An Extension and Evaluation of Job Characteristics,

Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction in an

Expatriate, Guest Worker, Sales Setting
Shahid N. Bhuian and Bulent Menguc

Within the literature of sales management, researchers have explored different configurations of job characteristics,
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. In this paper, we offer a new configuration that includes interactive effects
ofjob characteristics and organizational commitment on job satisfaction. Utilizing structural equation modeling, we test our
proposed model against three alternative models among expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia. The proposed
model produces the best fit. The theoretical and managerial impKcations are discussed.

Introduction ing view suggests that the relationships may be curvilinear

Models relating the differing job characteristics of sales-
people to the levels of both their organizational commitment
and their job satisfaction are legion in sales, marketing and
management literatures (e.g., Bettencourt and Brown 1997;
Brown and Peterson 1994; Challagalla and Shervani 1996;
Darden, McKee and Hampton 1993; Livingstone, Roberts and
Chonko 1995; Rich 1997; Shoemaker 1999). The basic asser-
tion is that certain configurations of these constructs have
im^portant and identifiable implications for salespeople's be-
havioral outcomes and their psychological well being (Singh
1998). Although derived largely if not exclusively from stud-
ies of dom^estic (U.S.) salespeople, these models, involvingjob
characteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-
tion, are promoted as universal. Empirical studies of these
issues in non-U.S. contexts remain a rarity, perhaps partly
due to the difficulty of obtaining samples and partly due to
researchers' distaste for replication. Therefore, despite the
claims of the body of sales literature, researchers cannot be
certain of the universal applicability of the models of job
characteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-
tion. This, in turn, limits theory-building.
Furthermore, in seeking to identify the different configura-
tions of job characteristics, organizational commitment and job
satisfaction that are maximally effective in explaining the in-
ter-relationships among these constructs, researchers have fo-
cused primarily on linear relationships (Brown and Peterson
1993; Himt, Chonko and Wood 1985). Even though the emerg-
Shahid N. Bhuiaa (Ph. D., Texas Tech University)is an Associate
Professor of Marketing at Louisiana Tech University. He has pub-
lished in several marketing and management journals, including the
Journal ofBusiness Research, Journal of Services Marketing, Joumal
of Global Marketing, European Joumal of Marketing, Marketing
Health Services, Joumal of Quality Management, Journal ofMarket-
ing Channels, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, and
American Marketing Association Proceedings. His research focuses on
the attitudes and behavior of marketers, consumers, and marketing
organizations in international contexts.
Bulent Menguc (Ph. D., Marmara University, Turkey) is a Senior
Lecturer of Marketing at the University of Melbourne. He has pub-
lished in several journals, including Journal of Retailing, Interna-
tional Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of Personal Selling
& Sales Management, European Journal of Marketing, Industrial
Marketing Management, Joumal of Business Ethics, and Journal of
Business Research and in numerous conference proceedings. His
primary research interests are sales force management, relationship
marketing, and cross-cultural research methodology in marketing.
and/or interactional (Singh 1998), very few studies have speci-
fied and examined these configurations with interaction terms.
Lastly, one approach for testing theories using structural equa-
tions modeling suggests that the study should utilize several alter-
native models, selecting one of them as most appropriate in repre-
senting the sample data (Joreskog 1993). Despite the existence of
studies exploring several alternative configurations ofjob charac-
teristics, organizational commitment andjob satisfaction, no study,
as per our search, has yet simultaneously analyzed these alterna-
tive models with a single set of empirical data.
The present paper seeks to fill some of the gaps noted above.
Firstly, by offering a configuration that relates the job charac-
teristics of salespeople to organizational commitment and job
satisfaction, where job characteristics and organizational com-
mitment have direct as well as interactive effects on job satis-
faction, we extend previous research which has focused solely
on linear linkages. Secondly, by drawing on a sample of self-
initiated expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia,
we attempt to generalize extant research in a new context
involving a new type of salespeople. Here, it is important to
note that self-initiated expatriates, guest workers, are distinct
from organizational expatriates. While the former is directly
hired as individuals, the latter are transferred overseas by
parent organizations (Al-Meer 1989). This phenomenon of the
self-initiated expatriate has become a dominant feature in most
GCC (Gulf Cooperation (Council) states because of the severe short-
ages of indigenous labor (Yavas, Luqmani and Quraeshi 1990).
Finally, following the recommendation of Joreskog (1993), we test
our proposed model against three existing models ofjob character-
istics, organizational commitment, andjob satisfaction.
Background
Figure 1 depicts our proposed model, relating job character-
istics to organizational commitment and job satisfaction, as
well as the three alternative models, representing three differ-
ent configurations of job characteristics, organizational com-
mitment, andjob satisfaction. The models are discussed next.
The Proposed Model
Our proposed model employs job characteristics and orga-
nizational commitment as independent variables andjob sat-
Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management,
Volume XXII, Number 1 (Winter 2002, Pages 01-11).
 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

