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Failure Analysis - Part III PDF
Failure Analysis - Part III PDF
of Engineering Structures
Part III
Dr James Wang
Faculty of SET
Tel: 9214 8657
Email: jawang@swin.edu.au
Topic IV:
1
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Slip
the parallel movement of adjacent layers
Slip
edge dislocation
Slip plane
the distortion
and reformation
(a) (b) (c)
of atomic bonds
Slip
Slip becomes more difficult as individual atomic distances increase.
Slip plane
Slip plane
Slip distance
(a) (b)
Dislocation slip is more difficult along (a) a low-atomic-
density plane than along (b) a high-atomic-density plane.
Slip Systems
A slip plane and a slip direction in that plane constitute a slip system.
- Fe,
bcc {110} <111> 6 2 12 Mo, W
- Fe, Al,
fcc {111} <110> 4 3 12 Ni, Au, Ag
- Ti, Mg,
hcp (0001) <1120> 1 3 3
Zn, Cd
5
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
4 3 12
ductile & deformable
(a) fcc aluminum
1 3 3
brittle
(a) (b)
Slip plane
normal, n
n
Slip
Normal to direction
slip plane A
Slip As
direction As
/
• Magnitude of :
7
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
)max
)
45° 2
9
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Slip line
500 nm
5 m
5 m 50 nm
(a) (b)
(a) Cobalt single crystal, and (b) schematics of its plastic deformation
10
cos cos
0.94
2.45
cos cos 40° 60°
11
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
100 m
grain
boundaries
Slip lines on the surface of a well poshed copper polycrystalline specimen
12
Load
A After A
Before
Deformation Deformation
Profile of slip
bands
13
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Cleavage
P P
• fracture surface:
smooth & featureless
side view P
P
Schematics of the orientation of a single crystal with hcp structure (Zinc)
14
bcc metals
(high temp.)
bcc metals
(low temp.)
0 0
Temperature
Schematics of the competition of slip and Effect of temperature on critical
cleavage: relationship between resolved resolved shear stress and critical
shear stress and resolved normal stress resolved normal stress for bcc metals
crystal structure and loading situation, and the service conditions
15
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
16
steps
Fe-Si 40 2
(a) (b)
(a) OM cross section image of a cleavage profile in an Fe-Si single crystal (nickel
plated). (b) TEM fractograph showing cleavage steps and secondary rupture along
a (100) plane. Material: mild steel, impact-fractured at -196 °C.
17
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
main branches
0.5
(a) (b)
(a) Cross section of a cleavage fracture surface, showing tearing of the connecting
material between cleavage surface, Material: Fe-3%Si. (b) SEM fractograph showing
tear ridges which make up a river pattern. Material: extramild steel.
18
twin
Fe-Si 40 1
(a) (b)
Cross section through fracture surface. (a) OM of an Fe-Si single crystal,
impact-fractured at – 196 °C. (b) High resolution TEM micrograph of fracture in
Armco iron, showing profile of a tongue (Adapted from G. Henry and D. Horstmann, De Ferri
Metallographia, vol. V: Fractography and Microfractography, Verlag Stahleisen m.b.H., Dusseldorf, Germany, 1979).
19
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
20
21
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
River Lines
Origins Common
origin
2
b 4
a
Niobium alloy Low-carbon steel
Cleavage fracture occurs along “River Lines” identify separate origins on
crystallographic planes in each parallel but slightly offset planes, and show
grain. a radiating pattern away from the common
origin.
22
Slip lines
10 30
(a) (b)
Cleavage fracture surfaces (a) Slip bands/lines on the cleavage facets. (b)
Featherlike structures in weld metal: 30% chromium steel.
23
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
1 1
(a) (b)
SEM Fractographs showing the general appearance of "tongues”. Samples
were impact fractured at -196 °C. (a) Extramild steel. (b) Fe-1.8% Si steel
(Adapted from G. Henry and D. Horstmann, De Ferri Metallographia, vol. V: Fractography and
Microfractography, Verlag Stahleisen m.b.H., Dusseldorf, Germany, 1979.
