3b2 Version Number : 11.0.
3184/W Unicode (Apr 10 2014)
File path : P:/Santype(JATS)/Journals/TandF_Production/LPTE/v0n0/LPTE935428/LPTE_A_935428_J.3d
Date and Time : 14/11/14 and 21:10
Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 0: 1–14, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0360-2559 print/1525-6111 online
DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2014.935428
Modern Drifts in Conjugated Polymers and Nanocomposites
for Organic Solar Cells: A Review
Naveed Khan1,2, Ayesha Kausar1, and Amin Ur Rahman2
1
Nanosciences and Catalysis Division, National Centre For Physics, Quaid-i-Azam University Campus,
10 Islamabad, Pakistan
2
Department of Physics, University of Malakand Chakdara Dir (L), Malakand, Pakistan
In this article, various aspects of photovoltaic, organic solar
15 cell and working principle involved have been reviewed.
Moreover, different generations of solar cell, and use of an
important class of organic materials, i.e., conjugated polymers
and polymer-based nanocomposites and their properties were
discussed. Convincingly, organic materials have vast future
20 potential in solar cell to enhance its efficiency and durability of
devices. In the review, current understandings of mechanisms
that rule the photocurrent creation steps and define seek for
alternate materials and device structure, have been focused.
Foremost research efforts must focus cell efficiency
Q1 25 improvement to speed up new material commercialization.
Keywords Conjugated polymers; Generations; Nanocomposites;
Organic solar cell; Working principle
INTRODUCTION
Typically, conventional polymers such as plastics, rubbers,
30 etc. show resistance to electrical conduction and behave as
dielectrics or insulators. However, there exist a group of poly-
mers that have quite different properties. These polymers have
conjugated double bonds in the main chain. Such polymers are
semiconductors or conductors, which may have ability to inter-
35 act with light. A general model of polymer light-emitting diode
(LED) device is shown in Fig. 1. A thin film of (p-phenylene
vinylene) (PPhV) covered with two different electrodes of
indium tin oxide alloy (ITO) and calcium, respectively, is
placed on a glass substrate and connected to the external volt-
40 age. With the onset of the current, the PPhV may begin to emit
light with intensity proportional to the current, and the effect is
known as electroluminescence. The term “diode” shows that
the current can flow in one direction only, and if the direction
Address correspondence to Ayesha Kausar, Nanosciences and
Catalysis Division, National Center For Physics, Quaid-i-Azam
University Campus, 44000, Islamabad, Pakistan. E-mail: asheesgreat@
yahoo.com
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article can be
found online at www.tandfonline.com/lpte.
1
of the voltage is reversed, then no current flows. The active
element in LED is PPhV, known as conjugated polymer. 45
Conjugated polymers have conjugated π electrons, i.e.,
electrons that are delocalized[1]. π-Conjugated polymers typi-
cally PPhV, poly-p-phenylene (PPP), PPhV, polyphenylene
ethylene (PPE), etc. represent a class of organic materials that
have unique optical and electronic properties[2]. In the doped 50
polymers, high absorptivity in the visible or near IR regions
and large fluorescence quantum yield has been observed[3,4].
In addition, conjugated polymers have useful optical
properties, electronic properties, good processability and
favorable mechanical properties. Due to a unique combination 55
of properties, π-conjugated polymers have gained the interest
of scientists and engineers to fabricate electronic and electro-
optical devices. Foremost requisite of the device application
has been active medium for wavelength-tunable organic-based
LEDs[5,6]. 60
Due to advantageous properties such as low cost, light-
weight, capability of thin-film, less toxic fabrication methods,
changeable optical properties, flexible large area modules and
flexible device manufacture, organic semiconducting materials
have been explored[7]. Such materials were used in the areas of 65
organic field-effect transistors[8], light emitting diodes[9], dye-
sensitized solar cells[10], nonvolatile memory devices[11], sen-
sors[12] and radio frequency identification tags[13]. Conjugated
polymers have anisotropic, one-dimensional electronic struc-
ture with a band gap of usually 1–3 eV, which is consistent 70
with the conventional semiconductors[14].
The chemistry and physics of these polymers in nondoped
semiconducting state have been of great interest in plastic elec-
tronic devices such as polymer light-emitting diodes (LED),
high-sensitivity polymer photodiodes, polymer lasers and 75
photovoltaic (PV) cells, thin-film transistor, polymer inte-
grated circuits, etc.[7,15,16]. During the past few decades, power
conversion efficiency of polymer-based LEDs has become
comparable to those of inorganic materials and the LEDs have
been commercialized. Recently, polymer-based photovoltaics 80
have been an attractive area of research, leading to encour-
aging strides in both the basic understanding of device
 2 N. KHAN ET AL.
FIG. 1. Fundamental polymer LED device setup.
operation and improving device efficiency. As critical pro-
cesses such as exciton dissociation were studied, novel hetero-
85 structures have been investigated, leading to high conversion
efficiencies[17].
Consequently, material improvement has become one of the
main factors driving the performance of polymer solar cells
(PSCs). The main issues of polymer design have been the
90 engineering of the band gap and energy levels to achieve high
Jsc and Voc, improving the charge carrier mobility, process
ability and stability of materials. Current issues are related
with each other. In the ideal case, all factors should be
enhanced in a single polymer which still exists as an important
95 challenge[17,18]. The efficiency of a PSC is usually given as
g ¼ Voc  Jsc  FF ð1Þ
where FF is the fill factor, and Voc is open circuit voltage.
Association between the polymer design and the given para-
meters has been considerably established over the past few
100 decades
[19]
. directly converted into electrical energy. Such devices only
Solar Cell
A solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy
through photovoltaic process. The progress in photovoltaic
technology started with the research of a French Physicist
105 Antoine-César Becquerel in 1839. The photovoltaic effect
was observed during the experiment with a solid electrode in
an electrolyte solution when the light falling upon the elec-
trode created voltage. Probable increase in energy demand
and global concern over the issue of environmental changes
110 due to fossil fuels has focused research attention on renewable
and clean energy sources. The most encouraging and yet not
very much utilized source of energy is solar energy. Solar
energy is clean, renewable, safe, global and lavish, covering
0.1% of the land on earth with 10% effective solar conversion
115 systems that would be sufficient to power the world. Using PV
cells has been one of the main methods to capture and convert
solar energy.
However, generated electricity has contributed a very small
portion of the world's electricity[20]. Solar cell based on inor-
ganic materials mostly silicon are currently leading the PV 120
market because of high power conversion efficiencies
(PCE), up to 25 %, due to the excellent charge transport proper-
ties and environmental stability but the progress of PV has been
slowed down due to high cost and intensive processing techni-
ques[21,22]. Consequently, due to low cost and high processabil- 125
ity of organic materials, organic PVs have become alternative
candidates during the past few years[23]. The organic solar cells
based on conjugated polymers have high absorption coefficient
and high rate of photon absorption[24]. In addition, they are
advantageous because of (i) photo and electronic characteristics 130
of conjugated polymers that may be enhanced by changing its
chemical structure[25], (ii) the coating and printing techniques
can be used to decrease the cost of fabrication procedure[26],
and (iii) the flexibility enables to manufacture flexible
devices[27,28]. In the last few years, remarkable work has been 135
done to develop organic solar cells[29].
The field of organic PVs began with the use of small
organic molecules and the development of organic semicon-
ductors. The ability of organic semiconductor materials to
carry electric current and capture light in the ultraviolet-visible 140
region of the solar spectrum is due to Sp²-hybridization of car-
bon atoms. In conducting polymers, electrons of Pz orbital of
each sp²-hybridized carbon atom make π-bond with the nearest
Pz electron in the main chain of Sp²-hybridized carbon atoms,
which result in alternating double and single bond structures. 145
The π-electrons are delocalized in nature and are responsible
for high charge mobilities[30–32].
Photovoltaic Effect
Photovoltaic effect is the process in which light energy is
150
need a small amount of power to work and can be used even
in room with artificial light. A solar cell has been designed
to work in sunlight while a photovoltaic cell can use any form
of light to generate electricity. Some materials show a property
known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb 155
photons and generate free electrons. Free electrons render
the flow of electric current that is used as electricity. Albert
Einstein explained the nature of light and the photoelectric
effect on which photovoltaic technology is based. The first
photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. 160
It was known as a solar battery but was too expensive to gain
common use. In 1960s, the space industry started to make the
first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard
spacecraft. Through the space program, the technology was
highly developed, its consistency was recognized, and the cost 165
began to drop.
Due to the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic tech-
nology gained credit as a source of power for non-space appli-
cations. Solar cells are made of the same kind of
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
170 semiconductor materials such as silicon used in the microelec-
tronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is
particularly treated to produce an electric field, positive on one
side and negative on the other. When the light strikes the solar
cell, electrons are knocked out from the atoms in the semicon-
175 ductor material. If electrical conductors are attached to the
positive and negative terminals, forming an electrical circuit,
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current.
The electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light
or a tool. The use of organic materials and polymers in organic
180 photovoltaic has been studied in several reports due to the
potential of low-cost flexible photovoltaic with low budgets,
low manufacturing cost and fast solution-phase processing
using several coating techniques[33,34,35].
Some studies on the lifetime of the photovoltaic devices
185 have been reported[36]. The lifetime of the device (sometimes
called the half-life) is the time it takes to touch half its initial
efficiency (or short circuit current value). The stated lifetimes
in the atmosphere remains short, from minutes to 1–2 weeks
[37]
. During the past few years, the essentials for new PV tech-
190 nologies together with the opportunities in the field of plastic
electronics, such as roll-to-roll production, have drawn signifi-
cant attention to plastic solar cells. Apart from application in
PV, it is expected that plastic solar cells will create a totally
new market in the field of economical electronics[38]. The pro-
195 cess of an organic photovoltaic (OPV) cell is somewhat differ-
ent from that of an inorganic semiconductor based PV cell,
particularly, how charge carriers are generated.
For an inorganic PV cell, upon absorption of photons by the
inorganic semiconductor, free electrons and holes are produced
200 in the conduction and valence bands, respectively. They are dri-
ven towards corresponding electrodes leading to a photocurrent
or photo voltage. However, instead of covalent bonding between
atoms as in inorganic semiconductors, organic semiconductors
are held together by much weaker van der Waals-like intermo-
205 lecular forces, resulting in highly localized charges[39,40].
