.

Military Ine iciency.

 Mughals used to be powerful, disciplined armies. Used to fight with clever tactics. With strong commanders.
They became complacent with time. Didn’t feel the need for an army. Army became weak. Less disciplined. No
modern advancements in warfare.
Army was also made of di erent groups: Persian. Afghani etc.
The Mughals lacked a naval fleet as well, despite having numerous ports.

Vast Empire.
Over 1000’s of Communication and transport was di icult. Months before news e.g: Rebellions reached the emperor,
and he couldn’t react in time.
The Mansabdary system was weak and corrupt, no longer countered tis. Bihar, Deccan, Bengal managed to declare
independence at points.

Invaders.
Nadir Shah, Persian leader invaded. Defeated Muhammad Shah at Karnal 1734
He sacked Delhi. Le a er 2 months with many jewels, good and the peacock throne Ahmed Shah, an Afghan came in
1747.Attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore. Had control over Punjab by 1749. Kashmir, Multan by 1756.

British.
Finally took control and e ectively ended Mughal Rule
They were military better equipped. Also employed local sepoys. Had military experience from their combat against
the French, Portuguese.
Won decisive Battles: Plassey, Buxar. Mir Jafar betrayed Indians, helped British. Exploited captured lands for a lot of
profit.

British Rule

Why the British took control over the EIC. #

The Volume of trade and profit to the British was extremely significant. The crown did not feel that a thing of such
importance should remain in the hands of a private company. They thus took control of the EIC.

The British needed to shape their foreign policy, since the Russians seemed to be trying to expand . This couldn’t be
done under the EIC.

British Prestige was at stake. The needed expansion to regain the image they had lost in their disgraceful loss at Kabul by
the Afghans.

Why European nations became involved in the subcontinent. #

India had certain raw materials that the rest of the world did not have and they desired, including spices, cotton, sugar,
silk, jute etc

The British had a great regard for the raw materials, since they had recently undergone the industrial revolution and
wished to expand their industries.

The Middle Eastern countries had a tax on Europeans, and the Byzantine Empire was now under the ottomans who
sought cheaper trade routes.
They avoided land routes in the middle East, since trading via sea was cheaper, more e ective and gave economy of
scale.

British went to India since other lands (e.g: Africa) were already under Portuguese control. They also fought against the
French here.

Taking control of India: #

Successes (Of Indians in resisting)
In 1666, EIC grew proud, refused taxes and issued coins. Aurangzeb sent a force against them, defeated them. EIC paid a
fine, apologized, reduced activities. >In 1756, Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah defeated EIC and managed to drive them
away from and they captured Calcutta.

Tipu Sultan had French support, and used his strong army against the EIC at several times. Defeating them.

Failures:
The very next year in 1757, The British, under Robert Clive defeated Siraj ud Daulah’s forces with the help of Mir Jafar’s
betrayal. Siraj died, and the Mir Jafar was placed as a puppet ruler by the British

In The Battle of Buxar of 1764, the British defeated the Mir Jafar’s son, Mir Qasim and Shah Alam II and the Nawabs of
Oudh. This extended their influence, gave them Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. They collected Revenue from here, managed to
get a bigger army. Ended true Muslim Rule.

In 1782, first GG, Warren Hastings signed a treaty with the Marathas They could now focus on other places, and Maratha
take over was prevented.

In 1799, GG Wellesley invaded Mysore and killed Tipu Sultan. They thus killed a strong enemy and took control of his
lands in Mysore.

In 1803, The British entered Delhi, forced Shah Alam II to accept rule under “British Protection” … which basically meant
that The Emperor no longer had any real power. British were true rulers by this point.

They provoked the Sindh Amirs into war despite a treaty signed between the two parties in an attempt to make up for
their disgrace in Afghanistan.

British managed this partly because of the Industrial Revolution, which made them technologically superior, giving them
an edge over the Indians with their weapons, techniques.

British Reforms/Rule.
India was very wealthy, but this wealth was heavily exploited by the british, with all this wealth going over to the British.

In 1829, they banned Suttee (A common hindu tradition)

Replaced Persian with English as the government language … Indians could no longer get government jobs.

Indians had to send their children to co-ed schools with westernized Educations. They disliked this as it went against
their culture and religion.

Christian Missionaries came and set up schools, and seemed to try and convert the local populace to Christianity. This
was resented by the Indians.

British brought in the railway system, which is also annoyed the Indians as they felt that the British were trying to
intervene in India too much.
British sold cotton in India (thanks to Industrial Revolution) and collapsed the Indian Textile Industry, leaving millions
jobless and poor.

The War of Independence.

Reasons for outbreak #

Political
The British introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, allowing them to confiscate the territory of any local ruler who did not have
a real male heir. This did not please the Indian landlords as they were being deprived for their lands and thus rebelled.

In 1957 the Mughal Emperor had little power le but was still an important symbolic figure. The British moved the Royal
family form the Red fort of Delhi to a more obscure Qutub Sahi. Indians saw this as mistreatment.

At a lower level of society there was a resentment of the lack of oppurtunities for native Indians in the Civil service. This
resulted in more hatred for the British as their rights were not considered.

1934, English replaced Persian as the o icial language of administration. This created resentment because it wasn’t only
seen as cultural intervention but also increased Indian unemployment as they didn’t know English.

Military
Greased Cartridge Incident

Most of the sepoys were Indian, whereas o icers were always British.

They sent Indan troops to fight in Afghanistan. Unpopular as Hindus didn’t want to leave mother India and Muslims
didn’t want to fight other Muslims.

Religous
Furthermore, regular rumors that Muslim, Hindu, Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity. Angered Indian
solders who felt that their religion was under threat.

Hindu tradition suttee was abolished, widow remarriage allowed. Pardha was ridiculed by the British,

Christian Missionaries made schools, taught Christianity, expected locals to give up own religion. Employers sometimes
o ered incentives for this.

Social
British had a very low view of the Indians. The tried to spread their own culture, and considered the Indians inferior and
were reluctant in giving them high posts.

The British were tried in special courts, but Indians/Locals were tried in ordinary courts. Judgments were made by the
British and were o en cruel/harsh.

Reasons for failure #

Disunity
There was disunity among the rebels. They lacked a common purpose and everyone fought for personal interest, o en
refused to fight unless they were harmed. …Nana Sahib, only interested in getting doctrine of lapse reversed and was
ready to come to terms if this demand was accepted. Thus, Muslims lacked a common cause from the Indians, weakening
them.

Some of the princely state rulers supported the British in order to maintain their own power. Such as the ruler of
Kashmir, who sent 2000 troops to help the British. Thus their strength against the war grew, and the Indians were less
united.

Lord Canning, the Governor General, adopted a conciliator policy towards the rebels. He allowed many concessions for
them: Announcing the rebels who gave up their arms were to be forgiven. Thus, quite a few leaders le the battlefield to
join in negotiations with the government.

There had been a great deal of vandalism in the war, thus the local population was harmed and became displeased with
the rebel’s nefarious activities. Instead, they sympathized with the British who stood for law and order. Hence the British
strength increased even further, rebels weakened.

British Strength
Punjab and Sindh had been conquered by the British with their troops from Bengal and Central Asia. So, when the troops
rebelled in 1857, the Punjabis and Singhies did not support. Meaning a much smaller amount of rebels against the British
might.

The Last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was considered the main leader of the revolt showed incompetence
during the war. More interested in poetry and luxury, and neglected the a airs of combat. Thus, his poor administration
meant weak control.

The British had experienced the Industrial Revolution and were technologically much more superior. Thus they had
advanced weaponry, giving them an edge over the Mughal/Indian forces who had traditional and outdated weaponry.

The British were a superpower at that time and had well trained, confident soldiers led by outstanding generals such as
Edwards and Neil. Who fought with devotion and loyalty to the British Queen. The rebel leaders in comparison were
indecisive and short sighted and hence were easily defeated by the British.

Results of the war of Independence #

Negative
The Indians failed their main objective of ending British Rule/Driving them out of the subcontinent. They not only failed,
but ended as slaves to the British. They British attained complete autonomy over the country and established a rather
tyrannical rule over the Indians.

