Simple Radiating Systems

Parag Bhattacharya

SOAS, ADBU

May 17, 2017

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Recap
Maxwell’s equations are:
−
→ − →
∇·D =ρ
−
→ − →
∇·B =0
−
→
−
→ − → ∂B
∇×E + =0
∂t
−
→
−
→ − → ∂D −
→
∇×H − = J
∂t
−
→ −
→ − →
In terms of the scalar and vector potentials (φ, A), the fields ( E , B) are:
−
→
−
→ −
→ ∂A
E = −∇φ −
∂t
−
→ − → − →
B =∇×A
−
→
In terms of φ and A, the 4 Maxwell’s equations may be reduced to the
following 2 inhomogenous potential equations:
∂ − → − → ρ
∇2 φ + (∇ · A) = − (1)
∂t 0
−
→
1 ∂2 A −
 
−
→ → − → − → 1 ∂φ −
→
∇2 A − 2 − ∇ ∇ · A + = −µ0 J (2)
c ∂t2 c2 ∂t
Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems
Recap

∂ − → − → ρ
∇2 φ +(∇ · A) = − (1)
∂t 0
−
→
1 ∂2 A −
 
−
→ → − → − → 1 ∂φ −
→
∇2 A − 2 − ∇ ∇ · A + = −µ0 J (2)
c ∂t2 c2 ∂t
Uncoupling of equations (1) and (1) is achieved by exploiting the arbitrariness
−
→
of φ and A.
Equations (1) and (2) can be written in a much simpler manner as follows:
∂L ρ
2 φ + =− (3)
∂t 0
−
→ − → −
→
2 A + ∇ = −µ0 J (4)
2
where we define the D’Alembertian operator  as

1 ∂2
2 ≡ ∇2 −
c2 ∂t2
and
−
→ −
→ 1 ∂φ
L≡∇·A+ 2
c ∂t
Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems
Gauge Transformations
−
→ −
→ −
→
We are free to impose any conditions on φ and A as long as E and B remain
unchanged.
Suppose there are 2 sets of potentials that give the same fields...

−
→ −
→
Then both (φ, A) and (φ0 , A 0 ) are equally acceptable.

Any transformation of the the potentials

φ ↔ φ0
−
→ −
→
A ↔ A0
−
→ − →
which leave the ( E , B) unchanged is known as a gauge transformation.
−
→ − →
We also say that the ( E , B) are gauge invariant, since the gauge
transformations do not affect them.

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Gauge Invariance
Suppose,
−
→0 −→ →
A = A+−
α
φ0 = φ + β
−
→ − →
Since ( E , B) are invariant, we must have
−
→ − → − → −
→ − →
B = ∇ × A0 = ∇ × A
−
→ −
→ → −
→ − →
⇒ ∇ × (A + − α) = ∇ × A
−
→ →
⇒ ∇×− α =0
This implies that −
→
α is the gradient of some scalar:
−
→ −
→
α = ∇λ0 (1)
Again,
−
→ −
→
−
→ −
→ ∂ A0 −
→ ∂A
E = −∇φ0 − = −∇φ −
∂t ∂t
−
→
−
→ ∂ −→ − −
→ ∂A
⇒ ∇(φ + β) + ( A + →α ) = ∇φ +
∂t ∂t
−
→ ∂−→
α
⇒ ∇β + =0
∂t
Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems
Gauge Invariance

−
→ −
→
−
→ −
→ ∂ A0 −
→ ∂A
E = −∇φ0 − = −∇φ −
∂t ∂t
−
→
−
→ ∂ −→ → −
→ ∂A
⇒ ∇(φ + β) + ( A + − α ) = ∇φ +
∂t ∂t
−
→ ∂−→
α
⇒ ∇β + =0
∂t
−
→ ∂ −→
⇒ ∇β + (∇λ0 ) = 0
∂t
∂λ0
 
−
→
⇒∇ β+ =0 (2)
∂t
∂λ0
Equation (2) implies that β + is space-independent, and depends only on
∂t
∂λ0
time, i.e. β + = k(t)
∂t
∂λ0
⇒β=− + k(t) (3)
∂t

