Reg Environ Change
DOI 10.1007/s10113-015-0767-4
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Conservation of animals traded for medicinal purposes in Brazil:
Can products derived from plants or domestic animals replace
products of wild animals?
Felipe Silva Ferreira • Samuel Vieira Brito •
Waltécio de Oliveira Almeida •
Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves
Received: 22 February 2014 / Accepted: 29 January 2015
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract The use and trade of animals in traditional
medicine involves many different species, some of which
are threatened with extinction. Thus, evaluating biological
and cultural aspects associated with this business is essen-
tial for the conservation of these species. The aim of this
study was to analyze the viability of replacing wild animal
with plant or domestic animals for use in medicines. To
conduct this analysis, we used current literature from five
Brazilian cities that have data available for the trade in
animals and plants for medicinal purposes (Recife, Caruaru,
Campina Grande, Belém, and Boa Vista). We compiled
data on the diversity of animals and plants traded in these
locations as well as their respective therapeutic applica-
tions. The potential replacement of products derived of wild
animals was evaluated by the analysis of overlapping use
(of plants and animals and of wild and domestic animals)
as well as by the analysis of the relationship between
Editor: Wolfgang Cramer.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0767-4) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
F. S. Ferreira (&)
Colegiado Acadêmico de Ciências da Natureza, Universidade
Federal do Vale do São Francisco – UNIVASF, Rua Tomaz
Guimarães, s/n – Condomı́nio Aeroporto, Senhor do Bonfim,
BA CEP 48970-000, Brazil
e-mail: ferreira_fs@yahoo.com.br
S. V. Brito
W. de Oliveira Almeida
Departamento de Quı́mica Biológica, Universidade Regional do
Cariri, Crato, CE, Brazil
R. R. N. Alves
Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraı́ba,
Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
zootherapeutic products and their target diseases. The data
showed little overlap between the use of medicinal plant
and animals as well as between the use of wild and domestic
animals. However, the analysis of the relationship between
zootherapeutic products and their target diseases provides
evidence of possible replacements of wild animals by do-
mestic animals. Although there is an urgent need for new
research on the cultural and biological contexts associated
with the use of wild animals for medicinal purposes, pro-
jects that aim to mitigate the impacts caused by this trade
must consider the use of alternative methods.
Keywords Zootherapy
Replacement alternatives

Conservation
Introduction
Animals and plants have been used as raw material for the
production of drugs in traditional medicine in several
countries (Albuquerque et al. 2012; Alves and Alves 2011;
Ceuterick et al. 2008; Martinez 2013; Pieroni et al. 2011).
This way of using nature has perpetuated over the cen-
turies, and consequently, humans have accumulated a large
amount of knowledge with regard the therapeutic proper-
ties of animals and plants (Alves and Rosa 2013).
A large portion of the medicinal products obtained from
animals and plants are sold in public and open markets in
urban centers (Albuquerque et al. 2007; Ferreira et al.
2012; Monteiro et al. 2010a; Whiting et al. 2011). In these
areas, medicinal plants stand out for the high number of
species (Monteiro et al. 2010a), but animal by-products
also represent an extensive part of the medicinal goods
(Alves et al. 2013; Ferreira et al. 2013; Martinez 2013;
Whiting et al. 2011).
123

In Brazil, the trade of medicinal animals occurs in
several locations, being a well-organized practice in the
country (Ferreira et al. 2013). The corpus for the use of
animals and their by-products for traditional medicine
stands out because of the richness of species, diversity of
use, and the high number of diseases and symptoms that
they are claimed to treat (Almeida and Albuquerque 2002;
Alves and Rosa 2007; Alves et al. 2008, 2009, 2010; An-
drade and Costa-Neto 2006; Costa-Neto 1999; Costa-Neto
and Motta 2010; Ferreira et al. 2009, 2012; Oliveira et al.
2010; Pinto and Maduro 2003; Silva et al. 2004).
The use of animals for medicinal purposes is related to
biological, cultural and socioeconomic aspects (Rastogi
and Kaphle 2008). Together, information about these
aspects can contribute to the creation of policies for con-
servation of the species used and traded in traditional
medicine (Williams et al. 2013). Particularly when we
consider that some of the species are included in lists of
threatened species (Ferreira et al. 2013).
