What graphic
Department of Industrial Design
designers say
they do
Paul J. Nini
This paper reports the results
of a survey of 1500 US graphic
designers. Respondents pro­
vided information about their
levels of involvement with pro­
ject-related information gather­
ing and analysis, planning, and
end-user evaluation. While
there are significant levels of
involvement in some of these
activities, comments made by
respondents reveal that
involvement with information
gathering and analysis, plan­
ning, and end-user evaluation
is mostly informal. That is,
they are often conducted with­
out a formal methodology, and
are often not mentioned in pro­
ject proposals and other relat­
ed documents.
This suggests an opportun­
ity for graphic designers to
adopt a formal method for
incorporating information gath­
ering and analysis, planning,
and end-user evaluation in
their design processes. This
could allow graphic designers
to construct a process compa­
rable to more respected pro­
fessions, and should promote
design solutions geared more
closely to the needs of audi­
ences. There is still much
room for improvement in the
areas of information gathering
and analysis, planning, and
end-user evaluation in the
practice of graphic design.
Information Design Journal 8:2 (1996), 181-188. DOI 10.1075/idj.8.2.06nin
ISSN 0142-5471/ Ε-ISSN 1569-979X © John Benjamins Publishing Company
People who work in fields which involve them in Author's address
problem-solving activities (medicine, engineer­
The Ohio State University
ing, etc.) often follow a process that consists of 380 Hopkins Hall
the following basic steps: identification of a 128 North Oval Mall
Columbus, OH 43210-1318
problem; gathering and analysis of information; USA
development of a plan; designing a solution; pnini@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu
evaluating the solution; producing and intro­ Paul J. Nini is Assistant Professor
and Coordinator of the Visual Com­
ducing the solution; and evaluating responses
munication Design Program at the
to the solution. Feedback into the process can Department of Industrial Design, The
occur at any point, so that steps can be repeated Ohio State University. He acknow­
ledges his institution's financial sup­
as necessary to refine the final outcome. port of the work reported here.
This process does not appear to exist in a
formal or rigorous way in graphic design. My
experience in, and observation of, the field
seems to suggest that graphic designers are
quite adept at designing, producing and intro­
ducing solutions (as designed messages), but
that these are based on little if any information
gathering and analysis. Likewise, it is rare to
find graphic designers who solicit end-user eval­
uation of their efforts, whether in prototypical
or final form. This may explain why many
graphic designers find themselves with a less
than favorable professional status.
Part of my research into graphic designers'
methods involved a large survey of professional
designers that attempted to measure their
involvement with information gathering and
analysis, design planning, and with end-user
evaluation. T h e survey and its results are
described below.
The questionnaire
A questionnaire was constructed that contained
the following topics: about the respondents and
the design organizations with whom they
worked, about project initiation and design pro­
cess; about activities prior to form-making,* * Here I use 'form making'
about activities during form-making; there was to signify the creation of proto­
also space for additional free comments. typical and actual visual com­
munications.
181
 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do

