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Vasile Berinde, Eugen Păltănea, Romanian Mathematical Society-Gazeta Matematică - A Bridge Over Three Centuries - Romanian Mathematical Society (2004) PDF
Vasile Berinde, Eugen Păltănea, Romanian Mathematical Society-Gazeta Matematică - A Bridge Over Three Centuries - Romanian Mathematical Society (2004) PDF
Cover photo.
Cernavoda railway bridge over Danube river was open for traffic on 14
September 1895. The first issue of "Gazeta, Matematica" was published one
day later, on 15 September 1895.
Both of them continue their existence and mission...
VASILE BERINDE EUGEN PALTANEA
(coordinators)
2004
© 2004 SOCIETATEA DE $TIINTE MATEMATICE DIN ROMANIA
ISBN 973-0-03549-0
Contents
Preface 7
List of contributors
Vasile Berinde
10 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
List of symbols
N = {0,1,2,...,n,...}
Z = {..., -n,..., -2, ---1,0,1,2,...,n,...}
N* = N\{0}
R = the set of real numbers
R*=R\{0}
Q = the set of rational numbers
[a, b] = the closed interval
(a, b) = the open interval
n! = 1,2,3,...,n
n) n!
k!(n - k)!
Card A = the cardinal of the set A
df
f (x) = — = the derivative of f
dx
dm f
f (n) (x) = — = n - th derivative of f
dxn
b
f f (X)dX = the Riemann integral on [a, b]
a
f : A --> B = a map from A to B (a function defined on set A with its
values in set B)
f -1 = the inverse of function f
an =n-th term of sequence (an ) or (an)n>i
Ntn,m(R) = the set of all matrices with n rows and m columns having
real elements
Mn(C) = the set of n-th order squares matrices with complex elements
det(A) = the determinant of square matrix A
lirn an = the limit of sequence (an) as n co
n—■ oo
P(M) = the family of subsets of set M including 0 and M
p
E ai = E ai = the sum of the numbers ak, ak+i, , ap
i=k k<i<p
= the m-th order square matrix with elements aid
Jag b
Ix' = the absolute value of real number x or 2 if x = a + ib is
complex
[x] = the integer part of real number x
{x} = x - [x] = the fractional part of real number x
= the conjugate of complex number z
Mp = a multiple of integer p
min{a, b} = the minimum between real numbers a and b
max{a, b} = the maximum between real numbers a and b
Preface 11
(a, b, c) = the biggest common divisor of integers a, b, c
[a, b, = the smallest common multiple of integers a, b, c
Im(z) = the imaginary part of complex number z
Re(z) = the real part of complex number z
R[X] = the set of polynomials with real coefficients
Z[X] = the set of polynomials with integer coefficients
Q[X] = the set of polynomials with rational coefficients
A U B= the union of sets A and B
A n B= the intersection of sets A and B
fl ai = = the product of numbers ak, ak+i, • , ap
i=k k<i<p
alb = means b = Ma, that is the integer a is a divisor of integer b
ma, mb, me = the lengths of the medians of the triangle ABC of sides
a, b, c
ha, hb, he = the lengths of the altitudes of the triangle ABC of sides
a, b, c.
Chapter 1
Problem V.1. Prove that if a = m19 +10, the positive integer a can't be a
perfect square or a perfect cube.
(We denote by mi9 a random multiple of 19)
Problem V.2. Find the digits a and b such that the number 543ab2 is
divisible by 42.
Problem V.5. Find the least positive integer that has got exactly 42 divi-
sors.
(P1 + 1)(P2 +1) ... (pk +1), where a2, , ak are the distinct prime factors
of n.
2 x x x
x 9 x x
5 x x 5
X XX X X X
a 5 b x
c 7 d
2 e f g
h 9 i j
5 k t 5
m n p q r s
16 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
Because the last digit of c. b is 5, we must have c = 5 or b = 5. Moreover,
the digits b and c must be odd. Because a5b•7 = h9ij, we obtain: 7•a+3 = h9
or 7 • a + 4 = h9 and hence a = 8 or a = 5.
I. a = 8. From a5b • d = 85b • d = 2e f g, we deduce d = 3.
From a5b • c = 85b • c = 5kt5, we deduce c = 7 and b = 5.
Finally, the multiplication becomes:
8 5 5 x
7 7 3
2 5 6 5
5 9 8 5
5 9 8 5
6 6 0 9 1 5
1+ 1+
2
2
N .1+ 1+ 1
1
1+
1,5
7
• 5 — g • (1 + 0, 405 : 0, 945) + 1, 25 — 0, (1) • (5 — 0, 32 : 0, 35) : 5
1]
[
Solution. We have:
3
2-
1+—
2 r5 (1+ 405 1000 \
N . 1+ )+
1+ 1 2
L 8 1000 945
1+—
3
5 1(5 _ 32 1001 oi
+ 4 9• 100 35 ) 'fi —
Problems for the 5th form 17
3
1+ r5 7 + 3\ b 32)1
= 1+ 1 [ 7) 4 35 J
1+ 3
1+
7 5 (c 7 10 + 5_ 5+ 32) .
1 + 4 • -8-• Y' — -8- • 7- 4 35l
35 32
= 1+ = 2.
32 35
Problem V.10. Prove that there is no natural number such that, dividing
it by 25 we obtain the remainder 7 and dividing it by 20, we obtain the
remainder 4.
Problem V.11. Assuming unlimited source of water, how can one cam' 13
liters of water in two pitchers, one pitcher with the capacity of 8 liters and
the other with the capacity of 9 liters?
Problem V.12. Let a, b, c be given digits. Find the digits x and y from the
equality abc — cba = 3xy.
Problem V.13. How can one share 8 identical breads to 15 persons, such
that none of the breads be divided in 15 equal parts?
18 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
8
Solution. Each person will have — of the total quantity of bread.
15
But: --8— = 3 Since there are 15 persons, 3 breads will be
15 15 15 = 5
divided in 5 equal parts and 5 breads will be divided in 3 equal parts.
1 1
Each person will receive 5— of a bread and — of another bread.
3
Problem V.14. A construction can be finished by 15 workers in 20 days.
Because after 8 days of work, some of them left for another site, the working
is finished in 28 days. How many workers did leave?
1
Solution. A worker a day finishes the 20 • th part of the working. In
15
the first 8 days, the 8 th part of the working is realized. The team must
-
p
finish the remaining 12 in 20 days.
20
12 12
In each day, they finish the th part of the working. We have
20 • 20 20 • 20
3 1
= = 9 — and hence we deduce that there are still 9 workers in
100 300 100
this site, so 6 workers have left.
Problem V.15. Radu, Doina, Matei and $erban are four pupils studying
for the final exams, from algebra, physics, chemistry and geography textbooks.
The book covers have different colors: green, white, yellow and blue. We
know that:
a) Doina's textbook is green.
b) Radu dreams of himself being a well-known geographer.
c) The physics textbook's cover isn't white.
d) Matei and erban want to become engineers.
e) 9erban finished studying physics.
f) The future engineers' textbook covers aren't blue.
Can you specify from which textbook each pupil is studying and what color
have the cover of the respective book?
Solution. The condition d) implies that Matei and Serban are studying
algebra and physics. From e) we deduce that Serban studies physics and
therefore Matei studies algebra. The condition b) implies that Radu stud-
ies geography and consequently Doina studies chemistry. Because Doina's
textbook isn't green (from a)) and (from f)) Matei and Serban don't study
from blue textbooks, we deduce that Radu's textbook is"blue. The condition
c) implies that Matei's textbook (algebra) is while. Consequently, Serban's
textbook is yellow.
Problems for the 5th form 19
Problem V.16. Find the sets X and Y that verify simultaneously the con-
ditions:
(1) X\ {1, 2} = Y U {0, 4, 5, 6}
(2) Y\ {1,2,3} = X U {0,5}
(9) XUY C {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
Solution. We deduce from (1) that 1,2 Y and 0,4, 5,6 E X.
We find from (2) that 5 E Y and 1,2,3 X. Therefore X = {0, 4,5,6}.
(1) becomes: {0, 4, 5, 6} = YU{O, 4, 5, 6}, whence we obtain Y C {0, 4, 5, 6} (i)
(2) becomes: Y\ {1, 2, 3} = {0, 4, 5, 6} (ii)
Using (i), the relation (ii) becomes: Y = 10,4,5,61.
Problem V.17. Prove that for any value of the positive integer n, the frac-
65n + 3
tion is in lowest terms.
39n + 2
Solution. Let d be a common factor of the numerator and of the denomi-
nator of the fraction.
E = 1931a1929 3 ±1929b1931 3
is divisible by 1930.
Solution. We divide each number in the expression by 1930 and look for
the remainder. Therefore we have the remainders
The division by 2 leads to the conclusion that a and b must be odd digits
or a and b must have different parities. But in the expression E1 we can see
that a and b have the same parity, consequently a and b must be odd digits.
The division by 5 leads to the conclusion that 737 + 664b = M5 so that
b = 7 is the only odd solution. The division by 193 leads, for b = 7, to the
conclusion that 67a2+ 2a + 72 = M193 that has no solution.
4) x2 + y2+ xy M1930. Then, as in case 3), we conclude that we must
have
1225(a2 + b2 +ab) + 921 + 1230a + 108Gb = M1930
Taking into account the expression of E1 the division by 2 leads to the
conclusion that a and b must be odd digits.
The division by 5 leads to the conclusion that 921 + 108Gb = M5 so that
b = 9 is the only odd solution.
For b = 9 the division by 193 leads to the conclusion that 67a2+96a-90 =
M193 that has no solution. In conclusion, the only solutions are a = b = 0.
Problem VI.3. Let p be a given odd prime number. Prove that the product
of two integers which have the difference equal to p cannot be a perfect square
but for a single value of the factors.
Solution. Consider the two positive integers n and n + p. We observe that
if p divides n then n(n + p) = p2k(k + 1) and it is not a perfect square. If
(p, n) = 1 then (n, n + p) = 1 and n(n + p) is a perfect square if and only if
= k2and n +p = 12. Then p = 12 k 2= (1 k)(1+ k). Since p is prime we
— —
(.23 1)2.
have / — k = 1 or / + k = 1. If / — k = 1 then p = 2k + 1 and n =
2
the same if / + k = 1.
Problem VI.4. A pool is filled by two taps. The water flows at 15°C through
the first tap and at 60°C through the second one. If both taps are opened
then the water in the pool is at 30°C. The first tap alone fills the pool in one
hour. Find the time to fill the pool if both taps are opened.
Problems for the 6th form 27
Solution. The technique to solve this problem is: From 30°C the first tap
gains 15°C and the second tap loses 30°C. Then the water in the first tap
flows two times faster than that in the second tap. It means that in a minute
1 1 1
both taps fill — + — = of the pool. Therefore the answer is 40 minutes.
60 120 40
Problem VI.5. Find the three digit number with the property
abc = ab + bc +-Ed.
Solution. We observe that a + b = 10 because the last digit of ab + bc+,
must be c. From 100a + 10b + c = 10a + b + 10b + c + 10c + a we obtain
11(a + b + c) = 100a + 10b + c. Therefore 11(10 + c) = 90a + 100 + c that
means 10 + 10c = 90a, i.e., c + 1 = 9a. Thus we obtain a = 1, b = 9 and
c = 8. The number is 198.
Problem VI.6. Two points are moving at uniform speed on a circle. They
leave a point A on the circle at the same time and go in opposite directions.
After they meet at some point B, the first point needs 4 seconds to arrive at
A, and the second point, by keeping its direction, needs 9 seconds to arrive at
A. How many times would the circle be covered by each of these two points
in one minute.
Solution. We denote by T the time until the meeting that is the same for
both points, and by V1 and V2 their speeds. Because the distance covered by
the first point to the meeting place is the same as the distance covered by the
second point from the meeting place to the point A, we have V1.T = V2.9.
Also, the distance covered by the second point to the meeting place is the
same as the distance covered by the first point from the meeting place to
the point A. Therefore we have V2.T = V1.4. These two equalities are also
written in the following form
T r2
,
Vi
V2
9 , and V1
=T -T
V2 -
9
= =9•4 T = 6.
Thus, the first point covers the circle in 6 + 4 = 10 seconds that means it
covers the circle six times in a minute. The second point covers the circle in
6 + 9 = 15 seconds and so it covers the circle four times in a minute.
Problem VI.7. In a triangle ABC, the angleBAC is of 60°. Let S be the
midpoint of the internal bisector AI, where I E (BC). Suppose that SBA is
of 30°. Answer the following questions:
i) What is the center of the circle defined by A, B and I?
ii) Is AB equal to AI?
iii) Are IC and BI equal?
iv) Is BS the median of AC in the triangle ABC?
28 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Solution. First we prove that ABC = 90°. Indeed, SAB = SBC = 30°
implies that ISB = 60°, and SB = SA= SI. Then, the triangle SIB is
equilateral. It follows that ABC = ABS + IBS = 90°.
i) Since S is the midpoint of IA and SI = SB = SA, S is the center of
the circle.
ii) AB is strictly less than Al, because E3 = 90°. In fact, BI =1AI and
AB = 2AI.
iii) If IC = BI, then AI is a bisector and a median in AABC. Therefore,
AC = AB, impossible.
iv) The answer is negative. Let R be the intersection of BS and AC.
Then BR±AC, because RBA = 30°, and RAB = 60°. If BR were the
median of AC, then AB and BC would be equal.
Problem VI.8. The ages of the father, son and grandson are prime num-
bers. Then after five years they become perfect squares natural numbers.
What is the age of each of them ?
Solution. Let us consider the sequence of the natural numbers that are
perfect squares:
-4, -1, 4, 11, 21, 31, 44, 59, 76, 96, 117, ...
The only prime numbers in the last sequence are 11, 31 and 59. These are
the ages we were looking for.
Problem VI.9. Find all numbers that have three digits, namely abc, and
satisfy abc = a + b2+ c3.
Problem VI.10. Find a three digits number which is divisible by 22, divided
to 5 gives the remainder 2, and the hundreds digit is 4 greater than the units
digit.
Solution. The number is of the form abc; divided to 5 gives the remainder
2, so c E {2, 7}. Since abc is divisible by 22, it is an even number. So c = 2.
It results that a = c + 4 = 6. The three digits multiples of 22 hawing the
hundreds digit 6 are: 28.22 = 616, 29.22 = 638, 30.22 = 660, 31 . 22 = 682.
The unique number with the required properties is 682.
Problem VI.11. Prove that there is an infinity of natural numbers xo, YO) zo,
to roots of the equation x2 +y3+ z4 =
Problem VI.12. We consider 1000 nonzero natural numbers with the prop-
erty "the sum of their inverses is greater than or equal to 10". Then at least
two of these numbers are equal.
Solution. Suppose that the numbers are all distinct. Then the greatest sum
1
of their inverses is obtained for the numbers 1,2,... 1000. Denote S = 1+ 2+
1
31 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.ButS<1-F 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 74 + 71 +•••+ 2 +•-•+ 2-
9 =
+•••± 700
=1 -1 -1
= 10.
Problem VI.13. Prove that 1998 divides the number 19971997 +19991999 .
Problem VI.14. Let p be a prime number greater than 3. Find the remain-
der of the division of p2 by 12.
Solution. Let us write p as p = 12m + n, where m,n E N and 0 < n < 12.
Since p is prime, it follows that n E {1, 5, 7,11} . For instance, we cannot
have n = 3 because in this case p = 12m + 3 is not prime, being divisible by
3. We clearly have that p2= 12M + n2, where n2 E {1, 25, 49,121} . Now it
is sufficient to notice that n2- 1 is divisible by 12, so that the remainder of
the division of p2by 12 is always 1.
Problem VI.15. Solve in the set of natural numbers the equation:
1 • 2 • 3. • •n + 241 = m2.
Let S be the intersection of AB and CM. The triangles AMS and CDM
are congruent: AM = MD, ZSMA--=. LCMD and LASM LMCD. To
prove that LASM = LMCD, we used the fact that SBIICD.
Therefore AS HE CD.
In the right angle triangle SBP, PA is the median drawn from P. Hence
1
PA= — SB = AB .
2
Problem VI.19. Let ABC be a triangle with m(g) = 40° and m(C) = 30°.
On the segment (BC) we take a point D such that m(BAD) = 60°.
Show that [AB] [CD].
Solution. We are given that:
a) AABA' is isosceles;
(2)
b) ACC'A' is a rectangle.
First we are going to prove that ADA'C' is congruent to ADAC.
1. By construction, m(A'AC) = 90° and from (1), m(DAC) = 50°,
therefore m(A'AD) = 40°.
But m(BAD) = 60°, so rn(BAA') = 20° and, considering the fact that
AABA' is isosceles (also by construction, see (2a)), we obtain that
m(ABA') = m(AA'B) = 80° . (3)
On the other hand, in AABD we have m(BAD) = 60° and m(ABD)= 40°,
so that
m(BDA) = 80° . (4)
From (3) and (4) we obtain that ABA'D is inscribed so
A'C' = AC . (8)
From (6), (7) and (8) we obtain that the triangles LDA'C' and LDAC
are congruent, having two sides and the angle between them respectively
congruent.
This implies that CD = C'D, so LCC'D is isosceles.
But m(ACD) = 30° and we have drawn CC' I AC, so m(DCC') = 60°.
Therefore ACC'D is equilateral and, consequently, CC' = CD. As CC' =
AB by construction, this implies that
CD = AB .
34 "Gazeta Matematice - a bridge over three centuries
Problem VII.2. Find a number of three distinct digits, equal to the sum of
all two-digit numbers that can be formed by the digits of the number.
Solution. Let's take abc the sought number. The two-digit numbers that
can be formed are:
To, a, cb.
It results:
Problem VII.3. Find two prime numbers so that the difference between
their squares should equal the square of their arithmetical mean.
35
36 "Gazeta Matematica," — a bridge over three centuries
Solution. Let's denote required a, b the numbers. We have
a+b b
a2 — b2 = (a + ab= a =3
LEN /b,
2 2 3
that is, b = 3k. But b is a prime number so k = 1. It results b = 3, a = 5.
theorem:
PA MB RS
-=
PB MS RA
PA MS p
But RA = RS so — = = const.
