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Problematic Financial Behaviors Chapter 01
Problematic Financial Behaviors Chapter 01
Bradley T. Klontz and Derek R. Lawson
Introduction
The majority of Americans cite money as one of the top stressors in their lives, and
those with lower incomes report experiencing the highest levels of stress (American
Psychological Association, 2016). Often, financial stress drives clients to seek the
assistance of financial counselors and other professionals. Sometimes, a client’s
financial stress is due to not only a lack of financial resources but a lack of financial
literacy (for a discussion on financial literacy, please refer to Chap. 2). In these
cases, financial counselors are well equipped to offer the financial information,
tools, and strategies to help clients better navigate their financial lives. This can
include helping clients analyze cash flow, set up a budget and track spending, estab-
lish savings goals, and develop a plan to service debt. After providing their expert
advice, financial counselors often consult with clients to help keep them on track
and navigate changes and challenges to their plans.
However, it is not uncommon for financial professionals to work with clients who
do not seem to benefit from their education and encouragement. Even when financial
counselors offer their best analysis and advice, some clients are not able to initiate
action, maintain momentum, and execute lasting change. A lack of readiness for
change has been identified as a common roadblock to counseling effectiveness across
a range of professions, including medical, mental health, and personal finance. In
their development of the transtheoretical model, Prochaska, Norcross, and DiClemente
(1994) identified a six-stage change process. They identified the fourth stage as the
“action” phase, wherein clients are ready to implement and carry out change. They
note that only 20% of clients are in the action phase around a given challenge at a
B. T. Klontz (*)
Heider College of Business, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
D. R. Lawson
Institute of Personal Financial Planning, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
given time (please refer to Chap. 7 for more information on the transtheoretical
model). The application of tools and techniques that financial counselors can use to
help clients navigate through these stages of change in their financial lives has been
explored in recent years (Horwitz & Klontz, 2013; Klontz, Horwitz, & Klontz, 2015;
Klontz, Kahler, & Klontz, 2016), some of which are discussed below.
At times, the skillful use of counseling techniques designed to motivate clients
towards action is effective in initiating and maintaining client change. In other cases,
counselor interventions are not successful in facilitating change. This lack of suc-
cess could be due to myriad of client and counselor factors. In some cases, however,
clients appear to be engaging in chronic, self-destructive financial behaviors. Despite
the counselor’s best efforts, some clients are either unable or unwilling to change.
For these individuals, their financial problems are not due to a lack of information
or strategies. Instead, they may be suffering from a money disorder.
The close link between beliefs and behaviors is the hallmark of psychological treat-
ment approaches, including cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). At the heart of CBT,
there is the understanding that distorted beliefs are the cause of self-defeating behav-
iors (Beck, 2011). As such, a primary approach to treatment is to identify, challenge,
and change these problematic beliefs. Research has linked money beliefs to financial
behaviors. For example, money status beliefs, such as believing that one’s self-worth
equals their net worth (Klontz, Britt, Mentzer, & Klontz, 2011), have been found to
predict disordered money behaviors including compulsive buying disorder, gambling
disorder, and financial dependence (Klontz & Britt, 2012). Accordingly, the following
sections review each of the four money scripts that have been identified. These include
money avoidance, money worship, money status, and money vigilance.
Money Avoidance
Money avoidance can be defined as a belief that money is bad or evil and that wealthy
people are corrupt and greedy (Klontz et al., 2011; Klontz & Britt, 2012). Individuals
with money avoidance beliefs may blame others for their financial behaviors, avoid
spending money on necessary items, or unconsciously spend money (Klontz
et al. 2011; Klontz & Britt, 2012). As a result, individuals with money avoidance
beliefs might reject their financial responsibility and attempt to avoid dealing with
money altogether (Klontz & Klontz, 2009). Money avoidance beliefs might also
increase anxiety, induce fear, and can bring about feelings of disgust around money
(Klontz et al. 2011; Klontz & Britt, 2012; Taylor, Klontz, & Britt, 2016).
Research has indicated that individuals who hold money avoidant beliefs tend to
have lower levels of income and net worth, and that these individuals may not even
11 Identifying Problematic Financial Behaviors and Money Disorders 155
know how much they earn or what their net worth is (Klontz et al., 2011; Klontz &
Britt, 2012). Other research has supported the notion that money avoidant beliefs
are negatively associated with income (Klontz, Seay, Sullivan, & Canale, 2014;
Klontz, Sullivan, Seay, & Canale, 2015). Single people and young adults were most
likely to endorse money avoidance beliefs, and money avoidance beliefs tend to
decrease with age (Klontz et al., 2011). Klontz and Britt (2012) found that money
avoidance beliefs positively predicted financial enabling, financial denial, hoarding
and compulsive buying, and workaholism. Profession may also be associated with
money beliefs. Research has found that mental health professionals, when com-
pared to other professionals such as financial advisors and other business men and
women, are more likely to hold money avoidance beliefs (Britt, Klontz, Tibbetts, &
Leitz, 2015; Klontz & Britt, 2012).
