Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Handbook of Formulae
Handbook of Formulae
Formulae and
Physical Constants
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Power Engineering Joint Venture gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the
Interprovincial Power Engineering Curriculum Committee and SOPEEC in updating the
Handbook of Formulae and Physical Constants.
Table of Contents
Topic Page
SI Multiples ......................................................................................... 1
Mathematical Formulae....................................................................... 5
Applied Mechanics............................................................................. 10
Thermodynamics................................................................................ 21
Electricity ........................................................................................... 30
12
1 000 000 000 000 10 T tera
9
1 000 000 000 10 G giga
6
1 000 000 10 M mega
3
1 000 10 k kilo
2
100 10 h hecto
1
10 10 da deca
-1
0.1 10 d deci
-2
0.01 10 c centi
-3
0.001 10 m milli
-6
0.000 001 10 µ micro
-9
0.000 000 001 10 n nano
-12
0.000 000 000 001 10 p pico
To
To To To Metre, To To To
Milli- Centi- Deci- Gram, Deca- Hecto- Kilo-
Litre
6 5 4 3 2 1
Kilo- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
5 4 3 2 1 -1
Hecto- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
4 3 2 1 -1 -2
Deca- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
To Convert
Metre,
3 2 1 -1 -2 -3
Gram, x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
Litre
2 1 -1 -2 -3 -4
Deci- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
Centi- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
Milli- x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
-2-
BASIC UNITS
SI Imperial
Distance
Conversions:
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 30.48 cm
1 mile = 1.61 km
1 yd = 0.914 m
1m = 3.28 ft
Area
Conversions:
SI Imperial
Volume
Conversions:
Conversions:
Density
mass weight
mass density = weight density =
volume volume
m kg w lb
= =
V m3 V ft 3
Conversions:
kg
(on Earth) a mass density of 1 results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb3
m3 ft
-4-
SI Imperial
Relative Density
Conversions:
Greek Alphabet
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Algebra
1. Expansion Formulae
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
x2 - y2 = (x - y) (x + y)
x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)
x3 - y3 = (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2)
2. Quadratic Equation
If ax2 + bx + c = 0,
- b ± b 2 − 4ac
Then x =
2a
-6-
Trigonometry
1. Basic Ratios
y x y
Sin A = , cos A = , tan A =
h h x
2. Pythagoras’ Law
x2 + y2 = h2
4. Solution of Triangles
a. Sine Law
a b c
= =
Sin A Sin B Sin C
b. Cosine Law
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B
-7-
Geometry
1. Areas of Triangles
a. All Triangles
a+b+c
where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =
2
b. Equilateral Triangles
2. Circumference of a Circle
& G
3. Area of a Circle
circumference x r
$ U2 = = d 2 = 0.7854d2
2 4
arc x r
A=
2
°
A= x r2 DQJOHLQGHJUHHV
360
°r 2
A= DQJOHLQradians)
2
-8-
4 2 d
Also approximate area = h - 0.608
3 h
6. Ellipse
A= Dd
4
Approx. circumference =
(D + d )
2
7. Area of Trapezoid
a + b
A= h
2
8. Area of Hexagon
9. Area of Octagon
10. Sphere
7RWDOVXUIDFHDUHD$ U2
4 3
Volume V = r
3
Volume of segment
Vs = πh (3r – h)
2
3
πh
Vs = (h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base
6
-9-
12. Pyramid
Volume
1
V= base area x perpendicular height
3
Volume of frustum
h
VF = (A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown
3
13. Cone
DL
A=
2
(D + d)L
AF =
2
Volume of cone:
Volume of frustum:
APPLIED MECHANICS
displacement
Velocity - vector property equal to
time
m ft
Conversions: 1 = 3.28
s s
km mi
1 = 0.621
h h
m ft
In SI the basic unit is 2
, in Imperial 2
s s
m ft
Conversion: 1 = 3.28
s2 s2
m ft
Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81 2
or 32.2 2
s s
- 11 -
u initial velocity v = u + at
v final velocity
s= v+u t
t elapsed time 2
s displacement s = ut + 1 at 2
a acceleration 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
2 1 W
1 2 x t
2
1 t + ½ W2
2 1
2 2
linear displacement, s = U
linear velocity, v = U
linear, or tangential acceleration, aT = U
- 12 -
a T = rα
ac = v2U U 2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum
of aT and ac
a = aT + ac
Force
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object
kg m
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a
s2
Weight
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth
In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known
weight in pounds
Weight
m= g g = 32.2 ft2
s
- 13 -
F = ma (Imperial F = w
g a, where w is weight)
Torque Equation
Momentum
p = mv (Imperial p = w
g v, where w is weight)
kg m
in SI unit is s
Work
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In
simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance
W = Fs
1 J = 1 Nm
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb
- 14 -
Kinetic Energy
E k = 1 mv 2
2
1
E R = mk 2 2
ZKHUHNLVUDGLXVRIJ\UDWLRQ LVDQJXODUYHORFLW\LQUDGV
2
or
1
ER = I 2
where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
2
mv 2
FC = where r is the radius
r
or
FC P 2
r ZKHUH LVDQJXODUYHlocity in rad/s
Potential Energy
Ep = m g h
In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h where w is weight, and h is height above some
specified datum
- 15 -
Thermal Energy
In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities)
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Electrical Energy
In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of
electrical energy is the kWh
Power
1 W = 1 Js
1 h.p. = 550 ft –s lb
1 kW = 0.948 Btu
s
- 16 -
Pressure
1 Pa = 1 N2
m
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure Conversions
Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and
Imperial systems
m
Velocity of P = R2 - x2
s
$FFHOHUDWLRQRI3 2
x m/s2
2
The period or time of a complete oscillation = seconds
General formula for the period of S.H.M.
displacement
7
acceleration
Simple Pendulum
L
7 T = period or time in seconds for a double swing
g
L = length in metres
Lifting Machines
load W
M.A. = =
effort F
effort distance
V.R. (velocity ratio) =
load distance
M.A.