PB MB q
Then P divides the segment (AB) on a constant ratio, so it is fixed.
Analogously we proceed for other positions of the point C and D on the
semi-line (MA, respectively (MB.
Summing up the two relations and taking into account that I is the midpoint
of (AB), we obtain the required relation.
Note. The relation in the problem expresses the fact that OH is the
harmonic mean of IM and IN.
Problem VII.6. Let's have D the foot of the interior bisector of the angle
A in the triangle ABC; M and N be the projections of D on the altitudes
BB' and CC' and P the foot of the simedian AP. Show that:
MC _
MB PB
Solution. Denote by Q and R, the projections of P on the sides AC, AB.
Knowing that the distances from an arbitrary point of the simedian to the
PQ AC
adjacent sides are on a ratio with these ones, we have — =
PR AB•
DC AC
From the bisector theorem we have = It results:
DB AB
PQ DC
(1)
PR DB
But ADNC ti ABRP and ABMD ti APDC. It results:
NC _ MB DB
PR BP and PQ PC
NC PC
Dividing these relations and using (1) we obtain — =
MB PB
Problem VII.7. Demonstrate geometrically, that we have
1</ <2
A'B _ AB
Solution. AA' being the bisector of the angle A we have Let's
A'C AC •
NB AB
have BM the median from B and {N} = BM fl AA'. Then =
NM AM
NB A'B AB
Using the hypothesis, it results
NM = 2AC.
In AABB', [AA'] being the bisector of the angle A we have
I B AB
IB' AB' ( 1)
B' A AB B'A AB
or (2)
B'C CB AC AB + CD
Replacing in (1) the expression of B'A from (2) we obtain the relation in
the problem.
b c — b — c
Solution. We have VT) — = From — N/T) N7C,
Vb + a
a+b c —
2a
21ci,
So — = =
2a a+b—c a—b+c
Problem VII.10. The orthogonal projection of the intersection point of
the diagonals of an inscribing quadrilateral on its sides divide these sides in
ratios whose product is equal to the unity.
AN_
AANO ADQO 73
DO y
BP BO
ABPO N AAMO =Az„
1A
AO
CQ CO
ACQO ABNO Tv= =
NB BO
DM DO
ADMO ,ACP() =
CP CO
AN PB CQ DM
By multiplying these relations we have: = 1.
DQ MA NB MA
Problem VII.11. Determine a number of the form abba, knowing that in
any base of a numerical system it is a perfect cube.
Solution. Let's have x the base of a numerical system into which the given
number N is written. It results:
N = xi • x2 • • • • • Xn (2)
From (1) it results N > xi.m"-1, and from (2) N < xi•m•m • • • m = X1M71-11
which is impossible.
Problem VII.13. Show that:
1 3 5 899 1
A = is smaller than —
2 • • 6-
- 900 30
2 4 6 898 1
B = 7. 7 is bigger than —
3 • 5• 7 899 30
40 "Gazeta Matematice — a bridge over three centuries
Solution.
1 • 2 • 3 • 4 • • • 898 • 8991
A-B= = (1)
2 • 3 - 4 • • . 898.899.900 900
1 2 3 4 897 898 1 3 5 897 2 4 898
As < 5, 899 , we have • zi •
4 < 5 ' • • • ' 898 < 6 • • • 898 < 5 • g 899'
900 900
that is — A < B. As A < — A it results that
899 899 '
A < B. (2)
1 1
From (1) and (2) we obtain A < and B >
a) AMPN is a trapezium;
b) AP = 2 MN;
area(AMPN)7
c) =
area(ABC) 88 '
d) compute the perimeter of the trapezium AMPN
Solution.
AN BP
a) We have = =1-.
AC BC 3
Using the reciprocal to the Thales
theorem it results that NP AB.
b) Given NN' I AB, N' E AB.
Then m (ANN') = 30°.
N' M B
1 a 1 aid a a a
It results AN' = 2 AN = NN' = 3CM = ; N' M = –=
6" 6 2 6 3•
of
In ANN/ NI : NM = VN/N 2+.1\17 M 2 = .
6
2a-1 7-
In ANN'B : NB = VAT'Ar 2+ N'B2 = .
6
But NB = AP. We obtain AP = 2MN.
c) area(AMPN) _ + NP) • NN'
=
(AM NP) NN'
+
area(ABC) - AB • MC AB AB MC
(1 ± 2) 1 7
2 3 3 18.
Problems for the 7th form 41
a alt: 2a a 9 + Ir7a.
d) AM+11/1P+PN+NA= + + + =
2 3 3 6
Problem VII.15. Show that if the sides of the triangle ABC satisfy the
c — b a — c b —a
relation: + + = 0 then AABC is isosceles.
a b c
Solution. We have:
c — b a—c b—a
= 0 a bc(c — ac(a — c) + ab(b — = 0 .#>
a
bc2— b2c + a2 c — ac2 + ab2— a2b = 0
4#. b(C2— a2) + ac(a — c) + b2(a — = 0 a (a — c)(b — a)(b — = 0 <=>
a s= c or a= b or b= c AABC isosceles.
Problem VII.16. Suppose ABCD is a rhombus. Through the vertex A we
draw an arbitrary line that intersects BC at E, CD at F and the diagonal
BD at G. Show that the line GC is tangent at C to the circumcircle of the
triangle ECF.
Solution.
Solution. Let's take A' the midpoint of BC, G - the gravity center, I - the
center of the incircle of A ABC.
The triangle ABC being isosceles, the points A, G, I, A' are collinear. Then:
1 1 1
Solution. From — -1- — = 7 Gy+4x = 3xy = 4(x-2) = 3y(x-2)-8
2x 3y 4
(x — 2)(3y — 4) = 8.
We have the cases:
{x— 2 = 1 x=3
1)
3y — 4 = 8 {y=4
{x — 2 = —1
1 x=1
2) _
3y — 4 - = —8 y=
-Th4 V Z
{ x -2 = 4 { lx = 6
3)
3y — 4 = 2 y=2
( x = —2
{ x — 2 = —4
4) 2
3y — 4 = —2 z
l Y— -3-V
So the solutions are: (x = 2, y = 4) and (x = 6, y = 2).
The implication AB II CD I, M, N
collinear is known: in a trapezium the
midpoints of the bases,
the intersection point of the diagonals and the intersection point of the sides
that are not parallel are four collinear points. To prove the remaining impli-
cation: let's have I, M, N collinear. We can discern the following situations:
a) MN n AD = {G}.
As M, S, G are collinear, from the Menelaus theorem in ,LABD we have:
MB GA ID ID GD
=
NIA GD IB IB GA . ( 1)
As the angles CID FE AID (opposite at the their vertices), it results that
LCID AAIB, so BAC F.. DCA, that is AB II CD.
b) MN n AD = 0; MN n BC = {G}, analogous to a);
c) MN n AD =0 and MN n BC = 0 is obvious.
Solution. As
we have:
71997 = 720.99+15+2 = (720) 99 715 72 =
It results a = 207.
Show that from the point (0, 0) it is impossible to get by successive displace-
ments to the point (1997,1998).
Solution. Let's notice that a point (a, b) having the sum of its co-ordinates
a + b, an even number, can displace itself to a point having the sum of its
co-ordinates also even.
1) (a— 1,b— 1):a—l+b— 1=a+b— 2
2) (a— 1,b+1):a-1+b+1 =a+b
3)(a+1,b-1):a+1+b-1=a+b
4) (a+ 1,b+1):a+1+b+1 =a+b+ 2.
As the point (0, 0) has the sum of its co-ordinates 0, which is even, it can
displace itself successively to points of the same parity of the sum of the
co-ordinates, so it cannot displace to the point (1997,1998) whose sum of
co-ordinates is an odd number.
Problems for the 7th form 45
Problem VII.24. Determine the triangles circumscribed to the circle of
radius 1 that have the altitudes expressed by numbers in the set of positive
integers.
Solution. Let's have ha < hb < '1,, the altitudes of the triangle of sides
a, b, c and r = 1 the radius of the inscribed circle. We have:
1 1 1 a b c a-l-b+c 2p 1
ha +hb + ha aha + bhb + clic = 2S 2S — -77. = 1.
Then: (ha, hb, hc) = (3, 3, 3) or (ha, hb, he) = (2, 4, 4) or (ha , hb, he) =
(2, 3, 6).
46 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Problem VIII.1. Find all pairs of quadratic numbers with three digits that
differ from each other only by the first digit.
Solution. Let x and y be two solutions, and let d be the difference of the
first digits of x and y, respectively. Then there exist a and b such that a2 = x
and b2= y. It follows that 10 < a < 31, 10 < b < 31 and 1 < d < 8.
Moreover, 100d = x — y = a2 — b2 = (a — b) (a + b). Then a and b have
the same parity. Let us suppose first that a and b are both even, a = 2n
and b = 2m. Then n and m must satisfy: 5 < n < 15, 5 < m < 15 and
(n — m) (n + m) = 25d. Since 0 < n — m < 10 and 10 < n + m < 30, it
results that we have two possibilities:
i) 51(n + m) and 51(n — in) , then 51n and 51m . Hence n E {10, 15}
and m E {5,10} . It is easy to see that (20, 10) , (30, 20) and (30, 10) are the
only solutions (in this case) to our problem. Here, the first number in the
parentheses is a and the second is b.
ii) 251(n + m) , then n + m = 25. Taking into account the upper bounds
for n and m, it follows that we have two more solutions, namely (26, 24) and
(28, 22).
Suppose now that a and b are both odd, a = 2n+1 and b = 2m +1. Then
n and m must satisfy: (n + m + 1) (n — m) = 25d, where 11 < n+m+1 < 31
and 0 < n — m < 10. One can make the same reasoning as above and obtain
four more solutions: (25, 15) , (31,19) , (29, 21) and (27, 23) . Al together, we
have 9 pairs of solutions.
Problem VIII.2. Consider the integers a, b, c so that (a, b, c) = 1. Let
ma = [b, c] and da = (a,ma). We define in the same manner db and de.
Prove that the product dadbdcis a perfect square.
Solution. Let xa = (b, c), xb = (a, c) and x, = (a, b). Then (xa, xb, xc) = 1
and so a = xbxca, b = xa xcl3 and c = xaxb'y and we have (a, 0,7) = 1.
47
48 "Gazeta Matematicr — a bridge over three centuries
Consequently da =(a, Mai = (xbxca, [xexa0, XbXa7]) = XhXc.
Then dadbdc = xa2
Problem VIII.3. Consider a quadrilateral formed by the sides of a triangle
and by a Simpson line of this triangle. Prove that the line of Gauss for this
quadrilateral is perpendicular to the considered Simpson's line and, in the
same time, it is a Simpson's line for median triangle of the initial triangle.
Solution. It is well known that the line of Gauss for this quadrilateral is
perpendicular to the line of orthocenters of the triangles formed by the sides
of the quadrilateral. Now, we must prove that this line of the orthocenters
of a quadrilateral formed by the sides of a triangle and a Simpson's line of
it, is parallel to this Simpson's line.
Consider LABC an arbitrary triangle, P a point on the circumcircle
of AABC, A1, B1 and C1 the projections of P on the sides BC, CA and
AB, respectively, AA' B'C' the median triangle of LABC, H the orthocen-
ter of AABC and Ha, Hb, Hethe orthocenters of the triangles AABiCi,
ABC]. Ai , ACA1B1i respectively. We must prove that the lines AiBiCi
and HaHbli, are parallel. It is known that the Simpson's line with respect
to the previous point P passes through the middle of the side that links
point P with orthocenter of AABC. But, AiBiCi is the Simpson's line
of P with regard to each of the ABC, ABiCi, BC1A1, CA1B1 triangles.
Then it passes through the middle of the segments PH, PHa, P Hb, PH,
such that it is parallel to HHa HbHc. Let L, M, N be the midpoints of the
segments AA1, BB1, CCII, respectively. The line LMN is the Gauss's line
of a quadrilateral formed by AABC and the line AiBiCi. It is obvious that
points L, M, N are on B'C', C' A', A'B' of the median triangle A'B'C' and
the perpendicular lines in L, M, N on B'C', C'A', A'B' are concurrent at
the point P' which is the midpoint of the segment PH.
Therefore, LMN is the Simpson's line of the point P' with respect to
the median triangle A' B' .
Problem VIII.4. If x, y, z are three real numbers satisfying xy+y z+xz > 0,
then the following inequality holds:
and so E= 0, V x E R.
Problem VIII.7. Consider a piece that has the shape of a circular right
cone with the length of the radius of the base equal to 2 m and with the height
equal to 2N/-- m. We cut from this piece an object with the maximum volume
with the shape of a cube with one face on the base of the cone. Prove that in
this way we use less than a quarter from the material.
Solution. Let us denote by x the side of the cube and observe that the
diameter of the horizontal section is the diagonal of a face, so it is x/2-.
From the similitude of the triangles resulted on an axial section, we obtain
x.‘/ 2.1 — x x fj .
= ,-- — =1 x = N/2.
4 2.V2 2
The volume of the cube is therefore Vi. = x3 = 2N/2 and the volume of the
cone is V2 = 87/273. We get
VI 2.1.3 3 3 V2
— = = < VI < —,-.
V2 87r/2- 47r 12.56 4
50 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
Problem VIII.8. Let ABCD be a parallelogram, 0 the point of intersection
of its diagonals and S a point of the orthogonal line at A on the plane of
the parallelogram. We denote by M, N, and P the projections of S on the
straight lines BC, CD and DB, respectively.
Show that the points M, N, 0 and P belong to the same circle.
Solution. If the plane of ABCD is denoted by it, then from SA I 7r,
BC C 7 and SM 1 BC, it follows AM 1 BC. Similarly, AP 1 BD and
AN 1CD.
N D
+ T2 + T3 + T4
Ti
MA'1 V —T1 3 T1 T1 ± T2 + T3 + T4 - 371
M Ai T1 3T1
1 1 ( T2 T3 T4
+ + + -) 1
3 3 Ti
MA'14 1 (T2 T3 T4
Then E
iviAi =3 +7E — 4.
Ti
But — +R> 2 and so E
T3 Ti
MA/1 4
MA 3
= +7•62—4= 4.
Problem VIII.12. Prove that V3n + 2n + 2 is irrational for any natural
number n.
Solution. Let us suppose that there exists a natural number n such that p
defined as p = V3n2+ 2n + 2 is a rational number. Since p2 =3n2+ 2n + 2,
52 "Gazeta Matematice — a bridge over three centuries
p must be in fact natural. If n is even, then p2 = 4M + 2, therefore p2 is
divisible by 2. It follows that 21p too, hence 4 1p2 and 4 l(p2— 4M) .
This implies that 412 , impossible. Then n must be odd In this case, p2 is
of the form p2 = 4N + 3. As above, we also get that p2— 1 is divisible by
2, so 2 1(p — 1) (p + 1) . But p — 1 and p+ 1 have the same parity, therefore
4 (p2— 1) . We obtain another contradiction, that is 41(4N + 2) .
We conclude that there is no such number n.
Problem VIII.13. If a, b, c E R, then prove the inequality
2P • (2" - 1) = 27 .7 .
+
(1 - ai)(1 - a2)... (1 - an) '
54 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
and hence we have a telescoping sum
1 1 1
1-1+ +
1 - ai 1 - ai (1 - ai.)(1 - a2) .••
1 1
(1 - ai)(1 - a2)... (1 - an-1 4- (1 - ai)(1 - a2) - - an)
Solution.
We consider the right angle LAOB
and construct its bisector OE, and
then construct an equilateral trian-
gle FOE like in the figure. We have
LFOE = 60°, LAOE = 45° and
hence LFOA = 15°.
We construct the bisector OG of the
angle LADE. Then
0 B
LAOG = 22°30' and LFOG = 15° + 22°30' = 37°30'.
Problems for the 8th form 55
Problem CG.1. Determine the smallest positive integer a, so that for any
n E N, n > 2, amongst the numbers: n,n + 1,n + 2, ... , n2 + n + a there
exists at least one perfect square.
Solution. From n < n2 < n2+ n + a, (V) n E N, n > 2 and a E N, it results
that the smallest value is a = 0.
Problem CG.2. On the median AL of the arbitrary triangle ABC we take
the point P so that m(BPC) = 90°. BP and CP cut the circle circumscribed
to the triangle ABC at M, respectively N. Show that AL 1 MN.
Solution.
Let denote AL n MN =
We have: m(MP'L) =
1 —
= (m(A1C) + m(CM) + m(AN))
and (PL) (LC) (LB).
1 1
Then m(MP'L) = —m(NB) + — m(CM) = m(M PC) = 90°, so MN d_ AL.
2 2
Problem CG.3. Let's have ABCD a convex quadrilateral and M a point
in its plane.
a) Find the locus of the point M, for which the sum
Solution.
B
Ac2 BD2
MA2 MB2 MC2 MD2 = 2M0? + 2 + 2M03 +
2
0103)
= 2 (2M02 + +2 AC2 +2BD2 =
2
= 4 • MO2 +0103 + 2 (AC2 + BD2).
Problem CG.4. Show that if the real numbers a, b, c satisfy the inequality
a + b + c> 3, then a2 + b2 + c2 +ab + bc + ca > 6.
MB PA NC=
SC SB SA
— = 1 and from the re-
SB SA SC
ciprocal to the Menelaus theorem, the
conclusion to the problem follows.
60 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Problem CG.8. If a = .....„,...—•
11...1, then 9a2 + 2a = ...„....,
11 ... 1 .
k digits 2k digits
Solution.
9a2 + 2a = a(9a + 2) = a(99...9+2)
...„._.• = a(1.....„—•
00...0+1) =
k digits k digits
= a • 1•-.„.....,
00...0+a=....„.....„_.,
11...1 00...0+11...1=11...1
....„..• ....„...., .
k digits k digits k digits k digits 2k digits
x2 Y
2 Z2
y 2 + yz + z2 + X2 + XZ + Z2 + x2 + xy +y2 >
>2 x2 y2 Z2
3 ( y2 ± z2 + z2 + x2 + x2 + y2)
.2( a + b 4. c ) > 2 3
3 1)-1--c c+a a+b) - 3 2
Note. To prove the last inequality involved in the solution, see Problem
CG.18.