The Mughal Empire was removed from the Indian political scene forever as the country came directly under the British
Crown by the 1858 proclamation by Queen Victoria. The Muslims were greatly dismayed by this, as the main figure of
Muslim authority was exiled.

The war le a trail of mutual fear and distrust in the minds of the ruler and the ruled. The British became cautious, rigid,
reactionary in their attitude towards the Indians especially the Muslims, considering to be solely responsible for the
revolt, since the wanted to restore the Mughal Empire. Thus the British began to develop a policy of suppressing the
Muslims in their every walk of life. This hatred continued for half a century.

The army taking the initiative in the War of Independence was thoroughly revised. The number of European Soldiers was
increased. Dismaying the Indians, who took part in an attempt to gain better posts and salaries through the revolt.
Instead, some soldiers became jobless
The forces that had rebelled were executed by the British. Cruel punishments, such as being blown to pieces by a canon
were used.

Positive
The British tried to being about a change in their administration and policies. They ended the “British East India Co’ to
the happiness of the Indians who were now relieved of the Company’s tyranny. Thus there now to be ruled through a
new, possibly less cruel ruler.

New reforms and constitutional changes were introduced. An act for the better government of India was passed and
introduced. It involved a Secretary of State with a council of 15 members to help him. Policy of centralization in the 1833
act was changed, and new principles of decentralization and indianisation were recognized. And Indians could now be
elected in provincial councils and thus attain power at a provincial level.

Moreover the 1861 Act restored legislative powers to the governments of Bombay and Madras. New Legislative Councils
were established in many provinces including Punjab, Bengal etc. Thus, Indians were given much more political say,
which had been an aim of theirs in the War of Independence.

The British policy of annexations was changed. The queen declared no more extensions to their present territorial
possessions. Also, the Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned and Indians could now inherit ancestral lands with ease.

Greased Cartridge supply stopped. Indians relieved of a very sensitive Religious issue.

Languages:

Urdu #
Why Pakistan Choose Urdu as its national language
Because of its long History in the subcontinent. Widely used in the Mughal Period, dating as far back as the sultans of
Delhi. Used by the Mughal armies and became widely spoken and understood all over the subcontinent. Thus, it was
natural that such a well-established, natural language be chosen.

It had a high status in the subcontinent. Some of the finest early poets such as Amir Khusrau wrote in Urdu and Sir Syed’s
school at Ali Garh became known as a center for Urdu study. Many religious books, including the Quran were translated
into it. Thus it was rather important due to its rich literary tradition.

It was very closely associated with the Pakistani Movement. Sir Syed supported it, and the Muslim League was formed to
defend Muslim interests and thus Urdu by extension. The Quaid was very keen on it, seeing it as a unifying force. Saw it
as appropriate to promote a language that was a unifying force for the people of the subcontinent.

Promotion of Urdu
Urdu is the medium of the national Media. Since media is well known to everyone, and everyone watches television,
listens to the radio with interest for interest/entertainment, the language is promoted as more people are exposed to it.

Urdu is the medium of instruction in many schools. Develops interest in students towards their national language, as a
lot of subjects are taught in urdu. They frequently read, write, communicate in Urdu.

Urdu is taught up to MA, MPhil and PhD in di erent institutions (such as the Urdu university). Thus scholars research the
language and explore di erent aspects of its poetry and prose, modernizing it.
It is the compulsory subject to pass grade 10 and 12 in educational institutions. Therefore, the language is promoted as
students get familiar with its literature and grammar.

It is the o icial language of courts (…along with English). Thus promoted as it is frequently judicial proceedings (Judges
in their judgements, lawyers in their arguments) >Mushairas (poetry recitation sessions) are frequently held in Pakistan
where poets recite poetry in front of the public, who appreciate it. This encourages them to write more in Urdu and are
o en given awards for their works.

It is the national language of Pakistan and is frequently used in all 4 provinces. Thus it’s not only a unifying force but also
being promoted by people due to their regular use.

Failures of Urdu
East Pakistan strongly opposed the selection of Urdu as the national language a er independence. As their language,
Bengali was spoken by 54% of the total population, leaving Urdu as a minority. This o ended them to a great extent and
eventually led to the creation of Bangladesh. Urdu ended up disintegrating rather than unifying Pakistan. >In Urban areas
people prefer English over Urdu, and thus send their children to English medium schools for their better future,
especially as they’re aware that the civil service exam is taken in English. Urdu is thus sidelined. In local areas people
prefer their local languages instead of Urdu, Hindering the development of Urdu as many of them don’t even know it.

Other Languages #
Why they’ve been promoted:
Literature and work undertaken by authors in areas such as Sindhi gas been popular and is a part of India’s history. Thus,
it should be kept alive. So the government set up bodies to promote it, such as the Sindhi literary board.

Many Languages have played an important role in the history of the subcontinent. An example of this is Pushto literature,
which was important in helping to create opposition towards the British rule. Thus it is important to preserve this history
or future generations.

Balochi had little development before 1947 and its literature was in decline. The government felt that It should be kept
alive rather than lost forever. They thus sought to keep it on par with the other languages.

Punjabi #
Books on academic subjects like Law, Medicine, Science, History and Philosophy published in Punjabi. Thus developed as
it’s been used as a means of imparting education.

The Punjabi University teaches it up to masters level. Thus the language is promoted as students and scholars do
research in di erent aspects of its literature, which helps to modernize the language.

Radio Pakistan in Lahore, plus TV shows. These promote it though dramas and serials and news. Punjabi theater and
films are also widely appreciated by because of their quality. Thus, by using it as a source of information and
entertainment its understanding has been improved among the masses.

Quran was translated into Punjabi by Muhammad Ali Faiq. Thus promoted on religious lines as Punjabi Muslims read it
with interest.

Punjabi Mushairas (poetry recitation sessions) are also held where poets recite their poetry in front of public. They are
appreciated and it helps the people learn Punjabi. Poets themselves are also encouraged and are given wards.

Sindhi #
Sindhi literary board was a step towards Sindhi’s development as it published di erent books and magazines in Sindhi
and Sindhi literary figures like Fakir Nabi Baksh and G. Allama became well known.

Bazm e Talib ul Mawla Publishes books in Sindhi and have thus become known because of their services towards Sindhi
literature.

Sarmast Academy established as tribute to Sindhi poet Sachal Sarmast also promotes the language, by printing his words
and making them available to the common people. >The Sindhiology department teaches Sindhi literature at Jamsher
up to MA level which helps students learn more about the language.

It is a compulsory language subject in schools of Sindh as an alternative to Urdu. It promotes its importance among the
students and fosters their interest in Sindhi as they’re taught Sindhi literature and Grammar.

Pashto: #
Establishment of Peshawar University and the post graduate Pashto literature classes promote the language and
literature among the masses and it is thus more widely known.

Academy for the promotion of Pashto Literature was set up in 1954 and this prepared a widely accepted and known
dictionairy, helped creating vocabulary and increasing understanding of Pashto amongst the people.

Balochi: #
Broadcasts in Balochi on radio Pakistan Karachi, and Quetta Television help to make it more important through news,
entertainment programmers.

Balochi Literary Association was set up and there are now weekly and monthly magazines published in the languages
under it. Nan Kissan and Olassis being a few of them. Thus, this association promoted Balochi by encouraging di erent
writers and helping in gaining more resources.

Many notable poets and writers such as AHA shad, Issac Shamim and others are also making Balochi widely available to
the interested people through their works, thus promoting it.

Religious Thinkers:

Shah Wali Ullah #

Why he wished to revive Islam In the subcontinent
He believed that most of the problems of Muslims was due to their incomplete Knowledge and understanding of the Holy
Quran. As the Holy Quran is in Arabic whereas common Muslims knew Persian. He wanted that the Quranic teachings be
made accessible to the common people so they may act on them

The Muslim community was divided into sects, such as Sunni and Shia. Thus they were vulnerable to attacks on their
religion. SWU wanted them to put aside their di erences o that a more united and strong community could be created.

Many Unislmaic practices had enterest Islam due to constant interaction with Hindus and other no Muslim communities.
Thus they had forgotten the moral andspiritual principles of Islam. Hence SWU wished to revive Islam to purify the
Islamic Society.

