TEEE 3202 Illumination, Heating and Cooling Systems

BEE/3 SEM II
2018/19

ILLUMINATION 4
ILLUMINATION TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

3.2 ILLUMINATION TERMS

Luminous flux is the energy per second produced by a light source and affect the sensation

vision. Symbol is Φ and the units are lumens

The lumen flux measures the power of light and instead of using the Watt as its unit, the lumen is
used to avoid confusion. A Watt of light power is equivalent to about 641 lms.

The lumen is the unit of flux emitted within a unit solid angle by a uniform point source whose
output luminous flux associated with a radiant flux in air of (1/683) Watts at a wave length of
555nm (5.55×10-7, or 0.555µm).

Luminous Intensity is the luminous flux emitted per solid angle in a given direction by a light
source symbol is I and units are candela (cd). The candela is a unit of luminous intensity which
equals to the luminous intensity of a square centimeter of a black body radiator operated at the
temperature of solidifying platinum.

For a solid angle ω covering a range of directions, means luminous intensity of the light beam,

Iav = {(flux contained within a solid angle)/ (solid angle in the range of direction or contained by
the beam)}

𝑑Φ
For infinite simally solid angle, dω, I=
dω

Fig.3.3: Light Flux or Beam contained within a given solid angle

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The light intensity represents the density of luminous flux lines emanating from the source. Since
a point source radiates light to cover a spherical surface, then its solid angle is the constant value
of 4π. Consequently the luminous intensity for point source is constant at all points in a space
(i.e; the intensity is independent of distance from the light source). As such, the intensity is only
a property of or depends on the light source.

Illumination or Illumination level is the luminous flux incident on a surface element per unit
area of the element.

Symbol E and unit’s lux (lx)

The lux is a unit of illumination level produced on the surface of a sphere having a radius of one
meter by a uniform point source with intensity of one candela situate at its centre. Therefore; it
corresponds to a flux density of one lumen per square metres (1lm/m2). For British system of
units, illumination levels has units of foot-candela (ft-cd)

1 ft-cd ≡ 10.76 lux

Average illumination level,

𝛷𝑖𝑛𝑐
Eav = (incident luminous flux / surface area of receiving plane) = ( )
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

𝑑𝛷𝑖𝑛𝑐
Illumination level at a point, E = ( )
𝑑𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

Objective brightness is the luminous intensity in a given direction per unit area of the surface
normal or perpendicular to the direction (i.e.; of the projected surface area)

Symbol is B and the units are candela per square meters (cd/m2)

By considering the illustration of Fig.3.4, the objective brightness

B = {(illuminous intensity in a given direction) / (area of the surface perpendicular to that

direction)}

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𝐼 𝐼
= =
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝛼 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛳

Where 𝛼 = Angle between the plane of the receiving surface and the light direction

𝜭= 90- 𝛼

=Angle between the light direction and the normal to the receiving surface

=Angle between the receiving surface and the normal to the light direction

Note:-

1.Receiving surface projected normal to the light direction, 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝛼

2.At α = 900or 𝜭 = 00, the objective brightness is a maximum, Bmax.

𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
Hence B = ( )=( )
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛳

Fig.3.4; Light beam falling on a receiving surface for finding B

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Beam of light between RS and OPQ

SQ represents the receiving surface of light beam falls

SP represents the receiving surface normal to the light direction

Subjective or Apparent brightness is an effect judged by the eyes of a given person.

Consequently, it will vary from one person to another. Hence a room that may appear very bright
to one person may not necessarily appear so to another. It’s also depends on the cleanliness of
the surface on which the light falls. Hence a room with walls repainted or scrubbed will appear
brighter than the one with dirty walls.

Luminous efficiency, 𝜂𝑣 , of a light source

𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒)

={ }
(𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒)

𝛷𝑒
= in luminous per Watt (lm/W)
𝑃

Contrast:- Whenever a given area comes into view and is under observation by a person, object
and the background will be seen due to light reflected by them. Depending on a number of
factors, the brightness of the object will be different from the background, leading to a
comparison of the two. This gives the rise to contrast that is very poor when the object cannot be
seen and excellent when the object can be seen clearly.

For equipment such as TVs, Cathode rays oscilloscope, ultrasound scanners, laptops and
computers where display units are used, the contrast is variable or adjustable.

Glare:- It is a condition in which the ability to see significant objects is reduced as a result of
unsuitable distribution of brightness or as a result of extreme contrasts in the field of view. When
there is glare, the eyes experiences fatigue on observing objects due to reflection or looking
directly at light during darkness. In case of looking directly, the emitted light per unit area is very
high (i.e. there is a high intensity light originating from a small area.

