Measurement Systems

Reza Katebi
Email: r.katebi@eee.strath.ac.uk
GH705
Ext: 4297

What is measurement?

Every physical thing exist in some measure of quality and/or quantity

Measurement is the science of finding this quantity
Measurement systems exists almost in all man made systems, aircraft,
car, radio, mobile phone, etc
Why measure?
• To estimate the size/amount of things
• To understand systems, processes and phenomena
• To monitor devices and industrial processes
• To control process and systems
• To verify laws of nature
• To establish standards
• To design and build systems
• To…………….

1
 How do we measure

Measurand
Compare Result

Standard

Measurand
Standard

Comparison Device

Hierarchy of Standards

Dimension

Unit

Definitions
Primary Standards

Secondary Standards

Working Standards

Methods of Comparisons
• Direct; Measuring a length with a tape
• Indirect: Measurement is inferred based on known facts and
observations
– Mass of electrons

2
• Measurement: is the process of determining the value of a physical quantity.
• Measurement Systems: is the means to determine a measurement.

Measurement
System
True Value Measured
Value

Thermocouple
Temperature voltage

• Errors
• Scales
• Accuracy
• Noise

• Measurement: is the process of determining the value of a physical quantity.

• Measurement Systems: is the means to determine a measurement.

Measurement
System
True Value Measured
Value

Thermocouple
Temperature voltage

• Errors
• Scales
• Accuracy
• Noise

3
Elements of a Measurement System

Signal Signal Data

Sensor
Conditioner Processor Presentation
True Output
Value

Sensor : is the element in contact with the process and change the information about
the variable into a form (value) which can be used by the other elements.

Resistance
Thermocouple
Resistance
Temperature
change

Types of Sensors

Physical
strain gauge Velocimeter
Accelerometer Thermistor
Load Cell Pressure Sensor
Chemical
Oxygen electrode CO2 sensor

Bioanalytical
Glucose Sensor Nitrate Sesnor

4
 Thermistor (Temperature Sensor)

Lead wires

Semiconductor
Oxide

•High sensitivity Insulation

•Inexpensive
⎛ β ( T0 − T ) ⎞
•Nonlinear R = R 0 exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ T0T ⎠
•Moderate stability
R 0 resistance at absolute zero T0

Capacitance Force Sensor

Force

d
A

A
C = ε R0
d
ε dielectric constant

5
Signal Conditioner: changes the sensor output into a suitable form for processing.
Examples: Amplifier, Wheatstone Bridge, Oscillator

Wheatstone
Sensor Amplifier
Bridge
True Voltage

Value

Signal Processor: Prepares the signal for display or onward transmission,

examples, Analogue to digital converter, averaging, nonlinear compensation

Data Presentation: Presents the measured value in a visual way, e.g. pointer, LED
display, printing, recording, transmitting

6
 Load Strain Signal
Bridge Conditioning
Cell 1 gauge 2
Weight
Sensing 3 Signal Processing

Amplifier ADC Microprocessor

4 5 6
1. Strain Change 7
2. Resistance Change DAC
3. Small Analogue Voltage Display
4. Amplified Signal Output

5. Digital Signal
6. Adjusted Signal (nonlinearity)
7. Display

Weight Measurement Systems

Control Systems
Microprocessor

Controller Actuator Process

Measurement
System
potentiometer

Differential Motor
Amplifier
Speed
Control
Feedback
Taco

7
 Ideal Instrument

• Low cost.
• Easy to use.
• Rugged / will work in harsh environments.
• Minimally disturb the phenomena being studied.
• high resolution.
• High temporal response (frequency response).
• Wide bandwidth.
• Measure quantities directly

Specification of a Measuring Device

• Identifying the form of the measurement required

– variable to be measured
– nominal value
– range of values
– accuracy
– speed of response of system
– reliability
– any environmental conditions which may affect the system
• Identifying the form of the output from the measurement system
– has the variable to be displayed
– is the variable part of control system
– is the variable to be part of a communication network

8
• Selecting an appropriate device
– must match input requirements(1) and consider the future output requirements(2)
– range
– accuracy
– linearity
– speed of response
– reliability
– maintainability
– life
– power
– supply requirements
– ruggedness
– availability
– cost
• Select appropriate signal conditioning/signal processing
– must match output requirement (2)
– To be able to do this, we must be familiar with static characteristics, steady
state accuracy
– and dynamic characteristics.

Instrument Specification
Instrument
Specification

Performance Safety Environmental General

Characteristics Characteristics Effects Information

Temperature Operation
Humidity Documents
Static Dynamic Stability Others Pressure Safety
Vibration Maintenance
Power Quality
Supply
Accuracy, Shock
Repeatability, Step response
Linearity, Frequency Input Impedance
Sensitivity, Response Output
Hysterisis Impedance
Output Noise

Start-up drift
Long term Drift
Operational Life
Mounting Position

9
 Disturbances

• A Measurement system is subjected to other inputs apart from

the actually measured quantity
• Examples
– Interference by electricity supply line, motion, etc.
– Mechanical interferences like vibration minimized by isolating the
device.
– Electrical interferences minimized by shielding the system,
– Designing the instrument such that undesirable inputs are
compensated, i.e. feedback
– Identifying the undesirable inputs and making corrections.

Transducer
• Transducer is the first element to perceive the measured variable.
Transducers convert physical variable into a signal.

• The sensing element is usually known as a ”Transducer”.

• It absorbs some energy from the system and convert it into some
other form.

• Passive transducers: These DO NOT require external energy.

– Example: Thermocouples, piezoelectric sensors.

• Active transducers: Those which require external energy for their

operation.
– Examples: Strain gauges, laser sensors

10
 Signals

• Static Signals: Measurements don’t change with time. Eg;

Measurement of weight from a spring balance after it settles,
measurement of length using a vernier calipers, etc.
• Examples: Length, and weight of an object

• Dynamic Signals: Speed of an accelerating vehicle, vibration

amplitude, etc.

• Periodic Signals: Eg.planet orbits, Oscillation of a simple pendulum,

Rotating wheel

Digital and Analogue Signals

Analogue Signals
– Infinite values possible
– Difficult. D/A conversions required.
– Susceptible to noise.
– Accuracy may decrease during transmission.

Digital Signals
– Output can take only a finite number of values
– Interfacing with a computer easy
– System more tolerant to noise.
– Accuracy is preserved.

11
 Principles of Measurements

•The balance is achieved by adding known weights

•Deflection made zero by applying an effect opposite to that
produced by the measured quantity, Eg: Platform balance,
wheatstone’s bridge
•Accuracy depends on the known effect that is given.
•Slow and need skill.
•If accuracy is the foremost criterion, this is preferred.

•The deflection of the spring is related to the weight

•The measurand produces an opposing physical effect
which can be observed. Eg: Spring balance, Thermometer,
etc.
•Accuracy depends on calibration.
•Convenient to use.
•Preferred for large scale use

Calibration
The process of determining the relation between a measuring instrument
and a standard.