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isfaction as the dependent variable, where job characteristics
(JCs) and organizational commitment (OC) are both directly
and interactively related to job satisfaction (JS). Before dis-
cussing the relationships between them, we briefly discuss
the definitions of the constructs.
We define job satisfaction as the extent to which one feels
positively or negatively about the intrinsic and/or extrinsic
aspects of one's job (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985). Following
the suggestion of Agarwal and Ramaswami (1993), we adopt
the definition of organizational commitment as the affective
commitment that represents an employee's strong desire to
remain a member of a particular organization when the op-
portunity to change jobs exists. This desire can exist for a
number of reasons: because an employee personally identi-
fies with, is psychologically attached to, is concerned for the
future welfare of, is loyal to the organization (e.g., Bettencoiirt
and Brovwi 1997; Garbarino and Johnson 1999).
With respect to job characteristics, our view is consistent
with past research (adapted from Becherer, Morgan, and Ri-
chard 1982; Hackman and Lawler 1971; Hackman and Oldham
1976; House 1971), which focuses on four key job characteris-
tics, namely, autonomy, variety, identity and feedback. Au-
tonomy is the extent to which employees have a say in sched-
uling their work and freedom to do what they want on the job.
Variety refers to the degree to which a job allows employees
to undertake a wide range of options in their work. Task
identity addresses the extent to which employees do an entire
piece of work and can identify with the results of their efforts.
And feedback assesses the degree to which employees receive
information as they are working that reveals how well they
are performing on the job.
Scholars have theorized and empirically established the
linear and direct effects of job characteristics and organiza-
tional commitment on job satisfaction (Hunt, Chonko, and
Wood 1985; Singh 1998; Tyagi and Wotruba 1993). The direct
relationships between job characteristics andjob satisfaction
are theoretically supported by the motivation and means-end
chains hypotheses (Singh 1998). More specifically, Ilgen and
HoUenbeck (1991) argue that high levels of autonomy, vari-
ety, and task-identity in a job can enhance the level of intrin-
sic motivation by increasing the employee's feeling of accom-
plishment and self-actualization in performing their work.
Similarly, by the provision of information about the effective-
ness of an employee's work activities in achieving desired end
goals, the job characteristic of feedback clarifies the means-
end linkage. This has been found to be motivationally uplift-
ing (Ilgen and HoUenbeck 1991). Empirically, several studies
have found support for the positive relationship between dif-
ferent job characteristics and job satisfaction. For instance.
Fried and Ferris (1987) have reported that autonomy and
feedback are strongly related to job satisfaction. Further, in
their meta-analysis. Brown and Peterson (1993) have shown
support for the significant positive influence of feedback, va-
riety, autonomy, task-identity and other job characteristics
on an employee's level of job satisfaction.
The marketing literature has advanced ample evidence sup-
porting the main effect of organizational commitment on job
satisfaction (Bateman and Strasser 1984; Hunt, Chonko and
Wood 1985; Steers 1977; Still 1983; Wiener 1982; Wiener and
Vardi 1980). This constitutes another linkage in our proposed
model (Figure 1). Drawing on the dispositional approach,
O'Reilly and Caldwell (1981) and Pierce and Dunham (1987)
posit that affective commitment first surfaces as an employee
makes a job choice. This is a pre-employment disposition. The
literature argues that when this predisposition reflects rela-
tively lower affective commitment to the organization, job
satisfaction will be lower. Correspondingly, if the pre-employ-
ment disposition exhibits a relatively strong commitment to
the job, high job satisfaction will ensue. This hypothesis is
empirically supported by a number of studies (Bateman and
Strasser 1984; Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985; Kacmar,
Carlson and Brymer 1999), which report evidence of the strong
influence of the level of organizational commitment on an
employee's job satisfaction.
Expected Moderator Relationships
Responding to the emerging view that the work-related
variables-job outcomes relationships are not necessarily lin-
ear (Jackson and Schuler 1985; Singh 1998), we employ orga-
nizational commitment as a moderator of the relationship
between job characteristics and job satisfaction. Conceptu-
ally, this expectation is consistent with previous theory. As
mentioned earlier, a high level of autonomy, variety, task-
identity and feedback in a job enhances the experienced mean-
ingfulness of an employee's work and strengthens the means
(work)-end (outcome) connections (Singh 1998). In essence, job
characteristics (autonomy, variety, task-identity, feedback) can
serve as positive motivational forces that stimulate employees
to increase their efforts in better performing their tasks.
But researchers have also argued that the positive stimula-
tion effects of job characteristics on job incumbents may not
be homogeneous (Gardner and Cummings 1988). Specifically,
employees who identify with the organizational goals, value
their organizational membership, and intend to work hard to
achieve the overall organizational mission (i.e., employees
with a high level of organizational commitment) will perceive
the job characteristics of autonomy, variety, task-identity and
feedback as highly motivational and stimulating to their task
performance (O'Reilly, Parletter and Bloom 1980). Conversely,
the stimulation effects of job characteristics will be lower for
employees who are not committed to the organization (Pierce
and Dunham 1987). As a result, the relationships between job
characteristics andjob satisfaction will be stronger for higher
committed employees and weaker for less committed ones.
Empirically, O'Reilly, Parletter and Bloom (1980) found that
highly committed employees perceive job characteristics as more
stimulating and, in tum, experience greater job satisfaction,
whereas less committed employees view job characteristics as
less stimulating and are less satisfied with their jobs.
Alternative Models
Our Alternative Model 1 employs job satisfaction as the
mediating variable between job characteristics and organiza-
tional commitment. We have discussed earlier the linear and
direct effects of job characteristics (autonomy, variety, task-
identity, and feedback) on job satisfaction with respect to our
proposed model. The other linkage between job satisfaction
and organizational commitment in the model is widely recog-
nized in the literature (Brown and Peterson 1993; Singh,
Verbeke and Rhoads 1996). In their meta-analysis. Brown
and Peterson (1993) indicate that the majority of studies
(Bartol 1979; Bluedorn 1982; Johnston et al. 1990) consider
job satisfaction as the antecedent to organizational commit-
ment. More recently, Singh, Verbeke and Rhoads (1996) have
found support for the direct effect of job satisfaction on orga-
nizational commitment for boundary spanners.

