EG306 - Fire & Gas Detection and Alarm Systems

Occidental Oil and Gas Corporation
Engineering Guide
Title Document No.
FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

Revision No. Approved Effective Date Page No.
1 Bryan D. Humphries 1/1/2001 1 of 16
Please refer to EG-300 — “General” to place this guide in context and for overall
purpose and scope, general requirements, applicability, variances, and glossary of
terms.
1.0 THIS GUIDE IS UNDERGOING ADDITIONAL REVISION, BUT SHOULD

BE USED IN THE PRESENT FORM.
2. SCOPE
This document provides assistance on the design of the fire & gas detection
system as well as for the alarm system in order to achieve the minimization
of risk and potential damage of a hazardous event. Key to the minimization of
a hazardous event is the isolation and shutdown of the system as rapidly as
possible. Therefore, detection of the release, transmission of the message and
remedial action are the three steps involved in the process.
In addition, it gives a framework of prudent recommendations as to the types
and locations of detectors that should be deployed, and the reaction of the
system to an initiating event.
3. PURPOSE
The intent of this design philosophy is to establish criteria for the detection,
communication and annunciation of hazardous events. The objectives are to
provide:
 Detection of hazardous conditions or events.
 Communication of the hazard to a central location.
 Provide means to initiate action to alert personnel of the hazard.
 Allow for automated initiation of preventive measures as required.
4. GENERAL
The following provisions should apply to all fire & gas detection and alarm
systems:
 The size and type of any fire & gas detection and alarm system is
dependent upon the size, location, hazards, personnel complement, etc.
 To prevent false alarming of the fire & gas detection and alarm
system, and thereby the unnecessary shutdown of operations, multiple
sensor arrangements may be considered.
 The reliability of the fire & gas detection and alarm system needs to be
ensured by addressing and making provisions for the appropriate
arrangement of:
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

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 Power sources.
 Coverage provided by the system.
 Alarm function on loss of system operability.
 Suitability of detection devices for the risk involved.
 Testing and maintenance procedures.
 Provisions for two highly reliable sources of electric power should be

made. An alternating current (AC) power supply, with a trickle charger
supplying a battery backup is the usual arrangement. Batteries should last
for at least eight hours on loss of primary power, that span should be
increased to twelve hours if the primary source of power is unreliable.
Power supply should be monitored by a power-on LED on the control panel
and a main power failure alarm.
 Consideration should be given to “interlocks” of fire and gas detection
systems with related protection systems for the specific facility.
 Human factors consideration should be addressed in system design
and arrangement of fire and gas detection devices, including alarms and
annunciators.
5. DETECTION
The basic principles for the detection of fire and combustible/toxic gases are:
 Detection of smoke as an early warning of an emergency event.
 Detection of heat or flame for the actuation of the isolation systems
and/or fixed fire suppression systems.
 Detection of toxic gas for the protection of plant personnel and the
public.
Appropriate gas, flame, smoke and/or temperature detection systems should

be provided to indicate the nature of the hazard and its general location. The
detection logic should minimize spurious alarms and false responses while still
providing a high degree of safety.
5.1 Fire Detection

Where provided, should alert personnel of potential hazards and possibly
minimize damage. Fire detectors may be integrated into a system that
provides signals to shutdown equipment and isolate hydrocarbon sources
(e.g., wells, pipelines, etc.), activate alarms and initiate fire suppression
equipment (where applicable).

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The following provisions should be taken into consideration when designing