Works
Translation of Quran into Persian, the local language, despite opposition of the ulemas. So it was easier for common
Muslims to act on Islamic teachings. Thus Islam was revived among the locals. This also paved way for his sons to
translate it into Urdu, making it available to even more people.

Also treid to stop the Muslims dividing into sects. Studied the di erences between Sunni and Shia objectively and wrote
an account of the first four caliphs in a way acceptable to both groups. Thus treid to reconcile between them to unite the
Muslims >Wrote 51 books on di erent aspects of Islam like Fiqh and HAdis. Significant among them were the Hujjatullah
ul Baligha and Izalat ul Akhfa. This helped Muslim understand Islamic principles and act on them.

Also taught at the Madrassa Rahimiya for many years. Important as it paved for the youth to familiarize themselves with
the fundamental principles and glorious past of Islam hence inducing solidarity and pride in them regarding their
religion.

Tried to unite the Muslims against the Marathas and Sikhs so Islam could be protected and revived. It was he who invited
Ahmed shah Durrani from Persia. He defeated the Marathas and the Muslims were saved from no Muslim tyranny.

Revived Islam in the prevalent economic system by stressing on social justice, equibilarium. He made laborers and
cra smen more aware by stressing that they should be paid justly and urged traders and business to adapt a fair Islamic
system of trading thus eliminating sense of corruption in Business activities.

Haji Shariat Ullah #

Why he wished to revive Islam in the subcontinent
Believed that Muslims of the sub continent were leading miserable lives because they had started following Hindu
practices due to their interaction with them. Thus they started the Faraizi Movement to purify the Islamic society.

Muslims in Bengal were surprised by the Hindu landlords. HSU wanted to end this tyranny. Thus he started the Faraizi
Movement to create a sense of Jihad in muslims so that they could fight for their rights.

Muslims had forgotten the basic principles of Islam and did not practice religious obligations i.e Faraizi prayer and
fasting. Thus he started the Faraizi movement to insist upon them to follow the pillars of Islam

Work
He began his reform movement known as the “Faraizi Movement” started as a reaction to the anti Islamic policies of
British and Hinds. The movement insisted upon the fullfillument of Fariaz i.e one’s religious obligations imposed by God
and His Prophets. His followers came to be known as the “fairizis” on account of their insistence of the fulfillment of
one’s duties. As a result many Muslims declared themselves to the performance of their duties and became staunch
Muslims

Brought the Muslim peasantry together against the cruel exploitation by the Hindu Zamindars, infused a spirit amongst
the Peasants who got together to direct Jihad against the then religious and social oppression to fight for their rights.
This confidence and awakening of the Bengalis from their slumber prepared the grounds for future works of his
successors like Titu Mir and Dadu mian.

Worked towards elimination of Hind customs that had crept into Muslim society due to their continuous interaction.
Significant as he attempted to purify the lives of Muslims so that they could not only distinguish Islamic practices and
rituals but also follow the true Islam.

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi #

Why he launched the Jihad movement against Sikhs of Punjab
The Sikh rulers of Punjab were not letting the Muslims practice their religious freely and even the Azaan was banned. This
angered SASB and he launched the Jihad movement against the Sikhs for Muslim religious freedom.

He launched it against the two main anti Muslim forces, British in Bengal and Sikhs in Punjab. He was aware that British
were hard to defeat as a superpower, and thus hard to defeat. Therefore he launched the Jihad against the Siks first as
they were a relativel weaker force and he thus was more likely to win against them

SASB knew that Punjab was surrounded by Muslim tribes, which encouraged him to fight against the Sikhs as these could
help him

Work
Launched the Jihad Movement against the Sikhs in Punjab as they were not letting the Muslims practice their religion
freely. He gathered an army and launched war on them. Although the Mujahedeen were later defeated, this shows his
commitment to liberate Muslims from oppressive rulers and grant them their due rights.

This movement not only infused a great deal of determination and moral courage but also had influence on future
generations, inspiring them. It was like a forerunner for the Pakistan Movement.

It Unified Muslims together of di erent regions, created awareness among of them regarding their political, religious and
cultural rights. It was also the first movement meant to free Muslims from tyranny rather than place a ruler in power.

Reasons for the movement’s failure.

SASB was not well trained in military tactics. Most of the fighters were teachers, or spiritual leaders. This made it di icult
for the Mujahideen forces to fight against the Sikhs and come up with clever strategies to defeat them. On the other
hand, the Sikhs were tough and well trained under Ranjit, who was a strong military ruler.

The Muslim army was disunited. The Muslims were of many di erent backgrounds. Soldiers o en mistrusted each other
and were reluctant to agree with one another. As a result, due to internal conflicts there wasn’t always full support from
everybody. Which weakened the Muslim forces..

The Pathans did not tolerate being in an army that they weren’t ruining themselves. They weren’t ready to compromise
which strained their relations with other Muslims. This weakened the Muslim forces as there was less support from
pathan tribes. >SASB imposed taxes on locals to bear military costs, but local people were pissed o since they had never
payed such a tax and were thus resented SASB. As a result, SASB lost support of the local people which further weakened
his forces. >He thus lost money from taxes and his funds became limited and thus not all the military costs could be
a orded. They could not improve upon/buy more needed military equipment.

Moreover, SASB’s army was not as sincere to him. There were attempts by Yar Muhamad Khan to assassinate SASB. He
thus had to tackle with internal threats as well as external ones. Thus, his attention was diverted from his main goal,
which was to defeat the Sikhs. Yar Muhammad’s army betrayed him in battle in Akora, weakened his fighting and causing
his defeat.

When SASB was moving to Balakot, traitors informed Sikhs of the Muslim’s route. Thus, the Sikhs prepared themselves
and strengthened their forces which made it easier for them to defeat the Muslims. So, when they launched their surprise
attack at Balakot, the Muslims were unprepared for this unexpected attack, and were defeated. >Sikhs outnumbered the
Muslims in this battle. The weaker Mujahideen lost, and SASB was killed, e ectively ending the movement.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

Why he was considered Pro British #

SSAK saved the lives of many British women and children during the WoI. Since the Muslims were fighting against the
British, this angered the Muslims and they started calling him pro-British.

Sir Syed wanted the Musims to not fight against the British in WoI. As he believed that they would be easily defeated by
the British, as they were a superior power. Therefore he was called Pro British as everyone thought he was trying to
establish British Power. >Muslims of the subcontinent believed that the British were invaders. Whereas Sir Syed believed
that the Muslim should accept that British were rulers of the Indians and should accept their ideas, such as Western
Education therefore this angered the Muslims and they labeled him pro British.

Why he established the Aligarh movement #

The British considered the Muslims guilty for the 1857 uprising. So a er the war, the British started the policy of
repression against the Muslims. Sir Syed wanted to end this policy. He thus started the movement to strengthen relations
between Muslims and British by removing doubts of the British of Muslim loyalty.>Muslims considered the British as only
invaders, and didn’t accept co operation with them. SSAK believed that Muslims should accept that British were now
rulers and to accept British ideas, such as Western Education, so that they could improve their social and economic
relations which will enable them to take jobs in civil service and army.

The Hindus of the sub continent were progressing socially, politically and economically due to their co operation with the
British. This worried SSAK as he believed that the Muslims would get dominated by the Hindus and therefore he
established the Aligarh Movement to inform the Muslims about the Hindu threat, and counter it.

Why SSAK tried to improve British – Muslim relationship. #

The British considered the Muslims responsible for the WoT. Therefore they started a policy of repression against them.
As SSAK wanted an end to this tyranny, therefore he tried to improve British – Muslim relationship to remove British
Doubts about Muslim loyalty.

Muslims considered British as foreign invaders and were thus reluctant to acquire Western Education whereas SSAK
believed that Western Education was important for Muslims to live a prosperous life. Therefore he tried to bridge the gap
between the two communities so that Muslims could accept British Ideas.

SSAK feared that the Hindus would dominate Muslims as due to their co-operative attitude towards the rulers, they were
developing economically, socially and politically. Therefore, SSAK tried to improve the British – Muslim relationship so
that Muslims could come on par with the Hindus.