Example: Take a spring balance. Add known weights. Note down the
readings for each weight. This is calibration.
The above can be represented as a curve i.e a Calibration Curve.

Measurement
System
Known Input Observed Output

Static Calibration: input and output are time invariant

→ Static Characteristics

Dynamic Calibration: input and output are time variant

→ Dynamic Characteristics

12
 Static Characteristics

• Static sensitivity: is the slope of

the calibration curve, which may o/p
be linear or non-linear. Sensitivity

i/p

o/p
Linear
Approximation

i/p

•Zero Error: Zero error, is the

o/p
value of the output when no input
is given. Zero Error/ Bias

i/p

•Range or Span: The [Minimum,

Maximum] input limits of an instrument,
for which the calibration is valid. o/p Max
Min o/p
Maximum input allowable is also called i/p
Full Scale (FS)
i/p

•Linearity: Linearity quantifies how close the

calibrated data is to a straight line. One way
of doing it is to find two parallel straight lines
enclosing most of the data . Another way of o/p Measure of
expressing linearity is to fit the calibration linearity
data through regression, as y = m x + c, and
providing the upper and lower bounds for m. i/p

13
 Hysteresis: Dependence of
output to the direction of Max o/p
input variation. Reasons: Hysterisis
Looseness, Friction, Material o/p
characteristics, etc. Max i/p Hysterisis
Hysteresis usually i/p
expressed in terms of
percentage of full scale
reading

Next Calibration

•Sensitivity drift: Sensitivity drift is the Initial Calibration

change with time, of the slope of the o/p
calibration curve Sensitivity drift

i/p

•Threshold: Input below Threshold

which no output can be o/p
detected. (Smallest
measurable input)
i/p
Resolution: It is the minimum input
required to detect a change in the
output

•Zero drift: the calibration curve may

change with time. This feature is called o/p
“drift”. Zero drift is the change with time, of Zero drift
the zero error or bias.
i/p

Dead Space: Dead Space

is the range of input values Dead space
o/p
over which there is no
change in output value
i/p

14
 Static Characteristics

Repeatability: Repeatability is the variation in measurements obtained

when one person measures the same quantity with the same
measuring equipment. If the measuring device yields the same
output values to the same input values, it is said to have
repeatability.

Static characteristics of sensors

Some Examples follow

What is meant by the range of an instrument?

• I be input, O be output

• Input range: Imin to Imax (also LRL to URL)

• Output range: Omin to Omax

Is the SPAN of an instrument different to its RANGE?

• The span (and zero) of an instrument is set by the user. The URL and LRL
(giving the range) are set by the manufacturer.
• Input span: Imax - Imin
• Output span: Omax - Omin
• Sometimes we refer to the span as the full scale deflection (f.s.d. or FS) of
the instrument. This is an important piece of notation as many errors are
quantified in terms of the f.s.d.

15
 Linear or Nonlinear?
We define linear as follows:
A variable y given by y = a x, for some constant or function or system ‘a’, is
linear in x, if when
y1 = a x1 and y2 = a x2 then y = a(x1 + x2) = ax1 + ax2 = y1 + y2

Linear or Nonlinear : examples?

Example 1: In a liquid level system, the flow out, q(t), is proportional to the square
root of the level, h(t). K represents a constant dependent on the geometry.

q (t ) = k h (t )
Example 2: The ideal gas law:
P(t)V(t)/T(t) = constant = k
where P, V and T indicate pressure volume and temperature respectively.

Example 3: The resistance output of a thermistor varies with temperature:

R(t) = Ae –b/T(t)

Nonlinear valve characteristic?

uc
M

u(t) u c (t)
C ontroller d u A ctuator
output output

16
 Sensor’s nonlinear characteristic
Voltage from level sensor
(Volts)
3

2.5
Experimental results

1.5

Linear approximation
1

0.5 operating
region

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Level in tank (cm)

What is meant by the LINEARITY of an instrument?

• The (input,output) pairs must lie on a straight line. O = K I + a

• The gradient is given by K = (Omax- Omin) / (Imax-Imin)
• The ‘y-axis’ intercept is given by Omin - KImin

How do you calculate the nonlinearity?

Assume a nonlinearity function N(I)

This defines the nonlinearity at each input point as the error from the ideal straight line:
nonlinearity = actual value - ideal straight line value

N(I) = O(I) - (K I +a)

The above can be checked on a point-by-point basis. However, for some instruments,
the nonlinear relationship between input and output is known.

17
 Nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d
We can define the max nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale deflection) or span:

Max N(I) as a % of f.s.d = max N(I)/f.s.d * 100 =

max N(I)/ ( Omax-Omin) * 100
B
P3

P4 Introduce a hysteresis function H(I)

P5 P2
which defines the nonlinearity at each
0 P1
H
input point as the error from the ideal
straight line:

H(I) = output when increasing the input – output when decreasing the input
H(I) = O(I)↑ - O(I)↓

Hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d

We can define the max hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale

deflection) or span
Max H(I) as a percentage of f.s.d
= max H(I)/f.s.d * 100 = max H(I)/ ( Omax-Omin) * 100

What do we mean by resolution?

We define the resolution of an instrument as the largest change of
the input signal that will not produce a change in the output signal.

Warning: Do not be deceived when using measurement equipment that a result to

6 decimal places may be more accurate than a standard piece of equipment
which gives a result to 2 decimal places. The first, although having greater
resolution, may not be as accurate.

18
 What do we mean by tolerance?

The tolerance is the permissible range of variation, or the

maximum error that we would be allowed.
Example: Fixed value resistors.

Resistor coding

n tolerance band
Significant x10
Figures

Sensitivity
The static sensitivity of the instrument is the rate of change of the output w.r.t. to the
input
dO
S=
dI
The above expression can often be simplified to the ratio of the change in the
output ∆y to a corresponding change in the input, ∆u.
Sensitivities are often quoted as, for example, µV/oC.

∆O
S=
∆I

19
 Sources of Errors
• Construction error
– These are inherent in the manufacture and arise from causes such as component tolerances.
• Approximation error
– This may occur when taking a linear representation for a nonlinear system.
• Operating error
– These can occur when taking readings from systems.
• Environmental effects
– For example, a change in temperature can affect pressure readings.
• Ageing errors
– Components may deteriorate over time.

Often these errors can be classed as:

• random errors are those that can vary between successive readings. By taking repeated
readings these errors can sometimes be successfully averaged out.

•Systematic errors are errors which do not vary from one reading to another due to
approximation or construction errors.

Precision and Accuracy

• Precision is free from random errors.

• Accuracy is precision and calibration for systematic errors.