The Alternative Model 2 employs direct linkages between
job characteristics and organizational commitment, and be-
tween organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Theo-
retically, researchers argue that favorable organizational char-
acteristics will induce employees to become committed to the
organization through reciprocity. In other words, when an
organization attempts to enrich jobs by providing autonomy,
variety, task-identity and feedback in jobs, employees recip-
rocate by identifying themselves more closely with the orga-
nization (Strauss 1977; Tyagi and Wotruba 1993). A nimiber
of empiriceil studies have supported the positive effect of job
characteristics-organizational commitment link. For instance.
Hunt, Chonko and Wood (1985) found that autonomy, vari-
ety, task-identity and feedback influence the level of an
employee's organizational commitment. Likewise,
Ramaswami, Agarwal and Bhargava (1993) provide support
for the direct influence of autonomy, variety and feedback on
organizational commitment.
We have developed our Alternative Model 3 by merging
components from the three earlier models: the proposed,
alternative 1 and alternative 2 models. The relationships
between job characteristics and job satisfaction are common
to the proposed and alternative 1 models; and the rationales
for these relationships have been explained above. The orga-
nizational commitment-job satisfaction linkage is present in
both the proposed and alternative 2 models. This linkage has
been justified earlier.
Control Variables
Previous research has identified nimierous demographic and
organizational variables as correlates of employee job satisfac-
tion and organizational commitment, the dependent variables
in oiar models (Brown and Peterson 1993; Buchko, Weinzimmer
and Sergeyev 1998; Hxmt, Chonko and Wood 1985; Mayer and
Schoorman 1998; Shore, Barksdale and Shore 1995). In order
to control, at least to some extent, their effects, we include a
number of demographic characteristics and organizational fac-
tors in our study. The demographic variables are age, educa-
tion, income, job title, responsibility, experience level, and the
nimiber of firms for which the employee has worked. Specifi-
cally, scholars have argued that organizational commitment
increases with employee's age (Angle and Perry 1981), income
(Morrow 1983), experience level (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985),
job title (Mayer and Schoorman 1998), and responsibility (Himt,
Chonko and Wood 1985), while it decreases with higher levels
of education (Mathieu and Zajac 1990) and number of firms
worked (Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985).
With respect to organizational variables, we incorporate
the activities of firm, firm size and corporate ethical values (a
corporate culture). These variables are not only considered in
studies involving organizational com.mitment and job satis-
faction, conducted in the U.S. (Himt, Wood and Chonko 1989;
Hunt, Chonko and Wood 1985), but they are included in a
limited number of studies addressing the experience of expa-
triates in the Gulf region (Bhuian, Al-Shammari and Jefri
1996). The potential links between the activities of the firm
and firm size to commitment and satisfaction are based on job
opportunities and income potentials (Shore, Barksdale and
Shore 1995). Particularly in the Gulf region, manufacturing
jobs are better paying than service industry jobs. Also, bigger
firms tend to have better paying and more stable jobs than
smaller firms. As a result, we argue that employees of either
manufacturing firms or of bigger firms are more likely to be
Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
more organizationally committed and experience greater job
satisfaction than employees in service-based or retail firms,
and in smaller firms (Bhuian and Al-Jabri 1996).
Lastly, the variable "corporate ethical values" is expected
to be a strong positive correlate for organizational commit-
ment (Hunt, Wood and Chonko 1989; Schwepker 2001). An-
ticipating substantial variance in expatriates' perceptions of
corporate ethical values in the Gulf region, Bhuian, Al-
Shammari and Jefri (1996) suggested that future studies of
expatriates' organizational commitment and job satisfaction
should incorporate corporate ethical values.
Method
Research Context
Our study context, Saudi Arabia, is distinctive and appro-
priate for testing the generalizability of research on
salespeople's job characteristics, organizational commitment
and job satisfaction. Saudi Arabia, like other Gulf States, has
severe shortages of indigenous manpower. Consequently, the
country hires self-initiated expatriates, or guest workers, from
different countries of the world. There are over five millions
"guest workers" in a coimtry that has an indigenous popula-
tion of about twenty million (Statistical Yearbook 2000-01).
The workforce in most sectors, including sales, is composed to
a large degree of these expatriates (Al-Meer 1989).
With respect to salesforces, one of the biggest challenges
faced by firms in Saudi Arabia is the high level of turnover
among expatriate salespeople (Bhuian and Abdul-Muhmin
1997). Past research has focused on job characteristics, orga-
nizational commitment and job satisfaction because these
variables are traditionally related to employee turnover
(Brown and Peterson 1993; Singh, Verbeke and Rhoads 1996).
Data
We collected the data from manufacturing, service, and
retail sector companies in Saudi Arabia, utilizing both judg-
mental and snowball sampling techniques. Initially, we dis-
tributed 700 questionnaires to sales expatriates, working in
the cities of Dammam, Khobar, and Dhahran in the Eastern
Province of Saudi Arabia. A panel of three business-school
professors at King Fahd University of Petroleimi & Minerals
in Dhahran introduced us to the business establishments
where we contacted these expatriate salespeople. Further, we
asked all our first contacts to provide information about other
expatriates in the tri-cities, whom we visited subsequently.
Following the suggestions of researchers who conducted sur-
veys in Saudi Arabia (Al-Meer 1989; Bhuian and Abdul-
Muhmin 1997; Tuncalp 1988), we pursued the judgmental
approach. After three callbacks, 537 questionnaires were re-
trieved, resulting in a response rate of 77 percent.
Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respon-
dents. Most are relatively young (70.4 per cent are between 20 and
40 years of age), educated (81.5 per cent have a bachelor's degree or
higher), and relatively well-off (54 per cent make above $30,000,
which is a substantial income for expatriates because their income
potentials in their respective developing home countries), educated
in business and engineering (64.1 per cent), fairly experienced (70
per cent have 6 or more years work experience), and working in a
managerial capacity (65 per cent have a supervisory position).
These profiles indicate that our respondents are suitable for this
study because (1) they represent a sample that best serves the
Winter 2002 5
Tabie 1
Demographic Characteristics (N= 537)