The following are examples of glare due to reflection:-

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a) A black board or white board is viewed at a glancing angle results in whatever is written
on the bored.
b) A magazine or book produced using glossy or glittering paper cannot be read easily from
the sides.
c) Bright light is directly behind a black bored, white board, magazine page or book page

In all these cases, instead of seeing the written words or objects drawn, a reflector or mirror like
surface will be seen. In some cases, the words or drawn object will be faintly seen.

The following are example of Glare due to directly seen light in darkness.

a) A torch is flashed directly into one’s eyes during a face to face encounter with another
person.
b) A pedestrian, cyclist, or driver is blinded by the very bright light from an oncoming
vehicles or motorcycle. This is the reason why head lamps for vehicles or motorcycle can
be made deem or bright

Glare is therefore a condition of vision where a person experiences visual discomfort or/
disability; with the effect often occurring simultaneously.

The visual disability increases with the followings;-

a) The brightness of the source of glare

b) The projected area in the direction of the viewer
c) The angular nearness of the source of glare to the normal line of sight

Visual discomfort results from the light produced being too bright in relation to other features in
a room or the surrounding since glare waste light, lamp fittings are designed based on the need to
avoid glare rather than making provisions to compensate for it when it occurs.

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Methods of reducing glare indoor are the following:-

a) Increase mounting heights or fittings

b) Direct some lights upwards from coloured lamp fittings
c) Adequately console lamps from direct view or screen them with diffusing enclose
d) Use lighting fittings with suitable reflectors

Flicker:- This is a visual impression that obtained and observed when the colour of brightness of
object fluctuate. The rate of fluctuation varies from a few cycle per seconds to a value the eye no
longer detect the fluctuation. Flickers can be observed in lamps whose operation that does not
depend on high frequency generated pulses. For such lamp fittings; flicker is produced due to:-

a. Supply voltage fluctuations

b. Florescent lamps, liners or compact coming to the end of their life

4.1 ILLUMINATION FACTORS AND LAWS

Since illumination is the process of lighting, Illumination Engineering is a specialized field of
energy utilization in which an attempt is made which is quantitatively deal with lighting. It is a
comprehensive area of study for engineers in various fields such as electrical, power system,
building services, telecommunication and illumination; and for Architects. By qualitative dealing
with lighting, correct methods and techniques are used so that adequate illumination is produced
for specific task. In addition, much of the information we have about the world has been and is
being gained visually.

Light is a form of radiant energy that occupies a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Several physical aspects of light are covered under topic such as photometry, visor colorimetry
and optics. For illumination calculation, areas of study in optics are reflection, refraction,
absorption and dispersion. The study of refraction is primarily used for the design of optical
refractor control system such as focusing unit for producing focused or parallel beams of light.
The study of dispersion is used for the design of diffusing light controllers commonly called
diffusers. The effects of dispersion and absorption of light incident on particles in space such as
dust and smoke particles is taken into account by determining absorption factors, (AFs).

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The most important area of study in optics for illumination calculations and design is reflection.
This is because most bodies reflect light to some degree when light is incident on them. In cases
where the reflecting body is illuminated by an original source of light such as the sun or lamp, it
becomes a secondary source of light. A very good example is the moon which illuminates the
earth at night by means of reflected light originating from the sun, in view of this, reflected light
plays two important roles in illumination engineering.

(a) Every effort is made to design and construct a variety of good optical reflectors for the
electric lamps.
(b) The calculation of illumination levels in and lighting designs for any given room or space
must take into account the contribution made by reflected light. This is achieved by an
analysis described below.

When light is emitted by a lamp, it is directed or dispersed into the directions;

(a) Upwards towards the ceiling and any other objects at the ceiling.
(b) Sideways towards the walls and any other objects on the walls such as painting.
(c) Down wards towards the floor and any other objects such as chairs.

Since the amounts of light directed towards the ceiling, wall and floor sides are fractions of the
total amount emitted by the lamp, the for a clean environment, these components are represented
by distribution factors for ceiling (DFc), walls (DFw) and floor (DFf) sides. From the sides,
amounts of reflected light will in turn be fractions of the incident light with the percentages
depending on the nature or characteristics of these sides. The components of reflected light
directed towards the floor are accounted for by the transfer factors of ceiling-to-floor (TFcf),
floor-to-floor (TFff) and wall-to-floor (TFwf). The distribution and transfer factors put together
gives the utilization factors (UF) defined subsequently.