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Gauge Invariance

∂λ0
β=− + k(t) (3)
∂t
We now define: Z t
λ ≡ λ0 − k(τ )dτ
0

This implies that:

∂λ ∂λ0
= − k(t) (4)
∂t ∂t
and Z t 
−
→ −
→ −
→
∇λ = ∇λ0 − ∇ k(τ )dτ
0
−
→ −
→
⇒ ∇λ = ∇λ0 (5)
0
Equation (5) shows that λ as well as λ would yield the same α, and hence the
−
→
same B.
Using (4) in (3), we have:
∂λ
β=−
∂t
and
−
→ −
→
α = ∇λ
Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems
Gauge Invariance

∂λ
β=−
∂t
−
→ −
→
α = ∇λ
Therefore, with a suitable chioce of λ, the following is a gauge transformation:
−
→0 −→ − →
A = A + ∇λ
∂λ
φ0 = φ −
∂t
where λ is known as the gauge function.
−
→ − →
This means that ( E , B) remain unchanged when
−
→ −
→
1 We add ∇λ to A, and

2 Simultaneously, subtract
∂λ
from φ
∂t

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Coulomb Gauge

Also known as radiation gauge or transverse gauge.

−
→ − →
We choose λ in such a way, so as to pick ∇ · A = 0
Then the inhomogenous potential equations become:
ρ
∇2 φ = −
0
−
→
1 ∂2 A
 
−
→ −
→ 1− → ∂φ
∇2 A − 2 = −µ 0 J + ∇
c ∂t2 c2 ∂t
One can note that the φ equation has reduced to the Poisson’s equation, which
has the general solution:

ρ(−
→
r 0 , t)
Z
1
φ(−
→
r , t) = dτ 0
4π0 |r −−
−
→ → r 0|
The Coulomb gauge is often used when no sources are present.
Then φ = 0 and we have
−
→
−
→ ∂A −
→ −→ −
→
E =− ; B =∇×A
∂t

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Lorentz Gauge
−
→ − → 1 ∂φ
We choose λ in such a way, so as to pick ∇ · A = − 2
c ∂t
Then the inhomogenous potential equations become:
1 ∂2φ ρ ρ
∇2 φ − =− or 2 φ = −
c2 ∂t2 0 0
−
→
−
→ 1 ∂2 A −
→ −
→ −
→
∇2 A − 2 = −µ0 J or 2 A = −µ0 J
c ∂t2
Properties of Lorentz gauge:
−
→
φ and A are treated equivalently
Independent of the coordinate system
Can be easily fit into relativistic considerations
In the time-static case, 2 reduces to ∇2 , and we get
ρ −
→ −
→
∇2 φ = − ; ∇2 A = −µ0 J
0
with the general solutions:
−
→−
ρ(−
→
r 0) −
→− J (→
r 0)
Z Z
1 µ0
φ(−
→r)= dτ 0 ; A(→
r)= dτ 0
4π0 |r −−
−
→ →
r 0| 4π |r −−
−
→ →
r 0|

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Green’s Identities

−
→
For any well-defined vector field A, defined in a volume τ and bounded by a
surface S, the divergence theorem gives:
−
→ − → −
→
Z I
∇ · Adτ = A · n̂da (1)
τ S

−
→ −
→
Let A = ξ ∇ψ, where ξ, ψ are arbitrary scalar fields.
Now,
−
→ − → − → −
→ −
→ −→
∇ · A = ∇ · (ξ ∇ψ) = ξ∇2 ψ + ∇ξ · ∇ψ (2)
and
−
→ −
→ ∂ψ
A · n̂ = ξ ∇ψ · n̂ = ξ (3)
∂n
Using (2) and (3) in (1):

−
→ − →
Z I
∂ψ
(ξ∇2 ψ + ∇ξ · ∇ψ)dτ = ξ da (4)
τ S ∂n
This is known as Green’s 1st Identity.

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Green’s Identities

−
→ − →
Z I
∂ψ
(ξ∇2 ψ + ∇ξ · ∇ψ)dτ = ξ da (4)
τ S ∂n
Since ξ and ψ are arbitrary, we can redefine:
−
→ −
→
A = ψ ∇ξ
Then (4) becomes:
−
→ − →
Z I
∂ξ
(ψ∇2 ξ + ∇ψ · ∇ξ)dτ = ψ da (5)
τ S ∂n
Subtracting (5) from (4) gives:
Z I  
∂ψ ∂ξ
(ξ∇2 ψ − ψ∇2 ξ)dτ = ξ −ψ da (6)
τ S ∂n ∂n

This is known as Green’s 2nd Identity, or Green’s Theorem.