Problem CG.10. Prove that there exists an infinity of numbers x E Q so
that: Vx + 1997 E Q and Vx + 1998 E Q.
1 1._ 2
Solution. Take for example x = - ( t - 1997, with t E Q*.
4 t
Problem CG.11. Solve in the set of integer numbers the equation:
where a = x2 +7x + 6.
The solutions to the equation are
S = {(-3, 5), (-4, 5), (-3, —5), (-4, —5), (-7,5), (0,5), (-7, —5), (0, —5)} .
Solution.
Denote by Si, S2 and S3 the areas of triangles BMP, AMN and NPC,
respectively. We have:
.15 0. 2 0
Si + S2 + S3 < S <=> x(a — z)-7-
1+ y(a — x).71- + z(a — y)-7
1 < a 7.
.4=> x(a — z)+ y(a — x) + z(a — y) < a2.
Show that:
a) ao + a2 + a4 + • • • + a2004 is divisible by 25;
b) al + a3 + a5 + • • • + a2003 is divisible by 24.
Solution. Denote f (x) = 3x2— 3x + 1. We have:
2002 + 1 401001 ± 1
a) ao + a2 + • • • + = f(1)+ i(-1)
a2004
7
= =
2 2 2
(50 — wool + 1 M50
= = M25.
2 2
(i)
I. "2x = z [AC] diameter"; From z = 2x t = x and hence
t+z 3x
m(ABC) = = — = m(ACB). (2)
2 2
Problems for the annual competition - Secondary level 63
2y t x+y+t
m(BFC) = 2 — m(BGE) = 90° BF I AC;
2
Solution.
For M on the surface OACB intersected with the disc of center 0 and radius
1 D(0; 1) we have: MA + MB > AB = 12. > v4-0 with equality for
and
E (Ix + ail + lx — ail) E + — x + ail = 2E lail .
i=i
If the equality in the problem would be satisfied, we'll obtain 2 E lad <
Problem CG.22. Let's consider ABC D a square with the side length 1
and the points M E (AB), N E (BC), P E (CD), Q E (DA). Show that:
Solution.
D C
Let's consider AM = x, BN = y,
CP = z and DQ = t.We'll have
1 1y+1—X
VSMBN = -Y(1- X) and N
2 v2 2
y
the other similar.
A B
x M
By summing up these inequalities, we obtain the requested inequality.
1 a2
AC • VO = - AB • V 0' col -• h = a h2 + — 2=
2 2 4 2h
h2 = h=
-2-
and
T
a2 +11,2 < aNid
V D' = m(AV B) > 60°.
2
2
Problem CG.24. Determine the function f : R -> R which verifies the
relation: 3f (x) + f (3 x) = x + 3f (3), for any x E R.
-
List of authors.
Problems for the annual competition -
Secondary level
A = b2 – 4ac.
In order to have min(f o f) =min f we must have – 2 E Imf = – oo ,
4a'
b A
hence – — > – — i.e. A – 2b > 0.
2a – 4a
f has two fixed points if the equation f (x) x = 0 has distinct real solutions.
–
x—y
Problem IX.2. If 0 < x < 2 and 0 < y < 2 then < 1.
x + y — xy
— 11 • ly — 11 < 1 •<=> 1(x — 1)(y — 1)1 < 1 •<=>. —1 < (x —1)(y — 1) < 1.
Solution. From the properties of the sequence of equal fractions, the value
of each fraction is equal to the the fraction having as numerator, the sum
of the numerators and as denominator, the sum of the denominators of the
fractions, i.e.,
(n — 1)(aixi +a2x2 + + anxn ) — n
(1)
a1 + a2 + + an
S
xn =
] t + (n -11)an;
[(n 1)an 1
In order to obtain t we square the equalities (2) and add them. By choosing
1 1 1 1 1 1
bi = — + — + • • . + 7c n, b2 = --2- + + ... + , we have
al a2 al a2 an
2S 1 S b1 ]
t2 — r S2 b2 ] 2 +2
n 1 bi + nt b2 t+
[(n 1)2 1.(n -1) 2 n 1
1
+ b2,
(n - 1)2
and then
[ S2
b2
2S
bi +n 1] t2 + 2 [ S b2 b1 I t+
[(n - 1)2 n -1 (n - 1)2 n -1
+ b2 = O.
(n -1 1)2
From this equation one obtains the values of t, and from (2) one obtains the
solutions of the system (two solutions).
1
If S = al + a2 + • • + an = 0, then xi = -t + ' and consequently
(n - 1)ai
n
E_
E aixi = -t E ai + i=i n- 1 n- 1
i=i
Problem IX.4. Prove that in an arbitrary .triangle the midpoint of the ex-
ternal simedians are three co-linear points.
Solution. The external simedians of any LABC are the tangent lines
ATa, BTb, CT, at the points A, B, C to the circumscribed circle limited
by the opposite sides. According to Pascal's theorem, the points Ta, Tb,
T, are co-linear so that ABCTaTbTC is a complete quadrilateral in which
the diagonals are the external simedians of the quadrilateral. Applying the
Gauss's theorem to this quadrilateral, we have that the midpoints of the
simedians are co-linear.
72 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
Problem IX.5. In a triangle ABC the small angles made by the medians
BB' and CC' with the line BC are denoted by and 7, respectively. Prove
that the following relationship holds
sin (3 — y) 1 sin (B C)
—
1
By substracting these two formulas we get CC' cos 7 BB' cos 3 = — AC cos C-
—
2
1
— AB cos B.
2
AB AC BC
Finally, let us use that = = , and plug the ob-
sin C sin B sin (B + C)
sin (3 + 7)
tamed result into this formula for
BC
sin (/3 — ry) 1 sin (B — C)
The result is precisely
sin (3 ± ry) 3 sin (B C) •
Problem IX.6. Let ABC be a triangle and M E Int (ABC). The parallels
through M to the sides AB and AC intersect the sides AC and AB at the
points P and N, respectively. Find the geometrical locus of M if AP • AB +
AN • AC = constant.
Solution.
Let us consider the expression
AP • AB AN AC
AC
E= sin A + sin A = o-(ABP) + o-(AC N) = constant
2
Problems for the 9th form 73
(n-1
n
E YYj = — — • k`.
2
min
[n
If n is odd we have for [—
21 of the terms Y the value k, for -. , the
value —k and for one of them the value Y, which we shall choose.
(n-1
= [172
E YiYj 21
y2 (n _ 1)k2 ] ,
j>i min
74 "Gazeta Matematicr - a bridge over three centuries
hence Y can be arbitrary, and by unifying the results we get
(n-1
E YiYj
i=1
-L 2
] k2
•
J>i min
a+/ O-a
xi
2 - 2
[9/-1 a 2 Q1 3)1
/ [ 2 ] (a-4 /3)2 ,
E (xi a 13) (xi
/=1. 2 )
j>i min
or
n-1
Exixj -(n 1)• a +2 En xi.
_ min
(a + 0)2n(n - 1) in] (a 0)2
4 2 L2J 4
Hence
Emin =
n(n - 1 (a + 0)2 in] (a - 0)2.
2 4 L2J 4
For n even, we have:
n-1,
Emin = 8 t(Th + 1)(a2 + /32 ) + 2(b - 1)ai3J.
Problem IX.8. Prove that the sum of the distances from the middle point of
the edges of a triangle to the tangent lines to the circumscribed circle drawn
a 2 b2 e2
through the opposite vertices is 2S
abc
Problems for the 9th form 75
Solution. Let A', B', C' be the midpoints of edges BC, CA, AB and
A", B", C" their projections on the considered tangents, D, E the projec-
tions of B and C on the tangent at A, and F the projection of A on BC.
Then BDEC is trapezoid, A'A" is its middle line so A'A" = BD -CE
AAHC , ABDA having a right angle and DAB = ACH. From this
-
H AC BH
' 731) BA and BD = ACor in classical notations
we obtain:
ha
BD = chaba
=2 _ 2Sc2 2Sb2
i -F•Q,
a — abc ' Same for CE, we have CE = -7-b —
A'A" = 512---12
a c
and the problem is solved.
-
'
Problem IX.9. Show that if a, b, c are positive numbers such that a+b+c=1,
then the following inequality is true:
8 1 1 1
> - + + - 1.
27abc a b c
-
We have
Also
E(a2b± ab2) - 6abc = E a(b - c) 2 > 0.
Therefore
Problem IX.10. Is it possible that two rectangular triangles that have five
equal elements (sides, angles) may exist and still be not equal ?
76 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
Solution. The answer is yes ! We built two triangles AABC and AAB'C'
with all angles equal, B = 90'; B' = 90°, but the triangles are different. If
the hypotenuse AC' of the small triangle is equal to the big cathetus AB
of the big triangle and the small cathetus BC of the big triangle is equal
to the big cathetus AB' of the small triangle, the problem is solved because
although the triangles have five equal elements (three angles and two sides),
they are not equal. Indeed, since AB = AC' and B = 90° we deduce
cos x =tgx and then
-1 ± 16-
cost x = sin x sine x + sin x - 1=0 sin x =
2
The only convenient solution is
-1 +
sin x = < 1.
2
Problem IX.11. Consider the convex pentagon OABCD, and E, F, G, M
the midpoints of the sides AB, DC, EF, OG respectively. We denote by
A1, B1, C1, M1 the projections of A, B, C, M, on the line AD respectively.
Prove that AA1+ BB]. + CC1 = 8M
Solution. Our solution uses vectorial calculus.
We have that MM1 = 0M1 - OM, where
1-4 1 -4 1 1
OM = OG = 71 (0E + OF) = (0A+0B)+ g (0C + OD)
8
1 ---> ---> --+ ---+ --> -->
= g (0A1 - AA1 OB1 - BB1 OC1 CC' + OD) .
Now, let V> = 8MM1 - AA1 - B131 - CCi and Vt) = 0/1/1-1 - 0A1
- OCi - OD. The above formula says that Ti = Vu but, on the other
hand -7_4/lie . Hence v = w = 0. The formula AA]. + BB1 + CC]. = 8MM1
is a consequence of 7> = 0.
Problem IX.12. Let a, b, c E R be such that
1) b2— 4ac < 0; 2) lax2 +bx + <1, V x E [-1, 1].
Show that Icx2+ bx + al < 1, V x E [-1, 1].
Solution. Condition 1) shows that the graph of the quadratic function
f (x) = ax 2+ bx + c has one of the forms (and the others similar): and hence
the maximum value of I f (x)I is obtained on the boundary of [-1, 1].
Problems for the 9th form 77
Therefore
la — b + cl <1 and la + b + cl < 1
and using the same arguments for g(x) = cx2+ bx + a, we get
N14
C' A Al B'
A'
We have S = SABC' = SBCA' = SCAB' and SA,B,c,= 4S. On the other
hand, we have 4S = SpB/C -FSPC'Al -FSPA'B'•
But SpBIC,= 11B1Ci l • IPAll = alPAll < a IPAI, where PA1 1 B'C'.
The equality holds if and only if PA 1 C' B' . Similarly, Spc/A1 < b IPBI,
SpAIB/ <CIPCI•
Therefore, the equality a IPAI + b IPBI + cIPCI = 4S takes place if
and only if PA 1 BC, PB I CA and PC 1 AB. It follows that P is the
orthocenter of the triangle ABC.
hence f is injective.
Denote 1(0) = a and let's compute it.
Taking n = 0 in (1) 1(1(0)) + f (0) = 6 1 (a) + a = 6 1(a) = 6 - a
and since f (a) E N, it follows 0 < a < 6;
Taking n= a in (1) f (1 (a)) + f (a) = 2a + 6 -1(6 - a) = 3a;
-
Problem IX.15. Find the natural numbers x and y for which VX2 + y + 1+
Vy2 + x + 4 is natural.
Problem IX.16. The inequality 2R+r > 2V holds in any triangle, where
R and r are the radius of circumcircle and incircle respectively, and S is the
area of the triangle.
Solution. It is well-known the relation R > 2r (Euler's inequality). Hence
2R + r > R + 3r > 2.V3Rr. From the sinus theorem, we obtain
R=
sin A + sin B + sin C
(where p is the semiperimeter).
The above relations give us:
3pr 3
2R-pr>2 —2
E sin A E sin A S > 2\ig.
Problem IX.17. Find all finite sets X C R with the property:
x + jx1 E X, V x E X.
Solution. Consider X = {x1, x2, • • • , xp}, with x1 < x2 < • • • xp. If xp > 0,
then 2x2 > xp and 2x2 E X; contradiction. Thus x1 < x2 < • • • xp < 0. We
obtain 0 = xi — xi = xi + lxi I E X. So xp = 0 and we have xi + =
0 = xp, V i E {1, 2, • • • ,p}. It follows that X is any finite subset of (—oo, 0],
which contains 0.
Problem IX.18. Let f : R —> R be a function for which there exists
n E N, n> 2 and a E IR, a 0, such that
- x+2y+3z, (V)x,y,zER.
(hogof)(x+y+z)+(goi)(Y+z)+f(z) =
(hogof)(x+y+z)=—(g0f)(x+y+z)—Ex+y+z)+3(x+y+z),
f (x) = a + x, (V)x E R,
— g(x+y+z+a) — x — y — z — a+2x+Y+g(Y+z+a)+z+a= 0
g(x) = x + b, (V)x E R
Problems for the 9th form 81
P (1 — S)(S2 — 2P + S) 1
+ (1)
2— S 1+ S + P 4.
After computations, we obtain the next equivalent inequality:
1
and f(S2 /4) = (3S — 2)2(1 — S)(2 8). We see that f(0) < 0 and
4
f(S2 /4) 5 0. Then f (x) < 0, V x E [0, S2 /4]. Thus the inequality (1) is
proved.
The equality holds in the next three situations:
1 1 1 1 1
1. S=- P=0 <=> a = 2, b = 0, c = — or a = 0, b = c = 2;
2' 2 2'
s2 1' 1
S= <=> a.— b=— c=0.
4 2 2"
2 52 1
3. s= 5 , P=-71- <=> a=b=c= 5 .
(x + y + z){
(2x + y + z)(y + z) (2y xz)(z + x)+
9
+ > where x, y, z > O.
(2z + x y)(x y)] I
Solution. Because of the homogeneity we can consider only the case where
E x = 1. Then the inequality can be rewritten in the form Ex/(1- x2) >
9/8. Using the symmetry we can consider that x < y < z. It follows
1/(1— x2) < 1/(1— y2) < z(1— z2). Now, applying the Chebyshev inequality
1 1 1
and the inequality (a + b ± c) ( — + b— + — > 9, we obtain
Ca c—
v , 1 (v,v■
1 - X2 3 L--d x .c-a 1—x2 = 6 L-'1 —x + r—d1+x) =
1
1 (E(i - x)E 1 -x Di +x)E 1 +x 9
+
6 2 4 ± 8.
)
Problem IX.23. If f :R --> R is a strictly monotonous function, determine
the function g :R --> R such that
Since the set of positive integers n6 + 7n3 +1, n E N, is infinite, the assertion
is proved.
b) Similarly, we have:
Solution. The inequality in the problem follows by adding for 1 < k < n
the following inequalities
2r ,— 2 r
c < v k < — [(k
ikITd- 1 — (k — 1)fi 1).Vic — kVk — 11 .
3 3
The right above inequality is equivalent to the immediate inequality 4k2(k —
1)2 < k(2k — 1)2. The left inequality is analogous.
Problem IX.26. Solve the equation
x+ [x] + (x)
{x} = 10 ,
where [x] is the integer part of x, {x} = x — [x] and (x) is the closest integer
to x.
1
1 [x] if 0 < {x} < --
Solution. We define (x) = i
1
i 1 + [x] if < {x} < 1
84 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
1
I. Suppose 0 < {x} < -. Then x = [x] + {x} and (x) =- [x] then the
2
3
equation becomes 9{x} = 3[x]. From here we have 0 < [x] < 2.
Then [x] = 0 which implies {x} = 0 and we have the solution x1 = 0, or
1 4
[x] = 1 which implies {x} = .5and x2 = d •
1
II. For the case - < {x} < 1 we have (x) = [x] + 1 and the equation
2-
7 8
becomes 9{x} - 1 = 3[x]. After some calculations we obtain - [x] < .
6< 3
7
Then [x] = 2 and {x} = - and x3 =
9 9
L5 .
Problem IX.27. Let M be a finite set of positive real numbers and
f:M-4M a bijective function such that f (x) • f-4( x) ______ x2, (
v) x E M.
Prove that f = 1 m ,
I axn_i — bxn2 = c
1 ax„— bx? = c
where a, b, c > 0.
Solution. By subtracting the second equation from the first one, the third
from the second one and so on, we obtain
a xn _i
( an) = b(xn— xi)(xn + xi)
—
Problem IX.31. Prove that a trapezoid is isosceles if and only if the dif-
ference between the lengths of its diagonals equals the difference between the
lengths of the two unparallel sides.
Solution. Let ABCD, AB II CD be a certain trapezoid. We want to prove
that AD = BC if and only if AC — BD = AD — BC. Obviously, if AD = BC
then AC = BD, so the equality holds.
Conversely, if AD—BC = AC—BD it follows that AD2+BC2-2AD•BC =
BD2 AC2— 2BD • AC. We now use the fact that in every trapezoid,
AC2 + BD2 = AD2 + BC2+ 2AB • CD holds and obtain that BD • AC =
AD • BC + AB • CD. Here we have equality in the known inequality of
Ptolemeu. The equality holds if and only if the trapezoid is inscribed in a
circle. It follows that the trapezoid is in fact isosceles.
Problem IX.32. Let f : R —* l be a function having the property:
f (f (x)) = x f (x), Vx E R.
that is
f (f (1(x))) = xf 2(x).
For x = 0 we obtain
( 1) 1(f (Po))) = O.
But f (f (0)) = 0 such that from (1) we deduce f (0) = 0. To prove the
second statement, we take xi, x2 E R such that f(xi) = f(x2). Then we
obtain
f (f (f (xi))) = f (f (f (x2))) .4=> xif (xi) = x2f(x2).