Organizational
Age % Education % Firm Size % Income % Activity %
20-29 28.2 No College 18,5 1 .8 <$10K .2 Manufacturing 29.9
30-39 42.2 Bachelor's 64,8 2-9 7.7 $10K-19,999 30.6 Service 37.2
40-49 22.2 Master's 11,5 10-19 7.0 $20K-29,999 15.5 Retail 26.1
50-59 6.7 Doctorate 5.3 20-49 6.6 $30K-39,999 10.9 Others 4.3
60 or more 0.7 50-99 8.5 $40K-49,999 14.5 No Answer 2.5
100-249 14.5 $50K-59,999 12.0
250-499 7.9 $60K-69,999 16.1
500-999 11,5 $70K and more 0.2
1000 and morei 35,6

Major in Number of
Responsibility % Education % Experience % Firms Worked % Job Title %

Unit Territory 31.2 Business 33.3 1-5yrs. 29.2 1 34.4 Sales Assistant 34,5
District 30.2 Engineering 30.8 6-10yrs, 25.4 2 26.0 Sales Supervisor 26,9
Region 29,6 Technical 12.7 11-15yrs. 21.6 3 21.6 Regional Sales Mgr. 30.6
National 9.0 Social. Science 21.1 16-20yrs. 10.3 4 8.6 General Sales Mgr. 8.0
Others 2.1 >20yrs. 13.5 5 4.4
6 5.0