Low Acc Low Acc High Acc

Low Prec High Prec High Prec

Out layers

20
 Estimation of Random Errors

• Random errors are probabilistic. Hence Probabilistic approaches

should be used.
• Gaussian or Normal distribution is a commonly used probability
distribution function.
• The function is constructed by taking several samples (ideally
infinite) of a certain measurement and constructing a frequency
distribution function.

Errors

• Measurement error is the difference between the measured value and the
true value.

Two Types:
• Systematic Errors: These errors have identifiable source and can be
compensated by calibration.
– Zero Error, Zero Drift, Sensitivity Drift,etc.
– For example, a backlash in a screw gauge leads to a zero error.
– Systematic errors will be the same for all inputs (in the measurement range)
– One can re-calibrate the equipment to quantify systematic errors.

• Random Errors: These errors do not have an identifiable source and hence
cannot be corrected for.
– Measurement environment, like temperature fluctuations, Humidity, wind,
vibrations, background acoustic and electromagnetic noise, etc.
– Since this error arises from a multitude of sources, it is impossible to quantify.
However, since all interfering inputs contribute equally to random errors, it is
amenable to statistical treatment.

21
 Error and Accuracy
Consider a voltmeter which has a full scale (FS) of 100 V. It takes a reading of 29.9 V when the true
value is 30 V. We can express the error in three forms.

(i) As an absolute error, that is, in terms of the measurement units absolute error
absolute error = 29.9 V - 30 V = -0.1 V
E=O–I

(ii) As a relative error that is a percentage of the measured value

relative error = ((29.9-30)/29.9) x 100 = -0.33%

(iii)As a relative error that is a percentage of the FS of the measuring device

percentage error of FS = ((29.9-30)/100) x 100 = -0.1%

The accuracy is determined using the deviation from the true value of a measurement. It is often
expressed as an inaccuracy. That is a device whose accuracy is listed as 5% is actually 95%
accurate.

. Manufacturers attach a percentage accuracy to the specification of a measuring

instrument. We can then use the percentage readings to calculate how accurate our
answer is.

Example: A manufacturer’s specification sheet lists the percentage accuracy for a 0-1 m
level sensor as 1% of FS. What would be the possible range of true values for
readings of 0.9 m and 0.25 m.
Solution The accuracy is 1% of FS = 1% of 1 m = 0.01 m
(a) When the measured value, y, is 0.9 m, the accuracy listed permits an uncertainty of
±0.01 m, that is the output may lie 0.89 < y < 0.91 m.
(b) When y = 0.25, the same percentage accuracy applies and 0.24 < y < 0.26 m.

Example: A pressure gauge is quoted as having a combined error of ±0.5% of any value
indicated. What is the accuracy for a reading of 120kPa?
Solution: Accuracy of reading 0f 120kPa is 0.5% of 120kPa = 6kPa: 120± 6 kPa.

Example: An ammeter with a range of 0-5V gives the following calibration data. What is
the accuracy as a percentage of FS?
Reading (V) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Deviation (V) 0 0.02 0.05 0.01 0 -0.05

Solution: All errors lie within ± 0.05V. As a percentage of FS this is = ± 1%.

22
 System errors

y y y
u K 1 K 2 K 3 Consider the measurement system
1 2 3
representing a data recording system.
transducer amplifier recorder

The transfer functions K1, K2 and K3 can assume a spread of values and should be written as K1 ±
∆K1. Hence the output of the first transfer function should be

y1 ± ∆y1 = (K1 ± ∆K1) u y2 ± ∆y2 =(K2 ± ∆K2)(y1 ± ∆y1) =(K2 ± ∆K2) (K1 ± ∆K1) u

y3 ± ∆y3 =(K3 ± ∆K3)(K2 ± ∆K2) (K1 ± ∆K1) u

y3 ± ∆y3 = (K3K2K1 ± K2K1∆K3 ± K3K1∆K2 ± K3K2∆K1)u

∆K3 ∆K2 ∆K1

= K3K2K1 (1 ± ± ± )u
K3 K2 K1

y3 =K3K2K1
∆y3 ∆K3 ∆K2 ∆K1
1 +- y = 1± K ± K ± K
3 3 2 1

Hence the fractional uncertainty is the sum of the errors in each element of the measuring system.
This represents the worst possible accuracy.

23
 Example:
Let K1 have an accuracy of ± 2%, K2 ± 1% and K3 ± 0.5%. What is the overall accuracy?
The overall accuracy is given by the sum of the errors:
Accuracy = ± (2 + 1 + 0.5) % = ± 3.5%

Error reduction techniques

Compensating nonlinear element: Example: Flow valve

Isolation: Place instrument in situation to ensure minimal interference. Temperature /pressure

controlled environment. Minimise vibration effects.

Opposing environmental inputs: Two strain gauges experience the same temperature effects.

Differential system: strain gauges placed to experience compression and tension forces.

High Gain Negative Feedback

Input High-gain Output
force Instrument amplifier Voltage,
Fi + Vo
G + K

-
H
Feedback instrumentation

Used to compensate for nonlinearities or unknown variations in system parameters.

Transfer function of measurement system:
KG
Vo = Fi
1 + KGH
If the gain ,K, is large : KGH >> 1 then Vo ~ 1/H * Fi (independent of gains in forward path).

Let gain G be modified to G+∆G

K (G + ∆G )
Vo = Fi
1 + K (G + ∆G ) H
If K(G+∆G)H >> 1 then this again reduces to Vo ~ 1/H * Fi
The effects of changes in process description due to modifying inputs or nonlinear effects can, to
some extent, be reduced.

24
 Dynamic Response
The dynamic response of sensors concerns the transient response of an instrument to an input
signal.
Typical system responses
Fast response, but large
Slowly rising response to steady level oscillations, taking time to decay

0
0 0
0
Time Time
Output does not exceed final value, no Fast response, not such a large
oscillations, response not too slow
peak, oscillations decay quickly

0
0
Time 0
0
Time

The transient and steady-state response

y(t)

Transient Steady-state
Region Region

0
0
t
y(t)

Transient Steady-state
Region Region

0
0
t

25
 First Order System

First order models:

dy
τ dt + y(t) = Ku(t)
u(t) and y(t) the input and output signals and two parameters, K and τ.
K : the system gain and τ: the time constant

Laplace transform of first order differential equation

dy
L{τ + y(t)} = L{Ku(t)} Æ τ (sY(s) – yo) + Y(s) = K U(s)
dt

K τ
(τs + 1)Y(s) = K U(s) + τyo Æ Y(s) = U(s) + y
τs+1 τs+1 o

U(s) Y(s)

G (s)
K
G (s) = .
τs+1

Finding K and t from system plots

Output signal

Kro 300
Calculation of system gain, K: Read off the
steady state value of yss from the graph. 250
Given the intput step size ro, use the
equation yss=Kro to work out the system 0.63 *Kro 200
gain, K.
150

100
Calculation of time constant, t: Calculate
the value of yt (63% of the change in output). 50
Mark the value on the vertical axis. From the τ :time constant
vertical (y-axis) track across to the output 0
x
0 20
curve. Descend to the time axis, to determine 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

the time taken for the output to have altered Time (minutes)
by 63% of its change in value.