An illuminated room looks brighter whenever the walls are scrubbed or repainted, new lamps are
installed or objects in the room are cleaned. This is because dirt absorbs light and reduces the
amount of reflected light. In addition, as a lamp ages, its efficiency reduces causing the emitted
flux to reduce. These effects are taken into account by the lump lumen maintenance (LLME),
lamp survival (LSF), luminaire maintenance (LMF) and room surface maintenance (RSMF)

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factors. These factors give rise to the maintenance factor (MF). The various effects giving rise to
AF, UF and MF are illustrated in fig. 4.1.

(a) Losses for maintenance factors (MF)

(b) Distribution and losses for utilization factor (UF)

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(c) Losses for AF

Figure 4.1 Sankei Diagrams for Flux Factors.

Working plane: - It is the plane or surface on which a task is performed, and therefore the plane
on which the light from a lamp, after various effects, finally reaches. For a classroom, library,
study room or operating room, the working plane is the table. For actors, musicians or dancers,
the working plane is the stage. In a disco or dancing hall it is the floor while for a cleaner there
are many working planes.

Maintenance Factors (MF)

Lamps and conditions under which they operate gradually deteriorate with time as already stated
above. The two effects are the following,

(a) Efficiency of lamps decreases due to ageing and as a result, the emitted luminous flux
reduces with age. It is therefore important to periodically replace lamps.
(b) Film of dirt and/or dust accumulates on lamp bulbs or tubes, lamp fittings (also called
luminaire), walls and objects on them, ceilings, room furniture and any other objects in
the room. This film reduces the transparency or reflecting power of such surfaces since
the loss of light due to absorption increases.

However, if maintenance work is carried out through procedures such as replacement of old
lamps, cleaning of lamps and their fittings, repainting of walls and ceiling, and cleaning of
furniture, the illumination level on working planes can be kept adequate. For purposes of
maintaining the quality of illumination, the loss of light is accounted for by the maintenance
factor. This factor is also in effect the luminous efficiency of the lighting installation of the room
or building, or the luminous efficiency of a lamp.

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

For a lamp, the maintenance factor =
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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For a room or building installation, the maintenance factor, M. F or βm
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
=
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Utilization Factor (UF): -

Light reaching, falling on or received by a working plane is composed of;

(a) Direct light from the lamps

(b) Reflected light by the lamp fittings, walls, ceilings and furniture.
(c) Inter-reflected light.

The amount of light received by reflection depends on the reflectance of the surface. The total
amount of light received will therefore depend on the type of lumps and fittings, the nature of
walls and ceiling, and form of furniture used. This in turn will depend on the use and shape of
the room or building. For example there are marked differences in the above aspects for sitting
and dining rooms for domestic premises, classrooms in primary and secondary schools, lecture
rooms or halls in standard collages and/or universities and conference halls in hotels. To account
for these effects and differences, illumination calculations apply utilization factors.

The utilization factor, U. F or βU

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
=
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚

Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡) + Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐(𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
=
∑𝑁 Ф𝑒

Absorption Factor (AF): -

For outdoor applications such as security flood, street and road lighting there is a likelihood of
dust, smoke, fog or smoke in the atmosphere. For some commercial and industrial applications
such as kitchen for hotels and restaurants, carpentry workshops and grinding mills, the room may
be filled with dust, smoke and steam. The light from the lamps will be scattered and absorbed by
particles in the air/atmosphere. As a result of the illumination for the ideal condition will be
reduced by the absorption factor (A.F).

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Spacing-to-Height Ratio (SHR):-

This is the ratio of spacing between centers of adjacent luminaires/lighting fittings to their height
above the working planes.

Spacing between centers of adjacent luminaires/ lighting fittings 𝑆

SHR = =𝐻
𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

Since lamps in a room are arranged along the width and length of the room, then:-

Along the width or x-axis direction,

𝑆𝑥
𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 =
𝐻

Along the length or y-axis direction,

𝑆𝑦
𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑦 =
𝐻

The nominal spacing-to-height ratio,

√(𝑆𝑥 × 𝑆𝑦 )
𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑛𝑜𝑚 = √(𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 × 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑦 ) =
𝐻

The correct mounting height of fittings or lamps is very important. Glare may result where the
lamps are in the line of vision as a result of low mounting heights. On the other hand, when the
height is excessive, maintenance becomes a problem, including lamp replacement and
illumination levels will be reduced. The value of the SHR depends on the type of lamp fitting
specified or required. While 1.0 ≤ SHR ≤ 2.0, it is common to have SHR ≥ 1.50.