Because of the high number of fauna used in traditional
medicine systems [at least 354 species according to Alves
et al. (2013)], Brazil gathers data that allow for the analysis
of the importance and consequences of animals used in
traditional medicine. This includes evaluations of possible
alternatives to propitiate the sustainable use of the involved
species.
Considering that health (the human behavior to prevent
and treat diseases) is regarded as a culturally constructed
phenomenon (Garnelo et al. 2006), information that assists
future strategies for the conservation of animals used in
traditional medicine cannot be separated from evaluations
of the cultural aspects associated with the practice (Alves
and Rosa 2005). As highlighted by Uchôa and Vidal
(1994), when regarding the treatment of diseases, the be-
havior of human populations is constructed from universes
that possess values and symbols that are expressed in
specific ways of thinking and acting. The existence of as-
sociated treatments and specific products refers to the
proposal of the ‘‘Symbolic Efficacy’’ by Lévi-Strauss
(2008), which discusses the importance of specific symbols
for the treatment of certain illnesses in traditional
populations.
Studies have suggested that the use and the trade of
some species in Brazilian traditional medicine represent an
additional impact on their natural populations (Alves et al.
2013; Rosa et al. 2011). This follows the tendency already
observed in other countries, especially in Asia, where
some species have been heavily targeted for traditional
medicine (Kikuchi 2012; Zhang et al. 2008). Given this
scenario, different measures have been proposed to mini-
mize the pressure resulting from the use of the animals.
They include the substitution of zootherapeutic by-prod-
ucts of threatened species by medicinal plants and non-
123
F. S. Ferreira et al.
threatened animal’s (mostly domestic) by-products
(Kikuchi 2012; Luo et al. 2011; Sodeinde and Soewu
1999). However, there are no studies that evaluate these
substitutions.
Given the aforementioned information, the aim of the
present study was to evaluate the possibility of replacing
medicine products from wild animals with products from
plant or domestic animals. The questions that guided the
research were: Can plant and domestic animals’ by-
products replace wild animal by-products used in tradi-
tional medicine? Is there specificity in the use of the
resources, are replacements feasible? To answer these
questions, we have established the following hypothesis:
(1) there is an overlap of diseases treated with medicinal
plants and animals sold in public markets; (2) there is an
overlap of diseases treated with wild and domestic ani-
mal by-products. This information can contribute to a
better understanding of the feasibility of replacing wild
animal by-products with those from plants and domestic
animals in traditional medicine, from a conservationist
perspective.
Materials and methods
Data collection
Data from five Brazilian cities were used: Recife (Albu-
querque et al. 2007; Ferreira et al. 2012; Silva et al. 2004),
Caruaru (Almeida and Albuquerque 2002; Alves et al.
2009; Monteiro et al. 2010b), Campina Grande (Alves et al.
2007; Alves et al. 2010), Belém (Alves and Rosa 2007;
Shanley and Luz 2003; Van den Berg 1984), and Boa Vista
(Pinto and Maduro 2003).
Additionally, the public markets of these locations have
great biological importance because small-scale may rep-
resent the biodiversity of a region, allowing the identifi-
cation of areas of extensive exploration (see Albuquerque
et al. 2007), as well as cultural, because many traditional
practices (such as the medical use) are maintained and
disseminated in public markets (see Ferreira et al. 2013;
Monteiro et al. 2010b). For a better review of regional
importance of these markets and fairs, see: (Albuquerque
et al. 2007; Alves and Rosa 2007, 2010; Pinto and Maduro
2003; Van den Berg 1984).
These cities were chosen because they are the only ones
in Brazil that possess published information on the use and
trade of animals and plants for traditional medicine. We
compiled data about the animals and plants traded in these
locations as well as their respective therapeutic applica-
tions. Our data were collected from published resources;
thus, no alteration was made to the name given to diseases
and respective plants and animals used for their treatment.
