1.

Introduction

In present days the wireless communication has developed quickly. This demand on wireless
application has put several limitations on the existing radio spectrum which is precious and
limited. Various frequency bands are not used properly in the fixed spectrum assignment but,
the cognitive radio is more helpful to utilize these frequency bands which are called as white
spaces.
The radio frequency (RF) spectrum is a natural resource and its efficient use is important. The
spectrum bands are usually licensed to certain services, such as mobile, fixed, broadcast, and
satellite, to avoid harmful interference between different networks to affect users [1]. Most
spectrum bands are allocated to certain services but worldwide spectrum occupancy
measurements show that only portions of the spectrum band are fully used.
In the development of future wireless systems, the spectrum utilization functionalities will play
a key role due to the scarcity of unallocated spectrum. Moreover, the trend in wireless
communication systems is going from fully centralized systems into the direction of self-
organizing systems where individual nodes can instantaneously establish networks whose
structure is changing over time. Cognitive radios, with the capabilities to sense the operating
environment, learn and adapt in real time according to environment creating a form of mesh
network, are seen as a promising technology.
In this report various spectrum sensing techniques, challenges and applications are discussed.

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 2. Cognitive Radio

Cognitive radio (CR) is an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its
surrounding environment, learns from the environment and adapts its internal states to
statistical variations in the incoming RF stimuli by making corresponding changes in certain
operating parameters in real time [2] (Fig 2.1). The primary objectives of the cognitive radio
are to provide highly reliable communications whenever and wherever needed and to utilize
the radio spectrum efficiently.
The term cognitive radio was first suggested by Mitola. He defines the cognitive radio as a
radio driven by a large store of a prior knowledge, searching out by reasoning ways to deliver
the service the users want [4]. The cognitive radio is reconfigurable and built on the software-
defined radio (SDR).
The aim of the cognitive radio is to use the natural resources efficiently including frequency,
time, and transmitted energy.
This efficiency is achieved by dynamically allocating frequency band within the spectrum to
different users, it can also access underutilized radio spectrum dynamically without interfering
the primary users.

Fig 2.1 Cognitive Radio Working [3]

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The radio spectrum technology is categorised into 3 types based on the sub bands and
occupancy [1], they are:
White spaces (Spectrum Holes): This type of space is free for the RF interferers but not
for noise because of artificial and natural sources.
Grey spaces: This colour space is partially covered with noise as well as interferers.
Black spaces: This colour space is full up due to the joint presence of interfering signals
plus noise and communication.

Fig2.2 White space in spectrum [3]

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 3. Cognitive Radio Cycle

In order to share spectrum of licenced users without disturbing them and meet quality of
service.
The major tasks of the cognitive radio can be characterized with the cognitive cycle. In general,
the cognitive cycle is a continuous process comprising of the following steps (Fig 3.1):
1.Spectrum Sensing
2.Spectrum Decision
3.Spectrum Sharing
4.Spectrum Mobility
Cognitive Radio exploits specifically this cycle in a manner that spectrum is the main figure to
be sensed, and all the subsequent process focuses also on how to manage the spectrum based
on the observations.

Fig 3.1 Cognitive Cycle [3]

Spectrum Sensing- It identify the portion of spectrum available of primary users and to depart
the frequency band quickly and emerge the equivalent primary radio to avoid interference to
primary users.
Spectrum Decision- It selects the best available channel for communication.

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Spectrum Sharing- Coordinate access of different users for not interfering and scheduling
access to communication channels.
Spectrum Mobility- The process of changing frequency of operation by CR users
dynamically.

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 4. Types of Cognitive Radio

4.1. Depending on the set of parameters taken into account in deciding on transmission and
reception changes, we can distinguish certain types of cognitive radio.
The main types are:
4.1.1. Full Cognitive Radio: It also called Mitola Radio, in which every possible parameter
observed by the radio is taken into account while making a decision on the way it operates.
4.1.2. Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Radio: In this only radio frequency (RF) spectrum is
observed and consequently used in decision making.

4.2. Depending on the availability of spectrum bands, we can distinguish certain types of
cognitive radio.
These are:
4.2.1. Licensed Band Cognitive Radio: In this the device is capable of using licensed
spectrum in addition to unlicensed spectrum.
4.2.1. Unlicensed Band Cognitive Radio: In this the device is allowed to use license exempt
and/or free license spectrum only.