Why did SSAK want insist upon Muslims to acquire Western Education? #
SSAK asked Muslims to acquire western educations so that Muslims could get civil service jobs because no language of
administration was English and to improve their social and economic condition

Hindus received educations from English schools which improved their confidence and they viewed illiterate Muslims as
inferiors. This worried SSAK and he asked Muslims to acquire education to come on par with the Hindu.

SSAK believed that as Quran stressed upon knowledge and exploring the universe, therefore western education of
science was in line with the Quranic teachings. So he emphasized upon Muslims to acquire education to understand the
full majesty of God as the creator.

Why SSAK developed his two nation theory #

Firstly Urdu had been the o icial language of India for many years. However the Hindus wanted it changed to their
language, Hindi. This view wasn’t shared by the Muslims as Urdu was their main language. This provoked SSAK to give
his “Two Nation Theory” as he realized that the Hindus and Muslims were two di erent nations because of their opposite
cultures.

Secondly the Hindus wanted parliamentary system in India. Sir Syed, however rejected this by saying that as Hindus were
in majority they wanted to dominate the Muslim minority b winning ever election. So that’s why SSSAK advocated his
“Two Nation Theory” as he realized that These nations could not live in harmony.

Thirdly the Congress spoke of open competitive examinations for government jobs. However, SSAK rejected this as
Muslims were not educated enough to pass these exams and so most of the posts would be taken over the educated
Hindus.

E orts to improve British Muslim relations #

Wrote the loyal Mohammadans of India – Gave a detailed account of the loyal services which Muslims had given and
named various Muslims who had shown particular loyalty to the British. He not only defended Muslims from British
accusations that they were disloyal but also called on them to end their hostility towards the Muslims

Wrote pamphlet: “Essay on the causes of the Indian revolt” – Pointed out causes of the WOI. (Poor management of India,
forced conversions). Pamphlet helped convince the British that they were wrong to blame the uprising on Muslims. Some
British readily decreased hostility and sympathized.

Sir Syed removed the “Nadarath” misunderstanding – British thought this was insult. Sir Syed said it meant “Helper”.
Thus term reflected the positive term the Muslims had of the British.

Wrote rebuttal of an English book on The Holy Prophet (pbuh)’s life – Corrected errors concerning the life of the Holy
Prophet (pbuh) and Islam. Tried to convince the British that their Islamic knowledge was limited and needed to improve
upon it to remove misconceptions.

Wrote Tabyin ul Kalam (Commentary on the bible) – Pointed out similarities between Islam and Christianity. This was
incomplete, but shows his commitment in improving Muslim British relationship.

Established British Indian association – A platform where members of both communities could interact with each other
and discuss various issues…helped to improve the level of understanding and cooperation between the two people.

Wrote pamphlet “Ahka Amet’ame ahle kitab” Food laws of people of the book – Told Muslims that they were allowed in
Islam to dine with other chirstians …Urged upon them that they were closer to the British than the Hindus (Who were
reluctant to eat with the Muslims)

E orts to make Muslims acquire western education #

Journal on Tehzib ul Akhlaq – This journal included articles from influential Muslims who agreed with Sir Syed that there
was a need for new approach regarding education. Some Ulemas attacked it, yet it played a major part in bringing about
an intellectual revolution amongst the Muslim thinkers.

Scientific society at Ghazipur – Translated scientific writings from English, Persian or Arabic into Urdu; the main language
of the Muslims. Muslims knew knowledge of science was being improved. Helped reduce Muslim hatred towards British
as they read about scientific works and realized that they were more than just invaders but had done a lot for humanity
through scientific inventions

Founded schools in Ghazipur, Muradabad

These e orts of Sir Syed shows his commitment towards expanding educational opportunities for Muslims as Muslims
were reluctant to go in British Schools

Established MAO (Muhammad Anglo Oriental) school in 1875, made into college in 1877 – Provided Western and Islamic
education on the pattern of English Public School system. This proved beneficial for Muslims in many ways:

Provided quality educations to the Muslims of India and a er graduating from this institute they could get better jobs
in te Government Department
It became a symbol of unity fr Muslims in the absence of the Muslim League
Many future leaders of Pakistan such as LAK and Ayub Khan were educated there and many historians believe that
this institution contributed the most for the formation of Pakistan
It also helped to improve British Muslim relationship as noy only many British were teaching in this institute which
created respect in the hearts of Muslims for the British but also a er receiving English education, now the Muslims
were in a better position to communicate with the British in their language and remove misconceptions

Mohammaden Educational Conference – Aim was to publicize the new educational Methods being used at MAO.

This helped improve Muslim education standards

Also played a major role in establishing a Muslim political platform in the days before the League was established as it
attracted famous orators and writers who discussed the political problems of the Muslims in India

It was a er the 29th session of the same organization in December 1906 at Dhaka that major leaders gathered to form
the Muslim League, which was the founding party of Pakistan.

Section 2

Partition of Bengal, 1905

Reasons for Partition #

Largest Province in area, di icult to govern as one unit e.g.: communication >Largest Population, Bigger than entire
British population.

British Muslims relationship had deteriorated since 1857, partition to improve relations

Hindus were becoming stronger in Bengal especially with the help of congress

East Bengal was in weak economic condition, this could be improved (Chittagong seaport, infrastructure, Jute
Mill/industrial setup)

Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Poona ignited Hindu Nationalism, this needed countering

In 1870’s, many secret societies sprung up against British, 1897 British o icer assassinated.

Partition to reduce Hindu power

Reasons for reversal #

Lord Minto assassination attempt – British feared for o icer’s lives

Swadeshi movement crippled British economy

Congress, largest political party in India supported reversal

Simla Deputation, 1906

Reasons to send #
Hindus protested, Muslims too few to match protest – reversal thus likely

Congress worked primarily for Hindu interests (to protect Political Rights)

Hindus demanded Hindi be made national language instead of Urdu (to protect cultural rights) >Extremist Groups like
Arya Samaj did militant activities, converted Non Hindus (to protect religious rights).

New Liberal Government in India was willing to give India elected seats in the council

Importance #
British Acceptance of Separate Electorates = Trying to work with Muslims and improve relations

Acceptance of Separate Electorates, gulf between two communities grew, couldn’t live together, two nation theory strong.

Success of this made Muslims realize their political strengths. Wanted their demands to be accepted.

Muslim League

Reasons for formation #

*(All points of Simla Deputation)

1906 Congress President refused to accept Muslims as significant community, Muslims thus needed right protection,
second largest community of India

Morley Minto Reforms, 1909

Reasons for Congress’s opposition of these reforms #

Number of Indians in councils was increased, but only had advisory role

Acceptance of Muslim demand of separate electorates was disliked

Muslims were given extra seats and more political status

Congress expected partition of Bengal reversal to happen in these reforms

Successes #
Partition of Bengal
Simla Deputation
 Muslim League Formation
Morley Minto electorates
Morley Minto seats
Muslims didn’t participate in Swadeshi movement

Failures #
Partition of Bengal was reversed

Reasons for straining of Muslim-Hindu relations #

Swadeshi movement
Muslim League formed
Morley Minto Reforms
Separate Electorates
Partition of Bengal Reversal

B/W 1911-1914 Hindu – Muslim relations increased

Muslim league POV later on #

A er P O B reversal the Muslim League revisited Morley Minto reforms, criticized because no say in government
In 1913 Muslim League changed their aim from British Loyalty to Self-Rule.

India during World War 1, 1914-1918

Mixed views during WW1 #

Pro-British sympathized because attack on British was indirect attack on India since British Empire part

Others thought that they would get concessions if they fight for British

Some Anti British thought British wouldn’t give concessions easily, pressurized British for self-rule through activities e.g.:
Lala Hardayal, Mutiny Party

British Fought WW1 against Turkey, made Muslims hesitate against fellow Muslim

Lucknow Pact, 1906

Reasons to sign and dra #

(Also points of improved relations 1911-1914)

To achieve common aims and pressurize British

British Policy of Repression against Indians, worried Congress and League

Jinnah, member of Congress and League was a believer in their unity and convinced them to hold sessions together for
Indian’s sake.
British deliberately leaked/let it known that there were going to make reforms, Indians wanted to let their demands be
known

Why it was important #

Congress agreed to demands of separate electorate. Congress willing to support Muslims

Congress agreed to extra seats, gave Muslims more seats than population

Congress agreed to no law a ecting the community being passed until 3 quarters supported it – showing support for
minorities

Montague Chelmsford reforms

Why Indians opposed this #

Council of princely states that was purely advisory/A talking shop

Viceroy could change laws for the “safety” of the Indians, this could be exploited and gave less power

System of Diarchy laws made by Indians in transferred subjects could be amended or removed

Number of voters increased but still low -2%- because of high property qualification

Rowlatt Act, 1919

Introduced to counter nationalism. Indians could be arrested without warrant, detention without bail, govt could tell
people where to live. Unfair rights, both Communities opposed this, thus closer. Jinnah le imperial legislative council,
Gandhi launched Hartal.

