crystals

Review
Microwave Liquid Crystal Technology
Holger Maune *,† , Matthias Jost † , Roland Reese † , Ersin Polat , Matthias Nickel and
Rolf Jakoby
Institute for Microwave Engineering and Photonics, Technische Universität Darmstadt, 64283 Darmstadt,
Germany; jost@imp.tu-darmstadt.de (M.J.); reese@imp.tu-darmstadt.de (R.R.); polat@imp.tu-darmstadt.de (E.P.);
nickel@imp.tu-darmstadt.de (M.N.); jakoby@imp.tu-darmstadt.de (R.J.)
* Correspondence: maune@imp.tu-darmstadt.de; Tel.: +49-6151-16-28450
† These authors contributed equally to this work.




Received: 2 August 2018; Accepted: 28 August 2018; Published: 5 September 2018


Abstract: Tunable Liquid Crystal (LC)-based microwave components are of increasing interest in
academia and industry. Based on these components, numerous applications can be targeted such
as tunable microwave filters and beam-steering antenna systems. With the commercialization of
first LC-steered antennas for Ku -band e.g., by Kymeta and Alcan Systems, LC-based microwave
components left early research stages behind. With the introduction of terrestrial 5G communications
systems, moving to millimeter-wave communication, these systems can benefit from the unique
properties of LC in terms of material quality. In this paper, we show recent developments in millimeter
wave phase shifters for antenna arrays. The limits of classical high-performance metallic rectangular
waveguides are clearly identified. A new implementation with dielectric waveguides is presented
and compared to classic approaches.

Keywords: liquid crystal; millimeter wave devices; steerable antennas; dielectric waveguide;
rectangular waveguides; communication systems

1. Introduction
Liquid Crystal (LC) technology paved the way for today’s communication and information
industry. It found wide application in display technology and enabled modern devices for mobile
computing such as smartphones, being present everywhere. Most of these devices (except for
OLED) are based on the birefringence properties of LC. In the optical domain LC is packed between
two polarization grids and is used to adaptively turn the polarization angle of light transmitted
perpendicular to the LC’s surface. This twisted nematic (TN) cell is the foundation principle for all
modern liquid crystal displays (LCD). This principle has been developed in Switzerland and the US
beginning in the 1960s and patented early 1970s [1,2], respectively. Figure 1 shows the fundamentals
of most of today’s LCDs.
Birefringence is a material property which is known in microwave engineering as anisotropy
represented by the permittivity tensor
 
ε uu ε uv ε uw
 
ε̃ =  ε vu ε vv ε vw  · ε 0 (1)
ε wu ε wv ε ww

within the material’s coordinate system (uvw). The main differences compared to optical applications
are founded in the much larger wavelength (up to several cm instead of less than µm). The rotation of
the polarization angle is a niche application at microwaves. There, the anisotropy is usually adopted in
order to present a variable effective permittivity ε eff to the electromagnetic wave. In addition, specific

Crystals 2018, 8, 355; doi:10.3390/cryst8090355 www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals

Crystals 2018, 8, 355 2 of 27

electromagnetic design rules must be fulfilled. Especially impedance matching is critical for the device’s
dimensions. In the following section, the microwave liquid crystal technology is described starting
from fundamental device concepts, to material properties and characterization. After the introduction
of a use case, high-performance LC-based phase shifters for antenna systems are presented for 100 GHz
communication systems. Millimeter wave and submillimeter wave communication systems are a very
hot topic in nowadays research. As we will see, high-performance liquid crystal devices can
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals
play a
2 of 26
crucial role.

Light off

Light on
Bias on Bias off

Polarization grid
& bias electrodes

LC

Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 2 of 26

Polarization grid
& bias electrodes

Light source
Light off

Light on
Bias on Bias off
Figure
Figure 1. Working
1. Working principle
principle ofofa aTN-cell
TN-cellused
used in
in LCDs.
LCDs. (Right)
(Right)the
theunbiased
unbiased LCLCrotates polarization
rotates polarization
by◦ 90 ◦ . The light can pass two twisted polarization grids and the pixel is on. When the LC is biased
by 90 . The light can pass two twisted polarization grids
Polarization grid and the pixel is on. When the LC is biased
(Left), the polarization of light is not rotated. Hence, the pixel is off as the light cannot pass the second
(Left), the polarization of light is not rotated. &Hence,
bias electrodes
the pixel is off as the light cannot pass the second
polarization grid.
polarization grid.
LC
Solid Nematic Liquid
2. How to Use LC at Microwave Frequencies?
Anisotropic *
Isotropic **
Anisotropic Isotropic