26
 Time Delay
Very often in control we meet what is known as the first-order-lag-plus-
deadtime model. This is shown in diagram form as:
System output
3
First order lag Deadtime
2.5 Original response
U(s) K e− sTd Y(s)
τs+1 2 Delayed response

1.5

First order lag 0.5

plus deadtime
0

Ke− sTd
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
U(s) Y(s)
Deadtime Time (minutes)
τs + 1

Second Order System

1 d2y 2ξ dy
+ + y(t) = Ku(t) u(t) and y(t) represent the input and
ωn2 dt 2 ωn dt output signals
Three parameters:.
K: the system gain,
Kωn2 z : the damping constant
y= u Wn: the natural frequency
s + 2ξωn s + ωn2
2

output

time

tr ts

27
 Second Order Responses
Damping value Description of output Output step response
response
Y

ζ1 = 0.2 Underdamped:
output has large overshoot
on steady state level,
output is oscillatory 0 t

(though not unstable)

Y

ζ1 = 0.4 Underdamped:
output is less oscillatory,
but still overshoots the
steady state level, to a 0 t

lesser Y

ζ1 = 1.0 Critically damped:

output has no overshoot
and rises quickly to steady
0
state level t

ζ1 = 4.0 Overdamped:
output has no overshoot,
the response is slow and
sluggish, takes a longer 0 t

time to reach the steady

state level

Overshoot
System overshoot
The overshoot is an indication of the largest error between the reference
input and the output.
peak value - final value
percent overshoot = O.S. (%) = final value x 100 percent

For overdamped systemsÆ no overshoot

0.97-0.75
O.S (%) = 0.75 x 100 = 29.33 %

System Output

1.2
Peak value = 0.97

0.9 Overshoot
0.75

0.6

Final value
0.3

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (secs)
- ζπ
In general: O.S.(%) = 100 exp ( )
1 - ζ2

28
 Settling Time
Settling-time
This is the time required for the system to rise and settle within a given percentage
of its final value.
System output
1.6

upper and lower 5% bounds

1.2
1.05
1
0.95
0.8
point at which
response stays
within 5% bound
0.4
on final value
settling time

0
0 5 10 ts 15 20 25 30
Time (secs)
For the 2% and 5% bound, we find:

Settling time Settling time

bound
2% (X=0.02) 4
ts(2%) ~
ζωn
5% (X=0.05) 3
ts(5%) ~
ζωn

Rise Time
The rise time is the time required for the system to change from, say,
10 percent to 90 percent of its final value.
System output
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4
tr (10%,90%): rise time
0.2

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (secs)

29
 Repeatability
This is the ability of the device to give the same output for the same input under the same
conditions, for a number of occasions. A lack of repeatability is caused by random
fluctuations with time in the environmental inputs. Random fluctuations are modelled
by a probability density function , p.d.f.

What is a p.d.f, p(x)?

1 ⎛ ( x − x )2 ⎞ x : mean of values (centre of distribution)

p( x ) = exp⎜⎜ − ⎟ σ : standard deviation (spread of distribution)
σ 2π ⎝ 2σ 2 ⎟⎠
p(x)
The most common p.d.f. is the NORMAL or GAUSSIAN p.d.f.

The Area under curve between x1 and x2, calculated by

x
∫x12 p( x )dx
x
, represents the probability that a reading , x, lies between x1
and x2. x1 x2

Spread of a distribution
p(x)

σ
p − σ, σ = ∫− σ p( x )dx = 0.683

2σ
p− 2σ,2σ = ∫− 2σ p( x )dx = 0.955
3σ
x p − 3σ,3σ = ∫− 3σ p( x )dx = 0.997
−3σ −2σ −σ σ 2σ 3σ

Repeatability test
1 k=N
Presume a set of ‘N’ readings taken. O= ∑ Ok
Mean given by:
N k =1
⎡1 ⎤
σ o = ⎢ ∑kk ==1N (Ok − O 2 )⎥
Standard deviation: ⎣ N ⎦

Can plot a histogram of results and compare with the Gaussian p.d.f.

30
Example: Error Bands
The manufacturer often provides a band, such that for any input I, the output will be O ± h.

O p(O)

1/(2h)

h
I O

h Ox h

p(O) = 1/(2h) Oideal – h ≤ O ≤ Oideal + h

1.O > Oideal + h
2.O < O ideal - h

Note that the probability of the output O lying between –h and +h is unity.
An Approximation for the +/- h p.d.f to the Normal one is to let the standard deviation be h.

Some Data Reduction Concepts and Definitions

• Data range: the maximum value minus the minimum value.

• Sample Mean = ∑(data values) / Number of data points

• Sample Variance = ∑ (data value – sample mean)2 / (number of data points)

Example
Given the following values:

31, 27, 37, 33, 36

Mean = (31+27+37+33+36) / 5 = 32.8

Variance =
[ (31-32.8)2+(27-32.8)2+(37-32.8)2+(33-32.8)2+36-32.8)2 ] / 5
= 12.96

31
Standard Deviation
• Variance is hard to visualize since it is the square of the units of the variable of
interest .
• It is more common to present the square root of the variance, the standard
deviation.

Std. Dev. = (variance)1/2 or √ (variance)

• From the example on the previous slide, the standard deviation is

(12.96)1/2 = 3.6.

• Outliers – data values lying outside the reasonable range of a

variable. They may be real data or attributable to errors.

• Histogram – frequency count of data, i.e., the number of data

points within a specified range.

How to Construct a Histogram

1. Find the minimum and maximum value in the data set.

2. Choose a number of subintervals or cells of equal length that cover the range between
the minimum and the maximum without overlapping. These are called class intervals.
3. Count the number of observations in the data that belong to each class interval. The
count in each class is the class frequency.
4. Determine the relative frequency of each class by dividing the class frequency by the
total number of observations in the data.

Example
• Given the following data;
15,19,18,15,16,12,19,15,18,16
1. Minimum = 12; maximum = 19.
2. Let’s choose 4 equal intervals between 10 and 21, each interval consisting of three values
(inclusive);
• Interval 1: 10-12
• Interval 2: 13-15
• Interval 3: 16-18
• Interval 4: 19-21

32
 Histogram Example

• Let’s count the number of observations of the data that fall into each interval.

