Introduction to s-block elements

The elements in which the last electron enters the outermost s-orbital are called s-
block elements. The s-block elements have two groups (1 and 2).

 The Group 1 elements are called alkali metals. These elements are called alkali
metals as they form hydroxides by reacting with water that is strongly alkaline in
nature.
 The Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals as their oxides and
hydroxides are alkaline in nature and exist in the earth’s crust.

Trends in Atomic Radius

The chart below shows the increase in atomic radius down the group.

The radius of an atom is governed by two factors:

1. The number of layers of electrons around the nucleus

2. The attraction the outer electrons feel from the nucleus

Compare the electronic configurations of lithium and sodium:

 Li: 1s22s1
 Na: 1s22s22p63s1
In each element, the outer electron experiences a net charge of +1 from the nucleus. The
positive charge on the nucleus is canceled out by the negative charges of the inner electrons.
This effect is illustrated in the figure below:

This is true for each of the other atoms in Group 1. The only factor affecting the size of the
atom is the number of layers of inner electrons which surround the atom. More layers of
electrons take up more space, due to electron-electron repulsion. Therefore, the
atoms increase in size down the group.

The first ionization energy of an atom is defined as the energy required to remove the most
loosely held electron from each of one mole of gaseous atoms, producing one mole of singly
charged gaseous ions; in other words, it is the energy required for 1 mole of this process:

X(g)→X+(g)+e−(Group 1.1)(Group 1.1)X(g)→X+(g)+e−

A graph showing the first ionization energies of the Group 1 atoms is shown above. Notice
that first ionization energy decreases down the group. Ionization energy is governed by three
factors:

 the charge on the nucleus,

 the amount of screening by the inner electrons,
 the distance between the outer electrons and the nucleus.
Down the group, the increase in nuclear charge is exactly offset by the increase in the number
of inner electrons. As mentioned before, in each of the elements Group 1, the outermost
electrons experience a net charge of +1 from the center. However, the distance between the
nucleus and the outer electrons increases down the group; electrons become easier to
remove, and the ionization energy falls.

Trends in Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of

electrons. It is usually measured on the Pauling scale, on which the most electronegative
element (fluorine) is given an electronegativity of 4.0 .

A graph showing the electronegativities of the Group 1 elements is shown above. Each of
these elements has a very low electronegativity when compared with fluorine, and the
electronegativities decrease from lithium to cesium.

Picture a bond between a sodium atom and a chlorine atom. The bond can be considered
covalent, composed of a pair of shared electrons. The electron pair will be pulled toward the
chlorine atom because the chlorine nucleus contains many more protons than the sodium
nucleus. This is illustrated in the figure below:
The electron pair is so close to the chlorine that an effective electron transfer from the sodium
atom to the chlorine atom occurs—the atoms are ionized. This strong attraction from the
chlorine nucleus explains why chlorine is much more electronegative than sodium.

Now compare this with a lithium-chlorine bond. The net pull from each end of the bond is the
same as before, but the lithium atom is smaller than the sodium atom. That means that the
electron pair is going to be more strongly attracted to the net +1 charge on the lithium end,
and thus closer to it.

In some lithium compounds there is often a degree of covalent bonding that is not present in
the rest of the group. Lithium iodide, for example, will dissolve in organic solvents; this is a
typical property of covalent compounds. The iodine atom is so large that the pull from the
iodine nucleus on the pair of electrons is relatively weak, and a fully-ionic bond is not formed.

Summarizing the trend down the group

As the metal atoms increase in size, any bonding electron pair becomes farther from the
metal nucleus, and so is less strongly attracted towards it. This corresponds with a decrease
in electronegativity down Group 1. With the exception of some lithium compounds, the
Group 1 elements each form compounds that can be considered ionic. Each is so weakly
electronegative that in a Group 1-halogen bond, we assume that the electron pair on a more
electronegative atom is pulled so close to that atom that ions are formed.
Trends in melting and boiling points

The figure above shows melting and boiling points of the Group 1 elements. Both the
melting and boiling points decrease down the group.

When any of the Group 1 metals is melted, the metallic bond is weakened enough for the
atoms to move more freely, and is broken completely when the boiling point is reached. The
decrease in melting and boiling points reflects the decrease in the strength of each metallic
bond.