If x1 0 0 x2 then, according to the hypothesis, we have f (xi) = f (x2) 0
such that from the above equality, we deduce xi f(xi) — x2f(x2) = 0 or
(xi — x2)f(xi) = 0 whence xi = x2. In the case x1 0 0 = x2 we have
f(x2) = 0 and f(xi) 0 0, according to the hypothesis, therefore, f(xi)
f(x2). In conclusion, f is an one-to-one function.
Problem IX.33. Prove that the points M in the plane that correspond to
complex numbers z satisfying the relationship 1z2— a21 = 12az + 1)1, where
a, b E R and Ibl < 2a2, belong to two orthogonal circles.
a(z + 727,) + b. The last relation can be rewriten equivalently in the following
forms (z — a)( — a) = 2a2 +b or (z + a) (z+ a) = 2a2— b.
Since 1b1 < 2a2, it follows 2a2 +b > 0 and 2a2— b > 0.
Hence lz — al = .V2a2 +b or Iz + = N/2a2— b. These equations rep-
resent two circles with the centers Ci(a, 0) and C2(—a, 0) and the radii
R1 = V2a2 +b and R2 = V2a2— b. But 11C1C2112 = 4a2 = R? +
that implies that the circles are orthogonals.
Problem X.1. Prove that for n E N* the number 42n+1— 1 does not admit
other divisor having the form 221 + 1 except for 3.
Solution. We have
229-1 + i) (220 + i)
= 3 + 4 (22n +1) (
In the second term we have all the numbers having the form 22P + 1 with
p < n. Any one of these numbers, in order to divide the given number,
should also divide 3. It results that the only number having the form 22P +1
with p < n, divisor of the given number, is 3.
We prove that we do not have divisors of the same form for p > 71. We
notice that 42n +1-1 < 229+2 +1, which means that we cannot have p > n+2,
so p n +1.
It's enough, then, to prove that 22n+1 +1 doesn't divide 429+1— 1. This
immediately follows if we put the given number under the form 4 (22n+ +1) —
5 and if we take into account the fact that for n E N*, the number 22n+1+ 1
is not divisible by 5.
91
92 "Gazeta Matematice - a bridge over three centuries
ax +b
Solution. Let's have x a root of the equation x" - 1 = 0 and y =
cx + d
dy - b
We obtain x = . As x" - 1 = 0, we have
a - cy
that is
ad" - a • (-c)n ad"
S + bdn-1 -
S a be - ad do 1-
C C
= <=> = ±
n do - ( Cr
- Ti c c dn - (- c)' •
Problem X.3. Solve, in the set of integer numbers the equation x3 +y3 +
z3 = 42 + x2 + y2 + z2, x, y, z being successive terms of an arithmetical
progression.
Solution. Let's consider x = y + u, z = y - u (x, y, z E Z, u E Z+). It
results
If y < 0 then the two numbers bear different signs, so the equation has no
solution. If y is a positive integer number, that is y > 1, then the number
in the left-hand side is positive, while the number in the right-hand side is
positive only if y = 1 or y = 2.
For y = 1 we have u2 4 < u = 2, hence x = -1, y = 1 and z = 3.
u>o
For y = 2 we obtain 10u2 = u u Z. The solution is (-1, 1, 3) or
(3, 1, -1).
Problem X.4. Solve, in the set of integer numbers, the following equation:
x3 +24 = 2x.
Problems for the 10th form 93
(m, + 72 — 1 )
n ) . (+13-1)
m < ()(n
m+P P -1 ) P p )'
where m,n,p E N, m > I; n > m + p.
Solution. We have
m+n + n I)! (m n 1)(m n — 2) • ... • (m + 1)m
n n!•(m I)! n!
m+i1
But < m for i E {1,2, , n 1} because (m 1)(i — I) > 0. It
(m + n 1)
results that we have < ma with an equality if n = 1.
,
94 "Gazeta Matematia" - a bridge over three centuries
We have:
n )(m+p-1) = p (n)(n
m+ p p-1 (m+p) p m
Problem X.7. If in a triangle the square of the length of the sides are in
arithmetical progression in the order a2, b2, c2, then the measure of the angle
B is at most 60°.
Solution. We have 2b2 = a2 + c2 and b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B. We obtain
a2 + c2
cos B =
4ac
We have to show that
2 C2 > 1
60° •#• cos B > cos 60° aa+ •#. (a - c)2 > 0 ,
4ac
which is true. We have equality for a = c.
Problem X.8. Prove that if for the sides a, b, c of a given triangle ABC
there exists the relation b2+c2= (b+c).a, then the radiuses of the exinscribed
circles, ra, raand r, are in geometrical progression.
A
Solution. We have ra = ptg - rb = ptg - §i = ptg
2' 2 2
A B c
= tg -9 tg 9-then also 7-2 = rb • rc . The relation in the hypothesis
If tg2 9-
will be-writter:
.N/ 3
sin A + sin B + sin C < 3 2 and cos A + cos B + cos C < -
2
7r
with equality for A = B = C =
1
Let's have a triangle A1B1C1having the angles Al = -(7r - A), B1 =
2
1
-(7r - B), = -(7 - C). Writing for these angles the above inequalities
2 2
we obtain:
C 31d
cosA- + cos + cos - < — and sin -
24- + sin- + sin- 23
< .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
From the Cauchy-Buniakovski-Schwarz inequality we have:
2
A B C C
(Vsin - cos 21+ \isin -cos + \isin - cos -) <
-
B —
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 4
or
3
<=> Vsin A + sinB + Nis7).0 < 3 •
4.
Problem X.10. Prove the following identity:
2 n-1 2
(E 2k • (22nk)) 2 2k ) -
-1
k=0 k=0
(k2 1
\ 2n ?I k (2n 71-1 2n
(1 - v2) =E2 • )- 4- • E 2k • (
k=0 2k k=0 2k + 1) •
Multiplying the two relations side by side, it results
2 2
(t 2k On)) _ (v2- . nt1 2k ( 2n ))
(1 - 2)2n = 4=>
k=0 2k) 2k 1
2
72 k (2n 2
x-, C-1k=1.° 2n
<=> 22 - 2k)) -2 E 2- -1
(k=0 k=0 (2k+1)) .
Problem X.11. Solve, in the set of integer numbers, the following equation:
x2 +24x + 44 = 5Y .
(x + 2)(x + 22) = 5Y
We have: r2" + 2r"±1cos(n — 1)t + r2 > r2" — 2rn+1 + r2 ..._...., (rn, — r)2 > 0
and
The condition
Solution. Let's consider T" the triangle obtained by linking the feet of the
altitudes of the triangle r . The bisectors of the triangle T", which is orthic
to T', are altitudes of T'.
From the given T", from each vertex we draw perpendiculars on the
corresponding bisector. We obtain the triangle T'. The parallels from the
vertices of T' to the opposite sides are the sides of the triangle T.
1 P+
Solution. Let's denote by r the ratio of the given progression. We have
ap+k k • r. The relation in the hypothesis can be written:
aP [1. 1) ± (n2)
( + (-1)n (71)1
-r (ni- 2 (1 + 3 (1 - • • • + (-1)n±ln • (a =0.
2 3 )
Problems for the 10th form 99
71)
Th =
3 (n
3 ) + • • + (-1)7741 n (
(n1) — 2 (2) +
E(1)k+1 k (n) = E(_nic+1 = 0,
k=1 k=1
k — 1)
Problem X.17. Let's have x1, x2, x3 the roots of the equation
Determine the polynomial f E Z[X] of minimal degree which has the number
Xi5 + X23 + x 23as its root.
Solution. Let's have a = x7+4+4. As xi, i = 1,3 are roots of the given
equation, we have: 4 - 4 - 2xi + 4 = 0, i = 1, 3. We have:
and
3 2
a 2x1 — 12 +4+2x2 — 4+4=E4+2Exi— 16 =
i=i
1 — 2(-2) + 2(1 — x3) — 16 = —2x3 — 9.
We'll thus look for the polynomial f E Z[X] of minimal degree and which
has as its root a = —2x3 — 9. The polynomial in the problem, g = X 3 '-
X 2— 2X + 4, with roots x1, x2, x3 is of degree 3 and not have any roots in
Q, so it is irreducible in Q[X].
The polynomial h E Q[X] of degree 3, which has its roots a = —2x3 — 9,
= —2x2 — 9, -y = -2xi - 9 will also be irreducible in Q[X], because is
obtained from h through a linear transformation of the unknown, namely:
X —2X — 9.
Being irreducible, h will be a polynomial of minimal degree from Q[X]
which admits a as a root.
100 "Gazeta Mateinatica." - a bridge over three centuries
As g(X) = h(-2X - 9) it results
- X+9 (X + 9)3 (X +9)2 +2 X +9
g(X) = g +4=
( 2 4 2
-g (X' 29X2 ±271X + 463) .
To obtain a polynomial from Z[X] we'll have:
f = -8h = X 3 +29X2 + 271X + 463.
Problem X.18. Show that any nonconstant polynomial with integer coef-
ficients can be written as the sum of polynomials with integer coefficients,
irreducible in Q[X].
Solution. Let's have f = a0 + a1X + • • • + n E N*, the polynomial
in the problem.
We search for two polynomials g,1r E Z[X], degree g = degree h = n,
g = bo + biX + • • • + b,,X", h = co + ciX + • • • + cn Xn, g, h irreducible in
Z[X] (so also in Q[X]) and so that f = g + h.
Taking, for example:
bo = 28(ao - 5) + 2; bi = 10ai i = 1, n - b„ = 10(a„ - 2) + 1;
co = -27(ao - 5) + 3; = i = 1,n - 1; c,, = -9(a„ - 2) + 1,
we have bi+c,, = ai, i = 0,n (f = g +h). Moreover, taking p = 2, we realize
that the polynomial g verifies the hypotheses of the Eisenstein criterion,
and if we take p = 3, the polynomial h verifies the hypotheses of the same
criterion, hence g, h are irreducible in Z[X] (so also in Q[X]).
Problem X.19. Let's have et, b, c E (0, 1), 0 < a < b < c < 1. Compare the
numbers:
A = logb a + log, b + loga c and B = loga b + logy, c + log, a .
Solution. Denoting a = lg a, /3 = lg b, y = lg c, we'll have a < < y < 0
and
A = a + + = cc2,.y ± 02a +720
7 a a07
a 027 +1,2a +a20
B + 7 +=
a 7 a07
1 = la — cl
w1w2 — zw2 1AC.
2 2
lb — al
w2w3 = Izw2 zw3 l = 2 = 1 AB.
—
2
lc —bl 1
wawl = — zw, I = = BC.
2 2
f = axm, a E .
Solution. We assume the problem is solved and let's have the polynomials
P, Q E C[X], P(X) = f (Xn), Q (X) = (f (X)n). We'll have P = Q as P - Q
has infinity many roots. We can write f (z") = (f (z))nfor any z E C.
Hence, f (z"2 ) = f ((zn)') = (f(zn))n = ((f(z))n)n = (f(z))n2 and
through mathematical induction, f (znP ) = (f(z))nP, (V) p E N.
This allows us to choose p E N, so that nP > degree f, and to denote
nP = g E N*, taking into account the property g > degree f.
Let's take xo E C a root of f and z1, z2, , z9the complex roots of order
that will be distinct if xo # 0. Applying the property of polynomials f in
the problem, we'll write (f(zk))g = f (z) = f (x0) = 0, which shows that
Azk) = 0.
Accordingly, the polynomial f has g > degree f distinct roots, which
constitutes a contradiction. So, f has zero roots. If m = degree f, then
f = aX", a E C.
From f(xn) = (f(x))n, (V) x EC = a• xn•m = an • xn'n, (V) x E C
a = 0 or an-i 1.
We obtain f = 0 or f = aXm with a E C, an-1 = 1 and m E N*,
arbitrary.
Problems for the 10th form 103
Problem X.23. Demonstrate the inequality
act a3 c3 t3
+ a3)(1 + c3)(1 + t3) < 3 ( 1+a3 + 1 + C3 + 1 ± t3
and
1 1( 1 1 1
1+c33)
x logex = x + a2
xV1 + y2 + y07F x2 1
yV1 + x2 + z\/1 + y2 = 2
+ X2 + +z2 = 3
et - e-t
Solution. We denote x = sh a, y = sh b, z = sh c, where sh t =
2
et + e-t
cht = tE R.
2
We have: ch2t = 1 + sh2t and sh(u + v) = sh u • ch v sh v ch u.
The system will be
sh(a + b) = 1 1 a + b = arc shl
sh(b+c) = 2 4 b-Fc = arcsh2 ,
sh(c + a) = 3 l c + a = arc sh3
where arc sht = ln (t + Vt2 + 1), t E
Then
1
a -(arc shl + arc sh3 - arc sh2) =
2
1
= [ln (1 + 4 + ln (3 + - ln (2 + =
1 (1+ V-2-)
ln (3+
2 2+
and
(1 + 4(3+ 10) 2 + Nig
sh a = 1
1
2 2+f
1+3V2+VT)+\16
(1 + A (3 +VT
.0)
1=
= „
'.\/(2 + A (1 + N12-) (3+ V1C)
1
1
(1 + 3.\/+ 10+ V(2 + /6) (1 + N/2) (3 + 10).
Similarly we obtain y and z.
Problem X.26. Let's have x, y,zEC*,x0y0z0x, so that lxj = ly1=
Izi = 1 and
(x+y+z)5 =(y+z-x)5 +(x+z-y)5 +(x+y-z)5
Compute lx y + zi.
Problems for the 10th form 105
Solution. Consider the polynomial:
b2 c2
Ma >
la — 2bc •
106 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
2(b2 +c2) — a2 2bc A
Solution. We know that ma = and la = cos —
4 b+c 2
a+ b +c
Vbcp(p a), where p = .
b+c 2
4 0 + c)2 _ a2 = be [(b + 02 _ az]
Since l?, = be the inequality in
(b + c)2 4 (b + c)2 '
the problem is equivalent to
b2 + c2
n'ta > 421 <=>
2bc
2(b2 ±c2) _ az be [(b+ c)2— a2] b2 + c2
<=> > <=>
4 (b + c) 2 2bc
<#. 0 + 02 [2(b2 +ez) _ a21i 2(b2 + c2) • kb + c)2— •4=>
.#› 2(b + c)2(b2 c2) — a2(b 4_ c)2 > + c)2(b2 c2) 2a2(b2 c2) 44
,
7,2 a a+b—c) 2
/G2 + IA2 AM2 ' 2 2 ) AM 2
2
IG=
4 18 2 9
Problems for the 10th form 107
which yields
2AM 2 (b
3IG2= IA2 +2r2 +
3 2
But
b2 +e2 a2
r2 (b + c—
IA2 = /F2 AF2 a)2 and AM2 =
4 2 7
and so after all computations we find
which is the required relationship between the angles of the triangle ABC.
sin A sin B sin C cos a — sin A cos B sin C sin a — sin2 Bsin a =
= sin A sin B sin C cos a — cos A sin B sin C sin a — sin2A sin a =
= sin A sin B sin C cos a — sin A sin B cos C sin a — sin2 Csin a.
108 "Gazeta MatematicC — a bridge over three centuries
To prove the previous relations it suffices to show that
sin A cos B cos C sin2 B = cos A sin B sin C sin2 A =
= sin A sin B cos C sin2 C.
Indeed, we have
alike, we obtain from equation (4) that Q is symmetrical. Using (2) and (4)
we deduce
2(x— y)Q(x,y)
From (3) and (5) we get the equality in the statement of the problem.
110 "Gazeta Matematice - a bridge over three centuries
Solution. 1) Let f : (0, oo) (0, oo) be the function defined by f(x) =
2 \5. For a positive integer k, using the Lagrange's theorem on the interval
[k, k 1], we find a number ck E (k, k + 1) so that
(k + 1) — f (k) 1
t(ck) = <=> — . 2 \511-1. — 2\5.
(k + 1) — k A
The inequality k < ck < k + 1 implies
1 1
rz' k = 1,2,--•
1— 2\5< f— (1)
\,/k + 1 <2
1
So, we obtain S„+1 — Sn 2-VTI + 2\ n < 0, for any positive
+1
integer it. Then (Sn)n>1 is a decreasing sequence. But S1 = —1. It follows
that Sn < 1, V n > 2. Therefore, (1Sni)n>1 is an increasing sequence.
2) To prove the convergence of the sequence (SS)n>1, it is enough to find
a lower bound. The sum of the right inequalities of the relations (1), for
k = 1, 2, • • • , n, gives us the next classical inequality
1 1 1
27
\711-1 — 2 < +
VF?..
113
114 "Gazeta Mateinatica" - a bridge over three centuries
■n--.00 n
By applying this proposition to a„ = rni we have lim — =
an 1
( n+ V(n + 11
n (n + 1)n+1
n e
1 1 1 1
(-1)n ailbn < —.
anb„ anan+i n(n -I- 1) n2
1 a2 _ al
aobo al ao
1 a3 a2
_
al bi a2 al
1 a4_a3
a2b2 a3 a2
an+2 an+1
(-1)n 1-1,
an+1 an
00 1
Adding these inequalities we get the partial sum of the series > (-1)" :
71=0 anan
an+2 3
Sn =
an+i 2
116 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
(an+2)
Since (Sn) is a convergent sequence, it follows that is also a conver-
an+1
gent sequence. Using (2) we have
an+2 = an+i + an = 1 +
an+1 an+i an+1
a,1
. a n+2
If we define 1 = hm , by taking the limit in the last equality we obtain
CO an+
±1
/=1 1 and 1 =
2
Finally, by taking into account equation (1), the sum of the initial series is
,/g + 1 3
■
= -\/-
1 + Ern Sn = +
n—■
co 2 2 2
(2pp-1) i)
) (p+1) (2p-2) (2p-1)
Solution. Substracting each line from the next one and taking into account
the formula (n+1)
k+1 — (k+
n 1) = (ti) we obtain:
(2p-2) (2p-1)
kp-1 p )
(2p-2) (2p-1)
p p+1 )
Ap = •
) (3p-53p-4
)
( p-1) p ) k2p-3) (
2p-2)
2p-2\ (2p-1 \
( P p+1 /
•
Ap = •
•
p-32)
(22p
k 2p- 2/)
(2p-1
(22p
p-- 22 ) (2p-1
k2p- 1 )
Now we make the same sequence of operations but with regard to the
columns and we obtain
(p-
7) 1) (77) )
(p) 0
Op =
0 0
0 0
1 2 p(2 1)
Bicause (P) = 1 and signum ( P = ( 1) - 2 , we get
p 1— 1 1
= (-1) P(P 2-1)
Problem XI.5. Let Ox, Oy be two orthogonal lines and A some fixed point
on Oy. Consider AA' parallel to Ox and some point M that moves on AA'.