Count Data Points

Interval

1 1 {12}

2 3 {15, 15, 15}

3 4 {18, 16, 18, 16}

4 2 {19, 19}

Histogram

4
Count

3
2

1 2 3 4
Class Interval

33
 Sets of Data
Load45 Load90 Load135 Load180
35 15 4 0.5
18 26 18 2
41 10 16 6
42 11 19 7
20 24 16 1
38 15 12 4
45 16 4 1.5
34 13 14 1
26 3 7 5
91 14 11 3
40 1 5 14
19 26 6 8
18 18 13 2
3 31 11 10
34 50 8 2
22 3 15 18
40 27 1 2
35 36 5 3
18 17 19 7.5
14 12 13 1
7 7 18 1
13 16 13 4
41 2 4 6
24 12 1 1
13 9 12 0.5
34 2 1
11 3
9 5
7

Summary Statistics of large Population

Layered Reports

Specimen: Total
Std. % of Total % of Total
Sum N Mean Deviation Sum N
Load45 298 10 29.80 5.27 100.0% 100.0%
load90 163 10 16.30 2.21 100.0% 100.0%
load135 115 10 11.50 2.92 100.0% 100.0%
load180 73 10 7.30 2.21 100.0% 100.0%

34
 Data for Histograms

Load45

Valid Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
Valid 20 1 10.0 10.0 10.0
25 1 10.0 10.0 20.0
26 1 10.0 10.0 30.0
27 1 10.0 10.0 40.0
31 2 20.0 20.0 60.0
32 1 10.0 10.0 70.0
33 1 10.0 10.0 80.0
36 1 10.0 10.0 90.0
37 1 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total 10 100.0 100.0

Load45 Histogram

Load45 An estimate of the

2.5
frequency distribution.
2.0

This frequency
1.5
distribution
1.0
appears “normal” or
Gaussian.
Frequency

.5
Std. Dev = 5.27
Mean = 29.8

0.0 N = 10.00
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5

Load45

35
 Load90 Histogram

load90
6
This frequency
5 distribution also
appears “normal”
4
or Gaussian.
3

2
Frequency

1 Std. Dev = 2.21

Mean = 16.3

0 N = 10.00
12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0

load90

Load135 Histogram

load135
6
This frequency distribution
appears “log-normal” with the
5 majority of the data
concentrated on the left side
4 of the distribution. This curve
is skewed right.
3

2
Frequency

1 Std. Dev = 2.92

Mean = 11.5

0 N = 10.00
10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0

load135

36
 Load180 Histogram

load180
5

This frequency distribution

3 appears “log-normal” also..

2
Frequency

1
Std. Dev = 2.21
Mean = 7.3

0 N = 10.00
6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

load180

Signal Conditioning and Signal processing

The term signal conditioning is used for the components that convert
the signal from the sensor to a signal which is more appropriate for
further processing – or display or control.
Signal output is usually a d.c. voltage, d.c.current or variable frequency
a.c. voltage.

Example: Bridge circuits where change in resistance can be converted

to change in voltage.

Signal processing refers to improving the quality of the signal or

providing further calculation on the conditioned signal.
Example: Filtering, use of digital algorithms applied to signal

37
 Current transmitters

• Electronic transmitters and signalling equipment introduced 20 years ago. Pneumatics

changed to electronic. A current transmission signal rejects some interference signals more
effectively than a voltage transmission system therefore changes in process variable were
measured as changes in current – passed to control room – operator could act on this and
change another current to activate an actuator.

• Varying signalling standards. e.g. 10-50 mA standard, 1-5 mA standard or 4-20 mA standard.
• 1975: ISA's standards Practices Committee 50 (SP50) endorsed the 4-20mA standard.
• Further development includes the introduction of smart or intelligent transmitters.
• Computer calculations: instrument can account for accuracy/temperature compensation etc.
• Remote diagnosis of faults (signals within transmitter can be monitored)
• Remote re-ranging: control room can reset the span and zero of instrument
• Remote identtification: For Maintenance purposes
• Digital Communications: digital signal superimposed on 4-20mA carrier.
• Local indication of signal: Often analogue digital readout of process variable at sight.

Digital Signal Processing

Temperature
Multiplexing
Pressure Sensor Signal
and A-D Operator
Conditioning C
Flow Conversion Interface
O
Test Status
Digital Input
Data
M
Trigger Reduction
& Analysis
P
Experiment
Indicators U Control
Algorithms
Digital Output T
Process
Controls E Permanent
Data
Valves Analog output
D-A R Storage
Setpoints Conditioning Conversion

38
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
How to convert a binary number into a voltage proportional to its value?

Hence VOUT is a weighted sum of V3, …, V0 with weights proportional to the

conductances G3, …, G0.
If X3:0 is a binary number we want conductances in the ratio 8:4:2:1.
Very fast: gate slew rate ≈ 3 V/ns.
We can scale the resistors to give any output impedance we want.
You do not have to use a binary weighting
By using other conductance ratios we can choose arbitrary output voltages
for up to five of the sixteen
possible values of X3:0. May need additional resistors from VOUT to the
power supplies.

Adding an op-amp:
–The voltage at the junction of all the resistors is now held constant by the feedback
Hence current drawn from V3 is independent of the other voltages V2, …, V0
Hence any gate non-linearity has no effect more accurate, Lower output
impedance, Much slower: op-amp slew rate ≈ 1 V/µs.
Hard to make accurate resistors covering a wide range of values in an integrated
circuit.
Weighted-resistor DAC is no good for converters with many bits.

39
 Resolution and word length

In an A-D converter we require the following

VA is analogue input
VFS is the reference or full-scale voltage
VOMAX is the maximum voltage that can be output by the A-D converter
bo, ..., bn-1 the digital outputs, bo representing the LSB.

The analogue input

bn-1 bn-2 bn-3 bo
VA ≈VFS ( 2 + 22 + 23 + ... + 2n )

The word length determines the resolution of the element,that is, the smallest change in VA which
will result in a change in the digital output.
VFS VOMAX
Resolution = Minimum change in VA = VLSB = 2n (= 2n-1 )
1
Maximum VA = VOMAX = VFS (1-2n) )
Note: VOMAX ≠ VFS but VOMAX →VFS as resolution→∞.

VFS = 2* VMSB

Example

Example:
Given a 4-bit converter with a fullscale range of 0-10V. Calculate the following
1. The voltage resolution
2. The value of VFS.
3. The analogue voltage that would produce the output 1000
4. The value of VOMAX .
Solution:
VFS 10 10
1. Voltage resolution: VLSB = 2n = 24 = 16 Volts = 0.625 Volts
2. VFS = 10 V

3. 1000 :=
bn-1 bn-2 bn-3 bo 1 0 0 0
VA ≈VFS ( 2 + 22 + 23 + ... + 2n ) =10 ( 2 + 22 +23 + 24 ) = 0.5 Volts

Note VFS = 2* VMSB.

1 1
4. VOMAX = VFS (1-2n) ) = 10 *( 1- 16 ) = 10* (1- 0.0625) = 0.9375 Volts.