the appropriate fire detection system:
 Equipment required to control fires (e.g., electric generators powering
fire pumps) should not be automatically shutdown by the fire detection
system.
 The determination of the type of detector to be used should be based
on the types of hazardous material present, the electrical area
classification, the sensors, speed and any external effects that may cause
false alarming.
 Smoke detectors are used to detect the presence of products of
combustion. These detectors should be used in areas where personnel are
located or in enclosed areas which contain heat sources. Smoke detectors
should be used in control rooms, switchgear rooms, motor control centers,
offices, living quarters, and certain types of shops.
 Thermal detectors sense the presence of fire based on temperature.
Thermal detectors are commercially available in 57.2C and 93.3C (135F
and 200F) settings in both the “rate-of-rise” and “fixed-temperature”
modes. Thermal detectors should be used in areas where high-speed
detection is not required due to its relatively slow operation. Thermal
detectors can be used around engine or turbine drivers, above pumps
containing low flash point hydrocarbons, in certain process areas, and in
kitchen areas where smoke detectors are subject to false alarms.
 Flame detectors are optical fire detection devices. Electromagnetic
radiation can be detected at various spectral ranges, such as ultraviolet
(UV) or infrared (IR). Flame detectors have a fast response time and
should be used where speed of detection is critical.
UV detectors monitor short-wavelength radiation at high speeds. Due to the short-

wave characteristics of UV detectors, these devices are prone to false alarms that
are caused by random sources of UV radiation such as lightning, arc welding, etc.
IR detectors monitor long-wavelength radiation. Since many devices emit IR

radiation (ovens, lamps, furnaces, engine exhausts, etc.), various parameter
analysis techniques are used to prevent false alarms.
To minimize false alarms, devices that incorporate both UV and IR detection in one
instrument may be used. These devices are sensitive to the segments of the UV and
IR spectra that are associated with hydrocarbon fires.
Flame detectors may be used in compressor buildings and selected process areas.
The specific type of detector used in each location should be determined based on
operating parameters, loss potential and fire types.

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 In on-site buildings that have central heating, ventilation and air

conditioning (HVAC) systems, the triggering of smoke and gas detectors
should close off HVAC dampers or shutdown the system to keep fire,
smoke and gas from spreading to other areas of the building.
5.2 Combustible Gas Detection

Electronic gas detectors reliably detect the presence of combustible gases. In
general, hydrocarbon gas detectors are used in enclosed areas where the
movement of gas is reasonably predictable and it is likely that the gas
detectors will encounter any gas that may be present.
The following provisions should be considered:
 Gas detectors should be provided for local detection in certain
hydrocarbon process areas near high-hazard equipment. These areas
include gas turbines enclosures, low flash point hydrocarbon pump
buildings, gas compressor buildings, spill trenches and other low points
where LPG could travel or accumulate, and at or near large concentrations
of flanged control valves in flammable gas service.
 Gas detection should be provided in control rooms, switchgear rooms,
and other electrical rooms where the accumulation of gas poses a
potential hazard.
 In locating gas detectors, it should be considered whether the gas is
heavier or lighter than air and the wind direction, since these factors will
significantly affect its operation.
 Combustible gas detection systems should be set to alarm at not
greater than 25% of the lower explosive limit (LEL) and, if appropriate,
shut processes down at not greater than 60% LEL.
 Open-path gas detection may be considered where the accumulation
of gas can be effectively detected across a wide area.
 Gas detectors should provide both audible and visual alarms that
indicate when low-level concentrations of flammable or toxic gases are
present, especially in areas with high noise levels.
 In on-site buildings that have central HVAC systems, the triggering of
smoke and gas detectors should close off HVAC dampers or shutdown the
system to keep fire, smoke and gas from spreading to other areas of the
building.

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5.3 Toxic Gas Detection

Individual detectors in these systems are often referred to as “gas sensors”.
These gas sensors can be designed to detect a specific toxic gas or a number
of toxic gases.
 Toxic gas sensors are typically used in plant areas where people could
be exposed and process components are likely to leak. Prime examples
might be pump and compressor seals, valve packing, expansion joints,
flanged connections, etc.
 Toxic gas sensors should also be installed along egress ways from the
areas involving the processing of hydrogen sulfide gas.
 A toxic gas detection system should provide continuous monitoring and
warn of a gas leak before it reaches critical concentrations, causes injury
to people, or exceeds regulatory thresholds.
 Alarm setpoints vary according to the type of toxic gas monitored.
Toxic gas sensors installed to detect the presence of hydrogen sulfide shall
be set to activate audible and visual alarms at a concentration of 10 parts
per million (ppm).
 In on-site buildings that have central HVAC systems, the triggering of
smoke and gas detectors should close off HVAC dampers or shutdown the
system to keep fire, smoke and gas from spreading to other areas of the
building.
5.4 Low Temperature Detection