purpose of this study, (2) they are capable of answering the ques-
tions; and (3) the cost associated with ineffective performance and
turnover, the primary reasons for which salespeople's job charac-
teristics, organizational commitment and job satisfaction are stud-
ied, are relevant for these expatriates.
Table 2 includes the results of expatriates' self-ratings of job
characteristics, organizational commitment and job satisfac-
tion across industries, firm sizes, and job responsibilities. The
mean scores of the variables indicate that expatriates in the
manufacturing industry perceive a comparatively high degree
of task autonomy and identity, while expatriates in the retail
industry perceive comparatively a high degree of task variety,
task feedback, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Also, the mean scores reveal that expatriates in firms with
between 100-499 employees reported a comparatively higher
degree of task autonomy, task identity, and job satisfaction;
expatriates in firms with less than 100 employees reported a
comparatively higher degree of task variety, and expatriates in
firms with 1000 and more employees reported a comparatively
higher degree of task feedback and organizational commit-
ment. Further, expatriates who were responsible for territory-
wide sales perceived a comparatively higher degree of task
autonomy and identity and organizational commitment than
expatriates who were responsible for district-, region-, and na-
tion-wide sales. In addition, expatriates who were responsible
for district-wide sales perceived a comparatively higher degree
of task variety, feedback, and job satisfaction than expatriates
who were responsible for territory-, region-, and nation-wide
sales. It is noteworthy that the results of the Scheffe test indi-
cated that expatriates did not differ significantly in their per-
ceptions of job satisfaction and organizational commitment
across industries, firm sizes, and job responsibilities.
Measures
We measured all constructs with multiple-item scales drawn
from previous research. We adopted a 9-item scale from Min-
nesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss et al. 1967;
Quinn and Staines 1979; and Ironson et al. 1989) to assess
both the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction. To
measure job characteristics, we used the Job Classification
Index (JCI; see Sims, Szilagyi, and Keller 1976) that included
four dimensions of job characteristics: autonomy (3 items),
identity (4 items), feedback (4 items), and variety (2 items).
Using Hunt, Chonko, and Wood's (1985) 5-item scale, we
measured organizational commitment. For measuring corpo-
rate ethical values, we used a 5-item scale developed by Hunt,
Wood, and Chonko (1989). Further, for aHother control vari-
ables, we used self-report measures.
Analysis and Results
To test the hypothesized model, a covariance matrix was
used as input to LISREL 8.30 (Joreskog and Sorbom 1996). In
analyzing the data, we followed the two-step anal3^ic proce-
dure recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), which
we elaborate next.
Assessment of Measures. We first conducted a confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) to estimate the measurement model, which
included all the seven multiple-item constructs. The CFA con-
firmed that the scales of job characteristics (i.e., autonomy,
variety, identity, feedback), organizational commitment, and
corporate ethical values (the control variable) were unidimen-
sional, whereas the scale of job satisfaction was not. Regarding
the scale ofjob satisfaction, MacKenzie, PodsakofT, and Aheame
(1998, p. 92) noted that "the items on the MSQ were not ex-
pected to be unidimensional because they are formative mea-
sures of satisfaction that together define the composite con-
struct, rather than reflective measures caused by an underly-
ing latent construct." Following their recommendation, we used
a traditional summed scale score for job satisfaction. Table 3
displays the correlations, descriptive statistics (means and stan-
dard deviations), and reliability estimates. All scales met the
recommended reliability coefficient of 0.70 (Nunnally 1978).
Further, the ^-values for item loadings were significant and
ranged from 9.04 to 19.61 (p<.01) across all items in all mea-
 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Table 2
ANOVA : Job Characteristics, Organizational Commitment, and Job Satisfaction

Industry (n=500) Firm Size (n=537) Job Responsibility (n=537)

Unit
Variables Man Service Retail <100 100-499 500-999 1000 > Territory District Region National

Autonomy 2.50 2.34 2.29 2.44 2.33 2.54 2.34 2.58*** 2.55*** 2.12*** 2.10***
Variety 3.08** 3.42** 3.10** 3.36* 3.34* 3.03* 3.07* 3.26 3.34 3.16 3.15
Identity 2.03 2.00 1.88 1.97 1.91 2.11 2.02 2.14* 1.90* 1.92* 2.04*
Feedback 2.71 2.74 2.70 2.65** 2.44** 2.87** 2.90** 2.74* 2.89* 2.49* 2.85*
Job Satisfaction 2.45 2.51 2.37 2.41 2.40 2.56 2.48 2.52* 2.53* 2.36* 2.25*
Organizational Commitment 3.36 3.41 3.33 3.36 3.32 3.28 3.37 3.36 3.35 3.35 3.22

Note: Results of Scheffe tests

* p<.05; ** p<.01, *** p<.001 (using F-test)
Autonomy Expatriates who are responsible from territory and district-wide sales differ from those who are responsible from
region and nation-wide sales.
Variety Expatriates in services differ from both those in manufacturing and those in retail group.
Identity Expatriates who are responsible from territory-wide sales differ from those who are responsible district-wide sales.
Feedback Expatriates who are employed by firms with size of (100-499) employees differ from those who are employed by
firms with size of (1000>) employees. Expatriates who are responsible from district-wide sales differ from those who
are responsible region-wide sales.
Job Satisfaction No groups differ.
Organizational Commitment No groups differ.