Absorption of an incident photon leads to a bound electron-hole
pair or an exciton, in one single molecule or in the adjacent
molecules. The binding energy of an exciton ranges from 0.1
eV to 2 eV[41,42]. Hence, almost all efficient OPV cells are based
210 on the donor-acceptor (DA) heterojunction (HJ) structure (first
confirmed by Tang in 1986)[43].
With suitable energy level alignment at the DA interface,
the exciton binding energy can be overcome and efficient sep-
aration of excitons can occur through a rapid charge transfer
215 process, leading to holes in the highest occupied molecular
orbital (HOMO) of the donor material (which has a smaller
ionization potential) and the lowest unoccupied molecular
orbital (LUMO) of the acceptor (which has a larger electron
affinity)[44]. Driven by the built-in electric field or concen-
220 tration gradients, the holes (or electrons) are then transported
through the donor (or acceptor) molecules towards the anode
(or cathode) where they are collected, generating a photocur-
rent or photo voltage.
3
Organic Solar Cell
Collecting energy directly from sunlight using photovoltaic 225
technology is considered as being one of the most significant
ways to address worldwide growing energy needs using
renewable resources. PSCs are alternative candidate for pro-
ducing clean and renewable energy due to the fact that it is
possible to fabricate them onto large areas of lightweight flex- 230
ible substrates by solution processing at a low cost[45,46]. A
single-component active layer of organic photovoltaic cells
is sandwiched between two electrodes heaving different work
functions which leads to very low power conversion efficiency
because of low charge carrier production and poor charge 235
transport [47]. OPV devices are based on carbon-based materi-
als whose main backbone chain consists of alternating single
and double bonds of carbon. The moments of electrons from
one bond to another bond along the conjugated backbone are
accountable for the semiconducting properties of OPV 240
devices[48].
Main differences between organic semiconductors and inor-
ganic semiconductors are the presence of strongly bonded
electron–hole pairs (exciton). The Frenkel excitons have the
binding energy in the range of 0.3–1 eV[49]. Large binding 245
energies prevent the exciton separation by an electric field
and the organic light-emitting devices may gain high electrolu-
minescent efficiency. Then Fig. 2 shows schematic device
structures for polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cell.
The active layer is sandwiched between two contacts: an 250
indium-tin-oxide electrode coated with a hole transport layer
poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): polystyrene sulfonate
(PEDOT: PSS) and an aluminum top electrode[50].
Polymer solar cells (PSCs) are becoming progressively
attractive because they have various potential advantages over 255
silicon solar cells[51,52]. The reasons that hurdle the commer-
cialization of polymer solar cells have been their low power
conversion efficiency (PCE) and instability as compared to
silicon-based solar cells. In order to enhance PCE of PSCs,
several facets should be considered such as absorption rates 260
and coefficients of active materials, exciton dissociation rates
FIG. 2. Schematic device structures for polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunc-
tion solar cells[50].
 4 N. KHAN ET AL.
and charge-carrier mobilities. To overcome these limitations, a
polymer structure should be designed that has wide absorption
range and absorbs as many incident photons as possible.
265 Low band gap-conjugated polymers have been significantly
improved PCEs [53,54] as well as applications such as OLEDs
(organic light emitting diodes)[55] and organic field-effect tran-
sistors (OFETs)[56]. In the beginning of the 1980s and 1990s,
the OPVs were in the initial stages and showed short lifetimes
270 and poor PCE; thus they were not valid choices[57]. Recently,
both the efficiency and lifetime of OPVs have been consider-
ably improved. The efficiency of 5% and the estimated life-
time of 20,000 h have been reported[58,59]. For the same
device, the long lifetime and high efficiency were observed,
275 and the current challenge is the combination of all the required
properties (efficiency, stability, process ability and low cost) in
the same material. The properties of different materials have
been studied separately.
Conclusively, OPVs have the potential to become a real
280 competitor to silicon-based PVs. The main advantage of OPVs
is that they can be operating in low conductions (i.e., indoor
applications) [60] as compared to inorganic PVs. There are
few factors that are accountable for the efficiency of OPVs,
e.g., film morphology, polymer structure and the choice of
285 electron acceptor, and the ratio between them[61]. There exist
main differences between the photo conversion mechanism
of organic excitonic solar cells (XSCs) and inorganic photo-
voltaic (IPV) cells. The absorption of light in XSCs produces
bound electron-hole pairs (excitons), while in IPV cells; the
290 absorption of light directly creates free electron-hole pairs.
The difference has important consequences for the theoretical
explanation of the photo conversion process and to improve
the performance of XSCs[62].
Working Principles of Organic Solar Cell
295 The basic process of organic solar cell has been explicated.
Absorption of a photon creates bound electron-hole pairs
(excitons), which diffuse into a region where exciton dis-
sociation occurs. The electrons and holes separate to act as free
charge carriers and are driven to the respective electrodes
300 within organic semiconductors. Organic semiconductors have
wide band gaps, so they absorb only a small amount of inci-
dent solar light. The materials with band gap of 1.1 eV have
been found to absorb about 77% of solar light incident on
the earth's surface. Consequently, most of the organic semi-
305 conductors have band gap of above 2 eV (620 nm), as a result
limiting the possible absorption of solar light up to 30%. How-
ever, the absorption coefficient of organic semiconductors was
found high enough (about 105cm1) that only 100 nm thick-
nesses are sufficient for the maximum absorption of incident
310 photons when using reflect back contact. Conclusively, for
maximum absorption of solar photons, low band gap polymers
or energy transfer cascades are needed[63].
In organic semiconductor materials the initial photo exci-
tation does not directly produce the free charge carriers but
produce bound electron-hole pairs. In conjugated polymer, it 315
was found that only 10% of the excitons generated due to
photo excitation were converted to free charge carriers. For
the effective separation of electron-hole pair, foremost requi-
site is a strong electric filed. The field was established by
means of externally applied electric field as well as by the 320
interfaces. At the interface, the abrupt potential energy changes
created a strong electric field. Photo-induced charge transfer
took place when exciton reached to the interface within the
lifetime. The thickness of the bilayers was found to be restric-
ted by the exciton diffusion length. The exciton diffusion 325
length and the donor acceptor phase-separation length should
be of the same order of magnitude, otherwise the exciton decay
occur through radioactive or nonradioactive route before
reaching the interface and loose energy for power conversion.
The exciton diffusion length in polymer and organic semi- 330
conductors has been found round about 10–20 nm[63,64,65]. For
effective photovoltaic devices, the generated charge carriers
need to be driven to the respective electrode within the life-
time. The charge carriers require a driving force to reach the
respective electrode. A change in the chemical potential of 335
the electrons and holes was produced at donor-acceptor inter-
face and was found from the difference between HOMO level
of the donor and LUMO level of the acceptor. The internal
electrical field responsible for maximum open circuit voltage
(Voc) contributes to the driving force for the charge carriers. 340
Also, using irregular interactions produced an external field
in short circuit condition within a metal-insulator metal
(MIM) picture. The charge carrier transport was influenced
by recombination of charges during the journey towards their
respective electrodes, particularly, if the similar material was 345
used as transport medium for both electrons and holes[66,67].
CONJUGATED POLYMERS IN ORGANIC SOLAR CELL
The innovation in the field of material science has been
always responsible for the progress in PSCs. Figure 3 shows
the chemical structures of few organic materials. One of the 350
initial polymers used in PSCs is poly [2-methoxy-5-(2'-ethyl-
hexyloxy)-p-phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV), which was
introduced by Wudl and Srdanov[68]. Wudl and Srdanov also
developed [6, 6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester
(PCBM) which is one of the most significant fullerene deriva- 355
tives and denotes a landmark in the improvement of PSCs
acceptors still extensively used. In 1995, Yu et al. blended
MEH-PPV with C60 and its derivatives to create first PSC
with high PCE[69,70]. The work of Yu et al.[70] instigated a
new field of polymer materials for the use in solar energy con- 360
version. After substantial optimization, researchers have been
able to achieve PCEs above 3.0% for PPV-based PSCs. How-
ever, further development has been restricted by relatively low
hole mobility and small absorption range. Ten or so years ago,
soluble polythiophenes, particularly poly (3-hexylthiophene) 365
(P3HT) have become a standard for PSCs materials due to
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
FIG. 3. Chemical structures of representative of donor acceptor molecules used in PSCs[81].
their higher hole mobility and broad range in the spectrum
compared to MEH-PPV[71-73].
The effective morphology showed PCEs of 4–5%, thus
370 gaining worldwide interests in PSCs[74]. Recently, a lot of
high-performance polymers have been developed. One of
them was poly[2,6-(4,4-bis-(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta
[2,1-b;3,4-b’]dithiophene)-alt-4,7-(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)]
(PCPDT-BT) having a low-band gap and absorption range up
375 to 900 nm. Using this polymer in PSCs showed an initial
efficiency up to 3%[75]. However, researchers have achieved
efficiencies up to 5.5% by including alkane dithiol additives
[76,77]
. Park et al.[78] prepared poly [N-9"-hepta-decanyl-2,7-
carbazole-alt-5,5-(4’,7’-di-2-thienyl-2’,1’,3’-benzothiadia-
380 zole)] (PCDTBT), having PCE up to 3.6%[77]. In 2009, the
researchers improved PCE up to 6.1% by including titanium
oxide (TiO) layer as an optical spacer. Yu et al.[79] designed
the most high-performance polymer consisting of thieno[3,4-
b]-thiophene (TT) and benzodithiophene (BDT) alternating
385 units. This was the first polymer donor system able to gain
PCEs up to 7–8%. In correspondence with the recent work,
PCEs of more than 7% have also been reported with new
materials[80,81].
5
Plants convert sunlight into chemical energy through
natural process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll molecules 390
absorb sunlight. Interestingly, chlorophyll pigments have been
used in single layer solar cell[82]. Besides absorption and for-
mation of charge carriers, another property of the materials
used in solar cell is the capability to transport these charge car-
riers. Both characteristics are usually found in materials that 395
have a long delocalized-electron structure. Phthalocyanine
and perylene have been used as electron donor and acceptor
materials respectively in solar cell. Phthalocyanine works as
electron donor because it is a typical p-type hole-conducting
material. Perylene and its derivatives are n-type possessing 400
electron-conducting characteristics and act as electron acceptor
materials. Most of the organic materials have an optical band
gap up to 2 eV and are thermally energetic, with relatively
low intrinsic charge carrier mobilities. Charge and carrier con-
centration of organic materials are reasonably small due to par- 405
tial overlapping of electronic wave functions and disorder.