The atoms in a metal are held together by the attraction of the nuclei to electrons which
are delocalized over the whole metal mass. As the atoms increase in size, the distance
between the nuclei and these delocalized electrons increases; therefore, attractions fall. The
atoms are more easily pulled apart to form a liquid, and then a gas. As previously discussed,
each atom exhibits a net pull from the nuclei of +1. The increased charge on the nucleus down
the group is offset by additional levels of screening electrons. As before, the trend is
determined by the distance between the nucleus and the bonding electrons.
Trends in Density
The densities of the Group 1 elements increase down the group (except for a downward
fluctuation at potassium). This trend is shown in the figure below:

The metals in this series are relatively light—lithium, sodium, and potassium are less dense
than water (less than 1 g cm-3). It is difficult to develop a simple explanation for this
trend because density depends on two factors, both of which change down the group. The
atoms are packed in the same way, so the two factors considered are how many atoms can
be packed in a given volume, and the mass of the individual atoms. The amount packed
depends on the individual atoms' volumes; these volumes, in turn, depends on their atomic
radius.

Atomic radius increases down a group, so the volume of the atoms also increases. Fewer
sodium atoms than lithium atoms, therefore, can be packed into a given volume. However,
as the atoms become larger, their masses increase. A given number of sodium atoms will
weigh more than the same number of lithium atoms. Therefore, 1 cm 3 of sodium contains
fewer atoms than the same volume of lithium, but each atom weighs more. Mathematical
calculations are required to determine the densities.

Biological importance of Magnesium and

Calcium
 Magnesium

Magnesium is essential for the activity of the various enzymes such as enzymes of glycolysis.
 It is the central atom present in chlorophyll (plant pigment necessary for photosynthesis).

 It is a cofactor for the breakdown of the fats and glucose.

 It is essential for the synthesis of the energy currency of the cell, that is, ATP.

 Responsible for the stability and synthesis of DNA.

 Maintains the electrolyte balance in the body.
 Magnesium deficiency is associated with sleep disorder.
 Deficiency also leads to abnormal heart rhythms.
 In manufacturing of engine parts and wheels.
 Preparation of malleable cast iron.
 Used to remove Sulphur during production of iron and steel.

 As a reducing agent to separate uranium from the mixture of other elements.

 It is also needed for blood glucose control.

Calcium
 Maintains the anionic balance in the plant vacuole.
 Used to stabilize the permeability of cell membranes.

 Important for structure and function of proteins.

 Essential component during blood clotting.

 It also brings about muscle contraction.
 Calcium acts as secondary messenger during cell signaling.
 Helps in proper heart and nerve functions.

 Calcium is essential for strong bones and teeth.

Diagonal Relationship between Beryllium

and Aluminium
In addition to horizontal and vertical trends in a periodic table,there is a
diagonal relationship between certain sets of elements(Li and Mg, Be and
Al, B and Si). Similarity of beryllium and aluminium. The charge/radius ratio
of Be2+ ion is nearly the same as that of the Al3+ ion and hence exhibit
similar properties. A diagonal relationship is said to exist between certain
pairs of diagonally adjacent elements in the second and third periods (first
20 elements) of the periodic table. These pairs (lithium (Li) and magnesium
(Mg), beryllium (Be) and aluminium.

Chemistry of Hydrogen (Z=1)

Hydrogen is a colourless, odurless and tasteless gas that is the most abundant element in the
known universe. It is also the lightest (in terms of atomic mass) and the simplest, having only
one proton and one electron (and no neutrons in its most common isotope). It is all around
us. It is a component of water (H2O), fats, petroleum, table sugar (C6H12O6), ammonia (NH3),
and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)—things essential to life, as we know it.