Let B be the midpoint of AM. Consider the equilateral hyperbola (H) which
passes through A and M and is tangent to Ox at 0. Then find
i) the locus where (H) intersects the parallel to OB through M;
ii) the locus of the projection of D on the parallel to OB through M where
D is the center of (H) .
Solution. Assume that A (0, a), B (k, a) , and M (2k, a) . Then AM has the
equation y — a = 0, OA has the equation x = 0 and OM: ax 2ky = 0. —
2 (1 1 1
__
2(Xn – Xn+1) n 6n3 n + 1
>
Xn + xn+1 1 1 1
7-t 6n3± n + 1
– 1)(4n +1) 1 1
= (n + > xn+1) V n > 1.
12n3 + 6n2 –n– 1 n+ 1 > n+1
Problems for the 11th form 119
Using the above inequality and the left inequality of (1) we find xn+1 <
log xn - log xn+1. Therefore Gn -Gn+i = log xn - log xn+i-xn+i > 0, 72 =
1,2, ... and (Gn)n>i is a decreasing sequence.
To prove the convergence of (Gn)n>1it suffices to find a lower bound of
the sequence. From (2) we have
y=11x+Vx4-...+ \5,
that contains n radicals.
Solution. Using the notations
Problem XI.9. Prove that in a triangle ABC the following relation holds:
1 1 1
= 2 sin A sin B sin C cos A cos B cos C
4 cos2A— 1 4 cos2 B 1 4 cos2 C — 1
—
1 1 1
= 8 sin A sin B sin C cos A cos B cos C
cost A cos2 B cos2 C
= 8 sin A sin B sin C(cos B — cos A)(cosC — cos A) (cos C — cos B),
because the last determinant is a Vanderrnonde determinant. It is easy to
show that:
C
cos —
cos B — cos A = 2(sin A sin B),—
sin —
2
and the analogous relations. Thus we have:
A
A = 64 cost— cost —
B cos2 —
C (sin A — sin B)(sin A — sin C)(sin B — sin C).
2 2
Finally, we use the relation
H cos —A
2
a+b+c
=
8R
and the sinus theorem to obtain:
b + c)2(a b)(a c)(b c)
— — —
A = (a +
8R5
Problem XI.10. Let xOy be a Cartesian reference system and A(a, 0) a
fixed point. A moving straight line through the origin intersects the straight
line x = a at B. On the x-axis we consider a point C so that OBC = BOC.
The parallel through A to OB intersects BC at P. Find the locus of the
projection of the point P on OB.
Solution. We try a sinthetical solution. Consider a moving straight line
through the origin of the frame, a parallel through the point A(a, 0) to the y-
axis and a circle centered on x-axis and tangent to Oy and to the considered
parallel. The mobile line intersects the parallel at S and the circle at 0 and
T. We consider also a point M on [OS so that OM = TS. Then M describes
a cisoide. For our problem OB intersects the circle at D, the parallel to OB
intersects the circle at E and Oy at F. Then OBAP is an isoscel trapezoid
and OBAF is parallelogram. Then AFOP is isoscel and this equalities hold
FE = EP = OQ = DB. It results that Q describes a cisoide.
The analytical solution is quite immediate.
122 "Ga.zeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Problem XI.11. Let f : [a, b] -> [a, b] be a function such that f (f (x)) = x
and f(x) 0 0 for any x E [a,b]. Prove that f has an infinite number of
points of discontinuity.
Solution. If f (xi) = f (x 2), then f (f (xi)) = f (f (x2)) and from hypothesis
xi = x2. Therefore the function f is one-to-one. Also, for any x E [a, b]
there is t E [a, b], such that f(t) = x, namely t = f (x). Therefore f is a
bijection.
Suppose ad absurdum, that f has a finite number (or zero) number of
points of discontinuity. Let a = xo < xi < < xr, = b be the points of
discontinuity, together with the endpoints of the interval. Set h = xi)
and Ji = f (Ii,), for i = 1, , n. Then f is continuous on each interval I.
From the Darboux property it follows that Ji are also intervals. Since f
is one-to-one, f is a one-to-one correspondence between h and Ji for each ,
This implies that the map yo must be surjective (and consequently a bijection)
on the set {1, 2, ... , n}, and also we must have
Otherwise, since the set {f(xo), f (xi), • • • , f (xn.)} is finite, it would follow
that there is i E {1, 2, ... , n} and a subinterval (a, f3) C h such that (a, [3) ,Z
f ([a, b]).
It follows that f ({1, 2, • • • , n}) = {f(xo), f (xi), • • • ,.f(x.)}.
Let us denote by b : {0, 1, , n} -> {0, 1, , n} the bijection defined
by the equality
f (xi) = zoo), j E {0, 1, . , n} . (2)
From the condition f(x) x, (V) x E [a, b] we have OW j
(V) j E {0, 1, , n}. This implies that n must be odd. But from the same
condition of the hypothesis we can also derive that cp(i) i
Problems for the 11th form 123
(V) i E {1, 2, ... , n}, which implies that n must be even. So the entire proof
will follow.
In order to prove this, let us suppose that there is i E {1, 2, ... , n}, such
that co(i) = i, that is WO = I. Since f is continuous and injective on
the interval h, it follows that f is strictly monotonous on this interval. If
f is strictly decreasing, since the function f(x) x changes the sign on /i,
—
from the Darboux property we must have a root of the equation f(x) = x
in the interval I. But this is impossible. Consider now that f is strictly
increasing on the interval I. From the hypothesis and from the Darboux
property it follows that one of the following two conditions is satisfied: i)
f (x) < x, (V) x E or ii) f (s) > x, (V) x E Ii. Choose e E Ii , arbitrarily.
If the condition i) is satisfied then we have x* = f (f (x*)) < f (e) < x*;
contradiction. If the condition ii) is satisfied then we have e = f (f (e)) >
f (x*) > ; contradiction. Because we obtain contradictions in all cases, the
assumption that there is i E {1, 2, ... , n} such that y)(i) = i, is false.
Problem XI.12. In a given circle we inscribe a regular hexagon. In this
hexagon we inscribe a circle. In the second circle we inscribe the second
hexagon and then we inscribe another circle and so on. Demonstrate that
the sum of the areas of all hexagons cannot be greater than four times the
area of the first hexagon.
Solution. Denote by Ri the radius of all inscribed circles (R1 = R is
the radius of the first circle), ai and Si the apothems and the areas of the
inscribed hexagones, respectively. We have
R.4 3R 3-13-R
= R, R2= R4 =-
2 4 8 •••
RO- 3R 30.R 9R
al = 2 ' a2 = 4 ' a3 — 8 'a4 = 16 •••
6R.a1 3R2.4 , 9R2.13- , 27R2 V3-
Si = , 02 - 03 = '
2 2 8 32 •••
So, we obtain
3R2 -4 3 (3)2
sn = + + + + (7
33n =
2 4 4
3R2 0-1 — 2 n
1 =6/R2
= (1_
(1 — ( ) ).
2 1— 4 4
Taking the limit, we obtain
lim sn = 6\R2.
00
124 "Gazeta Matematice – a bridge over three centuries
Then
3R2'
4S1 = 4 = 6R2 V-3-
Problem X1.13. Let A be a quadratic matrix with real entries such that the
sum of the entries on the main diagonal is less than the sum of the entries on
the secondary diagonal. Does there exist any matrix X such that X • Xt = A,
where Xt is the transpose of X ?
Exiix,i_i
■
Since Eid = 4 j, it follows that Ei Ei
that is Ei < Ei But the matrix A satisfies exactly the opposite
inequality. Consequently, such a matrix X does not exist.
Problem XI.14. Let ai bi E (0, 1) U (0, 00), for i E {1, 2, ... , n}, such that
,
a
2 (aa aq7, a ) ( 1b — a)b-.
with b — a s >0.
a + b bb ) b—a a )
+2
a
Consider the differentiable function f : (0, oo) ----> R, defined by
2 (+
x 1)
f (x) +2(1 + x) x , V x > O.
The derivative of f is
2 (1 + x)1+1 ( 2x
f'(x) log(1 + x)) , x > 0.
x2(x + 2) +2
2x x2
Define g(x), 2 log(l+x), x > O. We have g'(x). <0
x+ (x + 1)(x + 2)2 ,
V x > 0. Since g(0) = 0, we get g(x) < 0, V x > 0. So, f has a negative
derivative on (0, oo). Thus f is a decreasing function on (0, oo) and we obtain:
e= lim (x) > f (x) > lim f (x) = 2.
s\o x.00
126 "Gazeta Matematice — a bridge over three centuries
2 ( as) a-17 f (b a)
—
a
co
the series E f(xn)/2n is convergent for any x E [0, 1]. Find the function f
n=1
such that
00
f (x) = E f (x")12n , (V) x E [0, 1].
n=1
Solution. Since f is continuous, from Weierstrass theorem, it is bounded
and it attains its bounds. So there exists a constant M > 0 such that
I f(x)I < M, (V) x E [0,1]. The partial sums Sn of the series of absolute
values verifies
n n
Sn= E f (x)I12k < M E 112k= M(1 — 1/2n ) < M.
k=1 k=1
00
Then the series E 11(x) I /2nis absolutely convergent and so convergent.
n=1
00
Let now a function with the property f (x) = E f (xn)12n ,(V) x E [0,1].
71=1
Let a E (0,1). Put Ma := sup f(x) and ma inf f (x). From Weier-
sE [0,a] sE[0,a]
strass theorem (3) xa E [0, a] such that f(xa) = Ma and (3) ya E [0, a] such
00 00
that f (ya) = ma. We have Ma = f (xa) = > f((xa)n)/2n < Ma E 1/2n =
n=1 n=1
Ma. It follows that we must have f ((xa)n) = Ma, for any n E N. But
the sequence ((xa)n )netsr tends to zero, and since f is continuous, it follows
1(0) = lim f((xa)n) = Ma.
00 00
In a similar way ma = f(Ya) = E f ((ya)n)/ ma E 1/ 2n = ma ,
n=1 71=1
and as above we conclude that f(0) = ma. Consequently f is a constant
on the interval [0, a]. Because a E (0,1) was arbitrarily, by making a —p
1, we obtain that f is constant on the interval [0,1]. Conversely, every
constant function on [0,1] satisfies the condition in the problem. Therefore
the functions satisfying this condition are the constant functions.
Problem XI.18. Determine how many nonzero terms appear in the expan-
sion of a determinant of order n in which only three entries are zero.
1) The three non-zero entries are on the same row (or column). Then the
expansion of the determinant contains 3(n— 1)! zero terms and (n —1)!(n— 3)
non-zero terms.
2) Two of the three entries are on the same row (or column) and the
third is on the same column (or row) with one of the other two. In this case
we have (n — 2)!(n — 2)2non-zero terms.
3) Two of the three entries are on the same row (or column) and the
third is not on the same row (or column) with none of the other two. In this
case we have (n — 2)!(n2— 4n + 5) non-zero terms.
4) Any two of the three entries are not situated on the same row or on
the same column. In this case the number of non-zero terms is
(n — 3)!(n3— Gn + 14n — 13).
Problem XI.19. Prove that for any polynomial P(x) with simple roots
we have
inxi) 0
i=i P(xi)
Solution. The following relationship is easy to be obtained:
n
P'(x) = P(x) • E ,xER\fxl X2, • • • Xi}.
,
(1)
j=1 X Xi
P"(x) = .13/(x) E 1 2
x — x2 (x — x )2 =
(" 1 1
= P(x) E P(x) E
i=1 x - xi ) 2 (x - xi )2
and then we get
P"(x) = n 1 )2 11
=2 (2)
P(x) x — xii - il (x — Xi) 2 1<i<j<n (x
— Xj)(X — Xi)
In equation (3), valid for x E R C {xl, x2, ... , xn}, we take t --4 xk and since
x — Xk X — Xk 1
urn r.,, , = lim =
X-xk ./---x) :c—xk P(x) — P(xk) P'(xk)'
128 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
we obtain P"(x) — 2 t 1 .
P'(x) i=1 xk— xi
n pH (xi) = 2 t 1
Therefore
P'(xi) i=i i=i xk — xi
i0k
lx1 sinx
1——< <—
7r C11—
x 2 7
sin x
Solution. Since the function is even it is sufficient to prove the
x
inequality for x E (0,7r].
x2
First consider the function 9.2(x) = sin x — x + —
7r , x E [0,7r]. We have
2x „, 2
co'(x) = cos x — 1 So- (x) = sin x + —7r and (r(x) = — cos x. Since
7r
7r 7r
cp'"(x) < 0, for 0 < x < — and cpw(x) ? 0, for — < x < 7r it follows that the
2 2
7r 7r
function e(x) is decreasing on the interval 0, [ — and increasing on —2'7r .
2
(7r
Moreover, we have e(0)> 0, (p" — < 0 and cou(r) > 0. Consequently,
2
7r 7
there are two points xi E 0, ( — and x2 E —2'7r , such that (i.9''(c) > 0,
2
for x E [0, xi] U [x2,7r] and ce(x) < 0, for x E [xi, x2]. It follows that the
function (p'(x) is increasing on the intervals [0, xi], [x2, 7r] and is decreasing
on the interval [xi, x2]. Since (p'(0) = yd(7r) = 0 it follows that there is a
point y E (xi, x2) C (0,7r) such that cp'(x) < 0, for x E [0, y] and cci(x) > 0,
for x E [y, 7r]. Therefore the function cp(x) is increasing on the interval [0, y]
Problems for the 11th form 129
and decreasing on the interval [y, ir]. Since cp(0) = 0 = co(r), we obtain that
(p(x) > 0, for x E [0, 7r]. This implies the left inequality in the problem.
In order to prove the right inequality in the problem it is sufficient to
7r 2
show that 0(x) < 0, for x E [0,7r], where 7b (s) sin x — — . x + 2. We have
2
7r
zp'(x) = cos — — + x, (x) = —sins +1. Since 0"(x) > 0, for x E [0, 7r], it
2
follows that the function 1P'(x) is increasing on the interval [0.7r]. We have
Y(0) < 0 and V(7r) > 0. Then there is a point z E (0.7r), such zli(x) < 0, for
x E [0, .2] and 111(x) > 0. for x E [0, y] and E [y, 7r] and hence the function
0(x) is decreasing on the interval [0, y] and increasing on the interval [y, 7r].
Finally, since '(0) = (ir), we conclude that OW < 0, for x E [0, 7r].
Problem XI.22. Let x„ E [0,1] be, such that xn+i.clne(1 — x„) > 1,
(V)n E N. Prove that {x„}„E N is increasing and compute the limit (e is
the base of the natural logarithm).
Therefore xn, Vne(1 — x„) < 1. It follows x„ < xn+1 for any n E N. Conse-
quently the sequence {x„}„E N is convergent. Define 1 = lim xn.
n—∎oo
If we suppose that 1 < 1, then by using Cauchy's criterion we get
lien xn+i /ne(1 — x„) = 1. By taking into account the hypothesis, this
n—* oo
leads to a contradiction. Hence 1 = 1.
Finally, note that there exist sequences satisfying the conditions in the
n — 1.
problem, for example, the sequence x„ = This follows from the left
inequality in (1).
Problem XI.23. Let f : (0, oo) (1, oo) be, a function with the following
properties:
130 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
i) liln f (x) = a, a > 0,
ii) > 0 such that f(xy) = A(f2(x) + f 2 (y)), (V)x, y E (0, oo) \ {1 } .
One claims:
1
a) Show that A <
n-1
b) Compute lien H f (x 22) , x > 0.
/f (x 22) ) 2
f (x2Z) = 2Af 2 (x FI")
- f (x7z.1-) =
2A
1 1-1,
f (x*) = (f(x))7 (V)i ?. 0.
Indeed, for i = 0 this relation is obvious, and if we suppose them true for i,
then we obtain
1
f (x7'7
1- =
( (f(X ))*(1;017 2=
1 (
(f (x)) TrT
F—
2e+'
2A 2A
Problems for the 11th form 131
It follows that
n-1 n-1
( ) E 1-2-2)
-T1+1 ( 1 91,-2-F2-n+i
cn = (f(x)) i=° `
.f
((x))2-2
1
Since 0 < A < - we obtain firn cn = 00.
2'
Problem XI.24. Let A, B E Mn(R) be two matrices with the property that
there is A E R \ {0} such that AAB + A + B = 0 (0 is the zero matrix of
M„(R)). Prove that AB = BA.
The factorization of the left side of the identity gives (AA+ U)(AB +U) = U.
It follows that the matrix AA + U is invertible, with the inverse matrix
AB + U. In this case, we have also (AB + U)(AA + U) = U.
Thus, A2AB = -A(A + B) = A2BA. Since A 0 0, one obtains AB = BA.
/ log yn \ \ / log 2 \
f (Yn) = f )= f log 3 ) = f (y7';)g 3 = f(yn+i), V n > 0.
log 2
Therefore f(yn) = f(y), V n E N. But
E (0,1) implies yn y° = 1.
log 3
The continuity of the function f gives us urn f (yn) = f(1).
n--■oo
We obtain f (y) = f (1), V y > 0.
Problem XI.26. Let (an)„>1 be a sequence of real numbers such that the
sequence (2an+i + sin a„)„>1 is convergent. Show that the sequence (a„)„>1
is convergent.
