Period 3.

Vs Testing Methods/Correlations

Methods to Measure Shear Wave Velocity

Field Methods: Lab Methods:

Seismic Surface Waves Free-Free Resonant Column

Crosshole Seismic Fixed-Free Resonant Column
Downhole Seismic Cyclic Triaxial
Seismic Refraction
Seismic CPT
P-S Suspension Logging

1
 Field Methods

Seismic Surface Waves

Crosshole Seismic
Downhole Seismic
Seismic Refraction
Seismic CPT
P-S Suspension Logging

Surface Wave Methods

Basic steps:
1) Surface waves are generated and measured at the ground surface
2) Spectral analysis is performed
3) Wave velocity is calculated as a function of wavelength
4) Velocity versus wavelength is inverted to derive shear
wave velocity profile (shear wave velocity versus depth)

Commonly used methods include:

• Spectral-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves (SASW)
• Multichannel-Analysis-of-Surface-Waves (MASW)
• Refraction Microtremor (ReMi)

2
 The SASW Method
Signal Analyzer
Source

Geophones

Rayleigh waves

SASW Data Acquisition

3
 SASW Data Acquisition Steps
1. Time-domain data are acquired for the near and far geophone
spaced a distance D apart
20
Near Receiver
10

0
Geophone output (millivolts)

-10

-20

20
Far Receiver
10

-10

-20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (seconds)

SASW Data Acquisition Steps

2. Spectral content of the time-domain records is analyzed and differences
in phase between the two receivers are calculated
as a function of frequency

1800
Phase Difference, 

0 Frequency, f

-1800

4
 SASW Data Acquisition Steps
3. The resulting wrapped phase spectrum yields the relative difference in
phase. The unwrapped spectrum yields the absolute phase difference
1800 Wrapped

0 Frequency

-1800

SASW Data Acquisition Steps

3. The resulting wrapped phase spectrum yields the relative difference in
phase. The unwrapped spectrum yields the absolute phase difference
1800 Wrapped

0 Frequency

-1800
Phase Difference, 
Unwrapped

-5400

-9000 Unwrapped

5
 SASW Data Acquisition Steps
4. The unwrapped phase spectrum is used to calculate Rayleigh-mode
surface wave velocity as a function of wavelength (the dispersion curve)

Experimental Dispersion Curve:

V = f
600

Surface Wave Velocity (m/s)

Experimental
and 500 Model
400
 = 2D/,
300

where: 200

100
St. Michel Profile 2
V = surface wave velocity; 0
 = wavelength; 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
100
f = frequency; Wavelength (m)
D = geophone spacing; and
 = unwrapped phase difference

Why are Surface Waves Dispersive?

Consider two wavelengths of surface wave energy
Wavelength 1: short wavelength, shallow penetration depth
Wavelength 2: long wavelength, deeper penetration depth

1 1
Soft Soil
Soft Soil

2 2

Stiff Soil

6
 Why are Surface Waves Dispersive?
Wavelength 1: affected by soft layer (slower)
Surface Wave Velocity Wavelength 2: affected by soft layer and stiff layer (faster)

Dispersion Curve: contains information about

how stiffness varies with depth because
surface waves are dispersive

Wavelength

Derivation of the
Shear Wave Velocity Profile
2. A sounding of shear wave velocity with depth is derived by modeling
or inverting the experimental surface wave dispersion curve

600
Surface Wave Velocity (m/s)

500
Experimental INVERSION OR
Model
400
FORWARD MODELING
300

200

100
St. Michel Profile 2 0
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 10 100 5
Wavelength (m)
10
Depth (m)

15

20

25
St. Michel Profile 2
30
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Shear Wave Velocity (m/s)

7
 SASW Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Inexpensive to perform
• Produces reliable results

Disadvantages
• Usage is less common than the newer MASW Method

The MASW Method

Seismograph
Source

Geophones

Rayleigh waves

• MASW was developed as an alternative to SASW where data can be

acquired using more readily available multiple-channel seismographs

• Derivation of experimental surface wave dispersion data is more

automated with MASW and is more user-friendly

8
 MASW Data Acquisition Steps
1. Multiple-channel (typ. 24) geophone array is deployed in a line with
geophone spacing on the order of a meter or so.