sures, meeting the criterion (i^-values>2.00) for convergent
validity (Anderson and Gerbing 1988) (Table 3). Also, to test
the discriminant validity, we computed the /^-difference be-
tween the model that constrained the correlations between
the constructs with multiple items to unity (i.e., perfectly
correlated) and the model that allowed the correlations be-
tween the constructs to be free. The c^-difference tests be-
tween all possible pairs of constructs supported the presence
of discrimiinant validity for the constructs. The fit indices of
the measurement model were: x^ (668)= 1187.3, p<.001,
GFI=.92; NFI=.92; CFI=.97; TLI=.96; PFI=.71; RMSEA=.O61,
which indicated reasonably good fit.
Finally, since we gathered the dependent and independent data
from a single respondent, common method bias could be present.
Hence, we used the Harman's one-factor test (see Podsakoff and
Organ 1986) to assess the presence of common method bias.
The results of the principal component factor analysis revealed
seven factors with eigenvalues of greater than 1.0, which ac-
counted for 84% of the total variance. Further, the analysis
identified several factors where the first factor did not account
for the majority of the variance (only 10%) and there was no
general factor in the un-rotated factor structure. These indi-
cated that common method bias was not a serious problem.
Comparative Fit Measures of the Theoretical and the Alterna-
tive Models of Job satisfaction. Table 4 displays the fit mea-
sures of the proposed model and the three alternative models.
Before comparing the proposed model with the alternative mod-
els, we first compared the proposed model with the null model.
As expected, the proposed model showed significant improvement
over the null model. We then compared our proposed model with
the alternative models. Results indicated that the proposed model
was significantly better than all three alternative models.
Hypotheses Tests Results
Statistical Power. Following the procedure recommended
by Iverson and Macguire (2000), we estimated the statistical
power of the model. The result exceeded Cohen's (1988) rec-
ommended criterion of .80, indicating that the model had
ample power to detect meaningful parameters.
LISREL Parameter Estimates. Table 5 shows the param-
eter estimates of the proposed model (Figure 1), the best
fitting one. Adopting a four-step hierarchical regression ap-
proach, we simultaneously investigated the unique contribu-
tion that each subset of predictor variables made toward the
explanation of the dependent variable (i.e., job satisfaction)
and the individual parameter estimates of the control and
predictor variables (Bettencourt, Gwinner, andMeuter 2001).
Specifically, we began by entering the control variables into
LISREL program in order to compute the unique variance
that the control variables added to the explanation of job
satisfaction. Then we regressed job characteristics, along with
control variables, against job satisfaction. Next we regressed
organizational commitment, together with control variables,
against job satisfaction. Finally, we regressed both job char-
acteristics and organizational commitment, along with con-
trol variables, against job satisfaction.
The results indicated that both job characteristics (R^=.39;
F (4, 522)=67.51, p<.001) and organizational commitment
(R2=.18; F (1, 521)=54.24,p<.001) explained unique variance
in job satisfaction over and above that explained by control
variables. In addition, job characteristics explained unique
variance (AR^=.32,p<.001) in job satisfaction even when orga-
nizational commitment was controlled. Similarly, organizational
commitment explained unique variance (AR^=.O6, p<.001) in
job satisfaction when job characteristics were controlled.
Further, LISREL path estimates (based on Step 4) showed that
feedback (/3=.35, p<.001), organizational commitment (^=.25,
p<.001), autonomy (/3=.22, p<.001), identity (^=.13,p<.001), and
corporate ethical values (j8=.O8, p<.05) had the strongest influence
on job satisfaction. Income (/3=-.O8, p<.05) appeared significantly
but negatively related to job satisfaction. No significant relation-
ship was observed between variety and job satisfaction (/J=.O6, ns).
Finally, Chow test revealed that feedback was a significantly bet-
ter predictor ofjob satisfaction than autonomy (t(520)=3.75,p<.05)
and identity (t(520)=6.33,p<.05).
Winter 2002 7
Table 3
Summary Statistics

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 Autonomy .74
2 Variety .25 .70
3 Identity .33 .10 .80
4 Feedback .25 .18 .34 .84
5 Job Satisfaction .40 .26 .35 .51 .84
6 Organizational
Commitment .11 .20 .12 .16 .37 .81
7 Corporate Ethical
Climate .16 .15 .07 .13 .14 .21 .71
8 Age -.24 -.06 -.16 -.10 -.09 -.13 -.19
9 Education -.12 -.22 -.12 .01 -.06 -.06 .01 .14
10 Firm Size -.03 -.09 .03 .10 .06 -.00 -.01 .04 .13
11 Income -.09 -.19 .06 .07 -.08 -.12 -.05 .20 .27 .35
12 Organizational
Activities -.11 -.04 -.09 -.00 -.06 -.03 .02 .05 .09 .13 .14 -
13 Job Title
14 Level of -.08 .03 -.18 .02 -.02 .07 -.04 -.06 -.00 .02 -.08 .07 -
Responsibility
15 Total Work .13 .14 -.05 .09 .12 .02 .09 -.15 -.07 .20 -.01 .13 .25 -
Experience
16 Number of Firms -.20 -.07 -.07 -.03 -.07 -.08 -.20 .74 .05 .14 .20 -.00 -.04 -.17 -
Worked
-.09 -.02 -.05 -.02 .01 .06 -.07 .41 .05 -.07 -.08 -.02 -.06 -.18 .37
Number of Items 3 2 4 4 9 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mean 2.39 3.21 1.99 2.71 2.45 3.34 2.60 2.10 2.04 6.60 3.11 2.55 4.80 2.87 2.52 2.42
Standard Deviation .96 .99 .74 1.11 .68 1.02 .84 .91 .76 2.41 1.88 1.58 2.57 1.02 1.37 1.54
Cronbach's Alpha .74 .70 .80 .84 .84 .81 .71
Factor Loading .68 .73 .64 .73 .51 .65 .51
Range | |
.74 .75 .81 .81 .73 .73 .81
t-value Range 9.14 10.45 9.04 10.01 10.41 9.79 6.82
I I I I I I I
10.40 10.91 13.60 12.20 19.61 11.40 12.43
* Correlations at .08 and above are significant at p<.05, one-tailed.
N=537