Amritsar Massacre, 1919

General Reginald Dyer fired upon a peaceful protest in Jalianwala bagh, 1600 rounds fired. 1200 injured, 400 kill. Hunter’s
committee to set up to investigate his actions.

Gave Hindus and Muslims a common enemy against the British thus united, both denounced them.

Muslim-Hindu relations b/w 1905 and 1919

Successes #
Lucknow Pact

Amritsar Massacre

Rowlett Act
Hunter’s committee

Montford Report

Failures #
Swadeshi Movement

Reversal of Partition of Bengal

Morley Minto Reforms Simla Deputation

Extremist Hindu Groups

Congress support of Hindu as national language

British-Muslim relations b/w 1905 and 1919

Successes #
Partition of Bengal

Swadeshi Movement

Morley Minto

Muslim League

Failures #
Partition of Bengal Reversal

Morley Minto Reforms view change

Lucknow Pact

Rowlett Act

Amritsar Massacre

Khilafat Movement

Reasons for starting the Khilafat Movement #

British captures Turkish Empire this included Makkah, Madinah. Launched to protect these areas

Sultan of Turkey dethroned, immense figure in Muslim world.

Germany and Austria had been punished through several treaties, worries about Turkey being treated in a similar manner

The Muslims supported the British but did not wish to fight against their Muslim Brothers.

Some Muslim Leaders thought that Indian Muslims would also be punished through reforms, etc.
British had previously promised good treatment of Turkey Empire.

Hindu supported the Muslims but wanted Self Rule

Reasons for Failure #

Delegation of Muslim members (under Maulana Muhammid Ali Johar)’s demands regarding Turkey were not accepting.

British policy of repression against supporters. 30,000 arrested.

Hijrat movement failure

Leaders, Ali Brothers arrested on Sedition charges

Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement spilled over to violence, Chauri Chaura incident. Thus ended non co-operation.

Disunity among aims, Hindus only wanted Self Rule

Kemal Ataturk took over Turkey, abolished Caliphate system.

Reasons for Hijrat Movement #

Some Muslim Leaders like Maulana Abdul Kamal believed that India was Dar ul Harb

Leaders of the Khilafat Movement realized that British would not accept demands, so to Pressurize British and Ruin their
international image

Muslims who migrated weren’t in good economic condition and were promised fertile land in Afghanistan.

Reasons for failure of Hijrat Movement #

Muslims who migrated couldn’t enter Afghanistan because closed borders so forced back.

The movement itself was very ill planned, no leaders, no Afghani govt consulted,

Jinnah did not believe in this movement saying that Politics should remain in India

Successes #
Precursor to Independence ~ Large Scale Hindu and Muslim nationalistic feelings/want for self-rule

Muslims learnt political strength and how to do large scale movements unlike small previous methods

Realized mistakes they made in KM which led to downfall

Hindu Withdrawal from movement gave credence to the “Two Nation Theory”

Failures #
Deteriorated British Muslim relations on a large scale, political demands reform acceptance unlikely

Many Muslims migrated to Afghanistan, came back to economic misery

Muslims pulled children from schools, weakening education

Turkish – Kemal Ataturk – themselves abolished the caliphate

Nehru Report, 1928

Suggested stronger center with limited provincial Autonomy, relations down since Muslims interested in provincial
autonomy

Hindu as national Language

Muslims shouldn’t be given extra seats in the council

Importance to Pakistan movement: #

Same points as above, with reference to Hindu–Muslim estrangement.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points

Why produced? #
Tried to amend the Nehru report… resulted in a “Parting of the Ways”

Response to Nehru Report, DEADLOCK since Muslims = No Nehru Report, Congress = No 14 points

Nehru Report’s Anti Muslim/Pro-Hindu countered

Jinnah knew British were going to introduce Reforms, so informed them of Muslim demands

Simon Commission – 1927

Reasons for it being sent. #

Growth of Communalism in India and Hindu-Muslim riots. Sent to negotiate and restore peace between two parties

Montford Report 1919 promised reforms a er 10 years

British Conservative Government feared losing against Labor party

Muslim-Hindu Relations from 1920-1929

Successes #
Khilafat Movement

Simon Commission

Failures #
Withdrawal of Khilafat Movement
Nehru report

14 Points

Delhi Proposals

Allahbad Address, 1930

Importance to Pakistan Movement #

Iqbal gave Idea of Muslim Homeland, Strengthened Two Nation Theory

Nehru report was anti Muslim, Iqbal gave clear cut goal in its opposition

He was source of Inspiration for future Muslim Leaders, accepted by Jinnah in 1940 resolution

Iqbal’s poetry tried to awaken Indian Muslims

Round Table Conferences, 1930 TO 1932

Why held #
Muslim criticized Simon Commission Report (No extra seats, no Sindh from Bombay separation)

Deadlock between League and Congress, Nehru report and 14 points

Previous Reforms rejected by Indians because no Indian Opinion Taken

Reasons for 1st RTC being unsuccessful #

Congress refused to attend because reforms were not guaranteed

Reasons for 2nd RTC being unsuccessful #

1931 Labor Party lost power, new coalition govt less likely to give reforms

Gandhi took a hardline and refused minority rights

Gandhi wanted Nehru Report in Constitution, Muslims wanted 14 points. Disagreement

Reasons for 3rd RTC being unsuccessful #

Lord Irwin replaced with Lord Willington who was less willing to make reforms, less Indian thus wanted to come. Only 46
delegates came.

Congress restarted Non Co-operation movement and leaders Gandhi and Nehru arrested. Thus >Congress leaders didn’t
attend

Jinnah went to voluntary exile a er 2nd RTC because disappointed, thus not invited and did not attend.

Why they were important for the Muslims of India #

1st RTC, British agreed on provincial autonomy (14 points demand) (helped Muslim in Muslim majority areas)

2nd RTC: British agreed to make Sindh and NWFP separate provinces (good for Muslims)

3rd RTC Gandhi took a hard line, rejected 14 points. Gulf between two communities widened

Chaudry Rahmat Ali

Importance #
Wrote “Now or Never” gave idea of separate homeland. Thus inspired Indian Muslims with Muslim Homeland goal.

Named it “Pakistan” ~ “Land of the Pure” by taking names from lands. ~ Gave name to Muslim goal

Muslim League accepted Chaudhry’s idea a er Congress rule thus gave basis for Lahore

Resolution and idea of Independent Muslim Country

Government of India Act, 1935

Successes #
Parliamentary form of govt introduced in which Indians were given representation, meant that they could negotiate with
British for reforms

Also meant that British were planning to leave India since they transferred a lot of power to Indians

No Diarchy, Provincial Autonomy instead so Muslims approved.

NWFP, Sindh made into separate provinces, Muslims happy since Muslim majority areas and political strength increased

Helped draw boundaries for eventual Pakistan

Number of voters increased to 25%

These voted in 1946-45 elections and achieved Independence

Failures #
Diarchy reintroduced at Central level, so Viceroy could still make, amend laws.

Despite Provincial Autonomy, British province Governor could intervene “For safety” >Still many Indians could not vote

1937 Elections #

Why Muslim League was unsuccessful #

First major elections contested by League, lacked organization and planning because no experience

Muslim League had an image problems, leaders seen as “Aristocrats and Landlords” poor and illiterate didn’t sense any
empathy thus did not vote.
Muslim League still had not passed the Lahore Resolution, majority of Muslims did not know >League’s aims. Thus voted
for congress because senior and experienced party and same aim

Congress Rule, 1937 – 1939

Why was it hated #

Hindu made o icial language, Muslims could not read, write this, so unemployment

Band-e-Matram asked to expel Muslims and was nationalistic Indian song, became like national song

Wardha Scheme was introduced, picture of Gandhi, cotton weaving.