MASW Data Acquisition Steps

2. Ground is struck on one end with an impulsive source (hammer) and the
resulting surface wave is recorded at the geophones with a seismograph

9
 MASW Data Acquisition Steps
3. The time-offset seismic data are analyzed to calculate correlation
strength associated with any combination of velocity and frequency;
high correlation corresponds to the dispersion curve

MASW Data Acquisition Steps

4. The dispersion curve is inverted to derive the shear wave velocity profile

10
 MASW Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Technology is automated and accessible to the typical practitioner
• Produces reliable results

Disadvantages
• Field equipment is expensive

The Refraction Microtremor

(ReMi) Method
Seismograph

Geophones

Rayleigh waves

• ReMi is similar to MASW in data acquisition but utilizes passive seismic

energy (background vibrations) as a source

11
 ReMi Data Acquisition Steps
1. A multiple-channel (typ. 24) geophone array is deployed in a straight
line with a geophone spacing on the order of a few meters

2. Ambient background vibrations are passively recorded from

all directions over a period of several minutes
3. Correlation coefficients are calculated for each combination of
slowness (reciprocal of velocity) and frequency.

ReMi Data Acquisition Steps

4. Energy arriving parallel to the array has the highest slowness.
All other energy appears to be traveling at lower slowness.
The velocity-frequency correlation data are enveloped and the
envelope is interpreted as the dispersion curve

Dispersion Curve
(envelope of
highest slowness)

12
 ReMi Data Acquisition Steps
5. The resulting dispersion curve is modeled or inverted to calculate the
shear wave velocity profile

ReMi Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Technology is automated and accessible to the typical practitioner
• No seismic source is needed

Disadvantages
• Field equipment is expensive
• User cannot control the seismic energy used in the analysis
• Selection of dispersion curve is somewhat subjective

13
 Crosshole Seismic Method
vs

Source Receiver Receiver Source

Depth
Data acquisition
Results

Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps

1. Drill 2-4 vertically oriented holes with a surface spacing of 10.0 ft

2. Insert casing and cement the casing in place

14
Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps
3. Perform an inclinometer survey of each borehole

Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps

4. Calculate the accurate spacing between boreholes as a function
of depth

5. Place 3-component geophones in two of the holes (their orientation

must be known) at a starting depth

15
Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps
6. Place a seismic source (wedge, hammer, etc.) in one of the outer
holes at the same depth as the geophones

Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps

7. Energize the source to generate P- and S-waves

16
Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps
8. Measure the interval travel time of the wave between the two
receiver holes

9. Calculate wave velocities (V) at the depth corresponding to the

depth of the source and geophones

V = x/t
where x and t are the borehole spacing and interval travel
time respectively

Crosshole Seismic Acquisition Steps

10. Repeat the measurement at different depths to obtain the wave
velocity profile for the site

0
S-wave
P-wave
10

20
Depth (ft)

30

40

50

60

70
0 2000 4000 6000
Velocity (ft/s)

17
Crosshole Seismic Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Provides precise resolution of variations in shear wave velocity
with depth
• Allows for identification of thin layers at greater depths
• Can be used to estimate in situ material damping (with 4 borings)

Disadvantages
• Requires drilling and casing of two or more boreholes
• Requires use of inclinometer survey
• Geophone orientation must be known
• Overall cost can be high
• Casing should be plastic and tools should fit in the hole

Downhole Seismic Method

vs
Depth

Data Acquisition Results

18
Downhole Seismic Acquisition Steps
1. Drill one vertically oriented hole
2. Insert casing and cement the casing in place

3. Place 3-component geophone in the hole (its orientation

must be known) at a starting depth

Downhole Seismic Acquisition Steps

4. Place a seismic source (weighted plank) at the ground surface
5. Hit the plank with a hammer to generate seismic waves

19
Downhole Seismic Acquisition Steps
6. Measure the travel time of the wave between the ground
surface and the plank

Wave propagates a distance

of x1 in a time interval of t1

Downhole Seismic Acquisition Steps

7. Move the geophone in the hole, repeat the measurement and use
the difference in arrival time to calculate interval wave velocities