Table 4
Fit Measures: Proposed and Alternative Models

Model df GFl NFI CFI TLI PFI RMSEA

Measurement Model 1187.3 668 .92 .92 .97 .96 .71 .061
Proposed Model: JCs+OC+JCs*OC^JS 1052.8 660 .95 .93 .98 .97 .73 .047
Alternative Model 1: JCs-^JS^OC 1299.4 672 .81 .92 .96 .95 .63 .098
Alternative Model 2: JCs-^OC-»JS 1305.8 672 .86 .91 .96 .95 .67 .095
Alternative Model 3: JCs+OC-^JS 1325.6 672 .88 .91 .96 .95 .69 .082
Null Model 15450.7 820

1. Control variables included.

2. JCs*OC interaction effects were operationalized by creating four variables computed as the products of the mean-centered variables of
organizational commitment and autonomy, variety, identity, and feedback. This is consistent with Bollen's (1989, p. 128) recommendation for
including single-indicator interaction terms in LISREL models.
3. Total degrees of freedom=(41 X 42)/2=861. Number of estimated parameters in the proposed model (structural portion and item measurement
model)=201, df (Proposed model)=861- 201=660
 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Table 5
Results of Hierarchical Regression Predicting Job Satisfaction for Proposed Model

Stepi Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Variables

Control Variables
Demographic Variables
Age 06 .07 -.01 ,10
Income 07 -.10* -.04 -.08
Education 03 .02 -.02 .02
Experience 02 -.02 .01 -.02
Job Title 04 .00 -.07 -.02
Responsibility 11* .05 .12** .06
Number of Firms Worked 05 .03 .01 .00
Organizational Variables
Activity 07 -.02 -.06 -.02
Firm Size 08 .05 .06 .04
Organizational Culture
Corporate Ethical Climate .19*** .10** .15* ,08*
Predictor Variables
Job Characteristics (JCs)
Job Autonomy .22*** .22***
Job Variety .09* .06
Job Identity .15*** .13***
Job Feedback .38*** .35***
Job-Related Variable
Organizational Commitment (OC) .34* .25***

Step 1: Control variables only ,07***

Step 2: Control varlables+JCs .39*
Step 3: Control variables+OC .18***
Step 4: JCs beyond OC .06***
OC beyond JCs AW .32***

* p<.05; ** p<,01; *** p<,001 (one-tailed)