The Inverse Square Law:-

The incident luminous flux which falls on one unit area of a surface is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance, d, from the point height source.

Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐 1 1
i.e. ∝ or 𝐸 ∝
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑑2 𝑑2

In SI units,

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Ф 𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑐 ∝ 2
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑑

Consider a lamp that sends out light equally in all directions from the center of a hollow sphere
of radius 𝑎:

Because of this, each square meter of the spherical surface will receive the same amount of light.

Since a sphere has a surface area 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 = 4𝜋𝑎2 and solid angle 𝜔 = 4𝜋, the illumination

for a point source is;

Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐼 4𝜋𝐼 𝐼
𝐸= = 𝜔 = = 2
𝐴 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 4𝜋𝑎 2 𝑎

This equation shows that the illumination on a surface diminishes as the radius of the sphere
increases.

In the second example, consider a beam of light in form of a cone or pyramid, Fig. 4.2. In the

case of the conical beam, as the distance 𝑑 is doubled and the radius of the circular surface
double then the area is four times the original and the illumination level is one quarter of the

original. When 𝑑 is tripled, a similar argument shows that the area is nine times the original and
the illumination is reduced to one ninth the original level. The situation is the same or similar for
a beam of light in the form of a pyramid, Fig. 4.2 (b).

Lambert’s Cosine Law of Illumination

The surface density of light flux (i.e. the illuminance or illumination) received by a given area
varies with;

(a) The distance from the light source

(b) The angle between the plane surface and the direction of the light

The maximum illumination occurs when the incident light is normal to the surface. When the
plane of the surface is tilted, the illuminance is reduced.

The Cosine Law states;

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The incident luminance flux which falls on one unite area of a surface (i.e the illumination a

surface) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance 𝑑 from a point source and directly
proportional to cos θ, where;

θ= angle between the plane surface and the normal to the incident light.

Or equal angle between the incident light and normal to the plane surface (i.e angle of incident).

Using symbols,

Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

. ∝ or 𝐸 ∝
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑑2 𝑑2

In S.I units, the equation of the law is

Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐼
=𝐸= ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝑑

Since maximum illumination occurs when the incident light is normal to the surface and hence
θ=00, then

𝐸= Emax Cos θ

𝐼
Where, Emax =
𝑑2

Lambert’s Cosine law can be derived in three ways using Fig.4.3, consider flux lines incident on
the three surfaces ABCD, EFGH and PQRS respectively.

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Fig 4.2: Light beams showing Inverse square law

Fig 4.3: Illustration of Lambert’s Cosine Law

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Let surface area of planes ABCD and EFGH be equal such that,

𝐴𝑎𝑏 = 𝐴𝑒𝑓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

With luminous flux Ф perpendicular to the plane ABCD, its illumination is;

Ф Ф
𝐸𝑎𝑏 = = = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑎𝑏 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

For the plane EFGH;

Incident flux, Ф𝑖𝑛𝑐 = (𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 ) ×

(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

= (𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) × ( 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

And its illumination, 𝐸𝑎𝑏

Ф𝑒𝑓 Ф𝑒𝑓 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

=( )=( )=( ) = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐴𝑒𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

For the plane PQRS;

𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓
 Its area, 𝐴𝑝𝑞 =( ) since it is now bigger and the plane makes an angle 𝜃 with
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ABCD.

 The incident flux, Ф𝑝𝑞 = Ф since the same flux is incident on PQRS.
 The illumination of plane PQRS,

Ф𝑝𝑞 Ф Ф
𝐸𝑝𝑞 = ( )=( )=( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐴𝑝𝑞 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 /𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

= 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

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𝐼 𝐼
From the inverse square law, = . Hence Emax = ( 2 ) and the illumination of a surface at a
𝑑2 𝑑

distance 𝑑 from a point light source will be;

𝐼
𝐸 = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑
The above equation can be derived by considering fig. 4.3 (b); where the line XY represents a
perpendicular to the incident light,

𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Average illumination of the surface,

Ф 𝐼𝜔 𝐼𝜔
𝐸=( )=( ) = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 𝐴𝑁

𝐴𝑁
The solid angle subtended by the area A, at the light source, 𝜔≅( ) .
𝑑2

𝐼
Hence 𝐸 = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑

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3.7 ILLUMINATION CALCULATIONS AND DESIGN

3.7.1 Design Considerations

Because lighting is an art as well as a science, there are no hard and fast rules of design.
Furthermore, there is no single ideal or optimum solution to a given or particular lighting
problem. Hence the lighting designer, confronted with a set of conflicting requirements, must
give priorities before a satisfactory compromise is found. Lighting schemes are required for both
interior and exterior lighting. For each application, the sequence of activities in planning and
designing the lighting scheme is as follows:-

1. Establishing the design objectives under the three broad headings of :-

(a) Safety and health
(b) Performance
(c) Appearance and comfort

In addition to these objectives other objectives should be considered.