132 "Gazeta MatematicA" — a bridge over three centuries
Solution. Denote bn, = + sin an, n > 1. From the hypothesis, the
sequence (bn)n>1 converges to a finite limit b. Consider the function f
R R, f (x) = 2x + sin x. Since 2x - 1 < f (x) < 2x + 1, V x E R,
we obtain lien f(x) = oo and lien f(x) = oo. Also, we have f' (x)
x, 00
-
-
x ,00
-
1+ 1+
3+2 = 2 i3
+ 071 Ibt I+
fib I<3 2 M.
- 2
It follows
Let a > 0 arbitrarily chosen. Define m = min g(x) and M = max g(x).
xE[—a,a] xE[—a,a]
From the Weierstrass theorem there is xo E [—a, a] such that g(xo) = M.
Consider the sequence (xn)n>o, defined by xn = 3-7xo, fm E N. From the
relation g(3x) < g(x), (V)x E R., we obtain g(xn) < g(xn+i), (V)n E N.
Hence g(xn) > g(xo) = M, (V)n E N. Since xnE [—a, a], it follows g(xn) <
M. Therefore we have g(xn) = M, (V)n E N. Using the continuity of the
134 "Gazeta Matematicr – a bridge over three centuries
function g we obtain 0 = g(0) = n—oo lirn g(xn) = M. Consequently we have
g(x) 5_ 0, (V)x E [—a, a].
In a similar mode, using the relation g(2x) > g(x), (V)x E R, one obtains
that g(x) > 0, (V)x E [—a, a]. Then we have g(x) = 0, (V)x E [–a, a], and
since a was taken arbitrarily, we obtain g(x) = 0, x E R.
It follows f (x) = x, x E R.
– n E N. Write xn = –a – Yn7 Yn E 0, i .
Consider that xn E [0, a]
' 2 2
a a a2
The condition in the problem implies – + Yn – Yn+1 > — •
–
2 2 4 –
where /2 is the unitar matrix and 02 is the null matrix. Since Tr(A) = 0,
this relation becomes
A2 + (det A)/2 = 02.
From this last equality we deduce
Prove that
1 al Cl 2 ( 1 b1 Cl (
1 al b1
det ( 1 a2 c2 = det 1 b2 C2 det 1 a2 b2
1 a3 C3 1 b3 C3 1 a3 b3 )
+ b1A2 + A3 =
a2A1 + b2A2 + A3 = —C2
1 a3A1 + b3A2 + A3 = —C3
AA1
Al =,A A22—
—
— 612 , where
(
—Cl
b1 1'\ ( al —Cl •11
Dal = det — C2 b2 1 , 02 = det a2 — C2
—C3 b3 1 a3 —C3 1
A • AA, .
136 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
k=1 j=0
p 1 (Xn yn (v) n E N.
(
1 0 zn to
Xn Xn
Compute the limits: lien — and lim
n—■
oo yn n—∎ co to
Solution. We have
and xi = p, x2 = p2 +1.
The characteristic equation of (1) is t2— pt —1 = 0 with the roots
p+ Vp2 +4
A, T with A = >1.
2
We know that (xn) is given by
1n
x„ = ciA"± c2 • (--) , n>1
where ci,c2 are constants that can be found using the known values for xi
and x2.
Therefore
) n-1
= c1 n-1 + C2 • (-- ,n>1
and so
1 n
+ C2
. Xn
11M —= A lim )n-1
A
.
n—oo yn 1
+ C2 ( — A2
Xn
To find urn — we follow the same way.
n—•00 to
Problem XI.35. Let ai,a2,• • • ,anbe positive numbers with the property
aia2••-a„ = 1. Prove the inequality:
1 1 1 3n
al + a2 + • • • + + + + -- --•
1+a1 1 + a2 1+a„ — 2
1
Solution. Consider the convex function f(x) = x + , x E (0, oo).
1±x
Using Jensen's inequality we find
( n ak
7
E f (ak)
k=1
nf
n
But, from the inequality of means and from our hypothesis, we get
iL
ak
k=1
-- 7 ak
> 11 = 1.
k=1
138 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
3
To get the conclusion, it is enough to prove that f (x) > - , V x > 1, which
-2
is equivalent to
1 d"y
Problem XII.1. Compute for x = 0 and y = (arctan x)2.
1•2 • n dxn
Solution. The function f : R R, f(x) = y is even, because is the square
of the function "arctan", which is an odd function.
d"y
Conclusion: if n is odd, the n-th derivative — (0) = 0, and if n is even
dx"
(n = 2k, with k a positive integer), the requested number is the coefficient
of x 2k from the Mac Laurin expansion of the function f .
We have:
1 t2k+2
= x2 + x4 x6 + + i)k x2k + 1)k-1-1
1 + x2 1 + t2,
for any x E (-1, 1), where t is between 0 and x.
Therefore,
x t2k+2
x 3 x 5 x7 k
x2k+1
arctan x = x – + 5– + • • • +(-1) + ( 1)k+1 dt.
3 7 2k + 1 f + t2
1
Because the following inequality holds < 1 it results that
1 + t2 ,
+2k+2 x2k+3
<t 2k4-2 dt <
1t2 1 t2 2k + 3 .
0
Hence,
r j2k+2 x i2k+3 < 1
(-1)k+1 dt < i "
1 t2 2k+3 2k+3'
0
141
142 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
and the desired expansion is:
x3 x5 x7 x2k-1
arctanx = x- + -
+ • • • (-
+D k-1 (arctan x)2 =
3 5 7 ' 2k - 1 +
1 1 4. .x2k+...
= • • •±2(-1)k-1 + +
1- 1) 3 - (2k - 3) 5 • (2k - 5) ' •
[1 • (2k
Because
1 _ 1 (1 1 )
i(2k - i) - 2k i + 2k - i) '
the requested coefficient is:
i )k-i
(-1 . (1 + 1 + 1 +
)k-1 1 + 1 + 1 )
3 5 2k - 3 2k- 1
and
1 d"y (0\ ) 1
0, for n odd
1
71
,!dxn \ ' 7= ) (-0-1-
2 (1 + 1+ 1+ + , for n even
l n 3 5 n-1
Solution. Let us notice that, due to the fact that p is a prime number, we
have gcd(a + k, p) = 1, for any k E {1,2, ... , p - 1}.
Using Fermat's theorem we obtain:
(a + 1)P-1 -_ 1 (modp)
(a + 2)P-1 -_- 1 (modp)
p--1 p_i
(a + i)P-1E_-- (p - 1) (mod p), that is 1 + (a + i)P-1.7,
-0 (mod p).
i=i i=i.
Problems for the 12th form 143
Problem XII.3. Consider a mobile line that pass as through the vertex of
a parabola. Find the locus of the center of gravity of the area bounded by the
parabola and the mobile line.
Solution. Consider a Cartesian coordinates system (0,T, j).
Let the equation of the parabola be: y2= 2px (p > 0), and the equation of
the mobile line: y = Ax (A E R*). We denote by M the second point where
the straight line intersects the parabola (the first one being the origin, 0).
Solving the system given by the equations of the two curves, we obtain the
2p 2p
coordinates of the point 1k!: x m = — , y m = — . Let G(a, (3) be the center
A2 A
of gravity of the given area. Thus,
xm xm
f x (OW - Ax) dx f (2px - A2x2)dx
a o 1 0
1 Q=
1 if A > 0,
2 xm
f (IT/Tx - Ax) dx f (V2Tx - Ax) dx
0
and
x A,1
fm x (Ax - (- OW)) dx f (A2x2- 2px)dx
1
a= , =2 xm ° , if A < 0.
xr(Ax_(_.3x)) f (Ax - (- -V2px)) dx
0 0
4p
— , (3 = A- .
In both cases, after calculations, we deduce: a =5A2
5
Hence, we obtain the equation (32 = -p • a, whence the locus of the point G
4
is also a parabola, with the same vertex and the same axis of symmetry.
1 yi + =
1
-
1
y3 y4 • (p' = (10
<=> (3)
1 f' • co' = 1
t Y2 = y3 y4
The roots of the equation (2) being the inverses of the roots of the equation
(1), we must have yl • y2 = f'(x) 0 and y3 • y4 = cd(x) 0 0, for any x E R.
The functions f' and (p' have the Darboux property, therefore f' and co' have
constant sign on R, whence using f' • (p' = 1, we deduce that the functions
f and yo are both strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on R.
Suppose xo E R exists, such that f (x0) = 0 (we could find only one such
point, due to the strictly monotonicity of f).
From (3) it follows cp(x0) = 0, whence (f co)(4) = 0, in contradiction
—
( f — (py (f' — (20')f (do — ( f — (P)(1' (do + f co') f' v) • (do — • f co' (3)
f 2(p2 f 2,p2
f (p
f' • (p • co — f • (p (f' • (p — f) • co (3) (f' • f • (P' — f) • co
f 2,p2 f 2(p2 —
(3) (f • 1 — 1) • (do =0,
f 2,702
1-99=c•f• (4)
We have: f — yo (1j f f • co' = f • (1 co') and using (4) we deduce f • (1— cp') =
- —
= c•f•co f49 1 So' = c•cp, i.e. 1—co'(x) = c•co(x), x E R <=> co' (x)-Fc•co(x) = 1,
—
x E R.
Multiplying the last relation by e" 0 0, we obtain: (co(x) • e")' = ex,
eox 1
x E R, whence 99(x) • e" = — k with k E R co(x) = k • e c*s + , —
c c
1 1
x E R. Using again (4), we find f(x) = k — — , x E R.
c
Problem XII.5. Consider the functions f, g : I = [a, b] —4 R, such that:
1. a • b > 0 and f(I), g(I) c I;
Problems for the 12th form 145
2. f and g are strictly monotonous and have derivatives on I and g' 0 0;
f 0 g ft
3. < — for x E (a, b).
g o f gl
Find the biggest of the following numbers:
g(b) f(b)
Ii =f f(x)dx, 12 = f g(x)dx.
g(a) f(a)
i 7 • 97r
Problem XII.6. a) Prove that f sin10 x dx =
o 29 ;
i 3 • 7 • 117r
b) Prove that f sin12 x dx = 211 "
0
Ir. _IL
2 2
c) Prove that lim f sin2n x dx = liraf cos2" x dx = 0.
n-400 0 n --K>o 0
7r
2
Solution. Denote I„ = f sine x dx, for all integer n > 0.
o
Applying the formula of integration by parts, we obtain:
7r
2 2
n-2
n 4-- n - 1 /n_1 = /n _3, for all integer n > 3. (2)
n-1
Multiplying the relations (1) and (2), we obtain
n -2
In • /71-1 = 1,1-2 • 1n-3 1 for all integer n>3
n (3)
n-2 r r n-4
In • In 1 =
- in-2 • in-3 = /n-4 • -in-5 = • • •
7/ n
( 1
i - • ./). • io, if n is odd
- n (4)
- 2
1 771 • 1-2 • li, if n is even
Problems for the 12th form 147
/„±i — In =f sin" x • (sin x — 1)dx < 0, for every integer n > 0, because the
[Ir
integrand is a continuous and negative function on 0, — .
2
Therefore, the sequence (in)n>0 is strictly decreasing.
7r
Because sin" x E [0, 1], for all x E [0, —
2] , we obtain in E [0, -2-1, for any
We obtain:
F(x + an) — F(x) (2)F(a
. n)— F(0) = 1(0),
(x) = (x) = lirn —
n—*oo x+ x n—>oo an —
for any x E R.
Problem XII.8. Consider the odd integer n > 3, r E R+, the complex
numbers al , a2, , an-1and the equation:
The roots of the equation, x1,x2,...,x„ are such that for any
k E {1,2,...,n}, ixkl = r. Prove that:
a) Im(xi • x2 • xj—i • xj±i • • • Xn + xi) = 0, for any j =1,n.
b) Im(ak) = Irn(an_k), for any k = 1, n —1.
We therefore find ti, t2, , t„ E R such that for any j E {1, 2, ... , n},
xi = cost•3• + i • sin ti •
a) We have:
1
X1 • X2 • ... • X j-1 • X j+1 • • • • • Xn =
Xi
1
Xi • X2 • . .. • Xj_i • Xj+i • • • • • Xn Xj = — Xj = Xj Xj E R.
xi
1
Xii• Xj2 • . .• Xin_k •Xi •Xj2 • . . xik =1 xii aj2 .. . .•xin_ k =
xil• Xj2 • . . . • Xik
Problems for the 12th form 149
Therefore,
f = g • h, (1)
(by -1 and 1 we denoted the constant polynomials a (X) = - 1, /3(X) = 1).
Writing (1) in the ring Zp[X], we obtain:
(X2 + = 74 • T, (2)
g(X) = (X 2 +1) k p•gi (X) and h(X) = (X2 + 1)71-k p • hi(X). (3)
Then
and
gi (X) • hi(X) =- 0.
If gi (X) = 0, we obtain from (5) that k = 0 and from (3) we find g(X) = 1,
false.
If h1(X) = 0, we obtain from (5) that 11 - k = 0 and from (3) we find
h(X) = 1, false.
Therefore, the equality (1) is impossible, so f is irreducible in the ring Z[X].
Problems for the 12th form 151
Problem XII.11. Consider the abelian group (G,-) with the identity ele-
ment e, and the endomorphism f : G ---> G, such that 1(x) 0 x, for any
x E G, x 0 e.
Prove that the function g : G —> G, g(x) = x-1• f(x) is bijective if and only
if for any y E G, there exists x E G such that (f o f)(x) = f(x • y).
Solution. We'll first prove that g is injective.
We have g(e) = e-1• f(e) = e • e = e. Suppose that we find x E GVel,
g(x) = e <=. x-1- 1(x) = e <=> f (x) = x 4=> x = e.
Therefore, if x E G, x 0 e, then
g(x) 0 e. (1)
Using the fact that g and h are also endomorphisms of the group G, we find:
(y 5)2n = 52n y2n
for any x, y E G, (2)
(1) for any x,y E G, ((y x )71)2 = x71 y71 . x11 . yn. x 2n y2n =
(4) (y x)n = yn . acn. <> (5 yr-1 = yn-1 5n-1, for any x,y E G.
(5 )
(3) <#, (x y )4n = x y 54n-1 y4n-1 54n y4n = x •y 54n-1 • y4n-1 <#,
54n•y=x•y•x 4n-1(7) y X4n = x y x4n-1 •4=>y•x=x• y, for any x, y E G
and therefore (G,.) is an abelian group.
Problems for the 12th form 153
Problem XII.13. Consider a E R* and the functions f, g, h : (0, oo) —> R,
so that g(x) = (ax + x3) • f (x4) and h(x) (—ax2+ x5) • f (x6), for all x > 0.
Prove that f has primitives on (0, oo) •:=> g and h have primitives on (0, oo).
g ()-x
1
-- ) = + 1) • f (x), for all x E (0, co). (2)
h (x5) (
—— + 1) • f (x), for all x E (0, oo). (3)
for all x E (0, oo), which means that f has the primitive F : (0, oo) R,
F(x) = 2G + 3H (sIX).
154 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
(1
Problem XII.14. Prove that there exists only one point c E —2 , 1 I , so
C
that f ez dx = (1 - c) • ec2
0
2
Solution. Let us define the function g : [0,1] R, g(x) = (x - 1) f et dt.
The function g satisfies Rolle's theorem, because g is continuous on [0,1]
and has the derivative g' (x) = f et2 dt + (x - 1) • eX2 , for any x E (0, 1).
Hence, we find c E (0, 1), such that g'(c) = 0.
It follows: g"(x) = eX2 ex2 + (x - 1) • eX2 • 2x = eX 2(2x2 -2x + 2) > 0, for
any x E (0, 1).
Therefore, the function g' increases in the interval (0, 1), and consequently,
c is unique. Hence,
0
f et2dt (c - 1) • ec = 0, for one number c E (0, 1). (1)
1
We have to prove that c E (2, 1 I .
The function f (x) = eX2is continuous and increases on [0, c], and using
the first mean-value theorem for the integrals, we find an unique number
a E (0, c) so that
f eX2 dx = c • 02 . (2)
Problem XII.15. Let f : (0, oo) -> R be a function with the properties:
a) f is continuous at x = 1;
b) f is integrable on [1, 2];
Problems for the 12th form 155
f (x) < x2+1+-141 r • f ( 2'./Y) <#> f(x) < x1- f ( 2nfi) for x > 0.
Hence,
Tr
Problem XII.16. Find all derivable functions f : -
i ) --> R with the
properties:
f(0) = 0;
Ir
b) f (x) • sin2 x + (x) • cos2x = ex, for any x E {0, — ).
2
g'(x) 1
Then, from (1) we get . , for any x E I. The function g
1 - g(x) cos2 x
being derivable on I, we obtain:
g(0) = o — g (x ) e — tan x
X E I •#.
.4=> g (x) 1 _ e-tanx, for any x E I. (3)
If g(xo) > 1, the proof is the same, and we obtain again the relation (3).
7T
We choose the function c : [0' 2 ) R, c(x) = (1 - g(x)).etan x, derivable
7r 7r
on 0 -). Therefore, g(x) = 1 c(x) • e- tan x , for x E [0, —
-
2
[
2
Hence, for the interval I so that g(x) 0 1 for any x E I we have c(x) = 1.
7r
Replacing g in (1), it results d(x). e- tan x • cos2 x = 0, for any x E [0 — )
'2
(x) = 0 = c(x) = 1, for any x E [0, 2 ) g(x) = 1 — e-tan s for any
e-f(x)dx
b) Prove that = 0, where [•] denote the integer part.
1 ef (x) dx
0
Problems for the 12th form 157
Solution. a) Using the Cauchy-Buniakovski-Schwarz inequality, we obtain:
1 ( _ f(2x) )2 1 2
f(x) 2
e dx • f (e) dx >_ 1.
0
f 0
.
2 ' ) •
i 1 1
It follows that Ii. = f ef(x)dx E (I, 2), /2 = f e-f(x)dx E ( 1 , there-
-
2 ,
0 o
i 1
fore f e-f(x)dx • f ef(x)dx < 2.
o o
1 ) /1 (1 /1
b) Ii E (1, 2), 12 E ( 1 —E 1) and hence [ d = O.
2' /2 4' 12
Problem XII.18. Consider the field (K,+,•), K = {0,1, a, b}.