Money Worship
The belief that more money will result in more happiness is the basic premise of
money worship (Klontz et al., 2016). Individuals who endorse money worship
beliefs are obsessed with the notion that the acquisition of more money will help
them advance in life (Britt et al., 2015). Money worshippers believe that they can
never have enough money, and that they will not be able to afford what they want
(Klontz & Britt, 2012). That is, they perceive that their needs will never be met
resulting in a viscous cycle in which there will always be some dollar amount or
physical item they believe will make them happier (Lawson, Klontz, & Britt, 2015).
Klontz et al. (2011) found individuals who were younger, single, and had lower
(or unknown) levels of net worth were most likely to have money worship beliefs.
Additionally, their research indicated that money worshippers were more likely to
carry credit card debt from month-to-month. Money worship beliefs were found to
be negatively associated with income (Klontz et al., 2014) and risk planning (Britt
et al., 2015). Klontz and Britt (2012) found money worship beliefs positively pre-
dicted financial enabling and financial denial. Similar to money avoidance, Klontz
and Britt (2012) found that individuals with money worship beliefs were more
likely to exhibit hoarding and compulsive buying, and that money worship beliefs
positively predict workaholism. Additionally, they found money worship beliefs to
be positively associated with financial dependence.
Money Status
Individuals with money status beliefs endorse a tendency to buy the newest, most
expensive things, and equate their self-worth with their net worth (Klontz & Britt,
2012). These individuals believe that money gives them status and they relate their
money with their socioeconomic status, seeing clear distinctions between the classes
156 B. T. Klontz and D. R. Lawson
Money Vigilance
The money vigilant are typically more alert and watchful of their finances and
strongly believe it is important to save for the future. Money vigilance beliefs appear
to have a protective effect, minimizing the likelihood of negative financial outcomes
(Klontz & Britt, 2012). These individuals tend to not like financial gifts and/or
handouts as they believe that one should work for their money (Klontz & Britt,
2012). They are more likely to pay with cash and thus, less likely to have credit card
debt (Klontz & Britt, 2012). However, individuals who hold money vigilance beliefs
may also be anxious around money and more secretive about their financial status;
that is, they are less trustful around others regarding their financial affairs (Klontz
et al., 2011; Klontz & Britt, 2012).
The research on money vigilance has indicated that it is associated with positive
financial outcomes. The money vigilant tend to be high income earners with higher
net worth (Klontz & Britt, 2012; Klontz, Horwitz, et al., 2015). Klontz and Britt
(2012) found money vigilance beliefs to be negatively associated with the compul-
sive buying, gambling disorder, financial enabling, financial denial, and financial
infidelity. Individuals who hold money vigilance scripts are also more likely to
engage in risk planning and have higher levels of financial health (Britt et al.,
2015). However, the money vigilant can be overly anxious around money with
negative money behaviors ensuing. This could include hiding money under the
mattress or using only savings accounts, which would guarantee an erosion of net
worth due to inflation. Klontz et al. (2011) mention that excessive wariness and/or
anxiety around money may lead these individuals to have less positive experiences
with their money and end up not providing the “sense of security that money can
provide” (p. 17).
11 Identifying Problematic Financial Behaviors and Money Disorders 157
Money Disorders
Hoarding Disorder
Gambling Disorder
Compulsive buying disorder has been defined by Faber and O’Guinn (1989, 1992)
as a chronic and repetitive purchasing behavior that is brought on by negative events
and/or emotional feelings in the person’s life resulting in detrimental consequences.
11 Identifying Problematic Financial Behaviors and Money Disorders 159
It is characterized by an irresistible urge to shop and purchase items that may not be
needed, thus creating negative financial outcomes and potentially negative emo-
tional issues (Klontz & Britt, 2012). While first introduced in 1915, compulsive
buying disorder remained mostly ignored until the 1980s when two main events
occurred: (a) the widening of the wealth disparity between the poor and wealthy,
and (b) prevalent advertisements started to bring the “Joneses” into our homes
through our televisions (Benson, 2015). Since the turn of the millennium, an explo-
sion of online retail shopping has only further enhanced the growth of compulsive
buying disorder (Benson, 2015; Dittmar, Long, & Bond, 2007).