2. Expressing the lighting objectives, whatever possible, in terms of realizable physical

parameters that will form the design specification. Some of the quantitative criteria used
are illuminance uniformity and glare. However, not all design objectives can be
expressed in terms of measurable quantities.
3. Design decisions are made in a sequence that is appropriate to the given situation.
However, at all stages of the design, the capital and running costs need be evaluated.

The stages to be followed when the design decisions are being made are as follows:-

1. Choice of the lighting system in relation to factors such as day light lighting, work to be
conducted and environment.
2. Choice of the lighting equipment to satisfy the lighting system.
3. The method of control for using the lighting equipment.

For interior lighting, the following conditions should be fulfilled;

(a) The lighting should be adequate for the tasks to be performed in the given room.
(b) The occupants of the room or space should have visual comfort.

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(c) The occupants should be satisfied with the appearance of surfaces and other people
occupying the room.

In view of the above, several elaborate techniques have been developed to satisfy the
illumination requirements. In addition to this, there are variations in procedure due to the fact
that lighting is required for different premises and applications. For example for general, local
and localized lighting, the techniques and procedures differ. In spite of the above, illumination
calculations can be classified into two main groups:-

(a) Determination of the illuminance, either total 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 or average 𝐸𝑎𝑣 at a given working
plane or point for installation of lamps or luminaires.
(b) Determination of the installation pattern of lamps or luminaires to satisfy a minimum
value of illuminance at a given working plane or point.

In order to achieve the above, one of the following methods is used:-

(a) The lumen method

(b) The Point-by-Point method
(c) A combination of the lumen and Point-by-Point methods

The lumen method has the following features:-

(a) The total light output of the lamps in lumens (or more accurately the lighting design
lumens) is available to give a reasonably uniform level of illumination at the working
plane. In view of this, the total illumination levels are equal at different points of a
working plane.

(b) Because the uniform level of illumination is the average illuminance, 𝐸𝑎𝑣 (but not the

actual total value 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 ), the lamps or luminaires are symmetrically arranged. In other
words, the method is applicable to a room, building or premise where the installation
pattern of identical lamps or luminaires is a regular array.

(c) When the average illuminance, 𝐸𝑎𝑣 is determined, allowance is not given for
obstructions in the space of the room, building or premise. Also, gives no indication of
the degree of glare from the system.

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(d) It is a suitable method for determining the total number of lamps or luminaires required
for a given working area.
(e) Where a manufacturer’s catalogue for lamps is used, the maximum spacing-to-mounting

ratio, 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 , that is stated must be such that the minimum illuminance 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 is
never less than 0.8 times the average illuminance, 𝐸𝑎𝑣 (i.e, 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ 0.8𝐸𝑎𝑣 ).
(f) To ease the application of this method, necessary data has been compiled by various
relevant professional bodies such as the Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America and the Institution of Lighting Engineers of U.K.

The lumen method of calculation is based on the assumption that the lamps or luminaires are

symmetrically arranged and the uniform illuminance 𝐸𝑎𝑣 is used. However in practice;

 The total illumination level varies from point to point.

 The lamps may not be arranged symmetrically.

In view of this, point-to-point method is applied, where the illuminance at any point P on a
working plane is the sum of the contributions by each lamp. The calculation is carried out by
applying Lambert’s cosine law or the inverse square law.

3.7.2 Average Illuminance on Horizontal Working Planes by Lumen Method

The average illuminance, 𝐸𝑎𝑣 on a working plane can be determined through the following
steps;

1. Identify the working plane and determine its total surface area A.

2. Knowing the type of lamp used, find the power rating P and efficacy 𝜂𝑣 of each lamp.
(In practice this is obtained from the manufacture’s catalogue for lamps or Data Book for

lamps). The illumination flux for each lamp Ф𝑒 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑃

3. Determine the total number of lamps N installed in the building, premise or room from

𝑁 = 𝑛𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑙𝑢𝑚

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Where;

𝑛𝐿𝐿 = Number of lamps per fitting or luminaire e.g. two or three fluorescent lamps per
fitting.