The mixtures used for microwave applications are thermotropic calamitic nematic LCs. The phase
Polarization grid
transitions occur at certain temperatures, &where the liquid crystalline mesophase is defined
bias electrodes

thermodynamically stable between the melting Light sourceof the crystalline phase and the clearing point
point
ε
to the isotropicε∥liquid phase. In this mesophase, liquid crystals show an orientational order but lack
εL
translational periodicity. In comparison to the smectic phase,
Tunable Range the elongated molecules tend to align
Figureε⊥1. Working principle of a TN-cell used in LCDs. (Right) the unbiased LC rotates polarization
parallel tobyeach other but are not organized into layers. The fundamental
90◦ . The light can pass two twisted polarization grids and the* pixel
properties of nematic LCs
powdersis on. When the LC is biased
versus temperature are shown in
Melting
(Left), the polarization ofpoint Figure 2. LC exhibits
Hence, the pixel is off as the light cannot pass theassecond
light is not rotated.point
Clearing an anisotropy in the
ϑ ** single-crystals crystalline well as in the
nematic phase, whereas
polarization grid. only the nematic phase can be used for electrically tunable RF circuits/devices.
Figure 2. Overview on different phases of nematic liquid crystals. (Left) shows the material’s crystalline
structure and the resulting permittivity
Solid Nematic for differentLiquid
orientations. In the (Right) picture the different
Anisotropic * Anisotropic Isotropic
phases can be differentiated by the LC’s optical properties.
Isotropic **

28 from fundamental device concepts, to material properties and characterization. After the introduction
29 of a use case, high-performance LC-based phase shifters for antenna systems are presented for 100 GHz
ε
30 communication
ε∥ systems. Millimeter wave and submillimeter wave communication systems are a very
31 hot topic in nowadays research. Tunable
As weRange
will see, high-performance
εL liquid crystal devices can play a
32 crucial role.
ε ⊥

* powders
Melting Clearing ϑ ** single-crystals
33 2. How to use LC at Microwave
point Frequencies?
point

34 The mixtures used for microwave applications are thermotropic calamitic nematic LCs. The
FigureFigure 2. Overview
2. Overview on different
on different phasesofofnematic
phases nematicliquid
liquid crystals.
crystals.(Left)
(Left)shows
showsthethe
material’s crystalline
material’s crystalline
35 phase transitions occur at certain temperatures, where the liquid crystalline mesophase is defined
structure and the resulting
structure and the resulting permittivity
permittivity for different
for different orientations.
orientations. In the
In the (Right) picture
(Right) the different
36 thermodynamically stable between the melting point of the crystalline phase and picture the different
the clearing point to
phasesphases
can candifferentiated
be be differentiated
byby
thethe LC’soptical
LC’s opticalproperties.
properties.
37 the isotropic liquid phase. In this mesophase, the nematic mixtures show an orientational order but
38 lack translational periodicity. In comparison to smectic mixtures, the elongated molecules tend to align
28
39 from fundamental
parallel device
to each other concepts,
but are to material
not organized intoproperties andfundamental
layers. The characterization. After the
properties introduction
of nematic LCs
29
40 of a use case, high-performance LC-based phase shifters for antenna systems are
versus temperature are shown in Figure 2. LC exhibits an anisotropy in the crystalline as well presented for as
100inGHz
the
30
41 communication
nematic systems.only
phase, whereas Millimeter wave
the nematic and submillimeter
phase can be used forwave communication
electrically tunable RFsystems are a very
circuits/devices.
31 hot topic in nowadays research. As we will see, high-performance liquid crystal devices can play a
32 crucial role.
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 3 of 27

The molecules can be depicted with a rod-like shape where their uniaxial anisotropy is used to
realize tunable devices. Due to the molecule’s rotational symmetry, the permittivity tensor Equation (1)
reduces to    
ε uu 0 0 εk 0 0
   
ε̃ =  0 ε vv 0  · ε0 =  0 εk 0  · ε0 (2)
0 0 ε ww 0 0 ε⊥
with the (uvw)-coordinate system aligned with the director ~n of the LC volume, according to Figure 3.
The director is a macroscopic unit vector giving the main direction of the molecules inside a unit
volume element. The values of the permittivities ε ⊥ and ε k , and therefore, the LC’s anisotropy n
√ p
n= ε⊥ − εk (3)
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 3 of 26
are material and temperature dependent, refer to Section 3.

εm||
e u ε|| e v
ε⟂

εm⟂

ex
ey
LC unit volume LC director n LC molecule

Figure 3. Definition of the director ~n for a single LC unit volume element in the device’s coordinate
system (xyz) and relation to the permittivities defined in the material’s coordinate system (uvw) with
the material properties ε mk , ε m⊥ and the macroscopic unit volume properties ε k , ε ⊥ .