Conservation of animals traded for medicinal purposes in Brazil
Applications assigned to animals and medicinal plants, for
which we did not find a matching name in Western med-
icine (rituals, eliminate evil eye, attraction of money or
partner), were also considered and used in the analyses. All
analyses conducted here only considered species that were
accurately identified.
The authors of the articles that we take as a base to build
the database using semi-structured questionnaires, com-
plimented by informal conversations, in which questions
such as ‘‘What species (animal or plants) is used?’’ or
‘‘What are the diseases treated with the resources obtained
of these species (animal or plants)?’’ were key questions in
the implementation of their respective work (Albuquerque
et al. 2007; Almeida and Albuquerque 2002; Alves et al.
2007; Alves et al. 2009, 2010; Ferreira et al. 2012; Mon-
teiro et al. 2010b; Pinto and Maduro 2003; Silva et al.
2004; Shanley and Luz 2003; Van den Berg 1984). Thus,
we consider that data used in this study are representative
in depicting species composition (animal and plant) and
diseases treated in each of the locations.
Alternatives for the use of zootherapeutic products sold
in Brazil
Analyses of the overlapping uses of medicinal plants
and animals
A database was created for each of the five Brazilian cities
where surveys were conducted on the trade of medicinal
plants and animals. In each database, the categories ‘‘ani-
mals’’ and ‘‘plants’’ were plotted in rows and the categories
of ‘‘diseases’’ in columns. Subsequently, the number of
species (of medicinal plants and animals) mentioned for a
particular disease was compiled.
For analysis of the overlapping use of medicinal plants
and animals, we used the overlapping niche index based on
the Pianka index (Pianka 1973). The index values can
range from 0 (no overlap) to 1 (complete overlap). To
check whether the overlap was random, from the initial
data, a matrix was generated (through 1,000 randomiza-
tions) using the algorithm RA1, to obtain the randomized
overlap index. It was considered that the overlap was not
obtained by chance when the observed Pianka overlapping
index was smaller than or equal to the randomized overlap
index. All analyses were performed using the software
Ecosim (Gotelli and Entsminger 2002).
To interpret the results, we considered the following
assumptions: a high overlap indicates a low specificity
among natural products (in this case, medicinal plants and
animals) and treated diseases, increasing the likelihood of
substitutions, while a low overlap suggests a high speci-
ficity, reducing the likelihood of substitutions.
Analysis of overlapping uses of wild and domestic animals
and network analysis of interactions between disease
and zootherapeutic products
The overlap analysis followed the same method described
above. This time, the specificity between the categories
‘‘wild’’ and ‘‘domestic’’ animals was estimated. Addition-
ally, we performed a network analysis of interactions be-
tween zootherapeutic products and diseases treated, to
evaluate which animals are used for the same sets of dis-
eases. Thus, based on the observed interactions (between
animals and diseases), we have indicated potential
replacements.
The analysis of interaction networks is a method that has
been used to describe patterns in ecological communities
through interactions among species (Guimera et al. 2010;
Lewinsohn et al. 2006). This analysis aims to build mod-
ules for the detection of structures in communities
(Lewinsohn et al. 2006). These modules are defined as a
subgroup that includes species with a higher number (or a
higher intensity) of intra-group interactions than the num-
ber of inter-group interactions (Lewinsohn et al. 2006).
To perform the analysis of network interactions, a bi-
nary database was organized for each location. In each
database, the animal species were placed in rows and the
respective treated diseases in columns. Subsequently, it
was assigned the number ‘‘1’’ for the presence and ‘‘0’’ for
the absence of the diseases. The analysis of network in-
teractions was performed through the software R (Core
Team 2012), using the package bipartite (Dormann et al.
2008). The resulting modules did not suffer any change
when the number of interactions of the algorithm increased
from 50,000 to 100,000, which increased the reliability of
the technique used in the determination of the modular
structure. The program available in R software is based on
the algorithm of Newman (2004) to estimate the modular
compartments.
Results
Analysis of overlapping uses of medicinal plants
and animals
The compiled data showed that at least 85 species of ani-
mals and 258 species of plants are traded for medicinal
purposes in public markets and fairs in Recife, Caruaru,
Campina Grande, Belém, and Boa Vista. The number of
species of animals traded ranged from 15 to 45 species,
while the number of plants ranged from 22 to 107 (Table 1).