Hence they can nearly be considered as insulators.
However, the charge carrier mobilities have been com-
monly enhanced through molecular or electrochemical doping.
Donor materials when exposed to oxygen or other strong 410
 6 N. KHAN ET AL.
oxidizing agents such as iodine [83] show doping effects. The
doping is done by moving an electron from the ground state S0
of the organic semiconductor to the oxidizing agent, causing
increased charge carrier mobilities in the conductor. The n-type
415 doping of perylene has done on explosion to hydrogen[84]. The
insulating materials have free charge carriers and bilayer devices
acts like classical p-n junctions due to doping effects[85]. Conse-
quently, doping with gases is not manageable. A more controlled
method of doping is the co-evaporation of materials, matrix and
420 dopant[86,87]. The buckminster fullerene C60 and its derivatives
act as strong electron acceptors[88] and when blended with
hole-conducting materials generally lead to a large increase in
photoconductivity but do not improve the charge transport[89].
The process is known as “photodoping,” an effect of the
425 photo-induced charge transfer[90,91].
Few commonly used conjugated polymers are hole-con-
ducting donor polymers such s MDMO-PPV (poly[2-meth-
oxy-5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)]-1,4-phenylenevinylene), P3HT
(poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)) and PFB (poly(9,9’-dioctyl-
430 fluorene-co-bis-N,N’-(4-butylphenyl)-bis-N,N’-phenyl-1,4-
phenylenediamine)). Both are shown together with electron-
conducting acceptor polymers like F8TB (poly (9,9’-dioctyl-
fluoreneco-benzothiadiazole) and CNMEH- PPV (poly-[2-
methoxy-5-(2’-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4- (1-cyanovinylene)-phenyl-
435 ene) and a soluble derivative of C60, namely PCBM (1-(3-
methoxycarbonyl) propyl-1-phenyl[6,6]C61). Due to their
side-chain solubilization, all of these materials can be pro-
cessed in solution, and the polymers show photo- and electro-
luminescence[92], for the structure of donor–acceptor solar
440 cells, the donor polymers can be joined with an acceptor poly-
mer or with fullerenes either in planar or diffuse bilayer struc-
tures or in blends. To express the portion of the sunlight, in
these materials which can donate to energy conversion,
absorption coefficients of films of some materials were inves-
445 tigated in contrast with the air mass (AM) 1.5. The silicon
absorption spectrum was about 1100 nm, the organic materials
used only the blue portion of the solar spectrum.
Charge carrier concentration in the films of conjugated
polymers and molecules usually depend on the nanoscopic
450 scale, which can be handled by the conditions of preparation
[93]
. Anisotropic charge transport was resulted from the prefer-
ential orientation of polymer backbones parallel to the sub-
strate[94]. Dimitrakopoulos and Mascaro[95] reported an
overview on some materials used for organic field-effect tran-
455 sistors (FETs). However, transport of charge in FETs has been
found in lateral direction (parallel to the substrate) unlike solar
cells and most LEDs. It has been seen that for bulk heterojunc-
tion solar cells, the transport of charge in blend structures is a
sensitive function of the nanomorphology of the mixture[96,97].
460 POLYMER-BASED NANOCOMPOSITES IN SOLAR CELL
Organic/inorganic nanocomposites have very important
applications in the devices such as photodiodes, photovoltaic
cells, light emitting diodes and gas sensors[98]. The properties
of the nanocomposite film can be easily modified by changing
its composition. Such materials are multipurpose. The manu- 465
facturing of such materials has the same advantages as tra-
ditional organic device technology such as the possibility of
device manufacturing on large area and flexible substrates,
and low cost production. Organic–inorganic nanocomposites
applications in the field of organic solar cells[99] have been 470
reported. The nanocomposite solar cell performance was
enhanced as compared to pristine polymer. AM 1.5 power con-
version efficiency of 1.7% and external quantum efficiency
(EQE) over 54% were achieved in poly (3-hexylthiophene)
(P3HT): CdSe nanocomposite solar cells[100]. PbS quantum Q2
475
dot sensitized organic solar cell with nanocrystalline TiO2
electrode having EQE up to 45% and power conversion
efficiency of 0.49% have been reported.
However, most of the work on nanocomposite solar cells
still report efficiencies less than 0.1%[101]. In TiO2/poly (3- 480
octyl) thiophene solar cells[98], efficiency of 0.06 % has been
reported. For a cell consisting of a junction between a TiO2
nanoparticle layer and poly (2-methoxy,5-(2’-ethyl-hexy-
loxy)-p phenylenevinylene) (MEHPPV) inserted between
indium tin oxide (ITO) and Au electrodes, EQE of 6.4% and 485
power conversion efficiency of 0.002% has been reported
[102]
. To increase the efficiency of TiO2/polymer solar cells,
it is important that the photogenerated excitons in the polymer
reach the interface of TiO2 and become free charge carriers.
The exciton dissociation in organic photovoltaic can be 490
increased by the use of bulk heterojunction structures. Bulk
heterojunction TiO2-poly(2-methoxy-5-(3’,7’-dimethyl-octy-
loxy)-p-phenylene vinylene) (MDMO-PPV) photovoltaic
cells, with EQE reaching 11% and power conversion
efficiency of 0.18% for 20% TiO2[103] have been reported. 495
The result was better than the results achieved with two-
layer architecture. More work is needed to enhance the perfor-
mance of the devices, to improve the exciton dissociation and
charge collection efficiency. The charge transport characteris-
tics and morphology of the composite has indicated that the 500
exciton dissociation efficiency was responsible for the perfor-
mance of polymer–inorganic nanoparticle bulk heterojunction
solar cells. However, with the increase in nanoparticle concen-
tration, both the increase and decrease in mobility have been
reported[104,105]. The most probable conflicting results have 505
been due to the use of various polymers and nanoparticles as
well as differences in manufacturing techniques. The local
electrical field improvement and chain alignment phenomena
have significantly affected by fabrication conditions and thus
affected the device performance and carrier mobility within 510
the layer. Bulk heterojunction devices and organic donor-
acceptor blend properties mostly rely on the film mor-
phology[106,107]. However, studies of the effect of film mor-
phology on the performance of nanocomposite-based devices
and optical and electrical properties of the organic–inorganic 515
nanocomposite films have been reported[108,109].
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
As noted in the literature, the structure of C61 in PC61BM is
more symmetric than that of C71 in PC71BM. The optical
absorption properties of the polymer–fullerene nanocompo-
520 sites have been studied by UV-Vis spectrum and compared
to the baseline data for P3HT:PC61BM, PC61BM, PC71BM
and P3HT:PC71BM samples. The UV-Vis spectrum of
PC71BM and PC61BM before and after heating at 150°C
for 10 min in the glove box has shown in Fig. 4a. Absorption
525 of PC61BM has been found with maximum absorption at
349 nm in the UV region while in the visible region, the
absorption was much weaker. PC71BM in the visible region
of the spectrum showed strong absorption range but due to
the presence of less symmetrical structure of C71[110], it exhib-
530 ited several shoulder peaks. Absorption intensity of PC61BM
and PC71BM before and after thermal annealing showed no
FIG. 4. Absorption spectra (a) PC61BM and PC71BM, (b) P3HT, and (c)
P3HT:PC61BM andP3HT:PC71BM nanocomposites before (dotted line) and
after (solid line) thermal treatment at 150°C for 10 mint[111].
7
substantial change as shown in Fig. 4 (a). Fig. 4b and 4c show
UV-Vis spectra before and after thermal treatment at 150°C
for P3HT, P3HT:PC61BM and P3HT: PC71BM nanocompo-
sites[111]. 535
For the P3HT films, the absorption range appeared between
450 and 650 nm. In Fig. 4b, three different absorption peaks at
520, 552, and 600 nm were observed. A significant increase in
the absorption bands was observed after thermal treatment and
has been credited to improve crystalline ordering of the P3HT 540
domains. The P3HT:PC61BM nanocomposite films absorption
spectrum has two wide-ranging peaks; one, due to PC61BM
was located at 349 nm, and the second, ranging from 450 to
650 nm and originated due to P3HT. In comparison, nanocom-
posite films of P3HT:PC71BM also showed wide absorption 545
spectrum range, from 450 to 650 nm, but there were two
additional peaks in Fig. 4c at 380 and 482 nm originating from
PC71BM. P3HT:PC61BM and P3HT:PC71BM nanocomposites
before thermal annealing showed nearly the same intensity in
the spectral range from 450 to 650 nm. 550
The degree of crystallinity of P3HT films, as verified by X-
ray diffraction data[112], has been found correlated to the spec-
tral mark in the range of 450 to 650 nm and the intensity of the
shoulder peak at 600 nm. It has been concluded that before
thermal annealing, the nanocomposites of P3HT:PC61BM 555
and P3HT:PC71BM have nearly the same degree of crystal-
linity. However, for P3HT:PC60BM only a small increase in
the intensity of the absorption band between 450 nm and
650 nm has been observed after thermal annealing. Conse-
quently, for P3HT:PC71BM, much stronger improvement has 560
been observed in different vibronic absorption shoulders.
P3HT films absorption peak at 600 nm has a red shift at
606 nm in P3HT:PC61BM and P3HT:PC71BM nanocomposite
films. Because due to the π–π* transition of the P3HT back-
bone[113], the absorption band denotes the characteristic peak, 565
an increase in the absorption shows an improved ordering of
P3HT chain after thermal annealing[112].
Moreover, on thermal treatment, the improved intensity of
the absorption spectra at 600 nm showed an increased ordering
of intra-chain interactions or higher degree of crystallization in 570
P3HT materials[114]. P3HT:PC71BM annealed nanocomposite
films showed an improved conjugated length and well-ordered
P3HT crystalline structure as compared to P3HT:PC61BM.
The surface morphology before and after thermal treatment
of P3HT: PCBM films was calculated using AFM (Atomic 575
Force Microscopy) and is shown in Fig. 5. AFM image
showed different surface morphologies. The thin films
nonannealed, as-deposited seem featureless with atomically
smooth surfaces. The surface roughness (root mean square
(RMS)) of P3HT:PC61BM is found 0.33 nm and for P3HT: 580
PC71BM is 0.45 nm (Fig. 5a and 5d). The film crystallinity
increases upon annealing at 150°C[115]. The surface
morphology in Fig. 5b showed increased irregularity
(RMS ¼ 0.75 nm) of P3HT:PC61BM compared to that of
P3HT:PC71BM (RMS ¼ 0.54 nm) as shown in Fig. 5e. 585Q3
 8 N. KHAN ET AL.

FIG. 5. Surface morphologies of P3HT:PC61BM and P3HT:PC71BM before and after thermal treatment. AFM images of P3HT:PC61BM were taken (a)
before and (b) after thermal treatment at 150°C for 10 min and (c) the cross-section of P3HT:PC61BM was shown after thermal treatment. AFM images of
P3HT:PC71BM were taken (d) before and (e) after thermal treatment at 150°C for 10 min and (f) the cross-section of P3HT:PC71BM was also shown after
thermal treatment[111].