The molecules
The electric displacement field D
can be depicted interacts
with withshape
a rod-like an electric
where field
theirE according to
uniaxial anisotropy is used to
realize tunable devices. Due to the molecule’s rotational symmetry, the permittivity tensor Equation 1
D = ε̃ · E. (4)
reduces to    
ε uu 0 0 εk 0 0
As displacement and electric
 fields on one  side and the permittivity tensor on the other side
ε̃ =  0 ε vv 0  · ε0 =  0 εk 0  · ε0 (2)
are defined in different coordinate systems, effective displacement must consider the rotation of the
0 0 ε ww 0 0 ε⊥
coordinate systems by introducing the rotation matrix R.
with the (uvw)-coordinate system aligned with the director ~n of the LC volume, according to Figure 3.
−1
The director is a macroscopic unit vector D = Rε̃R
giving the · E. direction of the molecules inside a unit
main (5)
volume element. The values of the permittivities ε ⊥ and ε k , and therefore, the LC’s anisotropy n
The degree of freedom to realize tunable devices is now this rotation matrix R, leading to a tunable
√ p
effective permittivity r n = ε⊥ − εk (3)
h i2
42
ε eff = [ε ⊥refer
are material and temperature dependent, )]2 + ε3.k · cos (Θ) ,
(Θsection
· sin to (6)

with The electric

the tilt angledisplacement fieldcoordinate
Θ between both D interacts with anFor
systems. electric field when
example, E according
E = E0to·~ex , a continuously
tunable effective permittivity ε eff can be achieved as
D = ε̃ · E. (4)

ε k for ~eu k ~ex
As displacement and electric fields on  one side and the permittivity
 tensor on the other side are defined
eff =
in different coordinate systems, εthe for ~eu k ~must
ε ⊥ displacement
effective k ~ez , the rotation of the coordinate
ey ∨~euconsider (7)


systems by introducing the rotation matrix ε . .R.
.ε else
⊥ k

D = Rε̃R−1 · E. (5)

The degree of freedom to realize tunable devices is now this rotation matrix R, leading to a tunable
effective permittivity r
h i2
ε eff = [ε ⊥ · sin (Θ)]2 + ε k · cos (Θ) , (6)
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 4 of 27

This
Version example
August can be visualized
24, 2018 submitted with a simple parallel-plate capacitor. The LC material
to Crystals is
4 of 26
sandwiched between two electrodes and an electric field is applied as shown in Figure 4.

eu eu eu

ev ev ev

E=E0 ex E=E0 ex E=E0 ex

ex
ey εeff = ε ≈ εm εm⟂ < εeff < εm εeff = ε⟂ ≈ εm⟂

Figure 4. Idealized parallel-plate capacitor with LC as dielectric filling for the three cases defined in
Equation (7),
Equation (Left)~e~
7, (Left) ueukk~e~ , (Right)
xe,x (Right) , and(Center)
~eu~euk k~ey~e,yand (Center)“else”.
“else”.Note:
Note:Interface
Interfaceeffects
effects between
between LC and
electrodes are neglected for simplification.

The LC material in tunable devices is described by the continuum theory [3]. The system’s energy
43 This example can be visualized with a simple parallel-plate capacitor. The LC material is sandwiched
is defined based on the Gibbs Free Energy, which is affected from the elastic deformations, external
44 between two electrodes and an electric field is applied as shown in Figure 4.
electric and magnetic fields as well as anchoring effects. Thus, an increase in the Gibbs Free Energy is
The LC material in tunable devices is described by the continuum theory [3]. The system’s energy
minimized by changing the orientation of the director to reach equilibrium.
is defined based on the Gibbs Free Energy, which is affected from the elastic deformations, external
ZZZ ZZZ
electric and magnetic fields as well as anchoring effects. Thus, an increase in the Gibbs Free Energy is
Wf = df = d f elastic + d f electric + d f magnetic + d f surface (8)
minimized by changing the orientation of the director to reach equilibrium.
V V
ZZZ ZZZ
W different
From this, three f = df =
methods d f elastic
can + d f electric
be derived for the+ dpractical
f magnetic implementation
+ d f surface (8)
of alignment
of LCs. V V
In the presence of an external electric field, the energy
45 From this, three different methods can be derived for the practical implementation of alignment
46 of LCs. 1 h iD E
d f electric = − ε 0 ε r,⊥ + ∆ε r (cos Θ)2 E2 . (9)
In the presence of an external electric2 field, the energy

is causing a re-orientation of the director ~1n tohachieve minimum2systemi D E energy, if a certain threshold
d f electric = − ε 0 ε r,⊥ + ∆ε r (cos Θ) E2 . (9)
energy is overcome. It should be noted that 2 ∆ε is positive for millimeter wave optimized nematic LCs.
Therefore, the director tends to align in a way that is parallel to the electric field lines.
47 is causing a re-orientation of the director ~n to achieve minimum system energy, if a certain threshold
In principle, the same is valid for magnetic fields, where energy is defined as
48 energy is overcome. It should be noted that ∆ε is positive for millimeter wave optimized nematic LCs.
49 Therefore, the director tends to align parallel
1 to h the electric field lines.
iD E
d f magnetic = − µ0 µr,⊥ + ∆µr (cos Θ)2 H2 (10)
In principle, the same is valid for magnetic
2 fields, where energy is defined as