24
Void Coalescence
P
45° 3rd
1st Slip
Slip plane
plane Cross
Slip
“pinching off”
2nd
Slip
plane
25
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Void Coalescence
P P
(a)
Internal voids Voids growing Internal voids
P void growing
P
process
P
Slip planes
void
45°
(b)
cross slip
void growing
P
mechanism
Schematic illustration of void growing process and its mechanism
Once a void forms, then it will continue to deform by multiple cross slips, and grows
bigger and bigger. 26
Void Coalescence
cusps
void A A
Voids coalescence
Dimple
Dimple
a) Voids coalescence process
c) Dimple formation
P
Slip
plane Slip on
Cross
dimple
void slip
surface
Slip
void plane
27
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Void Coalescence
50
void coalescence
100 30
void coalescence
H. C. Rogers, Trans. AIME, vol. 218,
Left and right, K.E. Puttick, Phil. Mag. vol. 4, page 964, 1959. page 498, 1966.
28
Dimple
some particles
(a) 20 5
(b)
R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials (3rd ed.), p. 255
29
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Dimple
Dimple
particles
particles
2 2
(a) (b)
30
5 1
31
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Missing
particle
Fractured
particle sulfide inclusions
sulfide inclusions
1 1
(a) (b)
Areas from two different fracture surfaces. The fractures are clearly ductile,
with varying sizes of dimples and distinct particles in the bottom of the larger
dimples. Material: low-carbon steel used as railroad wheels.
32
Equiaxed dimples
Smaller particle
Elongated
Larger particle particles/dimple
pair
4 20
(a) (b)
(a) Fractograph showing dimples with (b) Fracture surface showing elongated
particles in them. These silicate inclusions dimples due to elongated MnS inclusions.
determine the size, shape of the dimples in Material: steel containing 0.12% C, 0.02%
the fracture surface . Si, 0.44% Mn, 0.059% P, and 0.068% S.
Material: unalloyed carbon steels 33
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
2 10
(a) (b)
Fractograph showing shallow dimples. Intergranular fracture surface
Material: Maraging steel showing dimples on the surface
34
Mixed Mechanism
100
35
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
, MPa
3.0
1.5 7761 Upper bound
,
2.5 Super-purity super purity 100
,
aluminium base
2.0 7475 75
1.0
1.5
7461 50
Al-4Mg base Other 7XXX
1.0
25
0.5
0.5
0 400 500 600 700
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Particle, vol.% Yield strength, MPa
(a) (b)
(a) The decrease in fracture strain with increase of volume percent of micron-size intermetallic
particles for a super-purity aluminum matrix and an AI-4Mg matrix. (b) A comparison of high-
purity 7050 aluminum sheet, 7475 sheet, and a 7xxx-series aluminum alloy. (Adapted from
“Aluminum: Properties and Physical Metallurgy, J.E. Hatch, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1984)
36
1000
Notch tensile strength
1.4
Yield strength
A
1.3 900
B 1.2 800
B
1.1
700
1.0
55 60 65 70 75
Transverse yield strength, ksi
(a) (b)
The effect of decreasing the number of AI2CuMg constituent particles on the the
strength and fracture toughness of 7050 (Adapted from “Aluminum: Properties and
Physical Metallurgy, J.E. Hatch, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1984)
37
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
dimples formed
Equiaxed dimples
Opposite direction
(b) Shear 4
(c) Elongated
dimples point
toward fracture
15 origin Tear dimples
38
Fracture Features:
Intergranular Fracture
(a) (b)
41
IV. Fracture Mechanisms and Microfractographic Features
Intergranular Fracture
42
43
Topic V:
Fatigue Fracture
44
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue
Fatigue occurs in structures subjected to
tension
cyclic stress.
t
~ 90% of metallic failures occur in fatigue!
Crack propagation
Catastrophic and insidious, occurring
suddenly and without warning Rupture
45
V. Fatigue Fracture
tension
tension
compression
compression
t
t
2 2
compression
46
V. Fatigue Fracture
Solution:
50 , 225
a)
50 225
2 2
100 275
450 175
47
V. Fatigue Fracture
Solution (Continued):
b) Stress Ratio
175
0.64
275
275 175
450
48
V. Fatigue Fracture
1045 steel
reversed tension-compression load
cycling along its axis. If the
Stress,
2014-T6 Al Alloy
maximum tensile and compressive
loads are +7500 N and -7500 N,
respectively, determine its fatigue Red Brass
life.
Assume that the stress plotted in
Cycles to failure, N (log scale)
the figure is stress amplitude.
Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the
number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for
three different materials
49
V. Fatigue Fracture
7500
150
8.0 10
2 2
7500
150
8.0 10
2 2
b) Find Stress Amplitude
150 150
150
2 2
From the figure provided, for the red brass, the number of cycles to
failure at this stress amplitude is about 1 105 cycles.