In facilities handling LPG’s and other refrigerated liquefied gases,
thermocouples or thermistors can be used as detector elements that may
provide early warning to personnel of a release. To minimize false alarms, the
set points of such detection elements shall be below the lowest anticipated
ambient temperature. Low temperature detection elements are available in
single point types that sense temperature at one specific location, and in
continuous strip types that sense temperature along their length.
The use of these detectors is particularly useful along pipeways and around
processing equipment. Impounding will assure that a release will contact the
detection element. This type of detection is commonly used in facilities
handling refrigerated liquefied gases, but is rarely used in pressurized
facilities.
Low temperature detectors are generally rugged, have a low false alarm rate,
and require little maintenance. They should be checked periodically for proper

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operation, preferably by using a non-flammable liquefied gas, such as liquid

nitrogen.
6. ALARM SYSTEMS
The alarm system should alert all personnel of a potential or actual fire hazard
or degradation in the safe working environment in the facility. Personnel,
once alerted, should take appropriate actions in order to contain the
emergency event, or to evacuate the area or facility.
The degree of sophistication and reliability of the alarm system should be
commensurate with the potential hazards involved and the training given (or
to be given) to the operating personnel. The system should be as simple as
possible to minimize the potential for confusion during emergencies.
Fire and gas detectors in each section of occupied facilities may be monitored
by a fire and gas annunciation panel where such system is installed. The fire
and gas annunciation panel, located in the main control room, should provide
a display of all fire and gas alarms as well as an audible alarm for each point
or detection zone during an event. The panel may also monitor the status and
operation of fire pumps and other automatic fire suppression systems.
 Local alarms should be provided to alert personnel to a fire, or the
presence of combustible or toxic material. Areas protected by the fire &
gas detection and alarm system should have sufficient audible and visual
alarms so that personnel will be alerted on an emergency condition in the
protected area, regardless of their location within battery limits.
 The control room should be provided with one audible and visual
alarm. The alarm panel should be able to indicate the location and nature
of the emergency event, and should be provided with a printer for
retention of all alarms and time of alarm.
 The general alarm system for the facility should consist of one or more
air horns or steam whistles strategically located to ensure maximum
coverage throughout the facility. There should be three distinct alarms
signals, each indicative of the following alarm situations: combustible or
toxic gas release, fire, and personnel evacuation. The alarm signals should
be clear and distinctive from similar signals used for other purposes.
 Suitable back up for general alarm should be provided.
 The facility general alarm visual mode should have the following
presentation:
 Flammable gas - Yellow optical beacon.
 Fire - Red optical beacon.

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 Personnel evacuation - Blue optical beacon.
6.1 Manual Fire Alarm Stations

The following issues should be considered:
 Manual fire alarm stations for manual reporting of fires should be
located in important areas of the facilities.
In the case of unmanned facilities, the facility should be evaluated to
determine whether its size and complexity justifies the use of manual
fire alarm stations.
 In addition to the alarm functions discussed above, a means of
communications should be continuously available throughout an
emergency. The ability to communicate is necessary for effective
combating of the emergency or evacuation of the facility.
In the case of unmanned facilities, the facility should be evaluated to
determine whether its size and complexity, as well as the frequency of
personnel visits justify the installation of a communication system.
7. MITIGATION
Once detected, means too initiate hazard mitigation systems should be
provided. The Fire & Gas Detection System should provide the following
functions as a minimum:
 Initiation of selected plant audible and visual alarms, as well as
displays in the main control room.
 Activation of the primary fire water pump(s).
 Activation of the various hazard control systems (foam, dry powder,
water spray and/or CO2).
 Activation of selected emergency shutdown functions and isolation via
the dedicated emergency shutdown system as required.