The questionnaire was mailed in December 1.1 Respondents

1993 to 1500 professional graphic designers, Number of years experience in the graphic design
geographically distributed across the United profession (respondents were asked to mark one
States. The mailing list was carefully construct- response only)
ed from graphic design professional organiza- Over 20 years 30.7% (93 respondents)
tion directories, so that a cross-section of 16 to 20 years 18.3% (55)
appropriate graphic designers would be sur- 11 to 15 years 32.2% (97)
veyed. Freelancers, for instance, who are gener- 6 to 10 years 11.9% (36)
ally hired on a per-project basis, were not 1 to 5 years 06.9% (21)
included in the survey, as their opportunities for Less than 1 year 00.0% (0)
involvement with information gathering and
Level of design degrees completed (respondents were
analysis activities are generally not extensive. asked to mark one response only)
Also, allied, junior, and institutional profession- PhD 00.0% (0 respondents)
al organization members were not surveyed. Master-level 18.3% (56)
Sample size and response rate Bachelor-level 66.6% (201)
Associate-level 03.6% (10)
302 fully-completed questionnaires were
No degree 05.9% (18)
returned and included in the findings, resulting
Other 05.6% (17)
in a 20 per cent response rate. While this rate is
fairly low, the sample size is of an acceptable Comments
quantity from which to draw conclusions. A low Over 80 per cent of the respondents had 11 or
response rate might be interpreted as a majority more years of experience in the graphic design
of interested respondents influencing the profession, and held a bachelor or master-level
results, as uninterested members of the target- design degree. T h e respondent group can be
ted group probably did not bother to respond to characterized, therefore, as both experienced
the questionnaire. So it may be that the levels of and well-educated. T h e majority of respondents
involvement with information gathering and listed their titles as either principal, director, or
analysis activities reported here may be inflated president of their organizations, and indicated
somewhat beyond their occurrence in the field. their involvement in a wide variety of creative
and management activities. N o significant rela-
tionships between higher levels of experience or
The results of the questionnaire education, and greater involvement with infor-
mation gathering and analysis activities were
found, however.
Section 1: Profiles of respondents and their
organizations 1.2 Design organizations
This section of the questionnaire consisted Types of graphic design organizations (respondents were
of two sub-sections. The first requested demo- asked to mark one response only)
graphic information from the respondent Consulting firms 73.8% (223 respondents)
(experience and education), and the second In-house departments 26.2% (79)
concerned the design organization with who
they worked (size, client-base, types of
services, etc.)

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182
 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do

Number of regular, full-time employees within graphic Types of clients served by graphic design organizations
design organizations (respondents were asked to mark (respondents were asked to mark all applicable respons­
one response only) es)
Over 50 07.3% (22 respondents) International organizations 55.6% (168 respondents)
30 to 50 03.4% (10) National organizations 79.4% (240)
20 to 29 03.9% (12) Regional organizations 66.9% (202)
10 to 19 08.9% (27) Local organizations 71.9% (217)
5 to 9 14.6% (44)
Activities of clients served by graphic design organiza-
lto5 61.9% (187)
tions (respondents were asked to mark all applicable
responses)
Number of regular, full-time employees working as
graphic designers (respondents were asked to list a Manufacturing organizations 68.2% (206 respondents)
specific number) Service organizations 86.8% (262)
Responses varied from a high of 60 full-time graphic design Retail organizations 53.9% (163)
employees to a low of one. The average number of graphic Cultural organizations 52.3% (158)
design employees was 4.1.
Comments
Comments
Again, these results appear to reflect norms for
T h e breakdown of design organization types
the field, with graphic design organizations pro-
and number of graphic design employees
viding services to various types of clients
appear to be representative of norms for the
involved in a wide variety of activities.
field in the US.
Types of graphic design services provided (respondents
Other disciplines employed by graphic design
were asked to mark all applicable responses)
organizations, or that organizations regularly interact
with (respondents were asked to mark all applicable Corporate identification 90.1% (272 respondents)
responses and list disciplines under Other') Print/editorial 91.0% (275)
Product designers 16.2% (49 respondents) Product packaging 56.3% (170)
Interior designers 12.9% (39) Environmental/retail 49.0% (148)
Architectural designers 17.2% (52) Multi-media/interactive 26.1% (79)
Writers/editors 68.5% (207)
Comments
Photographers/Illustrators 75.8% (229)
Others 38.4% (116) These results suggest that traditional, print-
based communications (trademarks, business
Comments stationery, brochures, etc.) continue to make up
These results suggest that graphic design the majority of services provided by graphic
organizations most commonly interact with designers. Environmental and retail work (e.g.
those directly involved in the production of product packaging and signage/way-finding sys-
their work. Printers., service bureaus, and paper tems) also represent significant services for the
companies were typical responses in the field. Interactive multimedia design, while
‘ O t h e r s 'category. Only a small percentage of clearly a 'buzz-word' at the moment, has not
respondents (approximately 8%) wrote-in yet made a widespread impact on graphic
collaborators involved with developing design design practice.
rationale, such as market researchers or design
evaluation experts.