Congress banned Cow slaughter, Muslims oppressed if they slaughtered cows. >Disturbances to Muslim Life: Azaan
banned, Pigs pushed into mosques.

Anti Muslim riots, Muslim property, houses burned. Complaints ignored

Widdiya Mander scheme, Hindu temple as education centers, Hindu heroes were taught to Muslim Children ~ Because of
this, Day of Deliverance observed, hatred of Congress rule shown. Thus gap between the two communities increased,
showed they did not get together. Even Nehru commented on how little they seemed to get along.

Lahore Resolution, 1940

Reasons for it being passed #

Congress rule was tyrannical for Muslims

Iqbal and Chaudhry Rehmat Ali gave idea of separate Homeland in early 1930s, Jinnah agreed to it only a er Congress
Rule.

Muslims knew that Independence had to be achieved before the British le India

Cripps Mission, 1942

Why it was unsuccessful #

Cripps mission suggested that Dominion status be given to India, Congress wanted immediate power transfer

It suggested that Individual Provinces be allowed to opt out, but this would lead to Pakistan creation/Muslim Majority, so
Congress opposed it.

Jinnah still rejected it since he wanted a clear cut reference to Pakistan’s creation.

It’s Importance to Pakistan’s creation #

Suggested that Individual provinces could opt out, thus SOME reference to Pakistan Movement was present
Jinnah rejected it since he desired clear cut reference to Pakistan, shows determination of Jinnah and clear cut goals

Congress demand of immediate independence alarmed League, since no Pakistan if British were not there to conduct
partition before leaving.

Quit India Movement, 1942

Why started #
Congress was aware that British were going to leave India, exploited British post WW2 weakness.

Cripps Mission stated that individual provinces could opt out, alarmed them since this meant >British were considering
Partition

Japan was threatening British, this meant possible Indian invasion. If British le , threat of invasion would finish.

Why Unsuccessful #
Main Leaders, Gandhi and Nehru were arrested. No guidance

British used Aerial Bombing and Machine Guns, against QIM supporters, 1000’s thus died. >Jinnah didn’t approve, since
he knew no Pakistan if Independence without British being there to Partition

Importance #
Congress started QIM to get general Independence and stop creation of Pakistan, alarming

Jinnah who quickened pace for Pakistan creation

Due to QIM leaders being arrested, League gained a huge advantage which it exploited to gain strength

Jinnah declared the QIM as blackmail, declaring it an attempt to take advantage of weak British condition. Jinnah
supported British (important for Pakistan)

GANDHI JINNAH TALKS, 1944

Why it was unsuccessful #

Gandhi wanted subjects like Defence and Foreign A airs to be under control of central government. Jinnah wanted this in
provinces

Gandhi wanted Congress and League to work for general Independence first

Gandhi rejected the two nation theory, believed that all Indians were one nation, but this was basis for Pakistan
Movement

Gandhi said that of 6 declared provinces, only 3 could be made part of Pakistan since they were >Muslim majority,
Punjab, Bengal and Assam should be communally divided as they were partially Muslim. Jinnah said no, since this would
mean financially weak Pakistan
Why successful #
(last point of unsuccessful) pleased Jinnah since this should that Indians had realized that

Partition might happen

Gandhi said that Jinnah and Congress should work for general Independence first

Jinnah handled these intelligently, didn’t compromise Muslim Rights. His standing thus improved

Simla Conference, 1945

Unsuccessful #
Congress wanted to nominate at least one Muslim member in executive council, rejected by >Jinnah since League wanted
to be sole representation of Muslims in India.

Jinnah dissatisfied with parity of seats between Muslims and Hindus since Sikh and low Caste members would side with
Hindus, leading to permanent Muslim minority.

Importance #
Jinnah handled it intelligently, didn’t compromise Muslim rights. Thus image improved among

Muslims and support of Pakistan movement increased (can be seen in 1945-46 elections)

Deadlock between League and Congress over nomination of seats led to Wavell realizing

Partition would be necessary

Wavell suggested that an executive council be formed in which Indians would be members with viceroy as defense
minister. This transfer of power showed that British were planning to leave India.

Elections, 1945–1946

Why Muslim League was so successful #

Congress Rule was tyrannical and League promised rights, so Muslims voted for the League. >League learnt from 1937
elections and thus improved planning, organization and campaigned e iciently. Thus more Muslims knew of the league.

Muslim League had passed the Lahore Resolution and started working for separate homeland,

Muslims voted as they wanted to avoid Hindu domination

League lost 1937 elections due to image problem, which they worked on by working hard in the 1940’s for Muslim rights.

Importance of these Elections #

Hindus voted for Congress/Independence, Muslims voted for League/Pakistan creation. Thus British realized that they
were separate communities. Thus paved way for Pakistan.
A er winning the 1946 elections, League became a stronger party with complete Muslim support, thus demands for
separate homelands could not be ignored.

Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946

Reasons for no success #

It stated that India would be divided into 3 parts, (Two Muslim majority, one large Indian Majority) with full provincial
autonomy and right to form own constitution. Jinnah immediately accepted as Muslim rights protected, but Nehru stated
in a press conference this they were not bound to keep it once the British le , Jinnah thus immediately rejected the plan.

Was not able to close the gap between Muslims & Hindus (i.e. Partition vs United)

Suggested an All India Commission to decide outcome (Partition, or United India). Rejected by both Congress and League
since both feared that the outcome would go against their demands.

Importance of Cabinet Mission Plan #

Cabinet Mission negotiated with parties, found that they had di erent aims, thus unsuccessful since bridge between two
undividable and partition would be necessary. (First point of Unsuccessfulness)

Direct Action Day, 1946

Importance to Pakistan formation #

In 1946 Jinnah feared the British might leave India without partition thus called for a large peaceful demonstration of
Muslim feelings. Many Muslims celebrated, and made it clear that Pakistan formation demand was democratic and could
not be ignored.

Hindu – Muslim clashes in Calcutta during this day, resulted in 4000 people losing their lives, British realized that these
two communities could not live together peacefully.

3RD JUNE PLAN

A new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten was sent to India in 1947 to negotiate with local political parties regarding the future of
India. Jinnah was adamant with his demand of Pakistan and the Viceroy was forced to accept. In the 3rd June Plan, the
viceroy announced that India would be divided into two states, i.e. India and Pakistan. Jinnah’s e orts therefore bore
fruit and this plan made the creation of Pakistan o icial.

JINNAH

Why Jinnah changed his stance from Hindu Muslim unity to Two Nation Theory. #
Congress Rule of 1937 was tyrannical for Muslims.
Anti Muslim Nehru report suggested that Hindu should be made the o icial Language. >The RTC’s made him pessimistic
about Hindu Muslim Unity.

Jinnah’s importance to the Pakistan Movement #

14 Points

Rejection of Nehru Report

Jinnah declared the QIM black mail, felt that Congress tried to exploit poor conditions of British in WW2

Lahore Resolution

Gandhi suggested that Congress and Muslim League work together, and Partition a er Independence, but Jinnah was too
clever to agree to this.

Simla Conference

Jinnah worked hard to improve the image problem of the Muslims a er 1937 elections, thus successful in the 1945
elections. >Direct Action day started.

There was a hint to opt out of the individual provinces of the Cripps Mission which was rejected by Jinnah since he
wanted a clear reference to Pakistan.

Forced Viceroy Mountbatten to accept 3rd June Plan.