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Appendix A
Fire Detectors
Automatic fire detectors are not usually installed in process areas. However, these
devices shall be provided at remote, high-risk facilities such as offsite charge,
shipping and transfer pumps; crude oil tank mixers; computer rooms; and
operations with limited manpower or automated unattended operations.
Fire detectors operate on one of three principles: sensitivity to heat; reaction to
smoke or gaseous products of combustion; and/or flame radiation.
Heat Detectors — designed to respond when the detecting element reaches a
specific temperature or a specified rate of temperature change is sensed. Heat
detectors are the most common type of detectors used, and have the lowest false
alarm rate compared to other types of detectors. They provide general spot and
linear detection.
Proper location and spacing of heat detectors is crucial for proper area protection and
can have an effect on selection. Airflow is of considerable significance in the location
of heat detectors since heat has a tendency to be conveyed by airflow. Heat
detectors are particularly effective in areas where a high-rate-of-energy-release fire
can occur (i.e., flammable liquid-vapor fire). They are particularly ineffective where a
low-rate-of-energy-release fire might occur, such as in a control room or data
processing area.
Heat detectors fall into the following general categories:
 Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors — this type of detectors are
designed to respond to temperatures as low as 57.2ºC (135ºF) to
temperatures as high as 301.7ºC (575ºF). Fixed temperature heat
detectors can be used for area coverage or to protect specific
equipment. Equipment protected by these detectors is typically
equipment for which a postulated fire would have rapid flame spread
and high rates of heat release. Examples of such equipment are
cooling tower, lube-oil storage and transfer equipment, and diesel
engines. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are available in seven
types: bimetallic, fusible-element, quartzoid bulb, thermoelectric,
fusible thermal wire, linear thermistor, and heat-sensitive tubing. The
first four are spot type detecting devices and the remaining three are
line type detecting devices.
 Bimetallic Detectors — uses two metals bonded together, each
having a different coefficient of thermal expansion. When the device is
heated, the differences in expansion of the two metals cause the metal
to flex and close contact to complete a circuit. This type of detector is

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self-restoring and can be in a bimetal strip or bimetal snap disc

configuration.
 Fusible-element Detectors — uses a eutectic metal (alloys of
bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium) that melt rapidly at a predetermined
temperature. This principle is commonly used in sprinkler elements
and in fusible links for releasing devices, such as fire doors. When the
elements fuse, the fluid in the piping is allowed to flow out. This type
of detection is sacrificial and must be replaced after exposure to a fire.
This type of detector is used in pilot-head type heat detection systems.
 Quartzoid Bulb Detectors — uses a sensing element consisting of a
quartzoid bulb filled with a liquid capable of significant expansion, in
volume, in response to temperature increase. When this liquid is
heated, it expands and breaks the quartzoid bulb. This principle is
commonly found in sprinkler elements and fusible links for releasing
devices, such as fire doors. Bursting the bulb of sprinklers allows the
fluid to flow out of the piping. This type of detection is also sacrificial
and must be replaced after a fire. This type of detector is used in pilot-
head type heat-detection systems.
 Thermoelectric Detectors — uses a thermocouple to produce an
increase of voltage, with an increase in temperature. When the voltage
increases at an abnormal rate, the detectors actuate.
 Fusible Thermal Wire — is a line-type detecting device with a
sensing element of two current-carrying conductors separated by a
heat-sensitive insulation that softens at a specific temperature. The
two conductors are connected in a normally open circuit to a control
panel. When this insulation fails, the conductors make electrical
contact, completing the circuit. A meter on the control panel indicates
the location of the short circuit in terms of cable footage. This type of
detection is sacrificial and must be replaced after exposure to a fire.
 Linear Thermistor Detectors — are line sensing elements (or
continuous thermal sensors) with a cable-like tubing containing a
concentric conductor. The conductor is insulated from the outer tubing
by a semiconductor material (typically ceramic powder, glass, or
aluminum oxide with a eutectic salt compound) whose resistance
changes with temperature. The thermistor assembly is electrically
connected to a sophisticated control panel that powers and monitors
the change in resistance of the semiconductor material. An alarm is
initiated when any segment of the cable is heated to the setpoint
temperature. Thermistors can generally detect any specified alarm
temperature up to about 1,093.3ºC (2,000ºF) at any point along their
length. Some thermistors are electrically classified (approved/listed)
for use in hazardous atmospheres.