Prove that there exists x E K, such that x3m+2— x3r+1+ 1 = 0, for any
integers m, r.
Solution. For any ring (A, +, •), with 1 0 0, char(A) = p, where p is the
smallest integer, p > 0, such that 1 + 1 + • • • + 1 = 0, and char(A) = 0, if
P
for any positive integer p, 1 + 1 + • • • +10 0.
P
It is well known that if (K,+,.) is a field and char(K) = p > 0, then p is
a prime number. Moreover, if K is a finite field, we find a positive integer n,
such that K has p" elements. In our case IKI = 4, therefore char (K) = 2.
We also know that for any field (K, +, •), if a, /3 E K, 0 0 0 and a .0 = 0,
then a = 0.
Therefore, for the field K = {0, 1, a, b} we have: 1 + 1 = 0, a + a = 0,
b + b = 0 and the tables of the two operations are the following:
+ Olab
1 ab
0 0 1 a b
1 1 a b
1 1 0 b a
a a b 1
a a b 0 1
b b 1 a
b b a 1 0
We have: a2 =b a3 = a = 1. Hence a = a3m-1-2 -a3r+1-t-
+ 1 = a2 - a+ 1,
for any positive integers m, r.
Further, 0 = a3- 1 = (a - 1) • a, and because a - 1 0 0 and K is a field, we
obtain a = 0.
158 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Problem XII.19. Consider a > 0 and the functions f, g : [-a, a] -4 R with
the properties:
a) f is continuously derivable on [-a, a].
b) g is an odd and continuous function on [-a, a] and g(x) 0 0, for any
x E (0, a) .
Prove that there exists at least one value c E ( - a , a) such that
a a
f
—a
f (x)g(x)dx = 2 • f' (c) • f x • g(x)dx .
0
Solution. The following second mean-value theorem for integrals is well-
known:
Theorem. Consider a, b E R, a < b and the functions f, g : [a, b] -> R with
the properties:
a) f is continuous on [a, b].
b) g is integrable on [a,b] and g ? 0 on [a,b].
Then there exists at least one value e E (a, b) such that
b b
f(e)f (-0
Then, h(e) = and using the Lagrange's theorem for the
,
2e
function f, continuously derivable on [-c, l;], we find at least one value
of the second order in [0, 1], with f"(x) > 0 for any x E [0, 1]. If p is a
positive integer, p > 2, prove that the following inequality holds:
1
f f (x)dx < P p2
—
f(1)± (P— 1 2 If (x)dx .
)
0
160 "Gazeta Matematice - a bridge over three centuries
Solution. f" (x) > 0 for any x E [0, 1] implies the convexity of the graph of
the function f. That means: f ((1 - t) • xi t • x2) < (1- t) • f (xi) +t • f (x2),
for any x1, x2, t E [0, 1].
1 1
Replacing t = - < - in the last inequality, we obtain:
P 2
1 p-1 1
f (P - x2 f(xi)d- - • f(x2), for any xi, x2 E [0, 1].
P P
1
We choose the partition A = (- = xo < x1 < • • • < xn = 1 of the interval
P
,1) with xk = 1 + ic(1) -1) ,for k = 0,n, and the points 6,6, • • • ,n,
1
(
P P Pn
such that EL - IL Xk_i, Xkj, for k =1,n.
fr P
sn, = -k
-
p-
We have ii•Aii = pn 1 and we deduce:
1
zn f (Lc p -1 1
f f(x)dx = lim P- 1 + — •1 )
00 Dm
72—■ n p
1 - k=1 p
P
1 n io 1 /k\ 1
< lim (Z' f )+— f( 1 ) ) <=>
n--°° Pn k=1 P n P
1
1
•4=> f f (x)dx 5_. P 2 f (1) + (1) p 1) 211111 —1• N-. f (LC ) =
00 n, L--/
71,--■ n)
1 P k=1
P
1
p- 1 (p -1
= 2 f (1) + ) 2 • f f(x)dx.
P p
12 tan x • tan 3x
Problem XII.22. Compute: f dx.
1 eX
12
x = -y
Solution. We put . Then
dx = -dy
I=
I
12
tan x • tan 3x
1+ ex
dx =
12
ex • tan x • tan 3x
1+ ex
dx,
-f-r2
Problems for the 12th form 161
12
M
12 12
f tan x • (3 tan x - tan3 x)
<=> / = f tan x • tan 3x dx = dx
1 - 3 tan2 x
0 0
18 8
<=> / = f (-tan2 x dx =
3 9 9 3 tan21x - 1 )
0
12 12
cos2 X
= l• tan x dx.
3 3 sine x - cos2 x
0 0
1 m
12 12 12
1 1 1
Ii + 12 = f dx = f dx = f dx =
4 sine x - 1 2(1 - cos 2x) - 1 1 - 2 cos 2x
o o
M
ii 3i 12
, 1 + tan2 x f 1 + tan2 X
dx = 1 dx =
f
= o 1 2 - 2 tan2 x dx '>1-1 4-12=io 3 tan2 x - i
0 tang x - -
1 + tan2 x 3
1 12
7r
tan x - — 0 • tan 12 -1
1
= - In = 1 In
3 1 3 7r
tan x + 0 • tan 1
2 +1
162 "Gazeta MatematicA" — a bridge over three centuries
7r —
7r Id— 1 7r 1 .4 — 1
—4/1 =ln a /1 = + In
12 2 48 4 2 '
2—/ 'Jr2 —1
/ —1
whence / = in .
3 12 9 2
Problem XII.23. Let H be a subgroup of the group (R, +).
Prove that one and only one of the following properties holds:
a) H = (a). {n •aln integer}, where a is a given real number (i.e., H
is cyclic).
b) For any x,y E R, x < y, we find z E H such that x < z < y (H is a
dense set in R).
Solution. We must observe that certain by there are subgroups of (R, +)
with the a) property - the group (Z, +) of the integers, for instance - and
others with the b) property - an example being (R, +).
We consider H a subgroup which doesn't have the a) property. We will
prove that H has the b) property. Because H doesn't have the a) property,
we certainly find a, b E H, a > b, such that for every
a, = b • n + r. (2)
lim rt_i = lim rt • lim nt+i + lim rt+1 •<=> lim nt+i = 0,
t---goo t.00 t-00 t-,00
Problem XII.24. We consider the ring (A, +, •), with 1 0 0 and such that
Solution. a) Consider x, y E A.
X1 + X2
Xi * X2 = 0 <=> = 0 <=> a=0
1— xix2
2xi
xi * xi = X2 •4=> = X2 <=> 2X1 = X2 - (Xi • X2) • Xi <=>
1 - X21
2x1 =x2 — b•xi <=> (2 + b) • xi = x2. (3)
Problems for the 12th form 165
Problem C IX-X.1. Consider a trapezoid with the property that the sum of
the square of a diagonal and the square of a nonparallel edge equals the sum
of the square of the other diagonal and the square of the other nonparallel
edge. Prove that it is isosceles.
Solution. Denote by d1, d2 the diagonals, b, c the nonparallel edges, a and
d the bases and a, 0 the angles between b and a, respectively c and a. The
cosinus theorem gives us d? = b2 + a2— 2ab cos a and d3 = e2 + a2— 2ac cos 0.
Subtracting these equalities and using the hypothesis we obtain b cos a =
c cos 0. If h is the altitude of the trapezoid we have (by Pythagora's theorem)
Problem C IX-X.2. Find the values of the real parameter a so that the
equation Ix — a2 + aI + lx 3 + aI = 20 has two and only two solutions.
—
xk + > n + 1 .
Problem C IX-X.4. a) Prove that for any positive integer n, the following
inequality holds:
1 1 1 10n
+
5n+1 5n+2 + + 10n 15n
> + 1
b) Prove that for all positive integers p and n, the following inequality holds:
1 1 1 2pn
+ + 2pn >- 3pn .
pn + 1 pn + 2 ±1
Solution. Clearly, we have to prove the next statement:
1 1 1 2k
> k 2, 3,••• .
k + 1 k + 2 ++ 2k 3k + 1'
Let k > 2 be an integer number. The identity of Catalan-Botez gives us:
1 (
(1)
Ek+i = i=i
E 2i - 1 2i = t=i 2i(2i - 1) •
Also we have:
2k k ( 2i
2i 2(i - 1) _ kk 2
-j (2)
3k + 1 = j=1
3k+1 + 1 3(i - 1) + 1) Ej=1(3i - 2)(3i + 1) •
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 9-10 169
1 2 (i — 1)(i +2)
But
2i(2i — 1) (3i — 2)(3i + 1) 2i(2i — 1)(3i — 2)(3i + 1)•
Then,
1 > 2
i =1,2,...,k.
2i(2i — 1) (3i — 2)(3i + 1) '
The equality holds only for i = 1. The summation of these inequalities, gives
(by (1) and (2)):
k
1 2k
3k+1.
k 1 2k 2
Remark. It is well-known that lien >
k.0.0 i=ik + i
= log 2. Also
3k +1 3
2
Hence we get the inequality log 2 >
3
Problem C IX X.5. Let ABC be an acute triangle with the altitudes IAAli,
-
2 2
1
area(HC1A) = R2sin 2B(1 + cos 2A),
—
1
area(HA1C) = R2sin 2B(1 + cos 2C),
—
sin 2C(1 + cos 2B) + sin 2A(1 + cos 2C) + sin 2B(1 + cos 2A)
= sin 2B(1 + cos 2C) + sin 2C(1 + cos 2A) + sin 2A(1 + cos 2B).
a2 + + an = b, and R+ +...+ p
(p, q E N, 7/ odd and p < q). Show that at least one of the numbers
al, a2, . , an is not positive.
Solution. Suppose that ai > 0, for all the indices 1 < i < n. Define the
numbers
a• 1 < i < n.
xi = V.-l
b
Then we obtain the relations
xq + = 1, and 4 + 4+ • • • + 4= 1.
It follows that xi E (0, 1) and consequently xl < xP, (V)i, which is a contra-
diction.
R b c
—>--.
r c b
Solution. We know that
A B C
r = 4R sin — sin — sin — .
2 2 2
From the sinus theorem, we can write:
b c sin B sin C
- + = +
c b sin C sin B •
R b c
Thus, the inequality — > -+ is equivalent to the following one:
-
r c b
1 sin B sin C
> +
A B C sin C sin B •
4 sin — sin — sin —
2 2 2
Using the relation A+ B +C = 7t and some known trigonometrical identities,
we obtain the next equivalent inequality:
B+C B—C
cos + cos
2 2
B C 2 B— C
> 2 cos B C (1 (2 cos2 1)(2 cos 1)l. (1)
2 2 2
B—CB+C 7
Since 0 < < 2 < — and cosinus is a decreasing function on
2 2
B -I- C B C —
where ma, mb, meare the lengths of the medians and ha, hb, It, are the
lengths of the altitudes.
Solution. We can suppose that A < B < C. Then a < b < c and we
obtain the following orderings:
Problem C IX-X.12. If ai,a2, ,an E [1, oo) or al, a2, • • • ,an E (0) 1),
n E N, then
Solution. We consider only the case ai E (0, 1), since the other case can be
reduced to this one by dividing to (aia2...a n )n and using the substitution
1
— = xi. Consider the function
ai
n-1
Using the symmetry we can assume that al < a2. It follows, for 0 < A < 1,
a2
F (Aai — a3, • • • , an)< F(ai, a2, • • • 'an).
' '
After a short calculation this is equivalent to the inequality
(1 + Aai) (1 + a2
-A-) (1 + ai)(1 a2),
which becomes the obvious inequality (1- A)(a2 - Aai) > 0, since A < 1 and
al < a2. Choose A = a2.
It follows F(ai, a2, , an ) > F(ala2, 1, a3, I an).
Now, if we consider, using the symmetry, that al < a2 < < a,„ then,
by repeating the argument above, we get
F(ai, a2, , an) > F(aia2, 1, a3, . , an) > > F(aia2 ... an, 1, . , 1).
174 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
Let x = aia2 ... an. We have
F(x,1,... ,1) = (1 + x)n - xY • (1 + x) - 2n-1 >0,
1+x
since > 1,5.
2
Problem C IX X.13. Find all polynomials P E Z[X] such that P(a)
-
divides a, VaEN\101.
Solution. Let P E Z[X] be a polynomial with the property in the problem.
We have IP(a)I < a, VaEN\ 101. If the degree of P is greater than 1, then
there is a positive integer a such that IP(a)1 > a, contradiction. It follows
that P = mX + n, with m, n E Z.
1. Suppose that m, n 0 0. Since POO divides Ink, m + 1 divides 1, if
n > 0, or m - 1 divides 1, if n < O. We obtain m = -2 and n > 0 or
m = 2 and n < 0. In the first case, P(1) divides 1 implies n E {1, 3}; but we
see that P(4) doesn't divide 4. In the second case, P(1) divides 1 implies
n E { -1, -3} and also we observe the same situation as above.
2. If n = 0, then ma divides a, VaEN\ {0} if and only if m E 1-1, 11.
3. If m = 0, then we obtain clearly P = 1 or P = -1.
Therefore, there are only four polynomials that verify the property in the
problem:
Pi = XI P2 = - X , P3 = 1, P4 = -1.
Problem C IX X.14. We consider the function f : R -+ JR , f(x) =
-
An{-1,1}=0andxeA x 3 EA.
x +1
a) Show that the number of elements of the set A is a multiple of 3.
b) Find the set A, if all elements are integers.
x 3
Solution. a) Consider the function f : R \ {-1, 1} -4 R, 1 (x) = x . One
+1
obtain immediately that f : R \ {-1, 1} -4 JR \ {-1, 1} is a bijection. Also
we can derive easily the relations:
(f o f o f)(x) = x, and f(x) 0 x, (V)x E R \ 1-1,11.
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 9-10 175
From these relations we obtain that, for any x E R \ {-1, 1}, the element:
x, f(x), (f o f)(x) are distinct. Define 215 = {x, 1(x), (f o f)(x)}, for any
x E A. We have
A= U Ax.
xEA
Also, if Ax n Au 0 0, for some x, y E A, then it follows A5 0 Ay. Therefore
the family {Ax :x E A} is a partition of the set A. It follows that the
cardinal number of the set A is multiple of 3.
b) Let x E A. Since f(x) is integer, we obtain x + 1I( 4) -x E
{0, -2,1, -3,3, -5}. Since A U1-1,11 = 0 and f(A) C {0, -2,1,-3,3, -5}
we obtain x ¢ {1, -2, -5}. Finally we get A = 10, -3,31.
the equation:
ax 1 1
a2x bs — 2as - bs 1 + a2x asbx 1 •
1 x 1x 1x
=1.
(Tx) + (I)) -a7)
Since the function f (x) = (1/a)5+ (1/b)5+ (1/ (ab))x is strictly decreasing
and f (1) = 1, it follows that x = 1 is the unique non negative root.
If x < 0, we take x = y, y > 0. We derive (a-y b—y)2 = (a —yb—y 1)2
-
and then, multiplying by a2Yb2✓, we obtain (ay + bY)2 = (OP - 1)2. From
the above result we obtain y = 1.
In conclusion the roots of the given equation are x = 1 and x = 1. -
We obtain that
1 1
n> 1.
a 1 _ a2k /3 1 _ 02k 2k 2k
0a2 a02 = Tea —13 ).
Consequently:
sin —) sin (C —
2 2
But AB = 2R sin C. It results:
2 2 2
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 9-10 177
Similarly, in AAEC we have :
R sin B sin C
AE .-- c
cos --sin (B — 9 •
2 2
Then
B C Cl
2
cos — B) + cos — sin (B —
sin (C
—
1 1 2 —2 2
+ = =
AD AE R sin B sin C
sin C + sin B = 1 1
=
R sin B sin C AC + AB'
In a similar way, we prove that
1 11 1
+ = +
AM AN AC AB
So we obtain the conclusion.
holds:
ra rb ra r he he
— + + + e rb
— —
rc
+ + > ha + hb+ha + hb
— — + + .
— — — — — — —
rb ra r a re rb
c r hb ha he ha he hb —
A B B A
(sin —
2 — sin —
2 cos2 —
2 — cos2 2
=
AB AB
sin sin — cos —cos —
—
2 2 2 2
178 "Gazeta Matematice — a bridge over three centuries
But sin is a positive increasing function on the interval (0, and cos is a
AB
positive decreasing function on the same interval. Since - - E (0, 72r) one
2' 2
obtains:
( A 2B 9B A
sin- - sin -) (cos- - cos- -)
2 2 2
> 0.
AB A B
sin - sin cos cos -
2 2 2
Therefore
ra rb ha hb
rb ra hb ha
Adding up all inequalities such as the above inequality, we get the conclusion.
Problem C IX-X.20. Let a E R be such that sin a + cos a E Q. Prove that
sine a + cos" a E Q, for each positive integer n, n > 2.
Solution. Denote s = sin a + cos a E Q. Then sine a + cos2 a = (sin a +
cos a)2- 2 sin a cos a = 1 and hence
s2 - 1
p = sin a cos a = EQ.
2
Consider now the quadratic equation t2 -st +p = 0. Its roots are t1 = sin a,
t2 = cos a and by the Vieta's formulae we get
sin2 - s sin a + p = 0 • sine-2 a
cos2 a -s cos a + q = 0 I • cos' -2 a
Note. It is easy to verify that the first part of the problem remains true
if we consider the fraction
2 • 6 • 10 ... (4n — 2)
(n + p)(n + p + 1) ... 2n '
as ba ay by
(
aQ bi3 aS 1)5
A= B=( a ('
3 ') C= ca da c-y dy
cl3 dd c(5 d8)
181
182 "Gazeta Matematicr - a bridge over three centuries
where a, b, c, d, a, 0,7, 6 E R. Prove that if A and B are not singular then C
is not singular, too.
Solution. Consider the equation AX B = D, where
=( x y (m n
X and D = P
z t )' q )
It follows
X = A-1DB-1• (1)
From (1) it follows that the matrix X is uniquely determined and hence
x, y, z, t are uniquely defined. On the other hand, the matrix equation can
be written in the form
(a b ) ( x n
c d z t) ('Y '3
6) = ( 77; q )
or
(ax + bz ay + bt ) (a /3 ) = (m n
cx + dz cy + dt -y 5 Pq
or
Xn = E f(k) - f (n + 1).
k=1
Define no = [eP+1], where [•] denote the integer part. We have f"(x) < 0,
for x > no and then the function f' is decreasing on the interval [no, oo).