Wave propagates a distance

of x2 in a time interval of t2

Interval velocity = (x1-x2)/(t1-t2)

20
 Downhole Seismic Acquisition Steps
8. Repeat the measurement at different depths to obtain the wave
velocity profile for the site

20

40
Depth (ft)

60

80

100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Shear Wave Velocity, vs (ft/s)

Downhole Seismic Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Provides precise resolution of variations in shear wave velocity
with depth
• Allows for identification of thin layers at greater depths
• Requires fewer borings and no inclinometer survey

Disadvantages
• Requires drilling and casing of a boreholes
• Data quality at greater depths may be affected by damping
• Casing should be plastic and geophone should fit in the hole

21
 Seismic Refraction Method

Multiple-Channel
Seismograph

Horiz. Horizontal
Source Geophones (24+)

S-waves Layer 1, v
s1

Layer 2, vs2 > vs1

Seismic Refraction Method

Seismic Sources

Geophone Deployment

Layer 1 vs1

Layer 2 vs2

Layer 3 vs3

Acquisition Instrument
Typical Cross-Section

22
 Seismic Refraction Acquisition Steps
1. Place an array of horizontally-oriented geophones in a straight line
2. Strike the ground with a horizontally oriented source at
multiple points along the straight line
3. Continue data acquisition along the desired length of the profile
4. Process the data to obtain a two-dimensional cross section showing
5. Variations in wave velocity with depth and lateral position.

Refraction Seismic Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Provides two-dimensional shear wave velocity profile using
robust user-friendly software
• Utilizes readily available seismic data acquisition equipment

Disadvantages
• Expertise is required to design an effective data acquisition plan
• Large amounts of expensive geophysical equipment is required
• Challenges exist in generating horizontally polarized S-waves

23
 Seismic CPT

Tip Sleeve Pore

Resistance Friction Pressure vs

Depth

Results
Data acquisition

Seismic CPT

• Similar to downhole seismic in data acquisition approach

• Multiple sensors in CPT tool allow wave velocity to be
calculated with only one reading
• Cost-effective alternative when CPT testing is already planned
• Does not require soil borings

24
 PS Suspension Logger

Depth
vs
Data acquisition
Results

Suspension Logging Acquisition Steps

1. Drill a borehole and cement a plastic water-filled casing in place

2. Lower the tool to the bottom of the boring and begin logging
from the bottom up

3. A near continuous sounding of wave velocity (P and S) as a function

of depth is created

How it works: Mode conversion from coupled

P-wave to S-wave and back to coupled P-wave

25
 Suspension Logging Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Allows for creating of a near-continuous P- and S-wave velocity
sounding
• Test is automated and can work at great depths

Disadvantages
• Expensive and requires a large amount of expertise (like CPT)
• Casing should be plastic and tool should fit in hole

Laboratory Methods

Free-Free Resonant Column

Fixed-Free Resonant Column
Cyclic Triaxial

26
 Free-Free Resonant Column
1. Specimen is suspended laterally by elastic straps

2. Specimen may be encased in membrane and subjected to vacuum

to provide effective stress and strength

3. Accelerometers are fixed to one end of the specimen to measure

acceleration associated with torsional displacem et

4. Opposite end of specimen is excited in torsion with a “tweaker”

Free-Free Resonant Column Steps

5. Specimen oscillates in torsion

0.2
Vacuum: 69 kPa
Cell Pressure : 55 kPa
o': 124 kPa
0.1 Max. Amplitude: 0.19 v
Amplitude (v)

0.0

-0.1

-0.2
0 20 40 60 80
Time (ms)

27
 Free-Free Resonant Column Steps
6. Spectral content of accelerometers is analyzed to identify
torsional resonant frequency, fn

-6
120x10
Vacuum: 69 kPa
100 Cell Pressure : 55 kPa
o': 124 kPa
Amplitude (v )

fn : 538 Hz
2

80
No. of Averages: 10
60

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800
Frequency (Hz)

Free-Free Resonant Column Steps

7. Calculate shear wave velocity as a function of resonant frequency and

cylinder length, L:

Vs = 2Lfn

NOTE: This equation neglects the effect of instrumentation inertia on the

Resonant frequency. Some correction may be required

28
 Free-Free Resonant Column
Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Allows for accurate calculation of shear wave velocity, P-
wave velocity and material damping
• Test is relatively simple and inexpensive

Disadvantages
• Does not allow large-strain measurements to be performed

Fixed-Free Resonant Column

(ASTM D4015)
1. Specimen is situated vertically in a triaxial cell

2. System of magnets and coils is fixed to the top of the specimen

to impart large dynamic torsional excitation to the specimen

Pressurized Cell

Magnet

Top cap 2 Accelerometers

Top Cap
A A’
Coil

8 Coils Soil in
triaxial
membrane

4 Magnets

Fixed Base

Top View Cross Section A-A’

29
 Fixed-Free Resonant Column
Photographs of Typical Equipment

Fixed-Free Resonant Column

(ASTM D4015)
3. Coils are driven over a range of frequencies and the response
of the specimen is measured in terms of torsional displacement

4. Frequency corresponding to maximum torsional displacement is

the torsional resonant frequency of the specimen
Displacement

fn Frequency

30
 Fixed-Free Resonant Column
(ASTM D4015)

5. The shear wave velocity of the specimen is calculated as:

Vs = 4Lfn
NOTE: This equation neglects the effect of instrumentation inertia on the
resonant frequency. Correction for inertia is required

Fixed-Free Resonant Column

(ASTM D4015)
6. Repeating the test at larger shear strains (i.e. higher driving
voltages in the coil) allows for the generation of modulus
reduction curves
Normalized Shear Modulus

1.0
Material Damping

Shear Strain Shear Strain

31
 Fixed-Free Resonant Column
Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Allows for accurate calculation of shear wave velocity, P-
wave velocity and material damping
• Allows for modulus reduction behavior to be measured

Disadvantages
• Relatively complicated and expensive test

Cyclic Triaxial Test

(ASTM D3999)
1. Specimen is situated vertically in a triaxial cell and saturated

2. Specimen is loaded axially using low-frequency cyclic loading

32
 Cyclic Triaxial Test
(ASTM D3999)
3. Stress-strain behavior is used to calculate Young’s Modulus (E);
equal to axial stress over axial strain

4. Young’s modulus is converted to shear modulus (G) by assuming

a Poisson’s ratio  of 0.5 since the specimen is saturated
(i.e. G = E/3)

Cyclic Triaxial Test (ASTM D3999)

5. Cyclic shear stress (cyc) is calculated as one half
of the cyclic deviator stress

6. Shear strain () is calculated as stress/modulus ( = cyc /G)

7. The test is repeated over a range of load amplitudes to develop

a modulus reduction curve
Normalized Shear Modulus

1.0

Shear Strain

33
 Fixed-Free Resonant Column
Pros and Cons

Advantages:
• Allows for cyclic resistance to be measured
• Allows for modulus reduction behavior to be measured

Disadvantages
• Relatively complicated and expensive test
• Not recommended unless cyclic triaxial testing (ASTM D5311)
is already planned

Correlation of Vs to Other
Field Measurements

SPT Blow Count

CPT Tip Resistance

34
 Correlation of Vs to SPT Blow Count
Generic Format:

Vs = C(N60)n,

where
Vs = shear wave velocity
N60 = SPT Blow Count
C, n = regression coefficients

Comments:
• Lots of correlations exist in literature
• Correlations exhibit a large amount of
variability
• Correlations claim to be site- or soil-specific
• Overburden correction does not
significantly affect the quality of the
correlation
• One could perform a probabilistic
analysis…

Probabilistic Analysis of Vs-SPT Data

1000
8
5%
Shear Wave Velocity, vs (m/s)

6
20%
4
50%
80%
2 95%

100
8
6

10
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2
1 10 100
Probability of Exceeding Target vS

SPT Blow Count, N60 (blows/ft) 100

80

60

40

20

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 10 100
SPT Blow Count, N60 (blows/ft)

35
Correlation of Vs to CPT Tip Resistance

36