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 Heat-sensitive Tubing — is a line-type-detecting device with a

sensing element of heat-sensitive tubing under pressure that softens
at a specific temperature? When this tubing is heated sufficiently, it
fails, releasing the pressure. This type of detection is sacrificial and
must be replaced after exposure to fire.
Fusible-element and quartzoid bulb detectors are used in dry pilot head
detection systems with air at 377.1 - 446.1 kPa gage (40 - 50 psig) in a
closed-piping network. The system contains closed-head sprinklers (pilot
heads) similar to those used in sprinkler systems, but the closed heads are
used for detection only. Actuation of the suppression system is accomplished
when a pilot head fuses. The fused pilot head releases air pressure in the
piping network that is connected to a deluge valve. All movement in this type
of actuation is by mechanical means, and no electrical power is required for
the release. The deluge valve may be connected to sprinklers, spray nozzles,
or mechanical foam-making equipment.
Bimetallic or thermoelectric spot type heat detectors are electrically
connected in a low voltage circuit to a control panel to form a fixed
temperature spot detection system. Each detector can be wired to be
monitored and alarmed individually, in parallel, or multiplexed when the
number of detectors is large. Many fixed temperature spot detectors
incorporate a rate compensation feature, which allows proper operation
regardless of the temperature rise rate.
 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors — actuate when the rate of
temperature rise exceeds 6.7 to 8.4ºC (12 to 15ºF) per minute. Rate-
of-rise heat detectors are available in four types: pneumatic,
thermoelectric, linear thermistor, and bimetallic expansion. Linear
thermistor is a line type detector and the remaining are spot type
detectors.
 Pneumatic Detectors — are either tube or a chamber in which
heated air expands and exerts mechanical force on a diaphragm?
Actuation of an alarm occurs when the device is heated at a sufficient
rate to cause the diaphragm to expand and close a set of contacts. The
contacts are electrically connected in a low-voltage circuit that is
powered and monitored by a supervisory control unit. Typically,
pneumatic rate-of-rise detectors are found in plants that were built
prior to the 1960s. The use of this type of detectors in new system is
forbidden.
 Thermoelectric Detectors — operate on the same basic principle as
thermoelectric fixed temperature heat detectors. When the voltage
increase at an abnormal rate, the detectors actuate.
 Linear Thermistor Detectors — actuate on the same principle as
linear thermistor fixed temperature heat detectors. The rate-of-change

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of resistance is monitored by associated control equipment, and an

alarm is initiated when the rate of increase exceeds a preset value.
These detectors offer a more practical, modern-day approach to rate-
of-rise heat detection.
 Bimetallic Expansion Detectors — are designed on the same basic
principle as the bimetallic fixed-temperature heat detector. The outer
case of the detector is designed to expand at a faster rate than the
inner contact struts. When the temperature rises at a rate faster than
the predetermined rate, the case expands and causes the contacts to
close. This detection principle can be set so that the detector will not
exceed a predetermined fixed temperature without alarming.
Normally, this detector is referred to a rate-compensation detector and
is the preferred rate-of-rise heat detector.
Smoke Detectors — designed to respond when the detection device senses a
predetermined obscuration of the atmosphere it is monitoring. Smoke detectors are
not considered expensive to purchase and install. Smoke detectors are the most
common types of detectors used to protect occupied areas. Smoke detectors have a
history of false alarms. However, these false alarms are usually the result of
misapplication, poor maintenance, and cleaning activities. Smoke detectors are
available to provide general spot and area detection. Smoke detectors can detect a
fire incident in its early stages before significant quantities of heat are produced.
There are two main types of smoke detectors:
 Ionized Smoke Detectors — contain two chambers in which the air
is made conductive (ionized) by a radioactive source emitting alpha
radiation. As current flows through the ionized air chambers, it is
measured by circuitry within the detector assembly. One chamber is
used for reference and the other is used for the sample. The two
chambers are constantly monitored and compared. The difference in
electrical conductivity between the reference and sample chamber
causes the detector to send an alarm signal. Ionization smoke
detectors are good for general spot and area detection. The detectors
are self-restoring and have adjustable sensitivity. The sensitivity of
these detectors can be affected by air velocity, humidity, altitude, and
high-ambient radioactive levels. The sensitivity of these detectors also
tends to be more sensitive to the early stages of a fire than to open,
flaming fires. Ionization detectors are used primarily in rooms and
buildings that house expensive electronic equipment.
 Photoelectric Smoke Detectors — there are of two types: light-
scattering and light-obscuring. Both types of photoelectric smoke
detectors are susceptible to false alarms from steam and fog (from
cold detector contacting warm, moist air).