The comparison of grains of P3HT:PC61BM and P3HT:
PC71BM where P3HT:PC71BM has more uniform mixing of
components shown in Fig. 5c and 5f. Thermal annealing of
P3HT: PCBM nanocomposites encouraged polymer refor-
590 mation and aggregation of PCBM which makes thin film struc-
ture well-ordered[116]. The negative aspect of morphological
changes is that the large grain features in P3HT:PC61BM can
decrease the charge collection rate at the electrodes. The fact
is due to much long conduction path lengths related to usual
595 exciton diffusion lengths of 10 nm[117]. Since the large grain
features and clustering of P3HT: PCBM molecules make an
ineffective path for conduction of conjugated polymers chain
to the contact electrodes, in conjugated polymers the charge
carrier mobilities will be reduced and result in lesser photocur-
600 rent essential for efficient device operation.
The key point to note is that C71 and C61 fullerenes com-
bined with regioregular polymers have equivalent charge car-
rier mobilities[118] as shown by Wöbkenberg et al. Therefore,
in P3HT:PC71BM nanocomposite films, small grain features
605 with improved crystallinity might give improved energy con-
version efficiency of photo induced carriers. Photolumines-
cence (PL) spectra of P3HT:PC71BM nanocomposites and
chlorobenzene solutions of P3HT, P3HT:PC61BM were mea-
sured with 350 nm excitation. Photoluminescence intensity
610 of the P3HT solution has been extremely reduced in the mix-
tures having PC61BM and PC71BM, thereby, representing
strong quenching effects in complex solutions. In P3HT:
PCBM complexes, the quenching effect belongs to ultra-fast,
photoinduced, donor–acceptor transfer interactions between
the fullerenes components in PCBM[119] and excited polymers. 615
Therefore, both PC61BM and PC71BM are considered more
effective in transferring charge carriers. The results showed
that open circuit voltage (Voc) was nearly the same for both
at a value of 0.53 V, while the short-circuit current (Isc)
showed much enhancement in P3HT:PC71BM. 620
The consequences have been found reliable with other
researchers in the regard of enhanced current densities up to
50% using polymer photovoltaic devices [110,117] based on
PC71BM. The enhanced photocurrent belongs to ultrafast car-
rier transfer, higher absorption across a wide range of the solar 625
spectrum and improved crystallinity in P3HT:PC71BM nano-
composites after thermal annealing. The experimental results
showed more than a 33% development in PCE with P3HT:
PC71BM as compared to P3HT:PC61BM. Efficiencies for both
C61 and C71-based cells were 0.6% and 0.8%, respectively. 630
Short-circuit currents were 6.4 mA/cm2 for P3HT:PC71BM
and 3.5 mA/cm2for P3HT:PC61BM. The expected efficiencies
for both the devices were lower because the construction and
characterization was not carried out in an oxygen-free environ-
ment[120]. 635
OVERVIEW OF SOLAR CELL GENERATIONS
During last few years, solar energy conversion achieved the
attention of researchers all over the world. Photovoltaic cells
that can convert directly solar energy to electricity or and
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
640 photo electrochemical cells which can convert the solar
energy to chemical energy took the attention of many research
groups[121,122]. In the terrestrial applications, Si-based solar
cells have been mostly used. The solar was based on p-n junc-
tion that allows the use of the photovoltaic characteristics of the
645 appropriate semiconductor, i.e., Si[123,124]. The first-generation
solar cells were based on single crystal Si and the use of bulk
polycrystalline Si wafers. According to the manufacturing pro-
cedures and wafer quality[125], these cells yield solar conversion
efficiencies between 12 and 16%. Polycrystalline Si was used
650 because of high cost and better technology instead of single
crystal wafers. Progress in research was responsible for the
growth of the second-generation solar cells.
Second-generation solar cells also known as “thin film tech-
nology” have different materials such as cadmium indium seli-
655 nide (CIS), amorphous silicon (a-Si) or thin silicon films on
indium tin oxide and t-Si. In contrast to the first-generation
solar cells, second-generation solar cells provided low manu-
facturing cost due to material savings; low-temperature pro-
cesses integrated cell insulation and high automation level in
660 series construction. Additionally, the use of flexible substrates
provided a great opportunity for the second generation to con-
tribute in the energy conversion sector and to open new fields
of applications. Material blends of Cu/In/Ga/Se (CIGS-cells)
as well as III/V semiconductors such as GaAs have been used,
665 and solar conversion efficiencies up to 20% were achieved
[126,127]
. up to three electrons per photon, conclusively, making solar
Unfortunately, thin film solar cells have a small market
share due to the problematic module technology and limited
stability. Different types of materials advertised for thin film
Q4 670 solar cells are shown in Fig. 14. The thin films of crystalline
Si of about 2.5 μm thicknesses showed the maximum used
material[128]. Thin film materials, amorphous Si and cadmium
telluride have also been considered as good candidates[129,130].
Modules of the second generation solar cells have also been
675 advertised but due to technological difficulties and module
stability[131], they were unable to achieve the success like first
generation solar cells. Losses due to polycrystallinity of thin
films were examined. No noticeable losses for Cu (In,Ga)Se2
or CdTe solar cells have been examined and it has recom-
680 mended to incorporate impurities like Na into the absorber
in CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 to use anti-reflection coatings.
Important problems must be solved on a priority basis for large
scale development of polycrystalline thin film devices[131,132].
Photovoltaic structures based on polymer/semiconductor junc-
685 tions have also been examined. Schottky barrier junctions
using heavily doped poly-3-methyl thiophene and CdTe or
CIS were created, but they have limited applications due to
low power conversion efficiency of 1%[133].
Nanoscience and nanotechnology in combination with sur-
690 face science has the possibility to provide reliable energy sys-
tems through effective use of existing energy sources and
making it possible to breakthrough solutions towards new
energy sources and systems. It has created great interest and
9
opportunities not only in the academic community but also
among investors, governments and industry. Motivations to 695
use nanostructured materials in solar cells are rising, develop-
ing contribution of nanotechnology to various energy sources.
The light harvesting, catalysis and materials are in focus.
Quantum dots, nanoporous materials such as Si and TiO2,
and nanocomposites are playing a significant role in solar 700
energy conversion[134,135]. Etching of semiconductors showed
an important role in the construction of micro and nanoporous
clusters[136,137].
Solar cells can be made more efficient by the application of
nanotechnology as demonstrated by many researchers. Quan- 705
tum dots are nanoscale clusters of semiconductors having
strange optoelectronic properties changeable due to quantum
physical effects depending on the cluster size. They can be
used in solar cells, where some electron-hole pairs may be
generated. Additionally, the absorption bands can be attuned 710
to the wavelengths of the irradiating light. Solar conversion
efficiencies of more than 65% have achieved theoretically,
which is double the value of practically existing solar cell
efficiency[127] with these solar cell structures. More electricity
can be generated using three-dimensional networks of quan- 715
tum dots than conventional solar cells, which transform one
photon of the solar spectrum into only one electron-hole pair,
while the remaining are lost as thermal by-products[127,138].
Moreover, heat waste/loss can be decreased as they convert
720
energy conversion more cost effective and efficient, as com-
pared to coal or gaslike power sources.
However, the present state of research has not reached the
defined value and it is still impossible to show an applied
model of quantum dot module. In future, nanocrystal tech- 725
nology will be used in photo-electrochemical cells for making
a renewable source for hydrogen production. Nanoscale mate-
rials and structures show many properties such as electric con-
ductivity, fluorescence, magnetism, hardness and strength
change which are clearly different from their macro-scale com- 730
plements. Examples of nanotechnology applications in energy
include zero loss transmission lines, super-capacitors that
could replace or enhance batteries and manage the energy net-
work more efficiently, more effective solar cells, “green” very
efficient light bulbs, flexible electronics, cleaner coal fired 735
power plants and more efficient fuel cells to allow the devel-
opment of hydrogen powered cars.
There are three different types of solar cells based on the
developments in nanotechnology, such as (i) dye sensitized
solar cells (DSSC), (ii) hybrid organic solar cells, and (iii) 740
quantum dot solar cells. In these solar cells, the capture and
conversion of light energy is supported by modifying a nanos-
tructured semiconductor interface with a dye, conjugated poly-
mer or semiconductor nanocrystals, respectively. The
challenge remains, improving the efficiency of photo-induced 745
charge separation and passage of charge carriers across the
nano-assemblies. The basic ideas involved in the advances of
 10 N. KHAN ET AL.
nano-assemblies for light energy harvesting applications were
reported elsewhere[138,139]. The kinetic and thermodynamic
750 standards for effective cell design and comprehensible plans
for using photo-induced charge separation in donor-acceptor
molecules to manufacture nanostructure based solar cells were
reported[140,141].
FUTURE POTENTIAL MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
755 The organic photovoltaic cells (OPVCs) such as polymer-
based solar cells generate electricity from sunlight using elastic
polymers. The OPVCs have lower power conversion efficien-
cies because of large band gaps as compared to inorganic
photovoltaic cells. Effectual blends of two polymerization
760 reactions exposed that they have necessary photovoltaic poten-
tials including light absorption, photoluminescence quenching,
micro phase separation, crystallinity and the existence of DA
hetero-junctions [142]. Two or more distinct polymer blocks
have been chemically joined together to create block co-poly-
765 mer (BCPs). Each block was a linear combination of equal
monomers that possibly mismatched thermodynamically.
Meyers et al.[143] presented the modeling and calculation
results to determine the electronic properties and the geometric
structure evolution as a function of unit cell content in the reg-
770 ular BCPs. They predicted the prospective of BCPs for solar
cell devices. They could have modifiable nanostructures and
periodic [144] to be used in large number of applications. For
OPVCs application, a perfect BCP was synthesized with an
n-type block and p-type block. The basic problem for the poly-
775 mer–polymer based solar cell has been the synthesis of con-
ducting acceptor polymer having the same properties as that
of fullerenes. The interpenetrating grid made from a phase-
segregated blend of two semiconducting polymers delivered
spatially dispersed interfaces required for effectual photo
780 charge production[145]. The same device has also been used
for separate collection of electrons and holes.