𝑁𝑙𝑢𝑚 = Number of fittings or luminaires installed in the room or building or premise.

4. Determine the utilization factor, UF of the working plane from,
𝑈𝐹 = (𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑐 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑓 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑤 )
Where,
𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 , 𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 = Transfer factors from ceiling-to-floor, floor-to-floor and wall-to-
floor respectively.
𝐷𝐹𝑐 , 𝐷𝐹𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐹𝑤 = Distribution factor for the ceiling, floor and walls respectively.
5. Determine the maintenance factor MF from the expression
𝑀𝐹 = (𝐿𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑆𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝑅𝑆𝑀𝐹)

Where

LLMF = Lamp lumen maintenance factor (a factor that account for the reduction in lamp

flux Ф𝑒 output due to it degree of cleanliness)

LSF = Lamp survival factor (a factor that account for reduction in lamp flux out put Ф𝑒
due to its age)

LMF = Luminaire maintenance factor (a factor that account for reduction of luminaire
flux output to its degree of cleanliness)

RSMF = Room surface maintenance factor (a factor that accounts for reduction of
reflected light from surfaces in the room due to the degree of cleanliness)

6. The average illumination on the working plane,

𝑁 × 𝑈. 𝐹 × 𝑀. 𝐹 × Ф𝑒
𝐸𝑎𝑣 =
𝐴

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7. Knowing Emin and Emax required for a given task, then establish whether,

Emin ≤ Eav ≤ Emax

3.7.2 Total Illuminance at a Point on a Horizontal Working Plane by the Point-by

Point Method
In very many cases, the working plane is parallel with the earth’s surface and therefore
horizontal. Consequently the light source will be perpendicular to and at a height, h, above
the surface. For purposes of calculation, refer to Fig. 4.4 where;

h = perpendicular or mounting height of a lamp or luminaire above the working plane.

d = the distance from a lamp or fitting (luminaire) to the point P on the working plane.

q = the distance along the working plane between the point P and foot of the perpendicular to
the plane.

θ = angle between the direction of the light from the lamp to the point P and the
perpendicular to the working plane.

= angle of incidence at the point P.

(a) A single lamp. (b) Coplanar lamps at different heights.

Fig. 4.4: Direct Illuminance at a point P on a Horizontal Working Plane.

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By Lambert’ cosine law, the direct illuminance at the point P is given as;

𝐼 ℎ
𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( 3 ) 𝐼
𝑑 𝑑

ℎ
Since 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (𝑑 )

If A = Area of the working plane at P and ω = Solid angle due to area A

= (A/d2)

Then
ω𝐼 ω𝐼 ℎ
𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑟 = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( ) ( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑

But ω𝐼 = Ф𝑒 , then

Ф𝑒 Ф𝑒 ℎ
𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑟 = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( )( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑

For a room, premise or building, then total illuminance 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 on a working plane, considered
to be negligibly small, can be determined through the following steps:

1. Identify the working plane and find it surface area A.

2. Knowing the type of lamp used, find the power rating P and efficacy 𝜂𝑣 of each lamp.

The illumination flux for each lamp Ф𝑒 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑃

3. Determine the mounting height, M and base distance q for each lamp. Use h and q to
determine the lamp to point P distance d. Alternatively, determine 𝜃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
(𝑞/ℎ)
4. Determine the utilization factor UF of the horizontal working plane from;
𝑈𝐹 = (𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑐 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑓 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑤 )
(𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
5. Determine the maintenance factor MF from;
𝑀𝐹 = (𝐿𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑆𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝑅𝑆𝑀𝐹)
(𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)

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6. Determine the direct illuminance for each of the lamps;

Ф𝑒1 Ф𝑒1 ℎ1
𝐸1(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = ( )( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑1

Ф𝑒2 Ф𝑒2 ℎ2
𝐸2(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = ( )( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑2

Ф𝑒𝑗 Ф𝑒𝑗 ℎ𝑗
𝐸𝑗(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑗 = ( )( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑𝑗

Ф𝑒𝑁 Ф𝑒𝑁 ℎ𝑁
𝐸𝑁(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑁 = ( )( )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑𝑁

7. Determine the total illuminance at the working plane;

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (𝑈𝐹 × 𝑀𝐹){𝐸1(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + 𝐸2(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑗(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑁(𝑑𝑖𝑟) }

For an ideal lamp or luminaire, the luminous intensity I, is constant in all direction around it.
However, for real and practical lamp or luminaire installation, this is not the case. Instead,
manufacturers produce in their catalogue polar curves for lamp and luminaire. A polar curve
shows the variation of intensity with the angle 𝜃 . For some polar curves, the intensity is
maximum when, 𝜃 = 0° but zero when, 𝜃 = 90°. In some cases, a table of values for I, for
different angle is provided.