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 Light-scattering Detectors — consist of a light source and a

photosensitive device. During normal conditions, the light source rays
do not fall upon the photosensitive device. As smoke particles enter
the detector, the light source rays are scattered (by reflection or
refraction) onto the photosensitive device. This causes the sensing
electronics of the detector to initiate an alarm. Light-scattering
detectors are good for spot area detection and are self-restoring.
Light-scattering detectors are best suited for smoldering fires that
produce relatively large smoke particles such as cable insulation fires.
 Light-obscuring Detectors (Beam Detectors) — consist of a light
source on one side of the potential hazard and a receiver containing a
photosensitive device on the opposite side. As smoke enters the path
of the light beam, the intensity of the light reaching the receiver is
reduce. This causes the sensing electronics of the receiver to initiate
an alarm. Light-obscuring detectors are good for large, open areas and
are self-restoring. Typically, these detectors are used for high-ceiling
or large, open area applications.
Flame Detectors — designed to work by measuring a specific range of
electromagnetic radiation emitted as a by-product of the combustion reaction in the
UV, visible, and IR spectrum emitted by flames and glowing embers. Flame detectors
are considered expensive to purchase and install. Flame detectors are the least
common types of detectors used. Flame detectors are extremely fast, responding
instantly to open flaming; but have a history of false alarms. However, these false
alarms are often the result of misapplication, poor maintenance and cleaning. Flame
detectors can be ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), or combination UV/IR type. The
UV/IR combination is preferred over either the UV or IR type.
 UV Flame Detectors — consist of a viewing aperture and a sensing
element of silicon carbide, aluminum, nitride, or gas-filled tube. When
UV light, having a wavelength between 0.17 and 0.30 micrometers,
enters the viewing aperture, it is sensed by the detector and alarmed
by a system controller. UV detectors are quick acting, good for wide
area coverage, and outdoor areas because they are inherently
insensitive to visible light. However, UV detectors are not suitable for
use in outdoor areas where welding and cutting operations or electrical
storms occur.
 IR Flame Detectors — consist of a lens system with a filter to screen
out unwanted wavelengths. Incoming energy is focused on a
photovoltaic or photoresistive cell that is sensitive to IR energy
(typically 4.0 to 4.4 microns). Controllers for IR detectors are capable
of analyzing dual frequencies from individual detectors so that a true
hydrocarbon fire can be identified by its "flame flicker ratio". This
feature helps screen out unwanted energy sources such as welding. IR
detectors are used in areas where other forms of optical detection are

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not practical (i.e., where dust, oil, or grease can accumulate on

detector viewing apertures), where arc welding is common, or where
harsh salt-water conditions exist.
 UV/IR Flame Detectors — sense UV radiation using a vacuum
photodiode tube and a selected wavelength of IR radiation using a
photocell. The combined signal is used to indicate a fire. These
detectors require both types of radiation to be present before an alarm
signal is generated. By using two different wavelengths to discretely
detect a fire, the false tripping problem associated with both single
radiation types has been largely overcome. This detector is reliable,
fast acting, and suitable for indoor and outdoor area coverage. Care
should be taken when specifying a UV/IR detection system in a small,
enclosed area that has a constant source of IR radiation from hot
equipment; e.g., the interior of a turbine engine module. The constant
source of IR radiation can saturate the IR portion of the detector and
decrease the sensitivity. The manufacturer should be contacted for
specific detector application recommendations.
Flame detectors are used in general area detection, are self-restoring, have a high
degree of sensitivity, and a high speed of response. Generally, flame detectors are
used in high-hazard areas, high-ceiling areas, industrial process areas, and in areas
where explosive atmospheres can occur.
Combustible Gas Detectors
Combustible gas detectors are used to continuously monitor potentially hazardous