The phase separated polymer mixture with CNPPV as
acceptor and MEHPPV as donor demonstrates that the photo
sensitivity of OPVCs can be improved by combination of
785 donor and acceptor polymers to enhance photo-induced charge
separation [146]. The DA diblock copolymers with regioregular
poly(perylene diimideacrylate) (PPDA, an acceptor) and poly
(3-hexylthiophene)(rrP3HT, a donor) were synthesized by
Zhang et al.[147]. They designed a polymer based solar cell
790 having power conversion efficiency about 0.49%. Such PCE
was unusual as the efficiencies of BCP-based OPVCs were
commonly less than 0.5%. A new generation of OPVC
material is a liquid crystal (LC) with advantageous electronic
properties. The LCs have liquid characteristics that allow them
795 to self-repair the structural deficiencies. In the field of organic
molecular electronics, the discotic LCs have progressively
Q5 played an important role[148].
The discotic organic molecules have well-ordered phases
exhibiting high photo-induced charge mobilities[149].
Conjugated LCs has the ability to control the order in the bulk 800
and at interfaces of OPVCs from the molecular to macroscopic
level. The conjugated LCs has defect free chemical structure
and high purity because of low molecular weight. The LCs
on thermal annealing gave large single domains[150]. The
domains contain molecules which are oriented through differ- 805
ent mechanisms such as alignment of surface layer [151] using
polarized irradiation[64], and changing the concentration or the
temperature[153]. Q6
Besides the high progress prospective of OPVCs, signifi-
cant improvements of the constancy under working conditions 810
require to be achieved. An important issue of OPVCs is the
device durability that includes chemical stability and degra-
dation of polymers. It has been found that the degradation
mechanisms involve the reaction with O2, H2O and the electro-
des materials[154,155]. So, to enhance the durability and stability 815
of OPVCs, the donor, acceptor, electrode, and encapsulation
materials were selected carefully. Aluminum, titanium and sil-
ver were used as the bottom cathode and reflective layer of
top-illuminated OPVCs to enhance the interface stability[156].
The metal-based electrodes presented greater sheet opposition 820
as compared to conventional ITO electrodes. The unencapsu-
lated OPVC lifetime [157] has shown an efficient half-life of
larger than 1500 h.
Potscavage et al.[158] noted that the shelf lifetime of apenta-
cene/C60 cell encapsulated with Al2O3 film, deposited by 825
atomic layer deposition has degraded by 6% over a period of
6100 h as compared to a lifetime of <10 h for an unencapsu-
lated cell. For the commercialization of organic solar cells,
Barbec et al.[159] has expected that the lifetimes of at least 5
years for the cell are needed. The following research results 830
were favorable for OPVC to show ultimately enough lifetimes
that meet Barbec’s estimation: the lifetime of large-area poly-
mer-based bulk HJ devices over 10,000 h were proposed by
Krebs and Spanggaard,[160] even for low-performance devices.
A stable dye-sensitized solar cell with lifetimes in the range 835
of 5–10 years was reported by Hinsch et al.[161] and Wang et
al.[162]. Organic LEDs, which incorporate small molecular
weight semiconductors, have a lifetime of about 10,000 h, as
reported by Friend et al.[163]. The commercialization of
OPVCs depends on the degradation processes such as tempera- 840
ture variants, recrystallization, as well as instabilities against
oxidation and reduction. The understanding of these degra-
dation processes will lead to the progress of new materials,
effectual OPVC, and the alternate barrier layers, which can
decrease the action of oxygen and water[164]. 845
CONCLUSION
The properties, characteristics and contribution of π-conju- Q7
gated polymers in the field of optoelectronic devices such as in
solar cells, light emitting diodes, dye-sensitized solar cell, non-
volatile memory devices, sensors and radio frequency identifi- 850
cation tags have been discussed here. The operation, efficiency
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
and properties of solar cell have also been argued. The organic
solar cell integrating organic materials (π-conjugated polymers
12.
and nanocomposites) used as a donor-acceptor interface for
855 exciton creation and the basic principles such as the creation 13.
of excitons, the dissociation of excitons at the interface, charge
separation and then transport of free charge carriers to the
respective electrodes have also been reviewed. In addition, dif- 14.
ferent generations of solar cell have been overviewed. 15.
860 It has been concluded that a first-generation solar cell used
single-crystal Si wafer gaining efficiency up to 25% and a 16.
second-generation solar cell used thin film deposited on semi-
conductors technology, gaining efficiency up to 18%. Third-
generation solar cell have been found different from the first- 17.
865 and second-generation solar cells, as they did not rely on the
traditional P-N junction diodes. The devices included are elec- 18.
trochemical solar cell, dye-sensitized solar cell, polymer solar
cell, nanocrystal solar cell and Gratzel solar cell. These 19.
devices have efficiencies in the range of 10 to 15%. In 20.
870 addition, polymer nanocomposites used in organic solar cell
enhanced the efficiency and durability of the solar cell. Conse- 21.
quently, block-copolymers have future potential to enhance the
efficiency and durability of the solar devices. In comparison
22.
with inorganic photovoltaic devices, problems related with
875 OPVCs or their low QE due to the wide band gap of organic 23.
materials were investigated. Recrystallization, temperature
variants, and instabilities against O2 and water led to device 24.
degradation, which limits the efficiency of the device. Serious
25.
research endeavors are still needed to resolve these issues for
880 devices with different compositions. 26.
REFERENCES
27.
1. Strobl, G.R. Block copolymers. In The Physics of Polymers, 2nd ed.
Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1997; pp. 129–132.
28.
2. Trivedi, D.C. In: : Nalwa, H.S. ed. Handbook of Organic Conductive. Mole-
885 cules and Polymers, vol. 2, John Wiley: Chichester, 1997, pp. 505–572.
29.
3. Chen, P.; Zeng, X.; Li, H.; Liu, X.; Liu, D.; Li, X. Effect of polymerized
rosin on polymer microstructure and adhesive properties in tackified
30.
acrylate emulsions. Polym.-Plast. Tech. Eng. 2012, 51, 122–127.
4. Forrest, S.R. The path to ubiquitous and low-cost organic electronic
890 appliances on plastic. Nature 2004, 428, 911–918.
31.
5. Mallakpour, S.; Zadehnazari, A. Thermoplastic nonvinyl polymers: From
macro to nanostructure. Polym.-Plast. Tech. Eng. 2014, 53, 564–587.
32.
6. Karimian, H.; Moghbeli, M. R. Influence of single-wall carbon nano-
tubes and polypyrrole thin layer coating on the electrical conductivity
33.
895 of PolyHIPE foams. Polym.-Plast. Tech. Eng. 2014, 53, 344–352.
7. Burroughes, J. H.; Bradley, D. D.C.; Brown, A.R.; Marks, R.N.;
34.
Mackay, K.; Friend, R.H.; Burns, P.L.; Holmes, A.B. Light-emitting
diodes based on conjugated polymers. Nature 1990, 347, 539–541.
35.
8. Dimitrakopoulos, C.D.; Malenfant, P.R. Organic thin film transistors for
900 large area electronics. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 99–117.
9. Das, T. K.; Prusty, S. Review on conducting polymers and their applica-
36.
tions. Polym.-Plast. Tech. Eng. 2014, 51, 1487–1500.
10. Karim, M.A.; Song, M.; Park, J.S.; Kim, Y.H.; M.J.; Lee, J.W.; Lee, C.
W.; Cho, Y.R.; Gal, Y.S.; Lee, J.H.; Jin, S.H. Development of liquid
37.
905 crystal embedded in polymer electrolytes composed of click polymers
for dye-sensitized solar cell applications. Dyes Pigm. 2010, 86, 259–265.
11. Lee, T.J.; Park, S.; Hahm, S.K.; Kim, D.M.; Kim, K.; Kim, J.; Kwon,
W.; Kim, Y.; Chang, T.; Ree, M. Programmable digital memory
11
characteristics of nanoscale thin films of a fully conjugated polymer. J.
Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 3855–3861. 910
Torsi, L.; Dodabalapur, A. Organic thin-film transistors as plastic ana-
lytical sensors. Anal. Chem. 2005, 77, 380A–387A.
Gal, Y.-S.; Jin, S.-H.; Park, J.-W.; Lim, K.-T. Synthesis and characterization
of a conjugated polymer with the long alkyl substituents: Poly (2-ethynyl-N-
octadecylpyridinium bromide). Thin Solid Films 2013, 546, 128–131. 915
Heeger, A.J.; Kivelson, S.; Schrieffer, J.R.; Su, W.P. Solitons in conduct-
ing polymer. Rev. Mod. Phys. 1988, 60, 781.
Lee, K.; Kim, H. Polymer photovoltaic cells based on conjugated poly-
mer–fullerene composites. Curr. Appl. Phys. 2004, 4, 323–326.
Vijayakumar, N.; Subramanian, E.; Padiyan, D. P. Cross-linked poly 920
(vinyl pyrrolidone) hard-template and polymerization method in control-
ling nanostructures and properties of polyaniline composites. Polym.-
Plast. Tech. Eng. 2013, 52, 1220–1227.
Cheng, Y.J.; Yang, S.H.; Hsu, C.S. Synthesis of conjugated polymers for
organic solar cell applications. Chem. Rev. 2009, 109, 5868–5923. 925
Liang, Y.Y.; Yu, L.P. Development of semiconducting polymers for
solar energy harvesting. Polym. Rev. 2010, 50, 454–473.
Li, G.; Zhu, R.; Yang, Y. Polymer solar cells. Nat. Photonics. 2012, 6,
153–161.
Xue, J. Perspectives on organic photovoltaics. Polym. Rev. 2010, 50, 930
411–419.
Shah, A.; Torres, P.; Tscharner, R.; Wyrsch, N.; Keppner, H. Photovol-
taic technology: The CASE FOR THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS. Science
1999, 285, 692–698.
Goetzberger, A.; Hebling, C.; Schock, H.W. Photovoltaic materials, his- 935
tory, status and outlook. Mater. Sci. Eng. R. 2003, 40, 1–46.
Gunes, S.; Neugebauer, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Conjugated polymer-based
organic solar cells. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 1324–1338.