Where polar curves or table of I and 𝜃 values are given, the steps are as follows:-

1. Identify the working plane, and then determine the mounting height h and base distance q
for each lamp.
2. For each lamp determine the angle 𝜃 where 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = (𝑞/ℎ), the lamp-to-point P, distance
d from 𝑑 = √(𝑞 2 + ℎ2 ) and then intensity I from curve or table of I and 𝜃 value.
3. Determine the direct illuminance for each lamp;

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𝐼1 ℎ1
𝐸1(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = ( 3 ) 𝐼1
𝑑1 𝑑1
𝐼2 ℎ2
𝐸2(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = ( 3 ) 𝐼2
𝑑2 𝑑2
𝐼𝑗 ℎ𝑗
𝐸𝑗(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑗 = ( 3 ) 𝐼𝑗
𝑑𝑗 𝑑𝑗
𝐼𝑁 ℎ𝑁
𝐸𝑁(𝑑𝑖𝑟) = ( 2 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑁 = ( 3 ) 𝐼𝑁
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
4. Determine the utilizing factor UF from;
𝑈𝐹 = (𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑐 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑓 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑤 )
5. Determine the maintenance factor from;
𝑀𝐹 = (𝐿𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑆𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝑅𝑆𝑀𝐹)
6. Determine the total illuminance at the identified point in the working plane;

𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (𝑈𝐹 × 𝑀𝐹){𝐸1(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + 𝐸2(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑗(𝑑𝑖𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝐸𝑁(𝑑𝑖𝑟) }

3.7.3 Designing the Arrangement of Lamp and Luminaire in a Room, Building or

Premise by Lumen Method
The design procedure is as follow:-

1. Identify the working plane and determine the total surface area A to be illuminated by the
lamp to be installed.
2. Knowing the types of lamps to be used, find the power rating P and efficacy 𝜂𝑣 of each
lamp. The illumination flux for each lamp is,
Ф𝑒 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑃
3. Determine utilization factor, UF from.
𝑈𝐹 = (𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑐 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑓 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑤 )
4. Determine the maintenance factor from;
𝑀𝐹 = (𝐿𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑆𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝑅𝑆𝑀𝐹)

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5. Choose a value of average illuminance 𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐ℎ) such that 𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐ℎ) ≥ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 where 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛

is the minimum recommended illuminance for the given task.

6. Determine the total number of lamp,
𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐ℎ) 𝐴
𝑁={ }
𝑈𝐹 × 𝑀𝐹 × Ф𝑒

Where { } = integral value of the answer obtained from the expression in brackets

15×4.8
e.g. { } = {19.46} = 20
3.7

7. Using the value of N, determine

𝑁 × 𝑈𝐹 × 𝑀𝐹 × Ф𝑒
𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐𝑎𝑙) =
𝐴
Is 𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐𝑎𝑙) ≥ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ? If “yes” continue to step 8 and if “no” increase the value of N so

that the answer is a yes.

8. Assume that 𝑛𝐿𝐿 = 1 so that total number of lamp equals total number of lamp fittings
or luminaires. Consider three integers Nx, Ny and Nw such that ,
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑦 + 𝑁𝑤
𝑁𝑥 𝑋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( )≅( )
𝑁𝑦 𝑌
Where 𝑁𝑤 = 0,1,2, … . ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑁𝑤 < 𝑁𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑤 < 𝑁𝑦
9. Determine a suitable arrangement of the lamps or luminaires.
Case 1:- Lamps with bayonet cap or Edison screw type lamp holders.
A typical arrangement of this case is shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). This gives,
2𝑎 + (𝑁𝑥 − 1)𝑆𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝑏 + (𝑁𝑦 − 1)𝑆𝑦 = 𝑌
Since in practice, 2𝑎 ≅ 𝑆𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑏 ≅ 𝑆𝑦 , then by considering approximate value;
𝑁𝑥 𝑆𝑥(𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥) = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑦 𝑆𝑦(𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥) = 𝑌
Starting with 𝑆𝑥(𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑦(𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥) , iterative arithmetic calculation are carried out to
obtain practical and realistic value of 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.