areas. Combustible gas detectors are available in five main types:
 Infrared Analyzer Detector — uses a pump to draw in atmospheric
samples from various plant locations to a central point where the
infrared analyzer is located. These sample streams are sequentially
injected into the infrared analyzer to determine the combustible gas
concentration at each sample point. This type of system is rarely used
due to maintenance problems with the sampling system and the time
delay required to convey a gas sample from the sample point to the
analyzer.
 Solid State Electrolytic Cell Detector — operates on the principle of
allowing the combustible gas molecules to diffuse into a porous
extrinsic semiconductor, thereby decreasing its electrical resistivity.
The magnitude of the resultant current flow is related to the
concentration of combustible gas molecules. The current flow is sensed
by the control indicator module and is displayed on a meter in terms of

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percent of the lower explosive limit (LEL). This type of detector can
perform in inert and chemically reactive atmospheres, and is widely
used for detecting H2S.
 Catalytic Bead Detector — employs a heated ceramic bead coated
with a catalyst. Combustible gas molecules are oxidized on the
catalyst. The heat of combustion raises the temperature of the bead
that increases resistance of the platinum heater wire within the bead.
This bead and an identical but uncoated bead (no catalyst) form two
legs of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The presence of a combustible gas
alters the resistance of the coated bead only. Resultant imbalance in
the bridge is monitored by the control/indication module and it is
displayed on a meter in terms of percent of the LEL.
Catalytic bead sensors are the types usually chosen for use in petroleum
facilities; however, they do have limitations. They will not work in inert
atmospheres because they need oxygen to support combustion on the
catalyst; they are inaccurate when the combustible gas concentration exceeds
100% LEL; and they can be very misleading if the gas/air mixture exceeds
the stoichiometric ratio. They are also subject to giving false alarms,
especially when exposed to gusty winds.
Catalytic bead detectors require a high level of maintenance. The catalytic
bead sensing elements have a short life expectancy and must be replaced
periodically (approximately yearly). They must also be calibrated periodically
(usually monthly) with a standard calibration gas.
The heated beads operate at a high temperature, well above the auto-ignition
temperature of most liquefied gases. Therefore, a sintered metal disk frame is
placed between the beads and the atmosphere. The gas and air molecules
must be able to pass freely through this flame arrestor. It is very important
that it not be painted over. Water, oil, or other liquids should be kept away
from the flame arrestor since they can seal it shut, thus rendering the sensor
inoperative.
 Portable Gas Detectors — generally incorporate a catalytic bead
detector for 0 - 100% LEL measurements, and a thermal conductivity
sensor for measurements above the LEL. The thermal conductivity
detector is similar to the catalytic bead heat type, but the active
element is not catalytic. The reference and active elements are both
heated and, with no gas present, they are at the same temperature.
When combustible gas is present in the air around the active element,
the temperature of the active element decreases because the gas
molecules conduct heat away from the element faster than air does.
This temperature decrease changes the active element's resistance
and unbalances the bridge. The current flow through the bridge is
related to the gas concentration.

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A thermal conductivity meter can measure gas concentrations from 0 to