Yan, M.; Rothberg, L.J.; Kwock, E.W.; Miller, T.M. Interchain excita-
tions in conjugated polymers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1995, 75, 1992–1995. 940
Cheng, Y.J.; Yang, S.H.; Hsu, C.S. Synthesis of conjugated polymers for
organic solar cell applications. Chem. Rev. 2009, 109, 5868–5923.
Krebs, F.C. Fabrication and processing of polymer solar cells: A review
of printing and coating techniques. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 2009,
93, 394–412. 945
Coakley, K.M.; McGehee, M.D. Conjugated polymer photovoltaic cells.
Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 4533–4542.
Chen, J.T; Hsu, C.S. Conjugated polymer nanostructures for organic
solar cell applications. Polym. Chem. 2011, 2, 2707–2722.
Chamberlain, G.A. Organic solar cells: A review. Sol. Cells 1983, 8, 950
47–83.
Min, C.; Shen, X.; Shi, Z.; Chen, L.; Xu, Z. The electrical properties and
conducting mechanisms of carbon nanotube/polymer nanocomposites: A
review. Polym.-Plast. Tech. Eng. 2010, 49, 1172–1181.
Brabec, C.J.; Sariciftci, N.S.; Hummelen, J.C. Plastic solar cells. Adv. 955
Funct. Mater. 2001, 11, 15–26.
Hoppea, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Organic solar cells: An overview. J. Mater.
Res. 2004, 19, 1924–1945.
H.; Matsumura, M.; Nakatani, K.; Yamamoto, K.; Maeda, K. ’Wet-type”
solar cells with semiconductor electrodes. Solar Energy 1978, 21, 93–98. 960
Brabec C. J. Organic photovoltaics: Technology and market. Sol. Energ.
Mater. Sol. Cells 2004, 83, 273–292.
Shaheen, S.E.; Radspinner, R.; Peyghambarian, N.; Jabbour, G.E. Fabri-
cation of bulk heterojunction plastic solar cells by screen printing. Appl.
Phys. Lett. 2001, 79, 2996. 965
Neugebauer, H.; Brabec, C.J.; Hummelen, J.C.; Janssen, R.A.J.; Sari-
ciftci, N.S. Stability studies and degradation analysis of plastic solar cell
materials by FTIR spectroscopy. Synth. Met. 1999, 102, 1002–1003.
Alstrup, J.; Norrman, K.; Jørgensen, M.; Krebs, F.C. Lifetimes of
organic photovoltaics: Design and synthesis of single oligomer mole- 970
cules in order to study chemical degradation mechanisms. Sol. Energ.
Mater. Sol. Cells 2006, 90, 2777–2792.
 12 N. KHAN ET AL.
38. Spanggaard, H.; Krebs, F.C. A brief history of the development of
organic and polymeric photovoltaics. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells
975 2006, 83, 125–146.
39. Pope, M.; Swenberg, C.E.Electronic Processes in Organic Crystals and
Polymers, Oxford University Press: New York, 1999.
40. Silinsh, E.A.; Capek, V.Organic Molecular Crystals: Interaction, Loca-
lization, and Transport Phenomena, AIP Press: New York, 1994.
980 41. Hill, I.G.; Kahn, A.; Soos, Z.G.; Pascal, R.A. Charge-separation energy
in films of π-conjugated organic molecules. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2000, 327,
181–188.
42. Knupfer, M.; Peisert, H.; Schwieger, T. Band-gap and correlation effects
in the organic semiconductor Alq(3). Phys. Rev. B. 2002, 65, 033204.
985 43. Barth, S.; Bassler, H. Intrinsic photoconduction in PPV-type conjugated
polymers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1997, 79, 4445–4448.
44. Tang, C.W. 2-layer organic photovoltaic cell. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1986, 48,
183–185.
45. Peet, J.; Heeger, A.J.; Bazan, G.C. Plastic solar cells: self-assembly of
990 bulk heterojunction nanomaterials by spontaneous phase separation.
Acc. Chem. Res. 2009, 42, 1700–1708.
46. Biana, L.; Zhua, E.; Tanga, J.; Tanga, W.; Zhangb, F. Recent progress in
the design of narrow bandgap conjugated polymers for high-efficiency
organic solar cells. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2012, 37, 1292– 1331.
995 47. Günes, S.; Neugebauer, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Conjugated polymer-based
organic solar cells. Chemical rev. 2007, 107, 1324–1338.
48. Domínguez-Chávez, J.G.; Cruz-Chávez, E.; Moggio, I.; Arias-Marín, E.;
Klimova, T.; Lijanova, I.; Martínez-García, M. Synthesis and optical
properties of double antenna pyrene-OPV- Fullerene C60. Fullerenes,
1000 Nanotubes Carbon. 2012, 20, 249–265.
49. Forrest, S.R. The path to ubiquitous and low-cost organic electronic
appliances on plastic. Nature. 2004, 428, 911–918.
50. Gu¨nes, S.; Neugebauer, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Conjugated polymer-based
organic solar cells. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 1324–1338.
1005 51. Yu, G.; Gao, J.; Hummelen J.C.; Wudl, F.; Heeger, A.J. Polymer photo-
voltaic cells: enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor–
acceptor heterojunctions. Science 1995, 270, 1789–1791.
52. Brabec, J.; Sariciftci, N.S.; Hummelen, J.C. Plastic solar cells. Adv.
Funct. Mater. 2001, 11, 15–26.
1010 53. Hou, J.; Chen, H.Y.; Zhang, S.; Li, G.; Yang, Y. Synthesis, characteriza-
tion, and photovoltaic properties of a low band gap polymer based on
silole-containing polythiophenes and 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 16144–16145.
54. Zhang, F.; Perzon, E.; Wang, X.; Mammo, W.; Andersson, M.R.; Inga-
1015 näs, O. Polymer solar cells based on a low-bandgap fluorene copolymer
and a fullerene derivative with photocurrent extended to 850 nm. Adv.
Funct. Mater. 2005, 15, 745–750.
55. Yang, Y.; Farley, R.T.; Steckler, T.T.; Eom, S.H.; Reynolds, J.R.;
Schanze, K.S.; Xue, J. Near infrared organic light-emitting devices
1020 based on donoracceptor- donor oligomers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 93,
163305–163353.
56. Steckler, T.T.; Zhang, X.; Hwang, J.; Honeyager, R.; Ohira, S.; Zhang,
X.H; ; A spray-processable, low bandgap, and ambipolar donor–acceptor
conjugated polymer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 2824–6.
1025 57. Brabec, C.J. Organic photovoltaics: technology and market. Sol. Energ.
Mater. Sol. Cells. 2004, 83, 273–292.
58. Krebs, F.C.; Spanggaard, H. Significant improvement of polymer solar
cell stability. Chem. Mater. 2005, 17, 5235–5237.
59. Ma, W.; Yang, C.; Gong, X.; Lee, K.; Heeger, A.J. Thermally stable,
1030 efficient polymer solar cells with nanoscale control of the interpenetrat-
ing network morphology. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2005, 15, 1617–1622.
60. Gaudiana, R.; Eckert, R.; Cardone, J.; Ryan, J.; Montello, A. Photovol-
taic fibers. In SPIE Opticsþ Photonics. International Society for Optics
and Photonics, 2006, 633401–633401.
1035 61. Bundgaard, E.; Krebs, F.C. Low band gap polymers for organic photo-
voltaics. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells 2007, 91, 954–985.
62. Oh, I.-K.; Singh, J. Emission of phonons from quasi-2D excitons.
Nonlinear Opt. 2002, 29, 475–480.
63. Nunzi, J.M.C.R. Organic photovoltaic materials and devices. Physique
2002, 3, 523–542. 1040
64. Miranda, P.B.; Moses, D.; Heeger, A.J. Ultrafast photogeneration of
charged polarons in conjugated polymers. Phys. Rev. B 2001, 64, 81201.
65. Mozer, A.; Sariciftci, N.S. Conjugated polymer photovoltaic devices and
materials. C. R. Chimie 2006, 9, 568–577.
66. Parker, I.J. Carrier tunneling and device characteristics in polymer light- 1045
emitting diodes. Appl. Phys. 1994, 75, 1656.
67. Serap, S.; Neugebauer, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Conjugated polymer-based
organic solar cells. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 1324–1338.
68. Wudl, F.; Srdanov, G. Conducting polymer formed of poly(2–methoxy–
5- (2’-ethylhexyloxy)–p–phenylene vinylene). U.S. Patent. 1993, 5, 136. 1050
69. Hummelen, J.C.; Knight, B.W.; LePeq, F.; Wudl, F.; Yao, J.; Wilkins, C.
L. Preparation and characterization of fulleroid and methanofullerene
derivatives. J. Org. Chem. 1995, 60, 532–538.
70. Yu, G.; Gao, J.; Hummelen, J.C.; Wudl, F.; Heeger, A.J. Polymer photo-
voltaic cells — enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor– 1055
acceptor heterojunctions. Science 1995, 270, 1789–1791.
71. Brabec, C.J., Shaheen, S.E.; Winder, C.; Sariciftci, N.S.; Denk, P. Effect
of LiF/metal electrodes on the performance of plastic solar cells. Appl.
Phys. Lett. 2002, 80, 1288–1290.
72. Padinger, F.; Rittberger, R.S.; Sariciftci, N.S. Effects of postproduction 1060
treatment on plastic solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2003, 13, 85–88.
73. Bao, Z.; Dodabalapur, A.; Lovinger, A.J. Soluble and processable
regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) for thin film field-effect transistor
applications with high mobility. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1996, 69, 4108–4110.
74. Li, G.; Shrotriya, V.; Huang, J.; Yao, Y.; Moriarty, T.; Emery, K.; Yang, 1065
Y. High-efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by
self-organization of polymer blends. Nat. Mater. 2005, 4, 864–868.
75. Mühlbacher, D.; Scharber, M.; Morana, M.; Zhu, Z.; Waller, D.; Gaudi-
ana, R.; Brabec, C. High photovoltaic performance of a low-bandgap
polymer. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 2884–2889. 1070
76. Peet, J.; Kim, J.K.; Coates, N.E. Ma, W.L.; Moses, D.; Heeger, A.J.;
Bazan, G.C. Efficiency enhancement in low-bandgap polymer solar cells
by processing with alkane dithiols. Nat. Mater. 2007, 6, 497–500.
77. Blouin, N.; Michaud, A.; Leclerc, M.A. Low-bandgap poly (2,7-carba-
zole) derivative for use in high-performance solar cells. Adv. Mater. 1075
2007, 19, 2295–2300.