Only in Campina Grande were there more animals than
plants being traded for traditional medicine purposes.
123
 F. S. Ferreira et al.

Table 1 Number of species of animals and plants traded in the five Table 4 Number of species of wild and domestic animals traded in
cities analyzed the five cities analyzed
Number of species Number of species of animals
Animals Plants Wild Domestic

Recife 27 107 Recife 21 6

Caruaru 34 105 Caruaru 28 6
Campina Grande 30 22 Campina Grande 28 2
Belém 45 56 Belém 43 2
Boa Vista 15 84 Boa Vista 13 2

The number of diseases treated by medicinal plants and

animals are presented in Table 2. The number of diseases Table 5 Number of treated diseases by wild and domestic animals
traded in the five cities analyzed
treated exclusively with plants ranged from 34 to 101,
whereas the number of diseases treated by animal by- Recife Caruaru Campina Grande Belém Boa Vista
products ranged from 9 to 25. TND 40 40 27 37 22
The data show that few diseases are treated concomi- NTDEW 14 29 22 30 17
tantly with animals and plants. Corroborating this finding,
NTDED 2 6 4 3 4
the analysis of overlapping uses between animals and
NTDWD 16 5 1 4 1
medicinal plants (Table 3) indicates a high specificity for
each of these resources, due to the low overlap. TND total number of diseases, NTDEA number of treated diseases
exclusively by wild animals, NTDEP number of treated diseases ex-
clusively by domestic animals, and NTDAP number of treated dis-
Analysis of overlapping uses between wild and domestic eases by wild and domestic animals
animals
number of diseases treated with wild animal by-products is
Evaluating the trade of zootherapeutic products, it was higher (range from 14 to 30 diseases) than the number of
observed that the number of species of wild animals is diseases treated by domestic animal by-products (range
greater than the number of domestic species for all of the from 2 to 6 disease; Table 5).
five cities investigated (Table 4). Consequently, the There are few diseases treated by zootherapeutic prod-
ucts (from wild and domestic animals at the same time),
Table 2 Number of treated diseases by animals and plants traded in
suggesting low overlapping uses (Table 5). Additionally,
the five cities analyzed except for Recife, there was a high specificity of use of
zootherapeutic products from wild and domestic animals
Recife Caruaru Campina Grande Belém Boa Vista
(Table 6).
TND 142 110 55 70 98
NTDEA 18 19 14 25 9 Network analysis of interactions between zootherapeutic
NTDEP 101 69 34 34 75 products and treated diseases
NTDAP 23 22 7 11 14
The network analysis of interactions between
TND total number of diseases, NTDEA number of treated diseases
exclusively by animals, NTDEP number of treated diseases exclu- zootherapeutic products and the treated diseases resulted in
sively by plants, and NTDAP number of treated diseases by animals modules to all five investigated cities, indicating specificity
and plants between animal species and treated diseases for each
generated group. The analysis showed the formation of the
Table 3 Overlapping uses between animals and medicinal plants following subgroups: six modules in Recife, Caruaru and
traded in the cities analyzed Campina Grande; nine modules in Boa Vista; and 11
Animals 9 Plants Significance modules in Belém (see Figure 1–5 in electronic supple-
mentary material).
Recife 0.31 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Caruaru 0.35 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Campina Grande 0.21 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Discussion
Belém 0.08 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Boa Vista 0.36 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Comparing the results, this study observed the existence of
O Pianka index observed, A index Pianka random several differences in the richness of species of animals and

123
Conservation of animals traded for medicinal purposes in Brazil
Table 6 Overlapping uses between wild and domestic animals traded
in the cities analyzed
Wild 9 Domestic Significance
Recife 0.75 O C A (P [ 0.05)
Caruaru 0.43 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Campina Grande 0.19 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Belém 0.34 O B A (P \ 0.05)
Boa Vista 0.13 O B A (P \ 0.05)
O Pianka index observed, A index Pianka random
medicinal plants in the study cities (overall, there was a
higher number of plant species being traded). Additionally,
more diseases are treated with medicinal plants than ani-
mals, corroborating studies conducted in other regions of
Brazil (see Rodrigues 2006). Plants can be grown and, in
general, their use and trade for traditional medicine does
not involve legal problems, as occurs for wild animals in
Brazil (Alves et al. 2013). Moreover, although the suppliers
that trade plants and animals in the public markets are the
same, most of them will not admit that they sell animals
because they are aware that it is an illegal activity (Fer-
nandes-Ferreira et al. 2012; Ferreira et al. 2009, 2012).