100%, and can be calibrated to work in an inert atmosphere. Portable gas
detectors require periodic (perhaps monthly) calibration using a calibration
gas. Each time a portable gas detector is to be used, it should first be
exposed to a source of flammable gas. This helps ensure that the meter is
working, although it does not check its accuracy.
 Laser Reflection Detectors — is one of the newest types of gas
detectors. This type of detector uses two infrared beams; one that has
a wavelength that is absorbed by the gas, and one with a slightly
different wavelength that is not absorbed by the gas. The two laser
beams are projected as parallel beams. A sensor between the two
laser emitters measures and compares the intensity of the beams once
they have been reflected (back scattered) back to their source.
Combustible gas in the atmosphere will absorb the one wavelength,
thus decreasing the strength of the reflected beam. This decrease is
related to the gas concentration. The system can scan over a wide
area of the plant, thus providing broad coverage from a single point.
The output from the detector can be superimposed upon a television
image of the area being scanned, resulting in a visual representation
of the gas cloud size, concentration and location. Because the path
length of the laser beam is quite long, it can detect very low gas
concentrations.
Unlike the other detectors, the laser reflection system does not just sense gas
at discrete points, but senses over the entire path length of the laser beams.
Thus, it can detect gas leaks from a large facility. The system is very sensitive
and can detect gas concentrations in the parts per million (ppm) ranges. The
system is said to be free of false alarms since the dual beam concept
compensates for fog, rain, beam blockage, etc. The most significant current
drawback to this system is the new technology involved and its expense.
Toxic Gas Detectors
Individual detectors in these systems are often referred to as "gas sensors". These
gas sensors can be designed to detect a specific toxic gas or a number of toxic
gases. Detection of toxic gas is accomplished by the electrochemical-cell type,
semiconductor type, or infrared beam type detection principle.
 Electrochemical-cell Detector — air samples diffuse (or are
pumped) through a gas-porous membrane into the sensor cell. The cell
electro-oxidized the sample in proportion to the partial pressure of the
toxic gas within the sample, generating an electric signal proportional
to the concentration of the gas in the air.

Engineering Guide
Title Document No.

 Semiconductor Detector — primarily used for the detection of

hydrogen sulfide (H2S), the presence of the toxic gas causes a large
decrease in the resistance of the semiconductor. Signals from both
detector types are sent to a system controller (also called a
"monitor"). The controller provides readout, alarms features, and may
provide for remote calibration of the sensors and automatic actuation
of other plant safety equipment, as appropriate.
 Infrared Beam Detectors (open or closed path) — operate similar
to infrared beam type combustible gas detectors. The toxic gas to be
detected must have a definable infrared absorption spectrum.
Ammonia and nitric oxide have particularly defined infrared absorption.
Primary References are directly relevant to the design. Other References are
documents which are either referred to by Primary References or which only parts of
may be applicable. The applicable document(s) should be consulted for specific
applications.
Primary References
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code
API RP 2031 Combustible Gas Detector Systems and Environmental/
Operational Factors influencing their Performance
Other References
NFPA 70 National Electrical Code
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
API RP 500 Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations at
Petroleum Facilities
ISA S12.13, Part I Performance Requirements for Combustible Gas
Detectors
ISA S12.13, Part II Installation, Operation and Maintenance of Combustible
Gas Detection Instruments
ISA S12.15, Part II Installation, Operation and Maintenance of Hydrogen
Sulfide Detection Instruments
NFPA 90A Standard for the Installation of Air Conditioning and
Ventilating Systems
NFPA 90B Standard for the Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air
Conditioning Systems

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Occidental Oil and Gas Corporation

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

1.0 THIS GUIDE IS UNDERGOING ADDITIONAL REVISION, BUT SHOULD

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

 Provisions for two highly reliable sources of electric power should be

Appropriate gas, flame, smoke and/or temperature detection systems should

5.1 Fire Detection

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

The following provisions should be taken into consideration when designing

UV detectors monitor short-wavelength radiation at high speeds. Due to the short-

IR detectors monitor long-wavelength radiation. Since many devices emit IR

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

 In on-site buildings that have central heating, ventilation and air

5.2 Combustible Gas Detection

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

5.3 Toxic Gas Detection

5.4 Low Temperature Detection

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

operation, preferably by using a non-flammable liquefied gas, such as liquid

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

 Personnel evacuation - Blue optical beacon.

6.1 Manual Fire Alarm Stations

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

self-restoring and can be in a bimetal strip or bimetal snap disc

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

 Heat-sensitive Tubing — is a line-type-detecting device with a

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

of resistance is monitored by associated control equipment, and an

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

 Light-scattering Detectors — consist of a light source and a

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION — For Authorized Company Only

Title Document No.

FIRE & GAS DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS EG-306

not practical (i.e., where dust, oil, or grease can accumulate on

EG306 - Fire & Gas Detection and Alarm Systems

EG306 - Fire & Gas Detection and Alarm Systems

EG306 - Fire & Gas Detection and Alarm Systems