At last, surface forces (which have 1beenh neglected in Figure i D4) can
E also be used to align LC
d f magnetic = − µ0 µr,⊥ + ∆µr (cos Θ)2 H2 (10)
molecules. Any physical impurities on the 2 boundaries of the cavity result in interaction between
the boundary and the LC molecules. According to the Rapini–Papoular model [4–6], this interaction
At last, surface forces (which have been neglected in Figure 4) can also be used to align LC
energy density is given as
molecules. Any physical impurities on the boundaries of the cavity result in interaction between the
1h
boundary and the LC molecules. According to the Rapini-Papoular model [4–6],i this interaction energy
d f surface = Wp (sin (Θ − Θ0 ))2 + Wa (sin (Φ − Φ0 ))2 (11)
density is given as 2
with the director and the preferred 1 halignment for the polar i
and azimuthal angles specified by (Θ, Φ)
d f surface = Wp (sin (Θ − Θ0 ))2 + Wa (sin (Φ − Φ0 ))2 (11)
and (Θ0 , Φ0 ). The energy depends2 on the anchoring strength Wa and Wp , which are LC material and
anchoring surface-dependent parameters.
50 with the director and the preferred alignment for the polar and azimuthal angles specified by (Θ, Φ)
In practical applications, different orientation mechanisms are combined according to Table 1.
51 and (Θ0 , Φ0 ). The energy depends on the anchoring strength Wa and Wp , which are LC material and
For example, the combination of surface anchoring and electrical biasing concepts as it is used in the
52 anchoring surface dependent parameters.
LCD technology, compare Figure 5a. Without the electric field, the directors are aligned in state I
53 In practical applications, different orientation mechanisms are combined according to Table 1. For
and with applied field they change their orientation towards state II, at which the numbering of the
54 example, the combination of surface anchoring and electrical biasing concepts as it is used in the LCD
states has been arbitrarily chosen. This mechanism is preferred in planar devices. One reason for the
55 technology, compare Figure 5a. Without the electric field, the directors are aligned in state I and with
limitation to planar devices is that the forces of the surface anchoring are weak compared to electric
56 applied field they change their orientation towards state II, at which the numbering of the states has
57 been arbitrarily chosen. This mechanism is preferred in planar devices. One reason for the limitation to
58 planar devices is, that the forces of the surface anchoring are weak compared to electric forces. Hence,
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 5 of 27

Crystals 2018, 8, 1 5 of 27
forces. Hence, the tuning speed from on- to off-state, which are dependent on the sheet thickness,
are much lower than those from off- to on-state.
Table 1. Summary of combination of different alignment mechanism and their application to tunable
Table 1. Summary
microwave devices.of Note
combination
that the of different alignment
numbering mechanism
of the states and their application
has been arbitrarily chosen. “Notto tunable
tunable”
microwave devices. Note
denotes combinations thatelectrical
where the numbering of the states
tuning cannot has been
be achieved. arbitrarily
E.g., chosen. “Not
a surface-surface tunable”
combination
denotes combinations
will result where electrical
in a static configuration. “Nottuning
used”cannot be combinations,
denotes achieved. E.g.,which
a surface-surface
can be usedcombination
in principle
will result in a static configuration.
but are not used in practice. “Not used” denotes combinations, which can be used in principle
but are not used in practice.
Forces used for state II
Magnetic Forces used for state II
Electric Surface
Magnetic Electric Surface
Planar
Surface Not used Not tunable
devices
Planar
used

Surface Not used Not tunable

I I

devices
used
state

Waveguide Planar
Electric Not used
Forces

devices devices
state

Waveguide Planar
Electric Not used
Forces
for for

Characterization devices devices

Magnetic Not used Not used
only
Characterization
Magnetic Not used Not used
only

For volumetric waveguide-based components, solely electrical biasing concepts (compare

For5b)
Figure volumetric waveguide-based
are preferred, components,
e.g., by applying solely electrical
two electrodes biasing concepts
in perpendicular (compare
spacial directions.
Figure 5b) areonpreferred,
By switching one pair of e.g., by applying
electrodes, two electrodes
the directors are alignedin perpendicular
for state I. By spacial
togglingdirections.
the other
By switching on one pair of electrodes, the directors are aligned for state I. By toggling
pair of electrodes, the directors will orient into state II. By proper superposition of both fields, the other
any
pair of electrodes,
alignment betweenthe directors
these willcan
two states orient into state
be reached II. ByItproper
as well. superposition
is also possible ofaboth
to rotate fields,
pair of any
magnets
alignment
around thebetween these
structure two states
to realize can be reached
a variable as well.
alignment, It is also
compare possible
Figure to rotate athis
5c. Obviously, pairapproach
of magnetsis
around
not smarttheinstructure
terms of to realize
space a variableand
requirements alignment, compare Figure
power consumption. 5c. Obviously,
Hence, this methodthis approach
is only is
applied
not smart in terms
for material of space requirements
characterization and
and for a first power consumption.
proof-of-concept in theHence,
lab, seethis method
Section 3. is only applied
for material characterization and for a first proof-of-concept in the lab, see Section 3.