Research on the financial effects of compulsive buying disorder is becoming
more prevalent. Klontz and Britt (2012) found that compulsive buying was associ-
ated with specific money beliefs. In particular, they found the money scripts of
money avoidance, money worship, and money status to be positively associated with
compulsive buying behaviors and that individuals who hold money vigilance scripts
were negatively associated with compulsive buying behaviors. Compulsive buying
behaviors have also been found to be negatively associated with age, education lev-
els, income, and net worth (Klontz et al., 2012). On the other hand, recent research
has shown that females, non-Whites, and those that are not married have higher odds
of engaging in compulsive buying behaviors (Klontz et al.). Those who have revolv-
ing credit cards were also positively associated with financial behaviors related to
compulsive buying (Klontz et al.). Klontz and Britt (2012) showed that individuals
who are compulsive buyers also tend to engage in other destructive financial behav-
iors such as financial denial and financial enabling. In the examination of a control
group of non-compulsive buyers versus a group of compulsive buyers, Frost,
Steketee, and Williams (2002) observed that compulsive buyers were more likely to
have grown up in families with a history of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, the
authors found the compulsive buyers to be more likely to suffer from compulsive
hoarding, matching findings by Klontz and Britt (2012). Assessments that can help
financial counselors differentiate between compulsive buying disorder and over-
spending are described below.
Financial Dependence
Financial dependence is characterized by the need for non-work income (e.g., gifts,
windfalls, trusts, financial support from parents) that is associated with resentment,
fear, and amotivation (Klontz & Britt, 2012). It is theorized to be caused by financial
enabling (described in more detail below) and has been shown to be correlated with
financial denial (Klontz & Britt, 2012). Individuals who exhibit financial depen-
dence behaviors have a reliance on others for their financial resources, which creates
a lack of motivation to succeed and a fear of being cut off from financial resources
(Klontz & Canale, 2016). While prior research posits that women are more likely to
be raised to think that financial dependence is okay (Newcomb & Rabow, 1999),
Taylor et al. (2016) found that men had higher levels of financial dependence than
160 B. T. Klontz and D. R. Lawson
did women, perhaps suggesting that men are becoming increasingly vulnerable to
this disorder. Research has shown that people who hold money worship and/or
money status beliefs are more likely to be financially dependent upon others (Klontz
& Britt, 2012). Financially dependent individuals are more likely to be single, have
lower levels of education, and to have grown up in more affluent households (Klontz
et al., 2012). Financial dependence on other can have significant negative conse-
quences. For example, research has shown that 46% of victims of domestic abuse
cite financial dependence as one of the main reasons they returned to their abusers
(Anderson et al., 2003).
Financial enmeshment is positively associated with income and males are more
likely than females to report engaging in the behavior (Klontz et al., 2012; Klontz
& Britt, 2012). Money scripts and other disordered financial behaviors have been
found to be associated with financial enmeshment. Specifically, financial enmesh-
ment is positively associated with money status beliefs and negatively associated
with money vigilance scripts, and has been linked to hoarding disorder, compulsive
gambling, compulsive buying, financial dependence, financial denial, and financial
enabling (Klontz & Britt, 2012).
When meeting with a client who does not seem to benefit from traditional financial
counseling efforts, consideration of money disorders and related interventions may
be helpful. Assessments and interventions have been created to help identify and
work with money disorders. It is important to note that while these assessments and
interventions can help identify a potential problem, treating a money disorder would
be outside the scope of traditional financial counseling. As such, a referral to a
trained mental health professional may be necessary.
Even if a client seems to be benefiting from the financial counseling relationship,
it may be helpful to consider using one or more of the following inventories. Helping
clients better understand their weaknesses can help them improve their money hab-
its and better achieve their goals. Formal, research-based assessments can assist
financial professionals better access a holistic view of their client’s financial life,
allowing the financial professional quick identification of potential problems, and a
way to monitor client progress (Britt et al., 2015).
Klontz Money Script Inventory (KMSI) The Klontz Money Script Inventory
(KMSI; Klontz et al., 2011) and Klontz Money Script Inventory-Revised (KMSI-R;
Taylor et al., 2016) are designed for financial professionals. These assessments can
be part of the data gathering process to help better understand how clients’ beliefs
around money may be influencing their financial behaviors and financial outcomes.