40
 Quantisation error

b. Quantisation error: The difference between the exact value of analogue

signal and the value represented by the binary output. In the diagram, the
closest representation to the straight line is a stair case waveform. The
largest error will be half a LSB ( provided the staircase output is follows a
linear track)
VLSB
Quantisation error = ± 2

Output voltage

100
011
010
001
000
t
The following example illustrates the percentage error due to the quantisation of the
digital signal.

Example

An 8-bit A-D converter has a quantisation error of ± ½ bit. The output voltage range
is 0-25 volts. Determine the resolution and the quantisation error in volts as a
percentage of FS.

Resolution : 1/28 = 0.003906

VFS
Resolution in volts: 28 =0.003906*25=0.097656Volts
Quantisation error = ± ½ bit = 0.5 * 0.097656 = 0.048828V

0.048828
Percentage accuracy: = ± 25 * 100 = ± 0.1953%.
c. Conversion time: time taken for a complete measurement by A-D converter
d. Linearity: Maximum deviation from best straight line drawn through
staircase output waveform. The design depends on the degree of
sophistication of the D/A circuitry, and hence the cost.
e. Offset: The output of a D/A converter when appropriate code(0000) binary
is applied to the input. Often there is an external control for adjusting offset.

41
 SAMPLING

Many process systems use digital controllers to calculate the correct controller output signals.
The input to these controllers is often a continuous physical variable, such as flow or pressure
or temperature. To enable the digital control system to act on these signals, the analogue input
signals are sampled and converted to digital form. This is shown in the diagram below.

Sampled signal

Analogue Signal
Continuous Digital
Process Controller
T
sampling time

Continuous, discrete and digital signals

42
 Aliasing

A feature that can cause problems due to incorrectly sampled systems is known as aliasing. The
effect of aliasing can be clearly seen by the following diagram:

Magnitude 60 Hz signal 10 Hz signal

time
seconds

50 Hz samples

The output signal is a 60Hz analogue signal. Due to sampling at a low frequency, the 60Hz signal
will appear as a 10Hz signal to our controller. This signal is only produced due to the sampling
effects. Note that
fs : sampling rate (Hz)
fo : frequency of original signal (Hz)
fa = fs – fo : frequency of aliased signal (Hz)

Aliasing

The Sampling Theorem states that: to prevent aliasing, the sampling frequency must
always be more than twice the highest occurring frequency.

In the example above, 50Hz was not greater than 2*60Hz and therefore we saw the
problems of aliasing appearing. Typically you would sample at 4-10 times the
highest occurring frequency.

Therefore, the consequences of aliasing on a digital control system can be

substantial. Noise components with a frequency much higher that the control system
bandwidth normally have a small effect because the system will not respond at high
frequencies. However, if the frequency of that noise is aliased down to the vicinity of
the system bandwidth, the system will respond causing noise to appear in the
system's output.

In practice, an anti-aliasing filter is inserted in the output channel with a frequency

cut-off ωs/2. Therefore the noise will be attenuated. However, too low a breakpoint
may reduce the control system's bandwidth.

43
 A/D Converter

Each value of X corresponds to a range of values of VIN.

The voltage at which VIN switches from one value of X to
the next is called a threshold voltage.
The task of an A/D converter is to discover which of the
voltage ranges VIN belongs to. To do this, the converter
must compare VIN with the threshold voltages.

Tutorial sheets: Static Characteristics

Q1 (from Bentley 2.1)
The emf at a thermocouple junction is 645 µV at the steam point, 3375 at the zinc point (419.58 oC and 9149oC at the silver point (
961.93 oC). Given that the e.m.f. –temperature relationship is of the form
E(T) = a1 T + a2 T2 + a3 T3 ( T in oC) find a1, a2 and a3.
This can be done by hand as a set of simultaneous equations. It is quicker to set up a MATLAB procedure. Show the steps and find the
result.
Q2 (from Bentley 2.2)
The resistance R(θ) of a thermistor at temperature θ K is given by R(θ) = α exp (β / θ)
Prove that there is not a linear relationship between R and θ.
Given that the resistance at the ice point ( 273.15 K) is 9.00 kΩ and the resistance at the steam point is 0.50 kΩ, find the resistance at 25oC.
Q3 (from Bentley 2.3)
A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm and a standard supply voltage of Vs = 0.5 Volts. Using the calibration results in
the table , estimate
(a) the end-point straight line approximation (b)the maximum nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d.
Displacement (cm) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Output voltage (mV) 0.0 16.5 32.0 44.0 51.5 55.5 58.0
Q4 (from Bentley 2.4)
A liquid level sensor has an input range of 0 to 15 cm. Use the calibration results given in the table to estimate the maximum hysteresis as
a percentage of f.s.d. Use MATLAB. Outline steps.

Level h (cm) 0.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 15.0
o/p volts h 0.00 0.35 1.42 2.40 3.43 4.35 5.61 6.50 7.77 8.85 10.2
increasing (mV)
o/p volts h 0.14 1.25 2.32 3.55 4.43 5.70 6.78 7.80 8.87 9.65 10.2
decreasing (mV)
Q5 (from Bentley 2.5)
A PRT is used to interpolate between the triple point of water (0 C), the boiling point of water ( 100oC) and the freezing point of zinc (
o

419.6oC). The corresponding resistance values are 100.0 Ω, 138.5 Ω, and 253.7 Ω. The algebraic form of the interpolation equation is
RT = Ro ( 1 + α T + βT2)
where RT Ω, resistance at ToC, Ro Ω, resistance at 0oC, α, β are constants.
Find the numerical form of the equation.

Answers
1. [ 5.84023 0.006363 –0.000002647], 2.α = 0.18. R(25oC) = 3643 Ω.,3.O= 19.3 I, 25.9%,4.13.2%,5. 3.9 e-3, -5.8e-7

44
 Flash A/D Converter
For an n-bit converter we have
2n–1 threshold voltages.

Use 2n–1 comparators:

Resistor chain used to generate threshold
voltages.
Priority encoder logic must determine the
highest Gn input that equals 1.
12-bit converter needs 4095 comparators
on a single chip!

Successive Approximation Converter

Make successive guesses and use a comparator to tell

whether your guess is too high or too low.
Each guess determines one bit of the answer and cuts the
number of remaining possibilities in half:

Use a DAC to generate the threshold voltages and a state

machine to create the sequence of guesses.

45
 Successive Approximation ADC

State Diagram:
A DAC input of n must generate the
threshold between n–1 and n.
When the final column of states is reached,
DONE goes high and the answer is X2:0.
Note that it is possible to number the 15
states so that DONE is the MSB
and X2:0 are the 3 LSB.

Need for Sample/Hold

If the input voltage changes during conversion, the result is biased towards its initial value because
the most significant bits are determined first.

Increasing voltages will tend to be converted to values ending in …111. Decreasing voltages will
tend to be converted to values ending in …000. Consequences: reduced precision, uncertain
sample instant.

46
 A/D conversion with sample/hold

Input switch is opened during the conversion so VADC remains constant.