78. Park, S.H,; Roy, A.; Beaupré, S.; Cho, S.; Coates, N.; Moon, J.S.; Moses,
D.; Leclerc, M.; Lee, K.; Heeger, A.J. Bulk heterojunction solar cells
with internal quantum efficiency approaching 100%. Nat. Photon.
2009, 3, 297–302. 1080
79. Liang, Y.; Wu, Y.; Feng, D.; Tsai, S.T.; Son, H.J; Li, G.; Yu, L. Devel-
opment of new semiconducting polymers for high performance solar
cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 56–57.
80. Price, S.C.; Stuart, A.C.; Yang, L.Q.; Zhou, H.X.; You, W. Fluorine sub-
stituted conjugated polymer of medium band gap yields 7% efficiency in 1085
polymer–fullerene solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 4625–4631.
81. Li, G.; Zhu, R.; Yang, Y. Polymer solar cells. Nat. Photonics. 2012, 6,
153–161.
82. Tang C.W.; Albrecht, A.C. Photovoltaic effects of metal-chlorophyll-a-
metal sandwich cells. J. Chem. Phys. 1975, 62, 2139. 1090
83. Chamberlain, G.A. Organic solar cells: A review. Sol. Cells. 1983; 8,
47–83.
84. Hiramoto, M.; Kishigami, Y.; Yokoyama, M. Doping effect on the two-
layer organic solar cell. Chem. Lett. 1990, 19, 119–122.
85. Lane, P.A.; Rostalski, J.; Giebeler, C.; Martin, S.J.; Bradley, D.D.C.; 1095
Meissner, D. Electroabsorption studies of phthalocyanine/ perylene solar
cells. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells 2000, 63, 3–13.
86. Peumans, P.; Uchida, S.; Forrest, S.R. Efficient bulk heterojunction
photovoltaic cells using small-molecular-weight organic thin films.
Nature 2003, 425, 158–162. 1100
 ADVANCEMENT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS IN SOLAR CELLS
87. Drechsel, J.; Ma¨nnig, B.; Kozlowski, F.; Gebeyehu, D.; Werner, A.;
Koch, M.; Leo, K.; Pfeiffer, M. High efficiency organic solar cells based
on single or multiple PIN structures. Thin Solid Films 2004, 515, 451–452.
88. Kanbur, Y.; Küçükyavuz, Z. Synthesis and characterization of surface
1105 modified fullerene. Fullerenes Nanotubes Carbon Nanost. 2012, 20,
119–126.
89. Lee, C.H.; Yu, G.; Moses, D.; Pakbaz, K.; Zhang, C.; Sariciftci, N.S.;
Heeger, A.J.; Wudl, F. Sensitization of the photoconductivity of conduct-
ing polymers by C60: Photoinduced electron transfer. Phys. Rev. B
1110 1993, 48, 15425.
90. Sariciftci, N.S.; Smilowitz, L.; Heeger, A.J.; Wudl, F. Photoinduced
electron transfer from a conducting polymer to buckminsterfullerene.
Science 1992, 258, 1474–1476.
91. Hoppe, H.; Sariciftci, N.S. Organic solar cells: An overview. J. Mater.
1115 Res. 2004, 19, 1924–1945.
92. Burroughes, J.H.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Brown, A.R.; Marks, R.N.; Mackay,
K.; Friend, R.H.; Burns, P.L.; Holmes, A.B. Light emitting diodes based
on conjugated polymers. Nature 1990, 347, 539–541.
93. Adam, D.; Schuhmacher, P.; Simmerer, J.; Hä, L.; Ussling, K.; Siemens-
1120 meyer, K.H.; Etzbachi; Ringsdorf, H.; Haarer, D. Fast photoconduction
in the highly ordered columnar phase of a discotic liquid crystal. Nature
1994, 371, 141–143.
94. Aasmundtveit, K.E.; Samuelsen, E.J.; Guldstein, M.; Steinsland, C.;
Flornes, O.; Fagermo, C.; Seeberg, T.M.; Pettersson, L.A.A.; Inganäs,
1125 O.; Feidenhans, R.; Ferrer, S. Structural anisotropy of poly(alkylthio-
phene) films. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 3120–3127.
95. Dimitrakopoulos, C.D.; Mascaro, D.J. Organic thin-film transistors: A
review of recent advances. IBM J. Res. Dev. 2001, 45, 11–27.
96. Hetzel, R.; Manning, T.; Lovingood, D.; Strouse, G.; Phillips, D. Pro-
1130 duction of Fullerenes by Microwave Synthesis. Fullerenes, Nanotubes
Carbon Nanost. 2012, 20, 99–108.
97. Sariciftci, N.S.; Heeger, A.J. In: Nalwa, H.S., ed. Handbook of Organic
Conductive Molecules and Polymers; Vol. 1, Wiley: Chichester, UK,
1997, p. 413.
1135 98. Godovsky D Y. Advances in polymer science device applications of
polymer-nanocomposites. Adv. Polym. Sci. 2000, 153, 163–205.
99. Huisman, C.L.; Goosens, A.; Schoonman. Preparation of a nanostructured
composite of titanium dioxide and polythiophene: a new route towards 3D
heterojunction solar cells. J. Synth. Met. 2003, 138, 237–241.
1140 100. Huynh, W.U.; Dittmer, J.A.; Alivisatos, A.P. Hybrid nanorod-polymer
solar cells. Science 2002. 295, 2425–2427.
101. Kymakis, E.; Alexandrou, I.; Amaratunga, G.A.J. High open-circuit volt-
age photovoltaic devices from carbon-nanotube-polymer composites. J.
Appl. Phys. 2003, 93, 1764.
1145 102. Breeze, A.J.; Schlesinger, Z.; Carter, S.A.; Brock, P.J. Charge transport
in TiO2/MEH-PPV polymer photovoltaics. Phys. Rev. B. 2001, 64,
125205.
103. Van, H.P.A.; Wienk, M.M.; Kroon, J.M.; Verhees, W.J.H.; Slooff, L.H.;
Gennip, W.J.H.; Jonkheijm, P.; Janssen, R.A.J. Photoinduced electron
1150 transfer and photovoltaic response of a MDMO-PPV:TiO2 bulk-hetero-
junction. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 118–121.
104. Ho, P.K.H.; Friend, R.H. π-electronic and electrical transport properties
of conjugated polymer nanocomposites: Poly(p-phenylenevinylene) with
homogeneously dispersed silica nanoparticles. J. Chem. Phys. 2002, 116,
1155 6782.
105. Choudhury, K.R.; Winiarz, J.G.; Samoc, M.; Prasad, P.N. Charge carrier
mobility in an organic-inorganic hybrid nanocomposites. Appl. Phys.
Lett. 2003, 82, 406.
106. Moons, E. Conjugated polymer blends: linking film morphology to per-
1160 formance of light emitting diodes and photodiodes. J. Phys. Condens.
Matter. 2002, 14, 12235.
107. Liu, J.; Shi, Y.; Yang Y. Solvation-induced morphology effects on the
performance of polymer-based photovoltaic devices. Adv. Funct. Mater.
2001, 11, 420–424.
13
108. Huynh, W.U.; Dittmer, J.J.; Libby, W.C.; Whiting, G.L.; Alivisatos, A.P. 1165
Controlling the morphology of nanocrystal–polymer composites for solar
cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2003, 13, 73–79.
109. Wong, C.Y.K.; Choy1, W.C.H.; Juriˇsi´c, A.B.D.; Chui1, P.C.; Cheng,
K.W.;Chan, W.K. Poly(3-hexylthiophene):TiO2 nanocomposites for
solar cell applications. Nanotechnology 2004, 15, 1156–1161. 1170
110. Wienk, M. M.; Kroon, J. M;. Verhees, W. J. H.; Knol, J.; Hummelen, J.
C.; Hal, P.A.V.; Janssen, R.A.J. Efficient methano[70]fullerene/MDMO-
PPV bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells. Chem. Angew. Int. Ed.
2003, 42, 3371–3375.
111. Boland, P.; Sunkavalli, S.S.; Chennuri, S.; Foe, K.; Abdel-Fattah, T.; 1175
Namkoong, G. Investigation of structural, optical, and electrical proper-
ties of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene blend nanocompo-
sites for organic solar cells. Thin Solid Films 2010, 518, 1728–1731.
112. Zhokhavets, U.; Erb, T.; Gobsch, G.; Al-Ibrahim, M.; Ambacher, O.
Relation between absorption and crystallinity of poly (3-hexylthiophene)/ 1180
fullerene films for plastic solar cells Chem. Phys. Lett. 2006, 418, 347–350.
113. Sirringhaus, H.; Brown, P.J.; Friend, R.H.; Nielsen, M.M.; Bechgaard,
K.; Langeveld-Voss, B.N.W.; Spiering, A.J.H.; Janssen, R.A.J.; Meijer,
E.W.; Herwig, P.; Leeuw, D.M.D. Two-dimensional charge transport in
self-organized, high-mobility conjugated polymers. Nature 1999, 401, 1185
685–688.
114. Jiang. X.; Osterbacka, R.; Korovyanko, O.; An, C.P.; Horowitz, B.;
Janssen, R.A.J.; Vardeny, Z.V. Spectroscopic studies of photoexcitations
in regioregular and regiorandom polythiophene films. Adv. Funct.
Mater. 2002, 12, 587–597. 1190
115. Qiles, M.C.; Ferenczi, T.; Agostinelli, T.; Etchegoin, P.G.; Kim, Y.;
Anthopoulos, T.D.; Stavrinou, P.N.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Nelson, J. Mor-
phology evolution via self-organization and lateral and vertical diffusion
in polymer:fullerene solar cell blends. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 158–164.
116. Shaheen, S.E.; Brabec, C.J.; Sariciftci, N.S.; Padinger, F.; Fromherz, T.; 1195
Hummelen, J.C. 2.5% efficient organic plastic solar cells. Appl. Phys.
Lett. 2001, 78, 841.
117. Yao, Y.; Shi, C.; Li, G.; Shrotriya, V.; Pai, Q.; Yang, Y. Effects of C[sub
70] derivative in low band gap polymer photovoltaic devices: Spectral
complementation and morphology optimization. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1200
2006, 89, 153507.