The compiled data indicate a low number of diseases
treated simultaneously by animals and medicinal plants.
Corroborating this finding, the results of the analysis of
overlapping use of plant and animal products indicated
high specificity, suggesting that the people who benefit
from these products have a specific corpus for the use of
animals and plants. This observation highlights the diffi-
culty in replacing animals with plants to. However, it is
important to note that the data compiled in this study were
collected by different researchers in different periods
(though used the same methods for data collection). Also,
only a very small number of studies address the trade of
animals and plants together. Thus, additional studies to
specifically assess the trade of animals and medicinal
plants are needed to confirm this finding.
The concept of replacing wild animals with plant by-
products must consider that some plant species are also
over exploited. However, obtaining parts of animals for the
production of traditional medicines often leads to the death
of the animal, which is not always the case for plants.
However, depending on the form of exploitation, the use of
plants for therapeutic practices can be as impactful as the
use of animals. Some authors (Cassells et al. 1999; Jain
et al. 2012) report that the intensive use of roots and stems
for the production of traditional medicines can cause
negative impacts to certain plants and in some cases can
cause population decline. Species of the genus Pilocarpus
are included on lists of threatened plant species in Brazil,
probably due to the intense exploitation for the production
of medicines (Pinheiro 1997). The species Panax quin-
quefolius L., native to North America, is also endangered
probably due to the use and trade of its roots for medicinal
purposes (Case et al. 2007).
The replacement of wild animals with domestic animal
by-products has also been identified as a viable alternative
to reduce potential impacts to wildlife species (Luo et al.
2011). The data compiled here show that, in the 5 study
cities, the number of wildlife by-products traded is larger
than the number of domestic animal by-products, following
the trend previously observed in other studies on the sub-
ject (Alves and Rosa 2010; Ferreira et al. 2012). As a
result, it was observed that very few diseases are treated by
both wild and domestic animals simultaneously, showing
little overlap between the two categories of animals. Only
in the city of Recife was there a high overlap, possibly
indicating that wild and domestic animals are not used for
specific treatments, suggesting the possibility of replace-
ments of wild animals with domestic animal by-products in
this city. In the four other cities, the low overlap indicates
fewer possibilities for replacements, probably because the
people who use wild and domestic animals for medicinal
purposes have a specific corpus for each of these
categories.
The analysis of network interactions between diseases
and zootherapeutic treatments provided additional infor-
mation about the possibility of alternatives to the use of
wild animals (even for the locations that showed a low
overlapping uses). This analysis indicated the presence of
modules formed by wild and domestic animals, indicating
potential replacements. On the other hand, the analysis also
showed the formation of modules composed solely of wild
species. In some of these groups formed only by wild
animals (except for groups generated for the city of
Campina Grande), there are species threatened with ex-
tinction according to the IUCN (e.g., Pristis pectinata, P.
perotteti, Chelonia mydas, Trichechus manatus, and T.
inunguis) (for a review of the conservation status of species
of animals traded in Brazil see Ferreira et al. 2013). Thus,
the analysis of network interactions between diseases and
respective zootherapeutic treatments suggests that the wild
species (included in modules that do not have potential
domestic animal replacements) would be more susceptible
to negative impacts and therefore should be the priority for
the development of conservation strategies. Thus, even
with the low overlap observed in test of overlapping and
network interactions, the analyses used here show an im-
portant quantitative tool that can support management of
research of natural resources traditionally used enabling the
establishment the best approach to conserve medicinal
species threatened.