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Case 2:- Linear fluorescent lamps fittings are to be installed along x-axis.
[See Fig, 4.5 (b)]

Fig. 4.5: Arrangement of lamps or luminaires in a Regular position in a Room, Premier or

Building

For this case,

2𝑎 + 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚 + (𝑁𝑥 − 1)𝑆𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑

2𝑏 + (𝑁𝑦 − 1)𝑆𝑦 = 𝑌
Where 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒

The same process a for case 1 is followed to obtain 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.

Case 3:- Linear fluorescent lumps fitting are to be installed along the x-axis.

[See fig. 4.5(c)]

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2𝑎 + (𝑁𝑥 − 1)𝑆𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝑏 + 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚 + (𝑁𝑦 − 1)𝑆𝑦 = 𝑌
The practical values of 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦 , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are obtained through the same process.
10. Determine the mounting height.
Alternative 1:-
Choose values of the spacing-to-height ratios such that 1.0 ≤ 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 ≤ 2.0 and 1.0 ≤
𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑦 ≤ 2.0.
Calculate the mounting height from,

√(𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦 )
= √(𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 )(𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑦 )
ℎ

Alternative 2:-

Choose a value of the nominal spacing-to-height ratio such that 1.0 ≤ 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 ≤ 4.0 and
calculate the mounting height from,

√(𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦 )
= 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑛𝑜𝑚
ℎ

Hence calculate 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝐻𝑅𝑦 .

Example 3.1

Question

A collage laboratory measuring 8m ×12m has a ceiling height of 3.4. it is to be illuminated by

4ft (1200mm) fluorescent tubes of 40W, and efficacy of 81.25lm/W. the tables to be used in the
lab are 85cm high and the lighting code gives levels of illuminance ranging from 380 lux to 540
lux. The maintenance factors for room surfaces, lamp lumens and luminaire are 89%, 94% and
84% respectively while the lamp survival factor is 98%. For the walls, ceiling and floor, the
distribution factors are 0.489, 0.195 and 0.316 respectively. The transfer factors for the floor
from the floor, walls and ceiling are 1.105, 0.473 and 0.285 respectively. The spacing-to-height

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ratios along the x-axis and y-axis are 1.25 and 1.34 respectively. It is required that the lamps are
installed along the x-axis and the average illuminance is to be more than the minimum rating by
25.0% of the range.

Design an installation arrangement for the lamps and determine the total length of a flexible,
1.5mm2 cable if the fittings are to be suspended from the ceiling.

Solution/answer

The working plane consists of the tables and is 70cm above the floor. Since the tables can be
placed anywhere in the lab, then.

Surface area of working plane =Floor area = XY

= 8×12 = 96m2

The illumination flux from each lamp,

Ф𝑒 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑃 = 40 × 81.25 = 3,250 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 0.285 , 𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 = 1.105𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 = 0.473
𝐷𝐹𝑤 = 0.489 , 𝐷𝐹𝑐 = 0.195 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐹𝑓 = 0.316

Utilization Factor, UF

= (𝑇𝐹𝑐𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑐 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑓𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑓 ) + (𝑇𝐹𝑤𝑓 × 𝐷𝐹𝑤 )

Substituting, we obtain

𝑈𝐹 = (0.285 × 0.195 ) + (1.105 × 0.316) + (0.473 × 0.489)

= 0.636
RSMF = 89% = 0.89, LLMF = 94% = 0.94, LMF = 84% = 0.84, and LSF = 98% = 0.98
Hence maintenance factor, MF;
𝑀𝐹 = (𝐿𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑆𝐹 ) × (𝐿𝑀𝐹 ) × (𝑅𝑆𝑀𝐹)
𝑀𝐹 = (0.94 ) × (0.98) × (0.84) × (0.89)
= 0.698
The value of average illuminance to be chosen,

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𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐ℎ) = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 + (25% 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)

= 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 0.25(𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
= 380 + 0.25(540 − 380) = 420 𝑙𝑢𝑥
The total number of lump = total number of luminaires
𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐ℎ) 𝐴
𝑁={ }
𝑈𝐹 × 𝑀𝐹 × Ф𝑒
420 × 96
={ }
0.636 × 0.689 × 3250
= {28.31} = 29

The average illuminance when N = 29

29 × 0.636 × 0.689 × 3250

𝐸𝑎𝑣(𝑐𝑎𝑙) =
96
= 430.216

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Fig. 4.6: Arrangement to scale of Linear Fluorescent Lamp Fittings or Luminaires in 𝟖 ×

𝟏𝟐m2 Laboratory.

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