118. Wöbkenberg, P.H.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Kronholm, D.; Hummelen, J.C.;
Leeuw, D.M.D.; Cölle, M.; Anthopoulos, T.D. High mobility n-channel
organic field-effect transistors based on soluble C60 and C70 fullerene
derivatives. Synth. Met. 2008, 158, 468–472. 1205
119. Ibrahim, M.A.; Roth, H.K.; Zhokhavets, U.; Gobsch, G.; Sensfuss, S.
Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 2005, 85, 13.
120. Erb, T.; Zhokhavets, U.; Hoppe, H.; Gobsch, G.; Al-Ibrahim, M.; Amba-
cher, O. Absorption and crystallinity of poly (3-hexylthiophene)/fuller-
ene blends in dependence on annealing temperature. Thin Solid Films 1210
2006, 511-512, 483–485.
121. Nozik, A. Photoelectrolysis of water using semiconducting TiO2 crys-
tals. Nature. 1975, 257, 383–386.
122. Badawy, W.A. A review on solar cells from Si-single crystals to porous
materials and quantum dots. J. Adv. Res. 2013, DOI:10.1016/j. 1215
jare.2013.10.001.
123. Memming, R. Solar energy conversion by photoelectrochemical pro-
cesses. Electrochim. Acta 1980, 25, 77–88.
124. Badawy W.A. Photovoltaic and photoelectrochemical cells based on
Schottky–Barrier heterojunctions. In White, R.; Bockris, J.O.M.; Con- 1220
way, B., eds., Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, 1996, Vol. 30,
Plenum Press: New York, Chap. 2, pp. 187–258.
125. Badawy, W.A.; Elmeniawy, S.A.; Hafez, A.N. Improvement of the
power of industrially fabricated solar cells by etching of the Si surface
and the use of surface analytical techniques.Egypt. J. Anal. Chem. 1225
2013, 22, 97–113.
126. Axtell, W. R. The role of plastics in energy conservation. Polym.-Plast.
Tech. Eng. 1980, 14, 1–14.
 14 N. KHAN ET AL.
127. Badawy, W.A. Preparation and characterization of TiO2/Sb thin films
1230 for solar energy applications. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 1993, 28,
293–303.
128. Mihi, A.; Míguez, H. Origin of light-harvesting enhancement in col-
loidal-photonic crystal-based dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Phys. Chem.
B 2005, 109, 15968–15976.
1235 129. Das, S.K.; Morris, G.C. Preparation and characterization of electrodepos-
ited n-CdS/p-CdTe thin film solar cells. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells
1993, 28, 305–316.
130. Bhattacharya, R.N.; Batchelor, W.; Granata, J.E.; Hasoon, F.; Wiesner,
H.; Ramanathan, K.; Keane, J.; Noufi, R.N. CuIn1-xGaxSe2-based
1240 photovoltaic cells from electrodeposited and chemical bath deposited
precursors. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 1998, 55, 83–94.
131. Hermann, A.M. Polycrystalline thin-film solar cells – A review. Sol.
Ener. Mater. Sol. Cells. 1998, 55, 75–81.
132. Sites., JR.; Granata, J.E.; Hiltner, J.F. Losses due to polycrystallinity in
1245 thin-film solar cells. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 1998, 55, 43–50.
133. Gomboa, S.A.; Cong H.N.; Chartier P.; Sebastian P.J.; Calixto, M.E.;
Rivera, M.A. Photovltaicstructers based on polymer/semiconductor junc-
tions. Sol. Energ. Mater. Sol. Cells. 1998, 55, 95–104.
134. Saadoun, M.; Ezzaouia, H.; Bessais, B.; Boujmil, M.F.; Bennaceur, R.
1250 Formation of porous silicon for large-area silicon solar cells: A new
method. Solar Energ. Mater. Solar Cells. 1999, 59, 377–385.
135. Shalom, M.; Dor, S.; Ruhle, S.; Grinis, L. Zaban. Core/CdS quantum
dot/shell mesoporous solar cells with improved stability and efficiency
using an amorphous TiO2 coating. J. Phys. Chem. C. 2009, 113,
1255 3895–3898.
136. Plieth, W.J.; Pfuhl, G.; Felske, A.; Badawy, W.A. Photoetching of 111/V
Semiconductors. Electrochim. Acta. 1989, 34, 1133–1140.
137. El-Sherif, R.M.; Khalil, Sh.A., Badawy, W.A. Metal-assisted etching of
p-Si – Poreformation and characterization. J. Alloy Compd. 2011, 509,
1260 4122–4126.
138. Kamat, P.V. Meeting the clean energy demand: Nanostructure architec-
tures for solar energy conversion J. Phys. Chem. C. 2007, 111, 2834–2860.
139. Kamat P.V. Quantum dot solar cells. Semiconductor nanocrystals as
light harvesters. J. Phys. Chem. C. 2008, 112, 18737–18753.
1265 140. Bach, U.; Lupo, D.; Comte, P.; Moser, J.E.; Weissortel, F.; Salbeck, J.;
Spreitzer, H.; Gratzel, M. Solid-state dye-sensitized meso-porous TiO2
solar cells with high photon-to-electron conversion efficiencies. Nature
1998, 395, 583–585.
141. Afify, H.H.; Momtaz, R.M.; Badawy, W.A.; Nasser, S.A. Some physical
1270 properties of fluorine doped SnO2 films prepared by spray pyrolysis. J.
Mater. Sci. Mater. Electr. 1991, 2, 40–45.
142. Sommer, M.; Lang, A.S.; Thelakkat, M. Crystalline-crystalline donor–
acceptor block copolymers. Angewan. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 7901–
7904.
1275 143. Meyers, F. Heeger, A.J.; Bre´das, J.L. Fine tuning of the bandgap in con-
jugated polymers via control of block copolymer sequences. J. Chem.
Phys. 1992, 97, 2750–2758.
144. Bates, F.S.; Fredrickson, G.H. Block copolymers-designer soft materials.
Phys. Today 1999, 52, 32–38.
1280 145. Halls, J. J. M.; Walsh, C.A.; Greenham, N. C. Marseglla E. A.; Friend,
R. H.; Moratti, S. C.; Holmes, A. B. Efficient photodiodes from interpe-
netrating polymer networks. Nature. 2002, 376, 498–500.
146. Yu, G.; Heeger, A.J. Charge separation and photovoltaic conversion in
polymer composites with internal donor/acceptor heterojunctions. J.
Appl. Phys. 1995, 78, 4510–4515. 1285
147. Zhang, Q.; Cirpan, A.; Russell, T.P.; Emrick, T.; ; Donor–acceptor poly
(thiophene- block-perylene diimide) copolymers:Synthesis and solar cell
fabrication. Macromolecules 2009, 42, 1079–1082.
148. Hoeben, F.J.M.; Jonkheijm, P.; Meijer, E.W. Schenning APHJ. About
supramolecular assemblies of p-conjugated systems. Chem. Rev. 2005, 1290
105, 1491–1546.
149. Adam, D.; Schuhmacher, P.; Schuhmacher, P. Fast photoconduction in
the highly ordered columnar phase of a discotic liquid crystal. Nature.
1994, 371, 141–143.
150. Cupere, V.D.; Tant, J.; Viville, P.; Lazzaroni, R.; Osikowicz, W.; Sala- 1295
neck, W.R.; Geerts,Y.H. Effect of interfaces on the alignment of a dis-
cotic liquid-crystalline phthalocyanine. Langmuir. 2006, 22, 7798–7806.
151. Zimmermann, S.; Wendorff, J.H.; Weder, C. Uniaxial orientation of col-
umnar discotic liquid crystals. Chem. Mater. 2002, 14, 2218–2223.
152. Monobe, H.; Awazu, K.; Shimizu, Y. Change of liquid-crystal domains 1300
by vibrational excitation for a columnar mesophase. Adv. Mater. 2000,
12, 1495–1499. Q8
153. Tracz, A.; Jeszka, J.K.; Watson, M.D.; Pisula, W.; Müllen K.; Pakula, T.
Uniaxial alignment of the columnar super-structure of a hexa (alkyl)
hexa-peri- hexabenzocoronene on untreated glass by simple solution pro- 1305
cessing. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 1682–1683.
154. Katz, E.A.; Gevorgyan, S.; Orynbayev, M.S.; Krebs, F.C. Out-door test-
ing and long- term stability of plastic solar cells. Eur. Phys. J. Appl.
Phys. 2006, 36, 307–311.
155. Lira-Cantu, M.; Norrman, K.; Andreasen, J.W.; Krebs, F.C. Oxygen 1310
release and exchange in niobium oxide MEHPPV hybrid solar cells.
Chem. Mater. 2006, 18, 5684–5690.
156. Krebs, F.C.; ; All solution roll-to-rolls processed polymer solar cells free
from indium–tin-oxide and vacuum coating steps. Organic. Electron.
2009, 10, 761–768. 1315
157. Song, Q.L.; Li, F.Y.; Yang, H.; Wu, H.R.; Wang, X.Z.; Zhou, W.; Zhao,
J.M.; Ding, X.M.; Huang, C.H.; Hou, X.Y. Small-molecule organic solar
cells with improved stability. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2005, 416, 42–46.
158. Potscavage, W.J.; Yoo, S. Domercq, B.; Kippelen, B. Encapsulation of
pentacene/ C60 organic solar cells with Al2O3 deposited by atomic layer 1320
deposition. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 253511.
159. Brabec, C.J. Organic photovoltaics: technology and market. Sol. Energ.
Mater. Sol. Cells. 2004, 83, 273–292.
160. Krebs, F.C.; Spanggaard, H. Significant improvement of polymer solar
cell stability. Chem. Mater. 2005, 17, 5235–5237. 1325
161. Hinsch, A.; Kroon, J.M.; Kern, R.; Uhlendorf, I.; Holzbock, J.; Meyer,
A.; Ferber, J. Long-term stability of dye-sensitized solar cells. Prog.
Photovol. Res. Appl. 2001, 9, 425–438.
162. Wang, P.; Zakeeruddin, S.M.; Moser, J.E.; Humphry-Baker R.; Comte,
P.; Aranyos, V.; Hagfeldt, A.; Nazeeruddin, M.K.; Grätzel, M. Stable 1330
new sensitizer with improved light harvesting for nanocrystalline dye-
sensitized solar cells. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 1806–1811.
163. Friend, R.H.; Denton, G.J.; Denton, G.J. Electronic excitations in lumi-
nescent conjugated polymers. Solid State Commun. 1997, 102, 249–258.
164. Yeh, N.; Yeh, P. Organic solar cells: Their developments and potentials. 1335
Renew. Sustain. Energ. Rev. 2013, 21, 421–431.