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Green’s Theorem
The Green’s Theorem is:
Z I  
∂ψ ∂ξ
(ξ∇2 ψ − ψ∇2 ξ)dτ = ξ −ψ da (6)
τ S ∂n ∂n
If we choose:
ξ = φ, i.e. potential due to a distribution
1 1
ψ= − = , i.e. potential due to a unit point charge
|→
r −− →r 0| R
Then Green’s Theorem gives:

∇2 φ
Z     I    
1 0 ∂ 1 1 ∂φ
φ∇2 − − dτ = φ − da0
τ |→
r −− →r 0| |−
→
r −− →r 0| S ∂n0 R R ∂n0
ρ(−
→r 0)
Z   I    
3 −→ −
→ 0 0 ∂ 1 1 ∂φ
⇒ −φ4πδ ( r − r ) + dτ = φ 0 − da0
τ 0 R S ∂n R R ∂n0
ρ(−
→
r 0) 0
Z I    
1 ∂ 1 1 ∂φ
⇒ −4πφ(− →
r)+ dτ = φ 0 − da0
0 τ R S ∂n R R ∂n0
Therefore,
ρ(−
→
r 0)
Z I   
1 1 1 ∂φ ∂ 1
φ(−
→
r)= dτ 0 + −φ 0 da0 (7)
4π0 τ |r −−
−
→ →
r 0| 4π S R ∂n0 ∂n R

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Dirichlet Boundary Condition
The specification of the potential on a closed surface defines a unique
potential problem.

Neumann Boundary Condition

The specification of the electric field (i.e. the normal derivative of the
potential) on a closed surface defines a unique potential problem.

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Uniqueness Theorem

Uniqueness Theorem
The solution of the Poisson’s equation
ρ
∇2 φ = −
0
is unique inside a volume τ , subject to either the Dirichlet or Neumann
boundary conditions on the closed bounding surface S.

Proof
Assume, to the contrary, that 2 distinct solutions φ1 and φ2 exist which satisfy
the same boundary conditions.
Therefore, at the boundary S, we must have:

φ1 = φ2 ; (Dirichlet Boundary Condition)

∂φ1 ∂φ2
and = ; (Neumann Boundary Condition)
∂n ∂n
Since both φ1 and φ2 are solutions of the Poisson’s equation, we must have, in
the volume τ :
ρ
∇2 φ1 = ∇2 φ2 = −
0

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems

Uniqueness Theorem

ρ
∇2 φ1 = ∇2 φ2 = −
0
Let us define another function
U ≡ φ1 − φ2
within τ and on S.

Then we have, inside τ

∇2 U = 0

And on S, by Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions:

U =0
∂U
=0
∂n
Green’s 1st Identity is
−
→ − →
Z I
∂ψ
(ξ∇2 ψ + ∇ξ · ∇ψ)dτ = ξ da
τ S ∂n
Setting ξ = ψ = U above, we get:
−
→
Z I
∂U
(U ∇2 U + |∇U |2 )dτ = U da
τ S ∂n
Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems
Uniqueness Theorem

−
→
Z I
∂U
(U ∇2 U + |∇U |2 )dτ = U da
∂n
Zτ IS
−
→ 2
(U × 0 + |∇U | )dτ = 0 × 0da
τ S
−
→
Z
|∇U |2 dτ = 0
τ

−
→
This implies that ∇U = 0 inside τ .
This further implies that U = φ1 − φ2 is constant within the volume τ
Also, U = φ1 − φ2 = 0 on S.
The above two statements imply that U = φ1 − φ2 = 0 inside τ .
Hence, φ1 = φ2 everywhere inside τ .

Therefore, the Dirichlet or Neumann boundary condition guarantees a unique

solution to the Poisson’s equation within a volume τ bounded by a surface S.

Parag Bhattacharya Simple Radiating Systems