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 5. Functions of Cognitive Radio

Cognitive radio has four main functions which are:

1) Spectrum sharing
2) Spectrum Management
3) Spectrum Mobility
4) Spectrum Sensing

Spectrum sharing: Spectrum scheduling is done in this method. This method will decide
which secondary user of the cognitive radio network can have the access to unused portion of
the radio spectrum at some particular time.
Spectrum Management: Spectrum management may be defined as the process of choosing
the optimal available spectrum band among the radio spectrum so as to fulfil the requirement
of user for proper communication.
Spectrum Mobility: Spectrum mobility is the process in which one secondary user
interchanges its frequency of operation with other secondary user present in network.
Spectrum Sensing: Spectrum sensing is the process which is used to detect unused portion of
radio spectrum and shares it by estimating the interference level of the primary user.

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 6. Spectrum Sensing

The primary aim of this cognitive radio technology is to the secondary users need to identify
the presence of primary users and to depart the frequency band quickly and emerge the
equivalent primary radio to avoid interference to primary users.
A major challenge in cognitive radio is that the secondary users need to detect the presence of
primary users in a licensed spectrum and quit the frequency band as quickly as possible if the
corresponding primary radio emerges in order to avoid interference to primary users.
We can categorize spectrum sensing techniques into direct method, which is considered as
frequency domain approach, where the estimation is carried out directly from signal and
indirect method, which is known as time domain approach, where the estimation is performed
using autocorrelation of the signal. Another way of categorizing the spectrum sensing and
estimation methods is by making group into model based parametric method and period gram
based nonparametric method.

Classification of Spectrum Sensing Techniques -

Spectrum Sensing

Non-cooperative Cooperative Interference

System

Energy Detection Matched Filter CycloStationary

Fig:6.1 Techniques of Spectrum Sensing

6.1. Primary Transmitter Detection (Non-Cooperative System) -

Energy Detection: It is a non-coherent detection method that detects the primary signal based
on the sensed energy. Due to its simplicity and no requirement on a prior knowledge of primary
user signal, energy detection (ED) is the most popular sensing technique in non-cooperative
sensing.

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Matched filter detection: The matched filter detection technique requires a demodulation of
the primary user's information signal at physical and link layers, such as the modulation type
and order, pulse shaping, packet format, operating frequency, bandwidth, etc. CR wireless
sensors receive that information from the PU's pilots, preambles, synchronization words or
spreading codes etc. The advantage of the matched filter method is that it takes a short time
and requires fewer samples of the received signal.

Cyclostationary feature detection: In cyclostationary feature-detection techniques,

modulated signals are coupled with sine wave carriers, pulse trains, repeated spreading,
hopping sequences, or cyclic prefixes. The cyclostationary feature detection technique provides
better performance. This has good signal classification ability. However, it is more complex
than energy detection and high speed sensing cannot be achieved. This cannot work if the target
signal's characteristics are unknown.

6.2. Cooperative Sensing -

CR wireless sensors may encounter incorrect judgments because radio-wave propagation
through the wireless channels has adverse factors, such as multi-path fading, shadowing, and
building penetration. In addition, CR wireless sensors are hardware constraints and cannot
sense multiple channels simultaneously. Therefore, CR wireless sensors cooperate and share
their sensing information with each other to improve the sensing performance and accuracy.
Three types of cooperative sensing exist:
1.Centralized cooperative spectrum sensing
2.Decentralized cooperative spectrum sensing
3.Hybrid cooperative spectrum sensing.

6.3. Interference Based Detection -

This section explains the interference based detection. In this detection method Cognitive users
would operate in spectrum underlying approach-
Primary Receiver Detection: The primary receiver produces the leakage power of local
oscillator through its RF front end and receiving the data from its primary transmitter. This
method detects the presence of primary users by increasing low cost sensor node that is near to
primary user’s receiver.

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Interference Temperature Management: the major function of this Interference
Temperature Management is to arrange an upper interface limit for specified frequency band
in given geographic location.