LC
LC
LC
volume
volume
volume
with
with
with
director
director
director Electrodes
Electrodes
Electrodes
(off)
(off)
(off)
exexex
⚓
⚓⚓Layer
Layer
Layer
for
for
for
surface
surface
surface
anchoring
anchoring
anchoring Electrodes
Electrodes
Electrodes
(biased)
(biased)
(biased) S SMagnets
NNN SMagnets
Magnets
eyeyey

⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓
ε⟂⟂
eff → ε⟂
II
ε → εI
State
State
State
eff →

EDC
EDC
E=E=E
DCB=E
eByeByey NNN HH
DCH=H
DC =H
DCB=H
eByeByey SSS
εεeff

ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex
⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓

NNN
⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓
ε →IIε ε
eff → ε
II
II
eff →
State
State
State

EDC
EDC
E=E=E
DCB=E
eBxeBxex EDC
EDC
E=E=E
DCB=E
eBxeBxex HH
DCH=H
DC =H
DCB=H
eBxeBxex
εεeff

ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex ERF
ERFE
=E =E
RF0 =E
e0xe0xex
⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓ ⚓
⚓⚓ SSS

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.
Figure Possible combinations
5. Possible combinations of of different
different orientation
orientation mechanisms
mechanisms with
with state
state II and
and II
II at
at top
top and
and
bottom, respectively: (Left) combination of surface anchoring and electric actuation as used for
bottom, respectively: (Left) combination of surface anchoring and electric actuation as used for planar planar
devices; (Center)
devices; (Center) both
both electric
electric actuations
actuations as
as used
used in
in waveguide
waveguide components
components and
and (Right)
(Right) both
both magnetic
magnetic
actuations as used for material characterization.
actuations as used for material characterization.

At this point it is clear, how the alignment of the director can be technically realized.
For application in tunable components, the RF signal and the control (bias) must be discriminated.
For magnetic alignment, the bias field and the RF signal’s E-field are decorrelated by definition. This is
different for both other cases, where the electric field is used to reach at least one state. The only
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 6 of 27

At this point, it is clear how the alignment of the director can be technically realized.
For application in tunable components, the RF signal and the control (bias) must be discriminated.
For magnetic alignment, the bias field and the RF signal’s E-field are decorrelated by definition. This is
different for both other cases, where the electric field is used to reach at least one state. The only
difference in RF signal and bias E-field is the frequency. The minimization of overall system’s energy
according to Equation (8) must hold also in this case. The temporal behavior of the LC volume is
encapsulated in the elastic term as this includes the mechanical materials properties. Due to the
viscosity, the director cannot follow an electric field with fast changing amplitude. Additionally,
the dielectric contrast required for LC steering is much higher at DC than at RF frequencies. Hence,
the influence of the RF field can be neglected. This is also relevant for the linearity of the components.
The electric tuning of the material leads automatically to a non-linear behavior of the components,
as the RF field will also change the state of LC. There are just few measurements of LC’s linearity
published. In 2006, IP3 measurements of two different nematic liquid crystals have been published
in [7]. Measurements of a phase shifter showed that the IP3 of this device is in the range of 60 dBm.
Since then, no other measurements have been published. The excellent large signal characteristics
obtained in this measurement already fulfill the requirements of many RF applications. Furthermore,
the achieved performance makes linearity measurements of LC very difficult, as standard measurement
equipment is at its boundaries. Hence principles for measuring passive intermodulation (PIM) must
be adapted for LC non-linear characterizations. This specific topic will gain more interest in future as
commercialization advances. Up to now, no devices showed significant non-linearity.
After the fundamental device concepts have been discussed, the material must be characterized
before we will show implementation advances around 100 GHz. For material characterization different
realizations have been discussed recently. In the following we will show the most important ones.

3. Material Properties and Characterization

The state-of-the-art setup for LC characterization at 19 GHz and 30 GHz is a precise
resonator-based setup, making use of the cavity perturbation technique. In [8] the resonator based dual
mode characterization technique was introduced, where a resonator is measured with and without LC
inside a sample holder made of silica, see Figure 6a. Due to the dielectric properties of LC, the field
distribution, and therefore, the resonance frequency of the excited mode will shift compared to the
reference measurement. By this, the permittivity as well as the loss tangent of the material can be
determined. Although this kind of measurement is limited to one single frequency, the dielectric
properties of the LC can be determined much more precisely than with broadband measurement
setups. A detailed mathematical description of this method can be found in [8].
By using a dual-mode cylindrical resonator, the permittivity and dielectric loss of LC can be
measured for both parallel and perpendicular orientation in one single step, see Figure 6b. For this,
two perpendicularly aligned modes are excited. The terms “parallel” and “perpendicular” define the
two extreme cases of orientations of the LC molecules, where the long axes of the molecules are aligned
parallel or perpendicular with respect to the applied RF field, respectively. The silica tube is placed
in the center of the resonator to ensure maximum field interaction, and therefore, high sensitivity.
The resonator is excited by rectangular waveguides being weakly coupled to the resonator by means of
a small coupling iris, see Figure 6c. During the characterization, the LC’s long axes are aligned parallel
to the silica tube with the help of permanent magnets.
Crystals 2018, 8, 1 7 of 27
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 7 of 27