50
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Testing
fatigue properties of materials
Compression Tension
counter
Guide Guide
Spring Imbalance
Specimen
51
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Testing
grip ends: transfer load
Transition section:
large, smoothly blended radius to
12 eliminate stress concentration
10 10
35 35
120
52
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Testing
The compression and tensile stresses are imposed on the specimen using an alternating
uniaxial tension and compression stress cycle
A crack initiates and propagates on the surface, and ultimately the component fails.
The number of stress cycles to failure is counted. 53
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Testing
54
S - N Curve
Materials performance: characterized by an S-N curve: a graph of amplitude of
cyclic stress (S) against the number of cycles to failure (N).
(MPa)
230
55
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Limit
Stress , S (MPa)
Fatigue limit / Endurance Limit
• For some iron and titanium alloys, the S-N curve becomes horizontal at higher
number of cycles, N.
• Fatigue Limit: a limiting stress level below which fatigue will not occur.
• The fatigue limit for many steels: ~ 35~60% of the tensile strength
56
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Strength
Stress, S (MPa)
Fatigue Strength
• Most nonferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Mg…) do not have fatigue limit
57
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Life
Data scatter
• material parameters
o specimen
Stress, S (MPa) fabrication
o surface preparation
o metallurgical
variables
• Test conditions
o mean stress
o test frequency
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
o specimen alignment
Fatigue Life
Cycles to failure, N (log scale)
at stress S1
58
V. Fatigue Fracture
59
V. Fatigue Fracture
90
1.20% carbon steel
80
70
Stress (kpsi)
Chromium nickel steel
60
50
0.53% carbon steel
40
30
Structural steel rod as rolled
20
60
V. Fatigue Fracture
63
V. Fatigue Fracture
Stress, S (MPa)
64
V. Fatigue Fracture
65
V. Fatigue Fracture
Specimen (M (M
450 350
400 300
340 340
a) Rank the fatigue lifetimes of these three specimens from the longest
to the shortest.
b) Then justify this ranking using a schematic S – N plot.
66
V. Fatigue Fracture
400 300
50
2
340 340
0
2
400 300
350
2
340 340
340
2
67
V. Fatigue Fracture
68
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Process
Crack Initiation
Stress raisers: scratches, dents,
concentric ridges
fillets, keyways, threads…..
Fatigue Rupture
It occurs very rapidly; dull and
fibrous surface
Schematic representative of a fatigue
fracture surface in a steel shaft
69
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fractography
Origin
Beachmarks: macroscopic
evidence of fatigue
Final
• Reason: interrupted loading,
rupture
e.g. machine being switched on
and off
70
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fractography
Striations: microscopic evidence of
fatigue and observed by SEM/TEM
71
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fractography
(a) (b)
Striations
Striations
Secondary
crack Secondary
crack
5 10
V. Fatigue Fracture
Region of slow
Fatigue Fractography A crack initiates
crack propagation
Comments: Beachmarks & Striations 2
73
V. Fatigue Fracture
Rapid Rupture
Fatigue Fractography: Example 6
• Crack initiates at the bottom edge.
V. Fatigue Fracture
(a) Fatigue crack surface in a 40 mm (b) Fatigue crack in the deck of a ship
thick steel plate
75
V. Fatigue Fracture
76
V. Fatigue Fracture
7.8
Fatigue striations in (a) interstitial free steel and (b) aluminium alloy AA2024-T42.
77
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fractography
A
(a) 25 (b) 25
Two examples of cracks initiated at defects. In figure (a) the crack initiated at a
void. In figure (b) the crack initiated from the side of the inclusion. Cracks were
observed after 150,000 cycles. Material: 2024-T3.
78
V. Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fractography
long slender
particles
smaller, more
spherical
particles
Stage I
Fatigue
Crack
Intrusions,
Extrusions Stage II
Fatigue
Crack
Persistent
Slip Bands Cyclic Slip
(PSB)
80
V. Fatigue Fracture
60 m 81
V. Fatigue Fracture
Slip Bands
Fatigue Fracture Mechanisms
Stage I
Stage II Fatigue Crack: Fatigue
• the crack propagation stage Crack
Fatigue Crack
• becomes perpendicular to the
tensile stress
82
V. Fatigue Fracture
Slip
paths Stage I
crack
Local plastic
flow
Plastic
Stage
zone
II crack
Stage I
crack
(a) How cracks form in low-cycle fatigue (b) How cracks form in high-cycle fatigue
83
V. Fatigue Fracture
Cyclic (b)
Slip (CS) • Cyclic
hardening
• occurs within a grain
• Tangled slip
• operates on an atomic lines
scale
V. Fatigue Fracture
V. Fatigue Fracture
2 5
(a) Example of extrusions and intrusions on (b) Cross section of the surface of a fatigue
the surface of an aluminum alloy: 4% Cu, sample showing stage I cracks at the surface
1.2% Mg, 0.3% Mn. 10,000 cycles. and the beginning of stage II. Material: pure
aluminum.