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 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do

Instances of recognition in national or international that greater input in determining their involve­
publications and/or exhibits in the last three years ment occurs more commonly with long-term
(respondents were asked to mark one response only) clients.
Over 20 15.5% (47 respondents)
10 to 19 20.5% (62) The design organization's response to initiating a project
0to9 64.0% (193) (respondents were asked to mark one response only and
to provide a short, written explanation)
Comments
Acceptance of client's brief 23.6% (70 respondents)
Many respondents commented that they do not Open-ended problem inquiry 56.6% (171)
enter design competitions, and therefore would Tightly-directed inquiry 19.8% (61)
not have their work published or exhibited.
These sentiments seem to echo the growing dis- Comments
satisfaction with competitions that is evident in A majority of respondents indicate that some
much current graphic design literature. type of problem-inquiry takes place at initiation
of a project. Written responses typically stress
Section 2: Information gathering and the need to obtain information beyond that sup­
analysis activities plied by the client at this point in a project's
This section of the questionnaire consisted of development.
three sub-sections. The first requested informa- The final outcome of a project can best be defined as
tion concerning initiation of projects, while the (respondents were asked to mark one response only and
second and third were concerned with design to provide a short, written explanation)
organizations' involvement with inquiry-based Client-requested work 09.6% (29 respondents)
activities prior to form-making, and evaluation Designer-defined work 06.3% (19)
activities during form-making. Work defined by both 84.1% (254)

2. ι Project initiation and design process Party bearing responsibility to determine use of design
efforts (respondents were asked to mark one response
The scope of the design organization's involvement with
only and to provide a short, written explanation)
a project is typically determined by (respondents were
asked to mark one response only and to provide a short, The client organization 49.5% (149 respondents)
written explanation) The design organization 46.9% (142)
The client organization 65.6% (198 respondents) Marketing consultants 03.6% (11)
Client/design negotiation 14.2% (43)
The design organization 19.8% (69)
Comments
A third-party organization 00.4% (2) Respondents overwhelmingly indicate that the
outcome of their work involves collaboration
Comments with the client, suggesting a partnership in
A majority of respondents indicate that the determining how design efforts are used. On the
client typically determines their involvement other hand, when asked to name the party bear­
with a project, while a smaller percentage indi­ ing ultimate responsibility for the use of design
cate that they determine their involvement, or efforts, responses split almost evenly between
negotiate their involvement with the client. the client and design organizations. Most writ­
Typical written responses state that most graph­ ten comments indicated that respondents felt
ic designers are not in the position to determine that graphic designers probably should bear
their involvement with projects, particularly responsibility for determining the use of their
with new clients. Many respondents indicate efforts, but that many clients feel free to ignore

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 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do

advice, or to not fully implement proposed design efforts. Typical written responses to this
solutions. This may suggest that many graphic question mention that this activity might be
designers are perceived by clients as suppliers of performed by other consultants or in-house per-
a service, as opposed to strategic-level advisors. sonnel outside the design organization. Many
negative respondents indicated that they would
2.2 Activities prior to form-making
not perform this service unless it was specifically
Does the design organization typically gather information
requested by the client.
related to a client's project? (respondents were asked to
mark one response only and to provide a short, written Many respondents commented that the
explanation) above activities are most often performed infor-
Yes 87.5% (264 respondents) mally, without mention in project proposals,
No 12.5% (38) and without a formal methodology. Even
though the number of responses concerning
Does the design organization typically analyse design information gathering and analysis activities is
efforts of other organizations in competition with a statistically significant, the number of graphic
client? (respondents were asked to mark one response
only and to provide a short, written explanation)
designers who perform these activities with a
Yes 54.6% (165 respondents)
formal methodology is much less.
No 45.4% (137) 2.3 Activities during form-making
Does the design organization typically develop a plan or
Does the design organization typically analyse design
written document discussing rationale for design
efforts that a client has attempted in the past? (respon­
efforts? (respondents were asked to mark one response
dents were asked to mark one response only and to pro­
only and to provide a short, written explanation)
vide a short, written explanation)
Yes 41.7% (126 respondents)
Yes 68.5% (207 respondents)
No 58.3% (176)
No 31.5% (95)
Does the design organization typically solicit user input
Does the design organization typically engage in efforts
during the concept development stage? (respondents
to identify areas where design efforts can be more effec-
were asked to mark one response only and to provide a
tively used? (respondents were asked to mark one
short, written explanation)
response only and to provide a short, written explanation)
Yes 40.9% (124 respondents)
Yes 70.2% (212 respondents)
No 59.1% (178)
No 29.8% (90)