Insertion
Insertion hole
hole
for
for silica
silica tube
tube
Silica
Silica tube
tube LC
LC
Resonator
Resonator

Coupling
Coupling iris
iris
Resonator
Resonator TE
TE111
111
111 TM
TM010
010
010

(a) Basic setup (b) Used RF (c) Complete

modes resonator

Resonatorsetup
Figure6.6.Resonator
Figure setupfor
fordual
dualmode
modeLC
LCcharacterization
characterizationbased
basedon
onthe
thecavity
cavityperturbation
perturbationtechnique
technique
at19
at 19GHz.
GHz.

Withthis
With thischaracterization
characterizationmethod,
method,the
theLCLCmixtures
mixturescould
couldbe
beimproved
improvedin
interms
termsof
ofloss
losstangent
tangentas
as
wellas
well asrelative
relativematerial
materialtunability
tunability
εε k−−εε⊥⊥
ττLC = k
LC = ,, (9)
(12)
εεkk
ascan
as canbebeseen
seenin inFigure
Figure7.7. The
Thefirst
firsttunable
tunablemicrowave
microwavedevices
devicesininthe
theearly
early2000’s
2000’swere
wererealized
realizedby by
usingdisplay
using displayLCsLCssuch
suchasasK15
K15 oror BL111.
BL111. AAbitbit later,
later, new new mixtures
mixtures were
were specifically
specifically synthesized
synthesized for
for the
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 8 of 26
the microwave
microwave range. range.
The LCThe LC mixture
mixture being being used
used for the for the components
components presented
presented in this
in this paper is paper is the
the mixture
mixture GT5-26001
GT5-26001 from Merck from Merck
KGaA, KGaA with
Darmstadt, a permittivity
Germany between 2.39
with a permittivity between
< εr < 3.27
2.39 < and
ε r < dielectric
3.27 and
losses of 0.007
dielectric losses> oftan δ >>0.0022.
0.007 tan δ >A0.0022.
comparison of different
A comparison LC mixtures
of different is summarized
LC mixtures in Tablein2.
is summarized
A review
Table 2. A on recent
review onmaterial development
recent material can be found
development can beinfound
[9]. in [9].

Table 2. Material properties of different LC mixtures at room temperature.

Display LCs GT-series LCs Experimental LCs
0.03
LC Mixture 19 GHz 1 kHz TC γ1
εr,k tan δk εr,⊥ tan δ⊥ τε (%) εr,k εr,⊥ (◦C) (mPa s)
E7 K152.98 0.009 2.53 0.022 BL111
15 19.6 5.2 58 252
Material loss tan δmax

BL111 3.25 0.0084 2.64 0.0218 18.77 22.0 5.5 85 283

0.02
CLHS-1 3.2 0.0033 2.46 0.0131 23.1
GT3-23001 3.28 0.0038 2.46 0.0143 25.2 8.0 4.0 173.5 727
GT5-26001 3.27 0.0022 2.39 0.007 27 3.7 2.7 146 1958
GT5-28004 3.32 0.0014 2.4 0.0043 27.7 3.5 2.7 151 5953
0.01
GT3-23001
One advantage of LC compared to other technologies such as semiconductors is a decreasing
GT5-26001
dielectric loss with increasing frequency in the range above 15 GHz. Measurements up to 1.5 THz
have been conducted,
0.00 using a time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) THz measurement system as shown in
Figure 8. 10 15 20 25 30
Tunability (%)
The beam generated by a Ti-sapphire laser is split εup in the beginning. While one part of the
τ
beam is used as probe beam, the other one is passing a delay station before hitting the THz emitter, e.g.,
Figure
a biased 7. Development
GaAs-based of LC’s microwave
photoconductive emitter.properties 19 GHz
The THzatbeam GHz from
from the
is guided viaearly 2000’s mirrors
parabolic where first
through
display LCs have been used towards recent LC mixtures specifically synthesized for microwave
the sample holder and afterwards to the ZnTe crystal for THz detection. The THz as well as the probe
beamsapplications. The mixtures
are propagating were measured
collinearly through at
theroom temperature.
crystal. There, the THz beam induces a birefringence,
which can be read out by the linearly polarized probe beam. By this, the linear polarization is rotated
by the THz beam. Together with a λ/4-wave plate, a beam splitting polarizer and a set of balanced
photodiodes, the THz beam’s amplitude can be mapped by monitoring the rotation of the probe
beam’s polarization at a variety of delay times. Therefore, the LC properties can be determined by