Choice of C is a compromise:
– Big C keeps constant voltage despite leakage currents since dV/dt = Ileakage/C
– Small C allows faster acquisition time for any given input current since dV/dt = Iin/C.

Sample/Hold Circuit

When switch is open:

– Leakage currents through open switch and op-amp
input will cause output voltage to drift up or down.
– Choose capacitor large enough that this drift amounts
to less than 0.5 LSB during the time for a conversion
– Converters with high resolution or long conversion
times need larger capacitors
When switch closes:
– Charge rate of capacitor is limited by the maximum
op-amp output current. This determines the
acquisition time: to acquire the signal to within ½LSB.
It is typically of the same order as the conversion time.
Value of C is a compromise: big C gives slow acquisition,
small C gives too much drift.

47
 by Radu Rusan and Dale Vanclieaf, Humber College

A dm inistration
INT EGR ATED
IN FOR M AT IO N SYST EM
Corporate Level
M anagement R eports Finance
W ork Scheduling
Decision M aking
GIS

LAN, W AN LA N / W AN
Custom er
Supervisory M anagement System Services
Level
Data
DataLogging
Storage
D atabase M anagement
Plant Supervision
E mergency M anagement LE ASED
Alarm Resp onse LINES

TERRESTRIAL
M ICROW AVE
RAD IO PSTN SATE LLITE

DCS
Supervisory Control and M onitoring
Local Control
Level FIE LDBUS, for example,
M ODBUS

SC ADA/PLC s

Data Acquisition/ Direct C ontrol/ M onitoring

FIELDBUS
OR
4-20 mA

O perational Level
SENSO RS ACT U AT OR S

D IRECT
PHYSIC AL
CONNECT ION

PH YSICAL PR OC ESSES

48
 Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA is a technology that enables a user to collect data from one or more distant
facilities and/or send control instructions to those facilities. Using SCADA, it is not
necessary for a user to attend or visit remote locations in the normal system operation.
A SCADA system (hardware and software) should implement one or more of the
following functions.

Alarm function—the capability of a supervisory system to perform a predefined action

in response to an alarm condition.

Analog function—the capability of a supervisory system to accept, display, and

record analog quantities sensed by transducers or external devices.

Control function—the capability of a supervisory system to selectively perform

manual or automatic operation (singularly or in selected groups) of external devices.
Control may be either analog or digital.

Indication (status) function—the capability of a supervisory system to accept, record,

or display the status of a device.

Accumulator function—the capability of a supervisory system to accept and total

digital pulses and make them available for display or recording.

Sequence of events function—the capability of a supervisory system to recognize

each predefined event, associate a time of occurrence with each event, and present
the event data in the order of occurrence of the events.

Elements of a SCADA System

A SCADA system has three main elements: Master station call (Master Terminal Unit (MTU)) ,
Communication system , Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

49
 Master Station
The master station is mainly a computer system and therefore consists of:
• A primary computer
• A backup computer (optional)
• A user interface
– Local console
• Monitor(s)
• Keyboard and cursor or other operator input devices (touch
screen, trackball)
• Mass storage media
• Printer(s)
– Local RTU
• Analog recorders
• Digital display
• Mapboard
• RTU function
• Communication interfaces
– Other remote computers –RTU
– Remote console or loggers

Communication System
Typical communication system elements are:
• MODEMs (MOdulate-DEModulate), which use transmission lines for
communication (telephone lines, optical cables, power transmission lines, or radio
for very long distances)
• LAN (Local Area Network) for shorter distances (typically within a facility)

Remote Terminal Station

An RTU usually contains:
• A communication interface that provides links to:
– Master station(s)
– Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
• Digital input modules—contacts from breakers, switches, and relays
• Digital output modules—mainly coils for relays or other devices
• Analog input modules—transducers
• Analog output modules—controllers, recorders, and meters
• Hardware able to perform control processes and to process data (for
example, a computer, PLC, and CPU)
• A local user interface (local console)
• Self diagnostic tests
• Database maintenance

50
 Master Station to RTUs
From the master station, control commands, set points,
control software, parameters for controls, and alarms are sent
to the RTUs.

RTUs to Master Station

The RTUs send the master station digital data representing
the status of devices and alarm conditions, analog data, and
results of the self diagnostic tests.
In most cases, time stamping of the data is done at the
master station as well as at the RTUs, so time
synchronization is needed.
Systems that allow only collection of data from RTUs are
called telemetry systems. With SCADA, it is possible not only
to monitor what is occurring at a remote location, but also to
change the status of the remote location; this is performed by
the supervisory control part of a SCADA system.

Typical HMI/SCADA Applications

A SCADA application implies, in addition to a graphical interface, an important
degree of supervisory control and data acquisition activity for a process that
is distributed on one or more remote locations—locations that may
represent:
• Important equipment (machines) or distinct processes inside a facility,
such as:
– Power generating stations
– Chemical plants
– Automotive production lines
• Sites (components) of systems that are by their nature distributed over
long distances:
– Hydroelectric power generating stations
– Power transmission systems with their switchgear stations
– Oil production facilities and gas, oil, and chemical pipelines systems
– A railway system to monitor and control railway traffic
Where Not to Use SCADA
If a system, process, or piece of equipment can fail and cause injury to humans
or damage to itself or the environment, it should be provided with a
protective system against such failure. Protective systems override the
normal control systems; their operation is usually automatically initiated, but
in some cases can also be manually initiated.

51
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
Until the 1970s, industrial logical control (sequencing) was realized with
electromechanical relays and pneumatic coupling.

Starting in 1970, the PLC became more common in industrial applications, initially
as a simple replacement for relay sequencing applications.

Today, PLCs are the major choice in industrial control applications and are available
with increasingly complex functions.

(PLCs) are microcomputers developed to handle industrial control applications.

Boolean logic and the relay type instructions were the first to be implemented in
PLCs.

The initial specifications required the PLC to be:

•Easily programmed and reprogrammed, preferably directly in the plant
•Smaller than its relay equivalent
•Cost competitive with the solid-state and relay control panels in use at that time
•Easily maintained and repaired

The Allen Bradley Corporation introduced the first microprocessor-based PLC in

1977, using an Intel 8080 microprocessor with circuitry to handle bit logic
instructions at high speed.

PLC Architecture

52
CPU
The CPU is the “heart” of the PLC.
It controls the execution of all PLC operations. It executes the operating
system, manages memory, monitors inputs, evaluates the user logic,
turns on the appropriate outputs, and handles communication and
interactions with the other components of the system.

The CPU contains the same type of microprocessor found in a personal

computer. The difference is that the program used with the
microprocessor is written to accommodate ladder logic instead of other
programming languages.

The PLC cyclically executes a sequence of operations; this cycle is

called a scan. Note that the PLCs have elaborate memory checking
routines to ensure that the memory has not been corrupted. Memory
checking and self diagnostics are undertaken for safety reasons.