The data presented here allow discussions regarding the
possibility of management and rational use of animals used
123

for medicinal purposes in Brazil by promoting suitable
replacements based on the corpus of the people who use
natural resources for medicinal purposes. Although Fer-
reira et al. (2013), through analysis of utilitarian redun-
dancy, suggest a low pressure on wild animals, the use of
animals for medicinal purposes must be considered in
conservation strategies. Considering the possibility of
negative impacts on animal species used in traditional
medicine, a comprehensive assessment is important to raise
information such as population density of the species used
and symbolic aspects associated ways of using the species.
This information may support discussions on the mainte-
nance of the therapeutic practices as well as the animal
species traded in Brazil.
In other countries, research shows the trade of wildlife
for various purposes, but their use in medicine is believed
to be the main threat to certain populations (Athiyaman
2008; Graham-Rowe 2011; Lee et al. 2005; Zhang et al.
2008). However, the Brazilian scenario is somewhat dif-
ferent, because for most species included for use in med-
icine, the trade has not been recognized as a cause of
population decline. Nevertheless, there are some excep-
tions, such as seahorses Hippocampus reidi, whose trade
for medicinal purposes has been appointed as an impacting
factor on natural populations (Rosa et al. 2011).
Overall, the encouragement of strategies to replace cer-
tain medicinal plants and animals are not included in the
corpus of the populations who use the fauna and flora
(Geldenhuys 2004; Jain et al. 2012; Luo et al. 2011; Sarasan
et al. 2011; Zschocke et al. 2000). Cultural aspects associ-
ated with the use of animals for medicinal purposes can
support effective policies for conservation of natural re-
sources. The idea of replacing natural products from wild
animals with zootherapeutic from domestic animals is an
interesting strategy because species that are inserted in the
same corpus of use would be incorporated more efficiently.
Thus, the analysis of overlapping uses and interactions of
zootherapeutic products and treated diseases are useful tools
to identify the specificity in the use of the products/species
and may aid possible conservation strategies that consider
the knowledge of the people who exploit the resource.
On the other hand, promoting the replacement of wild
animal products with another product, without considering
their specific uses, has not proven effective. Some coun-
tries, like China, have examples that point to the difficulty
of replacing wild species with alternatives. The use of bile
of wild bears (Ursus thibetanus), a product widely used in
traditional Chinese medical system, is an example (Feng
et al. 2009). The major bioactive compound of the bile acid
is ursodeoxycholic acid (Hagey et al. 1993). Dutton et al.
(2011) report that there is at least four alternatives avail-
able (containing ursodeoxycholic acid) to replace the use of
bile of wild bears: (1) plants (at least 39 species), (2)
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F. S. Ferreira et al.
domestic animals (especially cows and pigs), (3) bears kept
on farms specialized in the removal of bile, and finally, (4)
products synthesized in the laboratory. Apparently, there is
no pharmacological evidence that preclude the use of these
substitutes, except cow bile that can cause liver damage
(Watanabe and Tsuneyama 2012). However, as shown by
Dutton et al. (2011) and Kikuchi (2012), due to cultural
aspects associated with the use of bile of wild bear, there is
a resistance from the people who use this product to accept
the use of substitutes.
The preference for products from wild Ursus thibetanus
in traditional Chinese medicine, as well as the specificity of
use of medicinal animals in Brazil (the latter based on the
analysis conducted here) are related to cultural aspects.
This shows that, possibly, the use of animals for traditional
therapeutic practices is closely linked to the symbolic
aspects constructed from specific mechanisms of recogni-
tion of the disease and their treatment (Dow 1986; Fleis-
cher 2012; Lévi-Strauss 2008; Maciel and Neto 2006;
Tesser and Luz 2008). Waldram (2000) describes the tra-
ditional therapeutic treatments as culturally constructed
systems, subjective and primarily symbolic. According to
Uchôa and Vidal (1994), diseases are analyzed from two
points of view: as a pathological process (disease) or as a
process of experience (illness). The analysis of a traditional
medical system emphasizes the description of the disease
as an experimental or cognitive process within a single and
specific context (Waldram 2000).