Ti-sapphire Beam splitter

laser Balanced
photodiode
Probe beam ZnTe
detector
crystal
 K15 BL111

Material loss tan δma

0.02

Crystals 2018, 8, 355 8 of 27

0.01
GT3-23001
Table 2. Material properties of different LC mixtures at room temperature.
GT5-26001

0.00 19 GHz 1 kHz TC γ1

LC Mixture
10 εr,k tan δ15
k εr,⊥ tan δ⊥ 20τε (%) εr,k 25εr,⊥ (◦ C) 30s)
(mPa
E7 2.98 0.009 2.53 Tunability
0.022 ε (%) 19.6
τ15 5.2 58 252
BL111 3.25 0.0084 2.64 0.0218 18.77 22.0 5.5 85 283
7. Development3.2of LC’s
FigureCLHS-1 microwave
0.0033 2.46 properties
0.0131 at
23.119 GHz from the early 2000’s where first
displayGT3-23001
LCs have been3.28
used0.0038
towards 2.46
recent 0.0143 25.2specifically
LC mixtures 8.0 4.0 173.5 for 727
synthesized microwave
GT5-26001 3.27 0.0022 2.39 0.007 27
applications. The mixtures were measured at room temperature. 3.7 2.7 146 1958
GT5-28004 3.32 0.0014 2.4 0.0043 27.7 3.5 2.7 151 5953

One advantage of LC compared to other technologies such as semiconductors is a decreasing

dielectric loss with increasing frequency in the range above 15 GHz. Measurements up to 1.5 THz
have been conducted, using a time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) THz measurement system as shown in
Figure 8.

Ti-sapphire Beam splitter

laser Balanced
photodiode
Probe beam ZnTe
detector
crystal

Mirror Wollaston
prism

Delay stage Sample holder

THz
THz
emitter
beam
Parabolic mirror

Figure 8. Schematic of a time-domain spectroscopy THz measurement system as used in [10] for LC
characterization. By comparing the measurement results of an empty and a LC-filled sample holder,
the dielectric properties of LC can be determined.

The beam generated by a Ti-sapphire laser is split up in the beginning. While one part of the
beam is used as probe beam, the other one is passing a delay station before hitting the THz emitter, e.g.,
a biased GaAs-based photoconductive emitter. The THz beam is guided via parabolic mirrors through
the sample holder and afterwards to the ZnTe crystal for THz detection. The THz as well as the probe
beams are propagating collinearly through the crystal. There, the THz beam induces a birefringence,
which can be read out by the linearly polarized probe beam. By this, the linear polarization is rotated
by the THz beam. Together with a λ/4-wave plate, a beam splitting polarizer and a set of balanced
photodiodes, the THz beam’s amplitude can be mapped by monitoring the rotation of the probe
beam’s polarization at a variety of delay times. Therefore, the LC properties can be determined by
a differential measurement method, comparable to the resonator-based characterization. Moreover,
it is a highly interesting feature of THz TDS, to be able to get full information of the electric field, i.e.,
amplitude and delay.
One of the characterized LCs was the mixture GT3-23001, which shows an almost constant
permittivity over a wide frequency range between 200 GHz to 1.5 THz, see Figure 9. The permittivities
of ε ⊥ = 2.34 and ε k = 3.19 fit well (5.1% deviation for the perpendicular state and 2.8 % for the
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 9 of 27

parallel state) with the values measured with the previously mentioned resonator setup at 19 GHz.
The dielectric losses are in the expected order of magnitude, but could not be determined precisely,
due to August
Version the low
24,dynamic range
2018 submitted to of the TDS system. Further information and a more detailed description
Crystals 9 of 26
can be found in [11].

4
State I ε ⊥ State I tan δ⊥
Relative permittivity ε r

State II ε k 10−1 State II tan δk

Loss factor tan δ

3.5
10−2
3 10−3
10−4
2.5
10−5
2 10−6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Frequency f (THz) Frequency f (THz)

Figure
Figure 9. THz 9. THz characterization
characterization results
results for the for the LC GT3-23001
LC GT3-23001 from Merckfrom Merck
KGaA, KGaA. Germany.
Darmstadt,