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 7. Challenges faced by CR

CR-WSNs differ from conventional WSNs in many aspects. Because protecting the right
of primary user’s(PU) is the main concern in CR-Wireless Sensor Network, it has many
new challenges including the challenges in the conventional wireless network. This
section discusses the challenges affecting the CR.
1. Detection, False Alarm, and Miss-Detection Probability: The detection probability is
a metric used for correct detection by CR regarding the absence of PUs on the channel.
The miss-detection probability is a metric for CR failing to detect the presence of the
primary signal on the channel, and the false-alarm probability is a metric for the CR
failing to detect the absence of the primary signal.
2. Hardware: CR wireless sensors have hardware constraints in terms of computational
power, storage and energy. Unlike conventional wireless sensors, they have a
responsibility to sense channels, analyse, decide, and act.
3. Topology Changes: Topology directly affects the network lifetime in WSNs. Depending
on the application, CR wireless sensors may be deployed statically or dynamically.
4. Fault Tolerance: CR should have self-forming, self-configuration and self-healing
properties. In other words, whenever some nodes or links fail, an alternative path that
avoids the faulty node or link must be derived.
5. Security: Wireless sensors are normally deployed in an unattended environment, and are
prone to security and privacy issues. CR wireless sensors can be attacked physically, and
the data can be stolen.

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 8. Applications

CR may have a wide range of application domains. Indeed, CR can be deployed anywhere
in place of wireless sensor network. Some examples of prospective areas where CR can
be deployed are as follows:
1. Military and Public Security Applications: Conventional WSNs are used in many
military and public security applications, such as chemical biological radiological and
nuclear (CBRN) attack detection and investigation command control, gather the
information of battle damage evaluation, battlefield surveillance, intelligence assistant,
targeting etc. [5].
2. Health Care: In a health care system, such as telemedicine, wearable body sensors are
being used increasingly. Numerous wireless sensor nodes are placed on patients and
acquire critical data for remote monitoring by health care providers.
3. Home Appliances and Indoor Applications: Many potential and emerging indoor
applications require a dense WSNs environment to achieve an adequate Quality of
Service.
4. Bandwidth-Intensive Applications: Multimedia applications, such as on-demand or live
video streaming, audio, and still images over resource constrained wireless sensor
networks, are extremely challenging because of their huge bandwidth requirements.
5. Real-Time Surveillance Applications: Real-time surveillance applications, such as
traffic monitoring, environmental conditions monitoring requires minimum channel
access and communication delay.

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 9. Advantages and Disadvantages of CR
Advantages of Cognitive Radio:
1. Efficiency and utilization of spectrum is improved.
2. Reliability of link is enhanced.
3. Capable of finding open frequency for accessing the spectrum.
4. Helps in improving the performance of SDR (software defined radio) techniques.
5. Enhancement in user throughput and system reliability leads to improve the wireless data
network performance.
6. General and selective spectrum access issues are solved by using Cognitive radio.

Disadvantages of Cognitive Radio:

1. Security in a cognitive radio is a major concern and lot of work is to be done to achieve security
in cognitive radio.
2. Software reliability is not there in cognitive radio.
3. It is difficult for cognitive radio to keep up with higher data rates.
4. More efforts need to be put forward so that we can implement cognitive radio in real world.

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 10. Conclusion
Spectrum is a very valuable resource in wireless communication systems and it has been a
major research topic from last several decades.
Efficient utilization of radio spectrum is provided by the cognitive radio which uses the method
of spectrum sensing to utilize the spectrum holes present in the spectrum. Spectrum sensing is
one of the most important task of cognitive radio [1]. In order to sense the spectrum various
spectrum sensing techniques are proposed. Here we discussed about three spectrum sensing
techniques of cognitive radio such as cooperative, non-cooperative and interference based
detection.
Though CR is a promising technology, considering the challenges raised by cognitive radios,
the use of spectrum sensing method appears as a crucial need to achieve satisfactory results in
terms of efficient use of available spectrum and limited interference with the licensed primary
users.
Furthermore, in order to fully realize the CR system in wireless communications for efficient
utilization of scarce RF spectrum, the method used in identifying the interference and spectrum
sensing should be reliable and prompt so that the primary user will not suffer from CR system
to utilize their licensed spectrum

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 References

1. Sharma, Sunil. "Cognitive radio approach: Spectrum sensing." Global Journal of

Research in Engineering (2013).
2. Wallace, Joanna, et al. "Cognitive radio technology: system evolution." IEEE, 4th
Edition of Int. Conf. on Wireless Networks and Embedded Systems. 2015.
3. Slide-Share(https://www.slideshare.net/cognitive-radio-networks)
4. Spectrum sensing techniques in cognitive radio networks: a survey (International
Journal of Next-Generation Networks (IJNGN) Vol.3, No.2, June 2011 DOI:
10.5121/ijngn.2011.320337)
5. Yadav N., Rathi S., “Spectrum Sensing Techniques: Research, Challenge and
Limitations”, IJECT, Vol. 2, Issue 4, Dec. 2011.

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