Comments Does the design organization typically solicit user evalu-

ation of communication prototypes? (respondents were
Responses indicate that graphic designers are,
asked to mark one response only and to provide a short,
on a whole, involved in information gathering written explanation)
activities prior to form-making. A significant Yes 32.1% (97 respondents)
majority respond that they gather project- No 67.9% (205)
related information, but the percentage of posi-
tive responses declines when queried about Does the design organization typically solicit user evalu-
particular activities. ation of final designed communications? (respondents
were asked to mark one response only and to provide a
Most respondents indicate that they review
short, written explanation)
past client design efforts, and identify areas
Yes 28.5% (86 respondents)
where new design efforts can be used more
No 71.5% (216)
effectively. T h e least amount of activity appears
to take place with analysis of competitors'

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 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do
Comments
Responses indicate that a majority of graphic
designers do not engage in planning and user
evaluation activities during the form-making
phases of the design process. Moreover, it
appears that involvement with these types of
activities lessens as the design process draws
to a close.
As mentioned in the Comments on section
2.2 above, written responses indicate that those
involved with the activities in question often
perform them on an informal basis, without
mention in project proposals, and without a
formal methodology.
Written responses also indicate that approxi-
mately one-quarter of positive respondents
interpreted the user evaluation questions to
mean evaluation by client representatives (i.e.
'we show mock-ups to the client'). While mem-
bers of the client organization could be consid-
ered users of designed communications in
certain cases (sales personnel are significant
users in respect to sales and price literature, for
instance), they probably should not be consid-
ered so in all instances. Positive responses that
contained written comments indicating this
(incorrect) interpretation of the above questions
were tabulated nonetheless, so the positive
responses shown above may be slightly inflated.
A written comment commonly made by those
responding negatively to the above questions
can be paraphrased as 'If we have done our jobs
correctly, there is no need for these types of
activities.' While this point is obviously debat-
able, it does indicate a certain lack of interest in
incorporating planning and user evaluation
activities among the negative respondents.
Section 3: Additional free comments
T h e final section of the questionnaire enabled
respondents to make any additional written
comments concerning the issues and activities
surveyed. The majority of these responses could
Information design journal 8/2 (1996) 181-188
186
be classified as supportive of information
gathering and analysis, planning, and end-user
evaluation. Non-supportive comments tended
to be similar to those paraphrased in section 2.3
above, where respondents did not feel the need
to employ formal information gathering and
analysis activities. Others indicated that their
clients were quite adept at handling these
activities.
Still others expressed a desire to become
involved with information gathering and analy-
sis, but indicated that it would be difficult to do
so given current economic conditions, tight
client budgets, and their unfamiliarity with
these activities.
A selection of supportive free comments
(from 6 different respondents) appear below:
1. 'Our field is remarkably informal in
research and related areas. Outside focus
groups by third parties are unusual.'
2. 'I believe it is critical if we are to be com-
municators thru design that we are responsible
for the work we do being truly effective commu-
nications. Knowledge of marketing and follow
up on success (are) critical to understanding.
Mere design decoration is not the business we
are in, though too many do just this and charge
too much. Our purpose is to further our client's
business, not be fine artists.'
3. 'The field of graphic design needs to
improve its professional standards. In fifty
years, things will be much better. For now, it is
a confused and frustrated field of endeavor.
Environmental graphic design has proven to be
less competitive, much more respected and very
lucrative, albeit a difficult profession to master.'
4. ' T o compete successfully in today's crowd-
ed design marketplace, a design firm must be
able to provide services that include all aspects
of marketing, research, product development,
federal and international law (for packaging leg-
islation, for instance), product evaluation, etc.
In many respects, marketing consultants and
 Paul J. Nini - What graphic designers say they do