The identification of the symbolic role of a particular
animal product traditionally used by humans can be crucial
to the conservation of the animal. Considering the substi-
tution of wild with domestic animals as an effective strat-
egy, species inserted in the same symbolic context of a
given human population would be more likely to be ac-
cepted. Thus, it is evident that strategies that support the
replacement of products from wild animals (domestic or
cultivated species in order to reduce potential impacts to
wild populations) must be, a priori, based on aspects of the
corpus of the human populations using the fauna for
therapeutic purposes.
Geldenhuys (2004) proposes to establish guidelines for
the sustainable use and trade of natural resources (in this
case both the use of animals and plants) based on infor-
mation from: (1) cultural factors associated with the use
(parts used, symbolic aspects), (2) the ecology of the spe-
cies involved (such as population density, reproductive
period, interactions with other species), and (3) in the
specific case of trade, the economic aspects involved in this
activity (i.e. demand-use, ways of processing the product,
prices, etc.). Thus, it is clear the inseparable relationship of
cultural, ecological, and economic aspects for any measure
of sustainable use of this activity, often observed in many
countries.
Conservation of animals traded for medicinal purposes in Brazil
On the other hand, the data compiled in the present
study suggest the impossibility of replacing products of
wild animals with plants and domestic animals in the five
analyzed cities. As mentioned, the infeasibility is generated
by the specificity of use. At first, the human population
would not accept products of domestic species or plants
that are not used within the same symbolic context of the
wild animals. However, traditional medical systems,
especially those found in cities, are prone to absorbing
elements from other cultural systems, mainly due to mixing
within the city (Ceuterick et al. 2008; Ferreira et al. 2013;
Pieroni et al. 2011). Geldenhuys (2004) admits that due to
cross-cultural adaptations that occur in cultural systems of
cities, populations that benefit from traditional products to
treat diseases are more susceptible to the incorporation of
other products, even if these are not part of their corpus of
use. Thus, encouraging the replacement of medicinal
products of wild animals with those derived from domestic
animals can be a positive factor, from a conservation per-
spective, for the animal traded in the cities.
The use of products from domestic animals could be a
viable alternative for the protection of wild species traded
in traditional medicine, even with difficult to add species
that do not belong to the same corpus. Animal husbandry
occurs on a large scale in Brazil and is mainly related to the
consumption of meat and milk (Santos et al. 2009). Prod-
ucts derived from domestic animals such as fat, skins, and
horns, which are already commonly used in traditional
Brazilian medicine, are discarded. Thus, encouraging the
use and trade of products of domestic animal (such as fat,
skin and horns) that are already raised for various purposes
(such as for the production of food and clothing) could
assist in creating policies for the incorporation of these
products and hence reduce potential impacts on wildlife
species commercialized in Brazil.
Conclusion
The trade of medicinal animals in Brazil is a common
practice, being an important source of obtaining remedies
to address the cultural and pathological needs of human
populations that benefit from traditional medicine in urban
centers. We report the specific uses of animals and plants,
as well as domestic and wild animals, respond to aspects
culturally constructed from specific symbols for the treat-
ment of diseases. The analysis of overlapping uses and of
interactions between zootherapeutic products and treated
diseases indicates some possibilities (although restricted in
some cases) to alternative products (i.e. replacement of
wild with domestic species). The latter would lead to a
smaller impact on wild populations. This assessment
should be extended to a larger number of cities that trade
medicinal animals, so that the results compiled here can be
confirmed.
Considering the possibility of impacts on wild species
traded for therapeutic practice, it is vitally important to
propose alternative uses that respect the local knowledge
associated with medicinal species, as well as ensuring the
maintenance of the wildlife populations. In short, the re-
sults obtained in this study show the importance of inter-
disciplinary studies that address biological, cultural and
symbolic aspects of the use of animals for medicinal pur-
poses in Brazil. The knowledge of the fauna traded for
medicinal purposes, within a broad perspective, is critical
to determining appropriate practices for wildlife manage-
ment with utilitarian purpose. The latter employ the ob-
tained traditional knowledge to solve problems of the local
community or for conservationist purposes.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Fundação
Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico and Tecnológico –
FUNCAP for the scholarships to Felipe S. Ferreira and Samuel V.
Brito; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tec-
nológico – CNPq for the scholarships to Waltécio O. Almeida and
Rômulo RN Alves.
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