= efficiency =
V.R.
1. Lifting Blocks
2 R
Velocity ratio =
2 (r - r1 )
2
2R
= 2R
r - r1
2D
Velocity ratio =
(d - d 1 )
3. Inclined Plane
length
V.R. =
height
4. Screw Jack
circumference of leverage
V.R. =
pitch of thread
- 19 -
Indicated Power
Brake Power
load P
Direct stress = =
area A
extension ∆l
Direct strain = =
original length L
Modulus of elasticity
force
6KHDUVWUHVV
area under shear
x
Shear strain =
L
Modulus of rigidity
shear stress
G=
shear strain
- 20 -
T = τ = Gθ
J r L
M=σ=E
I y R
1. For Rectangle
I = πD
4
64
- 21 -
THERMODYNAMICS
Temperature Scales
5 9
° C = (° F − 32) °F = °C + 32
9 5
Q = PF 7
m is mass
c is specific heat
7 is temperature change
Latent Heat
Gas Laws
1. Boyle’s Law
PV = constant or
P1V1 = P2V2
2. Charles’ Law
V
When gas pressure is constant, = constant
T
V1 V2
or = , where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2
- 22 -
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
P
When gas volume is constant, = constant
T
P1 P2
Or = , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2
P1V1 P2V2
= = constant
T1 T2
Also
T1 – T2
Carnot Cycle η = where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and sink
T1
1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)
1 cylinder volume
=1- ( - 1)
where rv = compression ratio =
rv clearance volume
2. Diesel Cycle
(R − 1)
=1- where r = ratio of compression
rv - 1 5 - 1)
R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
k -1
=1-
rv -1
[(k - 1) + k( - 1)]
cylinder volume
where rv =
clearance volume
1
=1- −1
r
p
Q = λAt∆T
d
where Q = heat transferred in joules
λ = thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat
transfer in 2J × m or W
m × s × °C m × °C
2
A = area in m
t = time in seconds
∆T = temperature difference between surfaces in °C
d = thickness of layer in m
Material Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
W/m °C
Air 0.025
Aluminum 206
Brass 104
Brick 0.6
Concrete 0.85
Copper 380
Cork 0.043
Felt 0.038
Glass 1.0
Glass, fibre 0.04
Iron, cast 70
Plastic, cellular 0.04
Steel 60
Wood 0.15
Wallboard, paper 0.076
- 26 -
Increase in length = L 72 – T1 )
where L = original length
= coefficient of linear expansion
(T2 – T1 ) = rise in temperature
Increase in volume = 9 72 – T1 )
Where V = original volume
= coefficient of volumetric expansion
(T2 – T1 ) = rise in temperature
O2
Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7 C + 144 H – + 9.3 S
8
C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel
H is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
O2 is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel
8 O 100
Air (kg per kg of fuel) = C + 8 H - 2 + S
3 8 23
N2
Air in kg per kg of fuel = ×C
33 (CO 2 + CO)
Boiler Formulae
& s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
Equivalent evaporation =
2257 kJ/kg
(h 1 - h 2 )
Factor of evaporation =
2257 kJ/kg
& s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
Boiler efficiency =
& f x calorific value of fuel
m
&s
where m = mass flow rate of steam
h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
&f
m = mass flow rate of fuel
- 28 -
FLUID MECHANICS
Let A = cross-VHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHRULILFH G2
and Ac = cross-VHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHMHWDWWKHYHQDFRQUWDFWD d c2
then Ac = CcA
2
Ac dc
or Cc = =
A d
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge, Cd
i.e. C d = C cC v
and Q = C dA 2gh
Bernoulli’s Theory
P v2
H = h+ +
w 2g
H = total head (metres) w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)
h = height above datum level (metres) v = velocity of water (metres per second)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
ELECTRICITY
Ohm’s Law
E
I =
R
or E = IR
Conductor Resistivity
L
R =
a
where = VSHFLILFUHVLVWDQFHRUUHVLVWLYLW\RKPPHWUHV ÂP
L = length (metres)
a = area of cross-section (square metres)
Temperature correction
Rt = Ro W
(1 + W 2 )
R2 = R1
(1 + W 1 )
9DOXHV ºC
copper 0.00428
platinum 0.00385
nickel 0.00672
tungsten 0.0045
aluminum 0.0040
- 31 -
Dynamo Formulae
2ΦNpZ
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
60c
Alternating Current
pN
Frequency of alternator = cycles per second
60
Inductive Reactance
1.256T 2 $
Inductance of an iron cored solenoid = henries
L x 10 8
Capacitance Reactance
1
Capacitance reactance of AC circuit = ohms
2 I&
1
Total reactance = 2 I/ - ohms
2 fC
1 2
= R 2 + (2 fL - ) ohms
2 fC
Current in AC Circuit
impressed volts
Current =
impedance
- 33 -
Power Factor
true watts
p.f. =
volts x amperes
Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage
Line current = phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 x phase current
Monatomic Polyatomic