Memory
Functionally, the RAM memory is split into different areas with
specific functions. While the memory organization (called also the
memory map) varies from one PLC manufacturer to another, three
of these memory areas are present in any PLC

•an input data table,

•an output data table,
•and a memory area, where the user program is stored.

These areas are playing a central role in the PLC operation cycle. It
is important to mention that because the RAM memory is volatile in
a PLC, a lithium battery takes over when the PLC is shut off, and
therefore the information resident in the PLC (program and data
tables) can be kept for years without powering on the PLC.

53
 Input Modules
Input modules are special interfaces that transform process information into
digital values. The most frequently used input modules are the discrete (digital)
input modules and analog input modules.

Discrete input modules allow the user to convert two state process signals (for
example, switch positions) into a signal compatible with the CPU requirements
(usually into a 0 to 5 V signal). This 0 to 5 V signal is seen as a bit in the input
data table.
The discrete input modules differ in the type of voltage (AC or DC), as well as
the voltage level (120 V, 24 V, etc.) and in the number of terminals (input
signals) per module.

Analog input modules are actually analog-to-digital converters that allow the
user to convert the analog signal to a numeric value. Modules for current and
voltage analog signals are offered for all existing ranges of analog signals.

Output Modules
Output modules are special interfaces that transform a PLC digital value into a
useful electrical signal. There are discrete and analog output modules.
Discrete output modules convert the logical values from the output data table into
a useful voltage signal as needed for the different field devices— AC or DC
voltage, as well as different voltage values (120 V, 24 V, etc.).
Analog output modules are essentially digital-to-analog converters that convert
numeric values from the PLC memory to one of the standard ranges for analog
signals.

Remote I/O Modules

In some cases, where the process is spread over a wide area, it is desirable to
position I/O modules away from the PLCs and closer to the field inputs and
outputs. This may reduce wiring needs and the risk of electromagnetic
interference. These modules are provided with communication interfaces and are
called remote I/O modules. Typical wiring of these modules is twisted wire or
optical fiber.

54
Power Supply
The PLC power supply converts the supply voltage, usually 115 V or 240
V AC, into low-level DC voltages needed for operation of the CPU and
different types of modules installed in the rack. Sometimes, the power
supply will provide a DC voltage output to power digital inputs, but
normally the output devices controlled by the PLC will be powered from
another power supply. The power supply is frequently a separate
module, or may be incorporated in the rack structure. Each rack must
have its own power supply.

Scan
A scan is the operation algorithm implemented to allow the PLC to
perform logical control. The main steps:
1. Read the inputs—transfer the input signal status from the
input modules to the input data table.
2. The CPU executes the programmed logic, using the values
from the input data table and those existing in the output data table
from the previous scan. In the execution process, the output data table
is changed to reflect the result of the executed logic, but no output
modules change their status.
3. The outputs update takes place after the programmed logic
operation is completed; the output data table information is transferred
to the output modules.
4. A fourth important step in a scan is the self diagnostic testing
to ensure that all PLC functions are problem free.

55
 Communication Interfaces
Communication interfaces provide the hardware and protocol base for
transferring information from the PLC to other computers, another PLC, or
intelligent electronic devices.

Usually, a communication port (interface) is available on the CPU module for

programming proposes (uploading logic programs) and online monitoring. In
most cases, at least for the older PLCs and today mainly for micro-PLCs, this
programming port is a serial port. The CPU may include other communication
ports in addition to this port, or they can be purchased as communication
modules. Networks of PLCs and computers are a frequent solution in many
manufacturing plants. In most cases, the PLC makers have their own
proprietary communication networks developed in the last 20 years, but there
is a clear trend toward developing universal standards for future integration of
different PLCs and other intelligent hardware on the same communication
bus.

PLC Communication
Sensor Level
PLCs made automation flexible and affordable. They completely changed
the manufacturing process. In addition to providing control, PLCs also
produce data. Data in many situations can be at least as valuable as the
product. If data is collected and used, quality, productivity, and up time can
be improved.

In any manufacturing application, information flow is essential. Data is

collected manually, in many cases from the plant floor, and may be
inaccurate and not in real time. The information must be written by an
operator, gathered by a foreman, entered by a data processing operator,
printed in a report, and distributed. Much of the data collected manually
already exists in PLCs; with the development of PLCs, communication
flexibility, and modern SCADA software, it is easy to integrate the data from
a PLC into the plant’s information system.

It is therefore not surprising that demand for communication in

manufacturing is constantly increasing. Most PLC users find it essential to
have flexible and open communications defined by some universally
accepted standards, and there has been substantial progress in developing
such standards. But these standards are not yet a widely accepted solution.

56
 Communications at sensor level represent a new trend to replace
conventional cables with a single digital connection. This simplifies
the wiring volume, but requires intelligent sensors (that is, sensors
able to send digital information). Each sensor needs an interface to
the bus. Different communication protocols are in development, and
international efforts for development of a standard to ensure
interconnectivity of different devices are well under way.

Local Area Networks (LAN)

To communicate between PLC systems and computers within a plant,
the trend is to use Ethernet as a medium. Ethernet is the most widely
used local area network for office and industrial applications. The
Ethernet concept is flexible and open. It does not require significant
capital and is very reliable, because it does not have active parts such
as servers or network control computers that can break down and
affect communication. Ethernet has a bus topology with branch
connections. Each device decides independently when to access the
medium and establish peer-to-peer communication. Ethernet is also
very fast, allowing up to 10 Mbits/s.

57
 Real Time
System
(RTS)
A computer-controlled mechanism in
which there are strict timing constraints
on the computer’s actions.

Examples: Cars, Chemical reactor, Home

bread maker, Washing Machine, Mobile
Phone, etc
A RTS consists of four parts:
¾Physical process: That which is controlled
by the computer for some actions.
¾Sensors: Converts state of physical
process into information (analogue or
digital).
¾Computer: Based on information from
sensors, deduces state of physical process
and issues commands to control the
process.
¾Actuators: In response to commands
issued computer, modifies the physical
process.

Example:
Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS): System that controls braking in a
car, preventing wheel lock.
Normally, surface of wheels move at same speed as road. Braking
force can cause one or more wheels to slip or lock. If ABS detects
locking at a wheel it will reduce braking pressure to
stop locking.

¾Physical process.: Tire/wheel, brakes and brake

hydraulic system, car, road, Driver
¾Sensors.: Detect speed that wheels are spinning,
force driver exerts on brake pedal, pressure of
brake fluid, etc.
¾Computer : Special embedded microprocessor,
Fewer components needed than general-purpose
microprocessor and made to withstand vibration
and temperature extremes.
¾No operator, No computer terminal , Reads wheel speed
and other data) at regular intervals, dIf a wheel is locking,
adjusts pressure of brake fluid.
Actuators: Brake-pressure valve, Dashboard light.

58