87
V. Fatigue Fracture
Crack length, a
• Increasing applied stress level will ,
crack length and stress level Relationship between the crack length and the
applied. number of stress cycles, N, at two different
stress levels
88
V. Fatigue Fracture
∆ ln
and constants, depending on the
./
/
10 ∆
Region 1: 10
,
10 slow crack
,
Region 3:
growth rapid
10
unstable
10 crack growth
∆ Region 2: 10
power law
10 behaviour
10
10
6 8 10 20 40 60 80
Stress-intensity factor ∆ ,
Entire da/dN vs. ∆ plot for A533 steel showing asymptotic behavior at
either end of the curve and a relatively linear portion in the center. Yield
strength 470 MPa. Test conditions: R = 0.10, ambient room air, 24 °C.
90
V. Fatigue Fracture
plotted
1.8 10 ∆
m=3
A 1.8 10
Stress intensity factor, ∆ (103 psi .)
Logarithm crack growth rate versus logarithm
stress intensity factor range for a Ni-Mo-V steel
91
V. Fatigue Fracture
/
10 0
,
0.5
/
1
10
10
10
2 5 10 20 50 100
Stress-intensity factor ∆ ,
The influence of stress ratio value on the fatigue crack growth
characteristics of a steel. Fatigue crack propagation properties of JIS
SS41 steel.
92
V. Fatigue Fracture
∆ ∆
/ /
∆ ∆ ∆
1
∆ / /
∆ / /
are initial and final crack lengths, then the safe number of cycles
∆ / /
93
V. Fatigue Fracture
1 1 1
4.3 10 1.23 1.60 0.02 0.03
2.6 10 cycles
94
V. Fatigue Fracture
95
V. Fatigue Fracture
/ . /
∆ / 6.5 10 1 180 /
.
.
/
1 1
4737.45 9474.9 164,491
. 0.04 0.002
96
V. Fatigue Fracture
97
V. Fatigue Fracture
15 0.25 / 8 2.44
S 2
7.8 10
6.4 10
2 2.44 0.25
Nominal stress in the connecting rod:
6.4 10
1.6
0.04
98
V. Fatigue Fracture
/
1.19 1.6 0.02
/
0.48
∆ ∆
∆
1.60
∆ ∆
0 0
(a) (b)
Crack growth by fatigue in the Stretham engine
100
V. Fatigue Fracture
∆ 4
1 1 1
∆ ∆
101
V. Fatigue Fracture
15 0.25 /
Conclusions:
• This is sufficient for the engine to run for 8 h on each of 361 open
days for demonstration purposes.
• A crack of 0.03 m length is still far too small to go critical, and thus
the engine will be perfectly safe after the 2.6 x 106 cycles.
102
V. Fatigue Fracture
Surface Effects
Geometrical Design
Surface Treatments
Microstructural Features
Environments
, (log scale)
Schematic illustration of the influence of
mean stress σ on fatigue behaviour
103
V. Fatigue Fracture
104
V. Fatigue Fracture
Polished
Scratches and machining 70
marks reduce the fatigue life.
65
45
104 105 106 107 108
Cycles to failure
Effects of polishing die marks from the surface on the S -
N curve of heat-treated chromium-molybdenum aircraft
tubing. Tube dimensions: 0.5 inch O.D. with 0.065 inch
wall. Heat treatment: oil quench 1625 F, draw 650 F.
105
V. Fatigue Fracture
Compression Tension
400 Zone Depth
0
Compression No Shot Peening
-400
-800
Cycles of failure, in log scale
0.25 0.50
Depth below surface (mm) Schematic illustration of the S-N
curves for shot peening and normal
steels. 106
V. Fatigue Fracture
107
V. Fatigue Fracture
20
Coarse grained
(4/mm3)
10
104 105 106 107 108 109
Cycles of failure, N
108
V. Fatigue Fracture
:
∆
:
109
V. Fatigue Fracture
• Prevention Measures:
Application of protective surface coatings: painting, galvanizing
110
V. Fatigue Fracture
111