The KMSIs can be used to have in-depth conversations with clients regarding their
money scripts and to help determine the extent to which clients endorse four catego-
ries of scripts: (a) money avoidance, (b) money worship, (c) money status, and (d)
money vigilance (Klontz & Britt, 2012; Lawson et al., 2015).
resources on soldier’s financial well-being. They found emergency funds, net worth,
and perceived financial knowledge to be positively associated with financial well-
being, while having credit card debt about $2500 and having automobile debt from
$10,001 to $20,000 to be negatively associated with a soldier’s financial well-being.
Further research using the FAS has examined similarities and differences in financial
behaviors between soldiers and college students (Bell Carlson, Britt, Nelson Goff, &
Archuleta, 2015). Specifically, the researchers found financial anxiety was nega-
tively associated with financial behaviors for the overall sample, as well as for sol-
diers and college students when analyzed separately.
When faced with a client suffering from a money disorder, such as gambling disorder,
financial counselors should consider making a referral to a financial therapist. These
conditions often require the assessment and diagnosis of a qualified mental health
professional. Financial counselors can continue to work with the client within their
normal scope of practice; however, they should not attempt to treat a money disorder,
or any other mental health disorder, unless they are licensed therapists. However,
financial counselors are well positioned to use techniques and theories borrowed
from psychology to help motivate a client to take appropriate action and to help cli-
ents overcome problematic financial behaviors. For example, a financial counselor
should not attempt to treat a person suffering from compulsive buying disorder, which
may require a combination of medication and cognitive-behavioral therapy. However,
the financial counselor may be in a position to encourage the client to seek out the
help of a mental health professional to begin with, and if appropriate, help the client
set up a budget and plan to track spending behaviors. The financial counselor could
also work in collaboration with the mental health provider, where the therapist pro-
vides the psychological treatment and the financial counselor provides the financial
life management expertise. With the client’s permission, the financial counselor and
therapist could share information with each other regarding their various roles and
progress. There is a growing interest in the financial planning profession with regard
to integrating psychological theory and techniques into work with clients (Klontz &
Horwitz, 2017). These schools of thought include motivational interviewing, cogni-
tive behavior therapy, solution-focused therapy, and positive psychology.
Motivational Interviewing Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a counseling tech-
nique designed to encourage change (Miller & Rollnick, 2002). It uses research-
based methods for having change-inspiring conversations with clients. The focus is
on interacting with clients in ways that encourage them to contemplate and talk
about the benefits to change versus arguments in favor of the status quo. In recent
years, MI techniques have been applied to financial planning, to help clients over-
come ambivalence to change (Horwitz & Klontz, 2013; Klontz et al., 2016). See
Chap. 7 for more information on MI.
11 Identifying Problematic Financial Behaviors and Money Disorders 165
Positive Psychology Traditional psychology has its origins in the medical model,
with a focus on diagnosing and treating mental illness. In contrast, positive psychol-
ogy describes the growing body of theory and research that is focused instead on
optimizing human functioning and well-being. Positive psychology has been
described as “the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and com-
munities to flourish” (Positive Psychology Center, 2017). Many positive psychol-
ogy techniques and activities such as the what-went-well, the gratitude visit, and
signature strengths exercises can be adapted for use with financial planning and
counseling clients (Asebedo & Seay, 2015). See Chap. 7 for more information on
positive psychology.
166 B. T. Klontz and D. R. Lawson
Conclusion
Financial counselors offer financial education and tools to help clients improve their
financial lives. Despite the counselor’s best efforts, some clients do not benefit from
standard financial counseling approaches. Even though they may report a desire to
change their financial behaviors and improve their financial status, some clients are
unable to initiate or sustain change. In these cases, financial counselors would benefit
from considering whether or not the client is exhibiting a money disorder or other
problematic financial behavior. Potential money disorders and problematic financial
behaviors that might be encountered by financial counselors include hoarding disor-
der, gambling disorder, compulsive buying disorder, financial dependence, financial
enabling, financial denial, and financial enmeshment. In severe cases, such as with
hoarding disorder, gambling disorder, or compulsive buying disorder, clients may
need the help of a mental health professional in addition to financial counseling.
Financial counselors could benefit from an understanding of the signs and symp-
toms of money disorders. Additionally, an understanding of the specific money
scripts that have been found to be associated with these behaviors, such as money
avoidance, money worship, and money status, can help financial counselors identify
clients at risk for these behaviors. Lastly, financial counselors can borrow interven-
tion techniques from the emerging fields of financial psychology, financial therapy,
and behavioral finance to help motivate clients towards taking action and help them
initiate and sustain financial behavior change.
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