Section 3

Liaquat Ali Khan

Objectives Resolution #
First move towards constitutional development
Focused on principles of Islam and human rights
Designed to deflect criticism from religious leaders Successes
Objectives Resolution
Minority Pact 1950
Proper handling of coup (Rawalpindi conspiracy)
Managed to keep economy going and produce surplus budgets for new state Failures
PRODA
Failed to frame constitution
Failed to handle Hyderabad crisis
Unable to resolve Kashmir issue (ceasefire)

Ghulam Muhammad, 1951-55

Successes #
 Economic development

1951 – Planning Commission 5 years plan

1953 – Planning Board further 5 year plan

Repealed PRODA
Foreign aid – wheat, CENTO Failure
Political instability – dissolved assembly
Campaigns against Ahmedis – Forced to expel Zafarullah Khan (Foreign Minister)
Improper handling of drought – led to riots
Unable to make constitution

Major General Iskander Mirza 1955-58

Successes #
1956 Constitution
Modernization

Rural development program

Industrialization
Karachi airport established (1955)
Telephone system expanded
Provision in health, education services

Establishment of Defence Pacts

SEATO
MDAA

One Unit Scheme

Failures #
Rise of Nationalism in East Pakistan – they realized that they needed to take solid steps to protect their rights
Undemocratic Rule (Martial Law)
Political instability – changed prime ministers too much Ayub Khan

1958-69

Successes #
1962 Constitution
Positive reforms – land reforms, wealth increase
Defended in 1965 war Failure
1965 war – unable to solve Kashmir issue
Negative reforms
Presidential form of government
 Curtailing civil liberties

Yahya Khan 1969-71

Successes #
Abolished One Unit Scheme
Abolished Basic Democratic System/elections
LFO – Legal Framework Order – one man, one vote
Seats distributed according to Pakistan
Fair elections Failures
1971 war with India
Civil war – separation of East Pakistan (immediate causes) Unable to implement results of the elections

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto 1972-77

Successes

1973 Constitution
Reforms (land, health, education, administrative)

Controlled army

Simla Agreement 1972 Failures

FSF in 1975
1973 – dissolved Balochistan Assembly
1974 – press freedom and political opponents/parties banned
Negative reforms (industrial and administration

Zia-ul-Haq 1979-88

Successes #
Reforms – economic, industrial
Economic Development (Afghan Miracle)
Banned FSF
Improved relations with Balochistan
Islamisation

Failures #
Foreign Policy Failures
 Negative e ects of Afghan Miracle
Hanging of Bhutto – made him unpopular
Amendments of judiciary reforms – PCO (1980), CAA (1979)
8th Amendment – took over complete power
Political instability – removal of Junejo and dissolved assembly

PAKISTAN FOREIGN RELATIONS

USA #
Failures
Pakistan was not happy on the US stance of supporting united India during the Second World War.
Pakistan was not initially recognized by the USA.
Pakistan was not happy with USA when it gave arms to India during the Indo China War of 1962.
Pakistan had thought that these arms were to be used against Pakistan. USA did not support Pakistan openly during
the 1965 war.
Instead it stopped the supply of Arm to Pakistan.
Pakistan had to face an arms embargo during 1967, meaning that the supply of US arms was suspended.
Pakistan was upset when USA openly refused to give any support to Pakistan in the
Bangladesh episode.
USA showed serious concerns over the commencement of the nuclear Program of Pakistan. A er the end of the
Afghan Miracle Pakistan was again seen as an un trusted ally and the aid to Pakistan was suspended even before the
complete withdrawal of the Russian Forces. It was around the end of 70’s when Zia took over and Pakistan’s
international credibility fell again.
US authorities were again unhappy with Pakistan on the crime of over throwing a democratic government.
In March 1986, the two countries agreed on a second multi-year (FY 1988–93) $4-billion economic development and
security assistance program. On October 1, 1990, however, the United States suspended all military assistance and
new economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, which required that the President certify annually that
Pakistan “does not possess a nuclear explosive device.”
The Pakistan US relations were further deteriorated when Nawaz Sharif came to power in 1990 and extended his anti
west policies, as he was himself the legacy of Zia’s rule.
The US aid to Pakistan was literally suspended during the first regime of Nawaz and serious questions were raised
about the nuclear capability of Pakistan.
The Pak US relations were again dented when Benazir Government accepted the Taliban regime of Afghanistan in
1995 as the Taliban were purely anti US.
The relations hit low ebb in 1998 when Pakistan, ignored all the international pressure in general and US in particular
and tested her nuclear devices in reply to the Indian tests in May earlier.
Pakistan’s insistence of not signing the CTBT until India does was probably the last nail in the good relations of the US
with Pakistan.
Further deteriorations were seen when General Pervez over threw Nawaz Shairf’s government in 1999 October and
Washington showed clear disliking about this act of the army yet again in Pakistan.

Successes
Pakistani PM M Liaquat Ali Khan received an invitation to visit USA.
Pakistan accepted it as it needed a powerfully ally in the world to get military, economic and technological assistanc
Pakistan signed the Anti communist pacts of SEATO AND CENTO in 1955 a er it had signed the famous BAGHDAD P
 Pakistan remained a favored ally of the British through out the 60’s .
Eisen Hower visited Pakistan in 1959, surprising during the reign of an army dictator, Ayub Khan , despite the US
claims of condemning the military regi
Pakistan went out of the way to support the US on the U-2 incident in 1960 and subsequently became the victim of
the fury of USSR in the process.

USSR attacked Afghanistan on December 2 1979 and Pakistan subsequently decided to become the front line state in
war against communism.
Pakistan became the darling of the international community as it was fighting against the devastating USSR.

PK became the second larges recipient of the US aid in 80’s.

A lot of technical assistance was given to Pakista
Pakistan was pampered enough reject an aid of US$ 300 million, considering it to less for the e ort they were putting
in.
The US o icials o en visited the a ected areas of Pakistan, particularly Peshawar to boost the Afghan and Pakistan
sold

The relations started improving with the arrival of Benazir Bhutto in the o ice of the Prime Minister as she promoted
pro US
She continued to seek the help of US on the Kashmir issue to mediate and resolve the matter
The US president Bill Clinton visited Pakistan in 1998 to show solidarity to Pakistan on various issue including the
Kashmir

USSR #
Failures
The Pakistani PM went to US rather than USSR which straight away created a ri between both the countries.
Pakistan was not happy when USSR supported India on the Kashmir issue.
The USSR was also supporting the Pakhtoonistan cause of the Afghanistan which was yet an other disliked issue to
Pakistan
The USSR o ered Pakistan to take the steel Mills but was refused.
The USSR was furious on the Pakistani decision of signing SEATO and CENTO by 1955.
The USSR was extremely unhappy when the shot down plan U-2 flew from the US air base in Peshawar. USSR clearly
threatened Pakistan to destroy the base if Pakistan was found guilty of helping the US in any such regards.
In 1971 the USSR was supporting India and even threat China to attack if it ever tried to help Pakistan in the war.
The relations hit the lowest ebb when Pakistan decided to become the front line state in the war against communism.
The USSR was furious and went on to attack the border areas of Pakistan through out the war between 1979-1988.
When Zia tried to attend the funeral ceremony of the Russian president Andropov in 1984 but he was not entertained.
When the Geneva Accord was signed in 1988, the relationship between the two countries became worst and the by
the time USSR was disintegrated and the Russian blamed Pakistan for the tragedy.

Successes
Pakistani PM Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan received an invitation to visit USSR before any other country.