Moderator Relationship. Hypothesized interactions between Discussion

job characteristics and organizational commitment were tested
following the recommended procedure for testing the modera-
tion effects in structural equation models (Jaccard and Wan
1996). The procedure comprises a nested goodness-of-fit strat-
egy that accompanies a multiple-group solution. First, no across-
group (i.e., unconstrained model) constraints were estimated
for the high and the low organizational commitment groups.
Then, the across-group (i.e., constrained model) constraints
were estimated. Further, the parameter estimates for the high
and low organizational commitment groups were constrained
to equal (i.e., a moderator effect). Then the Ax^ test (i.e., com-
parison of unconstrained and constrained models) was used to
detect moderator effect. The unconstrained model had a sub-
stantially better overall fit than the constrained model
(AX^n,_11.27,p< .05), suggesting that some paths were signifi-
cantly different between the high and low commitment groups.
Further, identity (|3= .18, SE=.05,p<.001) and feedback (p= .33,
SE=.O4, p<.001) had significant effects on job satisfaction for
expatriates with a low level of organizational commitment,
while autonomy was not significantly related to job satisfaction
for those with a low level of organizational commitment. Fi-
nally, when the level of organizational commitment was high,
autonomy (|3= .36, SE=.05,p<.001) and feedback (|3= .27, SE=.O5,
p<.001) were significantly related to job satisfaction. Like in
case of its main effect, variety did not have any interactive
effect with organizational commitment on job satisfaction.
Using expatriate, guest worker, salespeople in Saudi Arabia,
we evaluated one proposed and three altemative configura-
tions of job characteristics, organizational commitment and
job satisfaction. The proposed model best reproduced the sample
covariance matrix, which specified direct, as well as interactive
effects ofjob characteristics and organizational commitment on
job satisfaction. By supporting a specific pattem of direct and
interactive relationship, we showed that the interrelationships
between salesperson's work-related variables are more than
merely linear. The key findings pertaining to the relationships
in the proposed model are discussed next.
As expected, when expatriate salespeople perceive higher
autonomy, identity and feedback in their jobs, they experi-
ence higher job satisfaction. However, these expatriates' per-
ception of higher job variety does not lead to higher job satis-
faction. Although contrary to the hypothesis, this is an impor-
tant finding. There is a grovnng trend in the literature to
combine different dimensions of job characteristics in examin-
ing their effects on job attitudes and behavior (e.g., Yitzhak and
Ferris 1987). Oior finding suggests that combining different job
characteristics in examining their effects on job attitudes and
behavior may not be the correct treatment. This study shows
that job variety does not have that same motivational potential
for expatriate salespeople in Saudi Arabia as other job charac-
teristics have. Further, as hypothesized, expatriate salespeople
Winter 2002
with higher organizational commitment also experience higher
job satisfaction. Here, organizational commitment precedes job
satisfaction (Table 5), which is a deviation from the view of
most studies in US-context where job satisfaction is seen as an
antecedent to organizational commitment.
The unique feature of our proposed model was its specifica-
tion of interaction effects of job characteristics and organiza-
tional commitment on job satisfaction. By and large, the ef-
fects of job characteristics on job satisfaction differ between
expatriate salespeople with higher and lower organizational
commitment. Specifically, when expatriate salespeople with
higher organizational commitment perceive higher autonomy
and feedback, they experience higher job satisfaction. Con-
trary to the hypothesis, neither for expatriates with high nor
low organizational commitment does job variety have a sig-
nificant association with job satisfaction. This nonsignificant
job variety-job satisfaction linkage for expatriate salespeople
was already discussed.
With respect to the control variables, our findings indicate
that when expatriate salespeople perceive higher corporate
ethical values, they experience higher job satisfaction. Also,
expatriates with higher income experience lower job satisfac-
tion. The remaining control variables are not relevant to ex-
patriate salespeople's job satisfaction.
Ourfindingshave logical implications particularly for those
who deal with expatriate, guest worker, salespeople. Specifi-
cally, promoting autonomy, task-identity and feedback for
expatriate salespeople can serve to boost their job satisfac-
tion. Managers shoiild note that efforts to increase job variety
are unlikely to enhance job satisfaction of expatriate sales-
people. Moreover, pursuing strategies to increase expatriate
salespeople's organizationsd commitment should be useful in
increasing their job satisfaction. Further, managers should
also realize that job characteristics, such as autonomy, task-
identity and feedback, interactively work with organizational
commitment to account for job satisfaction. In other words,
taking steps to enhance autonomy, task-identity and feed-
back is more likely to boost job satisfaction of expatriate
salespeople in the presence of higher organizational commit-
ment. Thus, efforts to build commitment of expatriates in the
presence of job enrichment should pay off in better attitude
towards the job. Lastly, our findings pertaining to control
variables indicate that managers trying to enhance job satis-
faction of expatriate salespeople might benefit from reward-
ing ethical behavior of expatriate salespeople.
Study Limitations and Future Research
Due to the cross-sectional nature of data collection in this
study, drawing of caxisal inferences may not be appropriate.
Further, although we tested for it, the common method bias
cannot be completely ruled out. We recommend that future
studies take a multi-method data collection approach in order
to adequately address the issue of common method variance.
Furthermore, since this is the first evidence, to our knowl-
edge, for the interaction effect between job characteristics
and orgEinizational commitment on job satisfaction among
expatriate, guest worker, salespeople, corroboration is needed
before any valid inference can be established. Because the
sample of expatriate salespeople was drawn from Saudi
Arabia, the generalizability of our findings over other na-
tional settings may not be valid. Future research should at-
tempt to replicate our findings in other countries where expa-
triate salespeople are in abundant supply. Additionally, since
9
we utilized a limited number of predictor and control vari-
ables in this study, future research should include other pos-
sible determinants of job sat;isfaction (for example, national-
ity of expatriates) and explore other variables as moderators,
such as career commitment. The other limitation is related to
the direction of the relationship between organizational com-
mitment and job satisfaction. Although literature has ample
evidence for the direct effect of job satisfaction on organiza-
tional commitment, ourfindingechoes with a limited number
of studies that posit organizational commitment as the ante-
cedent ofjob satisfaction (e.g., Mathieu 1991). Abetter way to
resolve this debate is to undertake a longitudinal research.
Furthermore, recent research has focused on multidimensional
models of commitment. For example, research has recognized
the differing effects of job satisfaction on the three dimensions
of commitment (i.e., affective, continuance, and normative).
Hence, these multidimensional models of commitment should
be studied utilizing structural equations modeling approach.
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