Let k > no. From the Lagrange's theorem we obtain f (k + 1) - f (k) =
f' (6k) with 6k E (k, k + 1). Therefore we have
times differentiable on (a, b), n > 2 and xo E (a, b) with f(x0) = c(x0) =
r(x0) = 0, f ("±1) (x0) 0 0. Prove that
f(x) if "(x) + 1 1 _ 1
lim
f'(x) [ f'(x) x - xoi .
Solution. Let p be the unique integer for which f (x0) (xo) = • • • =
f (P) (xo) = 0 and f (P+1) (x0) 0 0. From the hypothesis it follows that p > 2.
By induction and L'Hospital's rule, any two functions cp and V) that are
k times differentiable on an interval I, k > 1 and for which there exists a
point xo E I such that (p(x0) = co)(xo) = • • • = 42(k-1)(xo) = 0, 0(xo) =
0)(4) = = 0(k-1)(x0) = 0 and 0(k)(x0) 0 0, satisfy lim ca(x)/1/)(x)
(19 (k) (4)10k) (x0).
Hence we obtain
.f (i)f x\
X-* )
(x - xo)P+1-3
. f (13+1) fx° ) ,
+ 1 - j)!
j = 0, 1, 2.
Consequently it follows
1
lim f (x) P ell(x) + 1 = lim f (x)(f"(x)(x x°) f'(x))
(X)) -
x-4x°.f'(x) fi(x) x — x0] x—xo (f (x))2(x — x0)
f (x) [ f ll (x) f'(x) 1
(x - x0 )73+1 (x - x0 )P-1 (x - xo) Pi
= lilil
x-∎ xo f'(x) I 2
[(X - X0)P
1 1
+
+ 1)! [(p -1)!
=1.
1
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 11-12 185
From the integrability of the functions t- (t), t E [q, 1], we can choose a
partition q = to < t1 < . . . < tn, = 1, such that ti— < q and
1
t3g/(t) dt — E(ti)3g/(ti)(ti— ti-1) <E, j = 1, 2.
i=i
Define n xi
Aj= g (ti)f u3 du, j = 1,2.
i=1 xi-
186 "Gazeta Matematica" - a bridge over three centuries
We have for j = 1, 2:
n ti
Ai -E(ti)-1g'(4)(ti - ti-1) < Eg'(ti) f ((ti)j - uj) du <
i=1 t=1 ✓ ti-i
nfti
— ti-1) E (ti + ti_oi-1 du <
j=1 ti- i
Therefore it follows
Also we have:
A3
= E
n
i=1
k(i) n-1
± E(g1(t k
k=i
) - 9(4+1)1 f
ti
i-lui
du =
1 n-1 k t.
= 9/(1) f ui du + E E(g'(tk) - gl(tk44) f u3du =
q k=1 i=1 ti _ i
t,, n-1 tk
= 9/(1) f u3du + E - gi (tk+i) f u3du.
q k=1 q
tk 1 2 ftk 2
U2 du = ((tk)3
- q3) 5.
- (tk)3 = - u du + q
—
3 3 3 q 3
Since 9' (tk) - g'(tk+l) > 0 and 0 < g/(1), we obtain from above and from
relation (1):
n-1
2 to 2 tk
A2 < • gi (1) f u du + E (g/(4) - g'(tk+i))k- f u du +
q k=1
o
3 q
2q2 n-1
5 .Al + -3- E(d(tk) - g'(tk+i)) <
k=1
,2 2
3•A1+ 5• Ai. + E.
•
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 11-12 187
Taking into account equations (3) and (5) we obtain
fab
f 2(x) dx E3 + I t2 (t) dt < A2 ± 4E <
2
< -3- • Al + 5e < Ll tg'(t) dt + 6E = fdb (x) dx + GE <
Since 0 < e < 1 was arbitrary, we obtain the inequality in the problem.
Problem C XI XII.7. Prove that any ring with 23- q elements, where p and
-
Problem C XI XII.8. Let K and L be two finite fields such that there exists
-
Suppose that x2k = (ax)k holds for any x E G, where k E N* is a fixed prime
number. Prove that xk =e, for any x E G.
Solution. For x = e we find that ak =e. Replace x with ax; then (a2x) k =
(ax)2k = ((ax)k)2 x4k. By induction it can be found that (anx)k = x2n•k.
For n = k we get xk = x2k , therefore we proved that x(2k-1).k = e, for any
"k
x E G.
Let us now return to the hypothesis: x2k = (ax)k , for any x E G. Since
x commutes with x2k, we may infer that x commutes with (ax)k .It follows
that (ax)k = (xa)k ,for any x E G. This relation holds if x is replaced by
k
a —l x, and we get xk = (a —l xa) = a —l xka.
Hence axk = Xk a thus, if x is replaced by xk in the hypothesis, it results
(xk) 2k = =ak = x L.2 .
that x2k2 = (aXk) k ( x k) We proved that xk2 =e, for
any x E G. Now it suffices to prove that k = (k2, (2k — 1) k) , because if this
is true, we will have that ord (x) = k. We have that 1 = (k, 2k — 1) . Indeed,
k is a prime number, so that by Fermat's first theorem 2k-1 - a- 1 mod(k).
Hence (2k— 1) -a: 1 mod(k) that is to say (k, 2k — 1) = 1.
Problem C XI XII.10. Let (G,.) be a group with unit e and with an
-
P P
there is a number q so that g q 0 0, i.e. f -(- of q+1 . But the
P P P P
associated real function of the polynomial f has the Darboux property.
Then, for any A E (0,1) there is cA E ( q ±1)so that f(cA) = f ( q) '
13' qP P
(g +1) ( g+ 1) b
A{f f ()}
q . We can write f f (q)
p = a pn-k., with
P P P
190 "Gazeta Matematice — a bridge over three centuries
1
k E {0, 1, • • • , n} and b E Z, so that (b, p) = 1. We choose A = k 1 and
P +
mp + b q q + 1)
we get f (c) = a pn+1 , where c = ci/pk+i E , and m E Z.
P P
We prove that c ¢ Q. Let us suppose that c = —
u, v 0, u, v E
nilv,
Z, (u, v) = 1. We have f (— ) = a anon , E Z. In this case,
v vn
pn±l (ctriu"-Frniv) = vn (mp+ b). It follows that p divides v, i.e., there is v1 E Z
so that v = pvi. Now we obtain p(anun + miv) = vli(mp + b); thus p divides
v1, i.e., v1 = pv2, with v2 E Z. An elementary reasoning gives us the con-
clusion that the prime number p divides anvil. But p > Ian' > 0, (u, v) = 1
and ply, a contradiction.
So c E (x — E, x + E) \ (2 and f (c) E Q. Therefore cE An (x e, x + E). -
Because x and E > 0 are arbitrary real numbers, it results co(x) = inftE A lx
tl = 0, V E R.
Problem C XI-XII.12. Compute
1 1 n 1 (n 1 n \in
lim
n-4 co n + 1 n+2 ( 1)n 2n+1
Solution. Let n be a fixed positive integer. For i E {1, 2, • • • , n}, we define
1
Si— (-1)k
k=0
2n k 1—
1 1 ( n
lim , ( 1.)11
n—'eo {11 ± n -I- 2 2n 1+ 1 ( nn,
=lim VT
?, = 4.
n) ak bn-k (xk
(
y = x2n + y2n, (V)n E N.
k=o k
We have to prove
En (n) akn-k
k=0
b zk = Z2n•
n
N"` akbn—k(tok =
) , (V)n E N.
k=0
are m rows in B which form a nonzero minor. These rows must exist, for
rank (B) = m. Suppose further that eh, cam are m columns in C that
form a nonzero minor. The minor det (airjs)r,s=1,m is the product of the two
nonzero minors, therefore is also nonzero. Hence rank (A) = m.
Let us prove now the converse statement. We will suppose, without loss
of generality, that det (ajj)ii=on 0 0. Take B with columns the first m
columns in A, and C with its first m columns al, .., am, the columns of the
unit matrix _rm. Denote by crn+i, c,2 the last n-m columns of C. Certainly,
rank (B) = rank (C) = m. We have A = B • C if and only if (cm+k ) k=i,n_rn
satisfy Acm+k = am+k. For a fixed k, this system has n equations and m
variables. It is compatible if and only if rank (A) = rank (A) , where A is
obtained adding to A the column arn+k. Obviously, this condition is fulfilled.
Problem C XI XII.15. Let n, k be positive integers and A E Mk (R) such
-
1 1
Solution. Consider the polynomial P (X) = 1 —X + — Xn. It
1! n!
is known the fact that if A has the eigenvalues A1, Ak E C, then P (A)
has the eigenvalues P (Ai) , P (Ak) . In our context, the matrix A has the
eigenvalues Al = 0, ..., Ak = 0. Indeed, a more general result asserts that
if Q (A) = 0 for some polynomial Q, then any eigenvalue of A is a root of
Q. It follows that P (A) has the eigenvalues P (Ai) = 1, P (4) = 1. We
conclude that det P (A) = P (Ai) • .... • P (Ak) = 1.
Problem C XI-XII.16. Let A be a ring such that the equality x2 +y2 +z2
0 holds in A if and only if x = y = z = 0. Prove that the ring A is infinite.
Solution. First, our goal is to prove that there exist x, y, z E 4, which
are not all zero, such that x2 + y2 + z2 = 0, provided that p is prime. The
polynomial P (X) = XP-1 - 1 has p - 1 roots in Z [X] . We decompose
P as P (X) = (X 2 — 1) (X 2 +1) ; each of these two polynomials has
p 1
exactly roots.
2
Consider now the case p 1(mod 4). There is a E 7Z such that ar e =
p1
-1. Let us denote x = a 4 it results that x2 = -1. Conversely, if the
,
p-1 p1
equation x2 = -1 has a solution, then 1 = (x2) = (-1)r21 , leading to
p 1(mod 4). Take y = 1 and z = 0, it follows that x2 +y2+z2= 0. The other
possible case is p 3(mod 4). Consider the polynomials P1(X) = X 2 — X
p
and P2 (X) = X 2 + X. Each polynomial has 2 1 roots in ZP , one root
p -1
is 0 and the other are the roots of the polynomials considered in the
2
previous case. Then any x E Zp*is a root of either P1 or P2.
Similar to above, it follows that either x or -x is a square in Z. Suppose
that -2 is a square in Zp*, i.e., there exists a E such that a2 = -2. Then
x = a, y = 1, z = 1 satisfy x2 +y2 + z2 = 0. If -2 is not a square in 4, then
2 is. We continue assuming that -3 is a square in Z1,. If this is true, we have
found again x, y, z such that x2 +y2 + z2 = 0, because -3 + 2 + 1 = 0. If -3
is not a square, then 3 is. Notice that p - 1 is not a square in 4, because
p is not -a- 1(mod 4). In particular, our reasoning ends to x, y, z such that
x2 ±y2 + z2 = 0.
Let us return to the ring A, and suppose that A is finite. Then (< 1 >, +, -)
is a subring of (A, +, •) isomorphic with (Z„, +, •) , were n is the characteristic
of A.
Consider p a prime divisor of n and a E (< 1 >, +) an element of order
p. There exist k , 1, m E N, not all 0 (mod p), such that k2 + /2 + m2 r= 0
194 "Gazeta Matematicr — a bridge over three centuries
(mod p) . Then ka, la, ma are not all zero and (ka)2 + (la)2 + (ma)2 = 0,
because pa = 0.
Problem C XI-XII.17. Prove that for any a E [0, oo) U {oo} there exists
a sequence of positive integers (kn)n>i such that
1 1
+ — + +••+ =a.
n-4 00 V 2 3
Solution. Let a E (1, oo) be a real number. Let us consider the positive
integer a = [2a11] + 1. We observe that a > 2, and hence for any positive
integer k, k > a, we have ka-1 > 2. It follows that [e] > k, V k > a.
We define the recurrent sequence (kn)n>1 of positive integers as k1= a, and
kn±i = [kg] , n = 1,2, • . Clearly, (kn)n>i is an increasing sequence, with
lim kn = 00.
n—oo
V 1 1 1 1 1 1
Denote xn = 1+ + • • • + n-) = 1 • -3-+ • • • and
1 1
cn = 1 + — + • • • + — — log n, n = 1,2, • , the classical sequence which
2 n
converges to the Euler's constant C E (0, 1). We have yn = ckn+ log kn and
xn = VT-4.
From the recurrent definition of kn+i, the inequality x — 1 < [x] < x,
V x E R, and the property cn E (0,1), V it > 1, we deduce:
1)
ayn— a + log (1 _ <yn+i < ayn +1, V n 1. (1)
kg
But yn > log kn and kn oo. Therefore yn oo. From (1), we obtain
. Yn+1
hm = a. It results lim xn= lim Yri+i = a (by Cauchy-d'Alembert
n— oo yn
∎ n•—'oo n—>co yn
criterion).
For a = 1 we define kn= 1 for any positive integer n and we have
xn = 1, V 71 > 1.
Suppose now a = oo. We consider the sequence (kn )n>i of positive inte-
gers defined by k1 = 2 and kn+.1 = kg. In that case,
Yn+I.
We obtain lim — = oo, so that lim xn =00.
n•—■
oo yn
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 11-12 195
such that f(X • Y) C f (X) fl f(Y) , for all X, Y E Mn(IR) . (Here P(A)
denotes the family of the subsets of a set A).
continuous function, differentiable on (a, b) and with f (a) = f (b). Prove that
for any integer n > 1 one can find n distinct numbers ci, c2, • • • , E (a, b)
such that:
f (ci) + (c2) + • • • + (c) = 0.
Solution. If f is a constant function, then the conclusion is clear.
Let f be a nonconstant function. From Rolle's theorem, there is .a point
c E (a, b), chosen as an extremum point of f, such that f'(c) = 0 (by
Fermat's theorem). Without loss of generality, we can suppose that c is an
absolute maximum point of f on [a, b] (i.e. f (x) < f (c), V x E [a, b]), such
that f (a) = f (b) < f (c). We prove the next assertion:
For any real numbers a and /3, with a<a<c<0<b and f (a), f (0) <
f (c), there are a' E (a, c) and O' E (c, (3), such that f' (a') + f'(,13') = 0 and
f (a'), PO') < Pc) -
We analyze the three possible situations:
f (a) — f (c) f(Q) f (c) >
1) O.
a— c —c
Using Lagrange's theorem, on [a, c] and [c, )3] we find a' E (a, c) and
f (a) c (c)
/3' E (c, /3), respectively, such that (a') = and n0') =
—
f(0) — f(c)
.It follows f (o‘')+ f (13') = 0. If f (cr') = f (c), then f (x) LS f (a/),
—c
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 11-12 197
V x E [a, b] , and we get f'(a') = 0; contradiction. So, f (a' < f (c) . Similarly
f( 8') < f(c)•
f (a) f (c) f (0) — f (c)
2) 0 < <
a—c —c•
f (x) — f (c)
Consider the continuous function cp : [c, —4 R, (p(x) =
x—c
f (a) f (c)
if x E (c, 0], and co(c) = 0. But, from the hypothesis,
a—c
CO, f (3) — f (0)
/3 —c
— (co(c),co(0)). Using the Darboux property, there is
entries. Prove that there is a choice Ei E { — 1, I.} of the signs + and — such
that:
det (EiAi + e2A2 + + En A„) > det Al + det A2 det An
ei
and there is another choice such that the opposite inequality holds.
Solution. We use the following result: If A and B are second order real
matrices then the following identity holds:
det (A + B) + det (A — B) = 2 (det A + det B) .
For the proof, notice that the polynomial P (X) = det (A + X B) is of second
order, P (X) = ((let B) X 2+ aX + det A, where a E R. The left term in the
identity is precisely P (1) + P (-1) . On the other hand, P (1) + P (-1) =
det B + a + det A + det B — a + det A =the right term.
Using this identity one can see that exactly one of the determinants
det (A + B) and det (A — B) is greater than det A + det B, and the other is
less than det A + det B. This solves the problem for n = 2. Let us extend
the identity for n matrices. Notice that we have
det (Ai + + An_1+ An) + det (Ai + + — An)
= 2 (det (Al + ••• + An-i) det An)
198 "Gazeta Matematica" — a bridge over three centuries
or, otherwise choose
E det (Ai + ... + An-1 + enAn) = 2 (det (A1 + .. + An—i) + det An) ,
en
where the sum is taken over the possible options of signs +, —. We use the
above identity for n — 1 matrices to prove that
Since the sum in the left term is of 71— 1 determinants, at least one choice
of signs e will produce a determinant greater than det Al + ... + det An, and
another choice for the opposite inequality.
0 and 1 whose lateral limits at x verifies f(x — 0) < f(x) < f(x + 0), for
each x E (0,1). Show that there exists xo E [0,1] such that f (x0) = xo.
Solution. Denote A = {x E [0,1] : f (x) > x}. A is nonempty since f(0) >
0. Since A C [0, 1], there exists xo = sup A E [0,1].
We consider the following three cases:
i) xo = 0. Let xn, E (0,1], x n---+ 0 (as n —+ oo). As f(xn) < xn and f is
continuous at 0, it results f(0) < 0, that is f(0) = 0.
ii) x0 = 1. Let xn E A, xn—> 1 (as n —+ oo). As f(xn) > xn and f is
continuous at 1, it results f (1) > 1. Since f(1) < 1, we get f (1) = 1.
iii) xo E (0,1). Let xn, E (x0,1], xn—4 xo (as n —÷ oo). Since f (xn) < xn,
it follows f(xo + 0) < xo and hence f (x0) < xo. Assume f(xo) < xo. Then
xoV A and since xo = sup A, there exists yn E A, yn - xo.
By yn < xo and f (Yn) > y we deduce f (x0 — 0) > x. Therefore f (xo) > xo,
a contradiction.
This shows that f(x0) = 0, q.e.d.
Problems for the annual competition. Forms 11-12 199