design consultants are becoming one and the
same - particularly in the packaging design
field, our area of focus.'
5. 'It is our responsibility as designers to edu-
cate clients to our need to gather and analyse
information as an absolutely necessary part of
the design process. Most clients do not under-
stand the need for this phase of a project.'
6. 'Please be aware that we are identity con-
sultants and our work is primarily in corporate,
brand and retail identification. The analysis and
planning aspects of problem solving are always
integral to (our) design process.'
Comments
Respondents working predominantly in the
environmental, packaging, and corporate iden-
tification areas of the graphic design profession
claim to have a more formal methodology than
the rest of the field, and greater involvement
with information gathering, analysis, planning,
and evaluation activities. Questionnaire results
indicate that this claim has merit, as these spe-
cialized respondents, when isolated as a group,
have significantly higher positive response rates
to questions concerning those activities.
Discussion: implications of these findings
T h e typical consulting organization, though
relatively small and working with a variety of
client-types, might consider incorporating for-
mal information gathering and analysis activi-
ties in its practice (including such activities in
proposals, for instance). This should be
approached in a flexible manner, however.
Not all clients can be 'educated' to appreciate
the value of these activities, and not all design-
ers will be comfortable engaging in them.
Developing strategic partnerships with market
researchers, user-evaluation experts, or other
specialists might be a logical first step towards
Information design journal 8/2 (1996) 181-188
187
becoming familiar with these activities, and
learning how to adapt them to the needs of the
graphic designer.
In-house design departments appear to
have their own unique set of problems in the
areas of information gathering and analysis.
Their responses, when isolated as a group, were
somewhat lower than the consultant designers.
The need for client education, strategic partner-
ships, etc. appears to be even greater with this
group. Some written respondents from in-
house departments indicate that these designers
feel isolated from the development of an organi-
zation's messages, as they are typically brought
in at the end of the process, and deal with visual
format only. Some, in fact, suggested that a spe-
cial study of in-house design departments be
launched, so that their particular situation
could be explored in more depth.
In each case, augmentation of traditional
graphic design services with information gather-
ing and analysis activities could benefit design-
ers, their clients, and end-users. By formalizing
the activities covered in this survey, graphic
designers might go a long way toward con-
structing a rigorous process comparable to
other, more respected professions. Allowing
end-users to evaluate designers' efforts through-
out the form-making steps of the design process
could result in messages better suited to the
needs of audiences. These types of messages are
probably also of a strategic value to most
clients, as they would be able to provide their
customers with highly-useful information.
Most graphic designers have no system in
place to measure the effect of their work on an
intended audience. Professional recognition
currently consists of peer-approval through a
variety of publications and competitions, where
emphasis is almost exclusively on the develop-
ment of sophisticated graphic form. T h e use of
information gathering, analysis, and evaluation
techniques might provide graphic designers
 Paul J. Nini ■ What graphic designers say they do

with a more significant method to establish the

success of their efforts. Greater documentation
of successful audience-based graphic design
projects could supply the profession with a
more obvious means to demonstrate its value.
If the graphic design field is to progress
beyond its current status, it must provide an
alternative to business as usual. Technology
will only continue to improve, and with that
improvement comes the threat of an eroding
of the field. It is no longer enough for graphic
designers to say that they hold the secrets to
creating sophisticated visual form, because soon
everyone will have professional-level tools for
that purpose on their desktop. It is the effective-
ness of visual communications that should set
professional work apart from work created by
non-designers. If graphic designers do not take
steps to ensure that this value is added to their
work, they must face the possibility of their pro-
fession becoming increasingly marginalized.
This survey of the field indicates that there
is still much to be done.

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