Hydrogen Facts
 Atomic Number: 1
 Atomic Symbol: H
 Atomic Weight: 1.0079
 Electronic Configuration: 1s1
 Oxidation States: 1, -1
 Atomic Radius: 78 pm
 Melting Point: -259.34°C
 Boiling Point: -252.87° C
 Elemental Classification: Non-Metal
 At Room Temperature: Colorless & Odorless Diatomic Gas

History of Hydrogen
Hydrogen comes from Greek meaning “water producer” (“hydro” =water and “gennao”=to
make). First isolated and identified as an element by Cavendish in 1766, hydrogen was
believed to be many different things. Cavendish himself thought that it was "inflammable air
from metals", owing to its production by the action of acids on metals. Before that, Robert
Boyle and Paracelsus both used reactions of iron and acids to produce hydrogen gas and
Antoine Lavoisier gave hydrogen its name because it produced water when ignited in
air. Others thought it was pure phlogiston because of its flammability. Hydrogen is among the
ten most abundant elements on the planet, but very little is found in elemental form due to
its low density and reactivity. Much of the terrestrial hydrogen is locked up in water molecules
and organic compounds like hydrocarbons.

Properties of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a nonmetal and is placed above group in the periodic table because it has
ns1 electron configuration like the alkali metals. However, it varies greatly from the alkali
metals as it forms cations (H+) more reluctantly than the other alkali metals. Hydrogen‘s
ionization energy is 1312 kJ/mol, while lithium (the alkali metal with the highest ionization
energy) has an ionization energy of 520 kJ/mol.

Because hydrogen is a nonmetal and forms H- (hydride anions), it is sometimes placed above
the halogens in the periodic table. Hydrogen also forms H2 dihydrogen like
halogens. However, hydrogen is very different from the halogens. Hydrogen has a much
smaller electron affinity than the halogens.

H2 dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen is non-polar with two electrons. There are weak
attractive forces between H2 molecules, resulting in low boiling and melting points. However,
H2has very strong intramolecular forces; H2 reactions are generally slow at room temperature
due to strong H—H bond. H2 is easily activated by heat, irradiation, or catalysis. Activated
hydrogen gas reacts very quickly and exothermically with many substances.

Hydrogen also has an ability to form covalent bonds with a large variety of substances.
Because it makes strong O—H bonds, it is a good reducing agent for metal oxides. Example:
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g) H2(g) passes over CuO(s) to reduce the Cu2+ to Cu(s), while
getting oxidized itself.

Reactions of Hydrogen
Hydrogen's low ionization energy makes it act like an alkali metal:

H(g)→H+(g)+e−(1)(1)H(g)→H(g)++e−

However, it half-filled valence shell (with a 1s11s1 configuration) with one e−e− also causes
hydrogen to act like a halogen non-metal to gain noble gas configuration by adding an
additional electron

H(g)+e−→H−(g)(2)(2)H(g)+e−→H(g)−

Reactions of Hydrogen with Active Metals

Hydrogen accepts e- from an active metal to form ionic hydrides like LiH. By forming an ion
with -1 charge, the hydrogen behaves like a halogen.

Group 1 metals
2M(s)+H2(g)→2MH(s)(3)(3)2M(s)+H2(g)→2MH(s)

with MM representing Group 1 Alkali metals

Examples:

 2K(s)+H2(g)→2KH(s)2K(s)+H2(g)→2KH(s)
 2K(s)+Cl2(g)→2KCl(s)2K(s)+Cl2(g)→2KCl(s)

Group 2 metals
M(s)+H2(g)→MH2(s)(4)(4)M(s)+H2(g)→MH2(s)
with MM representing Group 2 Alkaline Earth metals

Example:

 Ca(s)+H2(g)→CaH2(s)Ca(s)+H2(g)→CaH2(s)
 Ca(s)+Cl2(g)→CaCl2(s)Ca(s)+Cl2(g)→CaCl2(s)

Reactions of Hydrogen with Nonmetals

Unlike metals forming ionic bonds with nonmetals, hydrogen forms polar covalent bonds.
Despite being electropositive like the active metals that form ionic bonds with nonmetals,
hydrogen is much less electropositive than the active metals, and forms covalent bonds.

Hydrogen + Halogen → Hydrogen Halide

H2(g)+Cl2(g)→HCl(g)(5)(5)H2(g)+Cl2(g)→HCl(g)

Hydrogen gas reacting with oxygen to produce water and a large amount of heat: Hydrogen
+ Oxygen → Water

(H2(g)+O2(g)→H2O(g)(6)