The USSR accepted Pakistan and voted in favour to become a member of the
In 1963 Pakistan and USSR drew closer because of an away dri between Pakistan and USA due to Indo-China war
Pakistan was given 11 million pound aid by the USSR in 196
USSR remained neutral during the India Pakistan war in 1965 which was sigh of relieve for Pakistan.
USSR continued to force Pakistan to close down the Peshawar Air base what Pakistan agreed in 1968.
 ZAB improved the relations as he had an anti west policy which kept him away from the
Pakistan was given the Steel Mills in 1972 by the USSR which further improved the relations

The relationship remained warm through out the ZAB

Afghanistan #
Failures
Afghanistan became the only country to vote against Pakistan’s inclusion in the UNO 1947. Afghanistan claimed that
some areas of the present day Pakistan had actually been a part of the Greater Afghanistan (Pakhtoonistan)
They claimed this because they believed that these were the areas which were captured by
the Afghan invaders like Mahmood Ghaznavi and Mohammad Ghauri.
Afghanistan clearly backed India on the Kashmir issue and the Canal water dispute.
Jinnah invited a meeting of the Afghan o icials in Karachi in 1947 and o ered a trade transit route. Against this o er
Jinnah expected the Afghanistan to give up their claims of Pakhtoonistan.
The Afghan government refused to accept this o er.
The relations further deteriorated when the Afghan mob burnt the Pakistan embassy in Kabul. The Afghan
government did not take any actions against the suspects and subsequently the diplomatic ties were broken.
The Afghan government remained neutral during the Indo-Pak war of 1965 despite the fact that the people remained
on Pakistan’s favour.
The Afghan government supported the Indians o icially during the 1971 war.
The pro communist regime of Dr Najeeb continued to blame Pakistan for the insurgency and the poor law and order
situations with in Afghanistan.
The Indian influence in Afghanistan was yet an other reason for the poor relations between the two bordering
countries.
The first major step towards better relation ship between the two countries was taken in 1956 when Iskandar Mirza
went to visit Afghanistan.
ZAB Islamic socialism also targeted Afghanistan and he visited Afghanistan. Sardar Daud, the Afghan PM also visited
Pakistan on numerous occasions.
The friendship continued even a er the execution of ZAB because the ZIA believed that a
peaceful and strong Afghanistan ensured a secured Pakistan.
Afghanistan was attacked by the USSR in 1979 and Pakistan decided to help the Afghan brothers.
The Pakistan government invited 3.5 million Afghanis and hosted them.
Pakistan’s support to the Afghanistan Mujahideen was immense.
Pakistan was even a victim of the Russian fury and was attacked on very frequent basis. Pakistan catered all sorts of
the needs of the Afghanis through out this era.
The civil war between 1988-1995 was a tough period for Afghanistan and Pakistan

Successes
supported them in all aspects.
The government of Pakistan accepted the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the first embassy was opened in
Islamabad.
The foreign ministers of both the countries paid bi lateral visits and trade was improved.
The Taliban government continued to support Pakistan on the Kashmir issue for the first time in the history.

India, 1947-1971 #
Failures
 The refugee problem soon a er the independence
The Canal water dispute remained a major cause of poor relations as long as the IWT was signed.
The division of financial and military assets.
The Kashmir issue was one of the strongest reasons for the ri between the two countries. The hostility between the
two countries continued through out the 1950’s.
The Indo China war and the support rendered by Pakistan to China further dri ed both the countries away from each
other.
The Runn of Kutch issue in the borders areas in the south eastern region created a war like situation between the two
nations.
Pakistan tried to uprise the Kashmiris against the Indian authorities to liberate them from India, however the attempt
was a failure due to the lack of support from the Kashmiris. Pakistan and India went to a large scale war in 1965 which
was a major failure.
The Agartala Conspiracy was blamed on India as it was an attempt to create a situation in East Pakistan.
The RAW was established in 1967 and Pakistan blamed it for insurgency in East Pakistan. The support for the East
Pakistan and later the creation of Mukti Bahini further deteriorated the relations between the two countries.
India was the first country to accept the state of Bagladesh and Pakistan threatened to break the diplomatic ties with
India.

Successes
Pakistan’s inclusion in the UNO was supported by India.
Liaquat Nehru Pact signed in 1951 regarding the safe guard of the minorities on both sides of the border.
Both India and Pakistan joined the CENTO and SEATO in 1955.
The Indus Water treaty was signed in 1960 to resolve the canal water dispute.
The Tashkent agreement was signed between Pakistan and India in order to cease fire.

India, 1972-1999 #
Failures
India tested her nuclear device in 1974 in the border town of Pokhran and sent a very clear message of attempting to
dominate the region on the basis of the nuclear edge.

Pakistan responded sharply and announced her nuclear program. The Pakistan PM Mr. ZAB said that Pakistan will get
the nuclear powers even if it has to eat grass. This showed the Pakistan government’s commitment towards the goals
of attaining Nuclear power.

In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries,
i.e., Sikhs in India’s Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan’s Sindh province.

The relations of both the countries deteriorated sharply when India blamed Pakistan to help the Sikh Separatist
Movement in the Indian Punjab. Pakistan however did not show any signs of helping the Khalistan Movement during
the 1980.

Following the incidents in Amritsar (the Operation Blue Star), one of the Sikh body guards of the Indian Prime Minister
Mrs. Indra Gandhi gunned her down in October 1984. The son of Mrs. Indra, Mr, Rajiv Gandhi blamed Pakistan for the
assassination of her mother.

The relations were strained during 1987, when the border skirmishes between the two countries continued and
almost led to a large scale war when India started her large scale military exercise in the Rajhistan desert.

The Pakistan government continued to claim Kashmir and the Siachin glacier that kept the situation heated between
the two countries.
 The destruction of the Babri Masjid in Ajodhiya, India in December 1990 further dented the relations between the two
governments.

The relations between India and Pakistan remained cold on the issue of the Signing the Nuclear Non Proliferation
Treaty.

Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri separatists from Pakistan occupied Kashmir backed by the
Pakistan’s ISI perpetrated violence in Indian Kashmir. However Pakistan secretly occupied certain border areas forces
in Kashmir. By early summer, serious fighting flared up in the Kargil sector. The fighting lasted about a month till the
Pakistani forces were driven out of the areas that had been secretly occupied by them.

Successes
Tensions diminished a er Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and a er a group of Sikh hijackers
were brought to trial by Pakistan in March 198
Pakistan and India became the members of the SAARC in 198 This organization was not only to improve the economic
conditions of the member countries but also to avoid the wars between them.
The sporting relations between the two countries were resumed and the Cricket and the hockey teams visited across
the border
Both the countries exchanged the group of actors and laid emphasis on joint productions for the healthy cinema.

The SAF games were held in 1988 in Pakistan and India participated with full enthusiasm in the

In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi pledged not to attack each other’s nuclear faciliti A
formal “no attack” agreement was signed in January 1991.
In 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute
and to improve trade
Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between Pakistan and India, but relations worsened
again a er terrorist bombings in Bombay, in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in
January 1994 resulted in deadlock.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume an o icial dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign
secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place, with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. The
relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee traveled to Lahore for a summit
with Sharif in February 1999.

China #
Failures
Pakistan did not accept the communist regime of China till 1951.

The relations remained strained when Pakistan became a part of the anti communist pacts SEATO and CENTO in 1955.

The Chinese government did not help Pakistan on the East Pakistan issue and urged the Pakistan government to
resolve the issue internally.

The support of China on the matter was also missing as the pressure from USSR was far bigger than the friendship
with Pakistan.

The Chinese government was not also much pleased when Pakistan backed out from the Kargil Hill on the US
pressures rather than banking on the Chinese support and defeating India.

Successes
The first break came when India and China went on war on the borders disputes and Pakistan and China came closer.

Both the countries had found a common foe and therefore the coexistence became more
Pakistan accepted a $60 million interest free loan from the Chinese gover,
PIA became the first air line to start regular service to Beijin
Pakistan also negotiated the talk between the Chinese and the US government in the early 60’s.
The positive stance of Pakistan on the communist regime issue of China helped Pakistan earn a strong strategic ally
and a great support on the Kashmir issue.

Pakistan became a closer friend of China when it helped Pakistan in the war against India in 1965.
Pakistan became an important purchaser of the Chinese arms a er the 1965 w
ZAB paid visit to China and convinced the Chinese government to convert the loans to aid that had been given to
Pakistan in the past few

Pakistan and China came closer as they announced the expansion of the famous silk rout. The Chinese expertise and
the collaboration with Pakistan finally resulted in the Karakoram Highway.

The relations hit the highest points when both the countries signed the treaty for nuclear cooperation in 1986.

China continued to extend her support for the Pakistan government over the Afghanistan issue.
In the 1990s, China designed and supplied the heavy water Khusab reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan’s
production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the China National Nuclear Corporation also contributed in Pakistan’s e orts
to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key
component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges.

China also provided technical and material support in the completion of the Chasma Nuclear Power Reactor and
plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid 1990s.

China has also launched Pakistan’s first satellite to orbit in 1990 because Pakistan had no Spacepor However, Pakistan
does have a space program. Pakistan’s Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) is Pakistan’s
national space agency and was established in 1961.
A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in Punjab province, is c China is helping to build a
second 300-megawatt nuclear plant due to be finished by 2010.