127 by the Therefore,

THz beam. LC Together
has been proven
with a as well suitable
λ/4-wave plate,material
a beamfor the realization
splitting polarizer ofand
continuously tunable
a set of balanced
128
components not
photodiodes, theonly
THzinbeam’s
the microwave-
amplitude butcan
alsobeinmapped
the (sub-)millimeter
by monitoring wavetheand THz range.
rotation of the probe
129 beam’s polarization at a variety of delay times. Therefore, the LC properties can be determined by a
4. Use Cases for LC-based Microwave Devices
130 differential measurement method, comparable to the resonator-based characterization. Moreover, it
131 Modern
is a highly communication
interesting feature of systems
THz TDS,are toonbe the way
able to to
getthe
full5th generation
information of (5G). The paradigm
the electric field, i. e.
132 change includes
amplitude three different main directions including increased data rate up to several gigabit per
and delay.
133 second,Onelow-latency communication
of the characterized LCs wasdownthe to mixture
milliseconds, and finally,
GT3-23001, whichincreased
shows user densityconstant
an almost [12–15].
134 While most of the functionality will be covered by improved network
permittivity over a wide frequency range between 200 GHz to 1.5 THz, see Figure 9. The permittivities architecture including e.g.,
135 network
of slicing,
ε ⊥ = 2.34 andthere
ε k =are new
3.19 fit systems
well (5.1to % be deployed
deviation foratthe
higher frequencies.
perpendicular Asand
state the ITU
2.8 %plans to
for the
136 standardize a new 60 GHz band at WRC’19, first providers demonstrated
parallel state) with the values measured with the previously mentioned resonator setup at 19 GHz. the potential at international
137 sportdielectric
The events such lossesas aretheinlast
thewinter
expectedOlympiad
order ofinmagnitude,
South Korea [16,17].
but could Millimeter-wave
not be determined (mmWave)
precisely,
138 communication
due to the low dynamicat 60 GHz rangeandofhigher
the TDSfrequencies is mainly
system. Further limited by
information high
and free-space
a more detailedpath loss and
description
139 atmospheric impairments,
can be found in [11]. compare Figure 10.
140 A second LC
Therefore, trend
has beenin mobile
proven as communications
well suitable material is characterized by worldwide
for the realization of continuously ubiquitous
tunable
141 communication
components not envisioned for a long time
only in the microwave- but brought
but also to the real world
in the (sub-)millimeter waveby and
projects
THz like
range.Google’s
LOOM and OneWeb. These concepts summarized in the New Space Initiative use flying platforms
142 4. Use
such asCases
balloons for or
LClow basedearthMicrowave
orbit (LEO) Devices
satellites to provide communication services. Independently
143
fromModern
the finalcommunication
system concepts, high-gain
systems are on antennas
the wayare required
to the to establish
5th generation a stable
(5G). communication
The paradigm change
144
link fromthree
includes users’ terminals
different maintodirections
the network.
including Forincreased
systems operated
data rate upat to
Kaseveral
(26.5 GHz to 40
gigabit perGHz) or
second,
145
K (12 GHz to 18 GHz) bands, high-gain antennas are required to
low-latency communication down to milliseconds, and finally, increased user density [12–15]. While
u bridge large distances between
146
terminals,
most of thee.g., 600 km to will
functionality the LEO satellite,
be covered bywhich
improvedcorresponds
networktoarchitecture
approximately 180 dBe.of
including g. path loss
network
147
at Ka -band.
slicing, thereFor are anew60 GHzsystemssystem
to bethis free space
deployed path loss
at higher is alreadyAs
frequencies. reached
the ITUatplans
a distance of 400 km.
to standardize a
148
In practice, the reach is much lower due to mentioned atmospheric impairments
new 60 GHz band at WRC’19, first providers demonstrated the potential at international sport events such as absorption by
149
oxygen
such as (the
≈ 14.6
last dB/km) and rain attenuation
winter Olympiad in South Korea (≈ 5.8 dB/km
[16,17]. for medium rain)
Millimeter-wave for 60 GHz
(mmWave) transmission,
communication
150
according
at 60 GHz to and ITU recommendations
higher frequencies isfor standard
mainly atmosphere
limited by high[18,19].
free-space path loss and atmospheric
151 impairments, compare Figure 10.
152 A second trend in mobile communications is characterized by worldwide ubiquitous
153 communication envisioned for long time but brought to the real world by projects like Google’s
154 LOOM and OneWeb. These concepts summarized in the New Space Initiative use flying platforms
155 such as balloons or low earth orbit (LEO) satellites to provide communication services. Independently
156 from the final system concepts, high-gain antennas are required to establish a stable communication
157 link from users’ terminals to the network. For systems operated at Ka (26.5 GHz to 40 GHz) or
158 Ku (12 GHz to 18 GHz) bands, high-gain antennas are required to bridge large distances between
159 terminals, e. g. 600 km to the LEO satellite, which corresponds to approximately 180 dB of path loss at
160 Ka -band. For a 60 GHz system this free space path loss is already reached at a distance of 400 km. In
161 practice, the reach is much lower due to mentioned atmospheric impairments such as absorption by
 Crystals
Version 2018, 8, 355
August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 10
10of
of27
26

300

250

Channel loss αC (r ) (dB)

210 dB
200

36 000 km
150

100 12 GHz
60 GHz
100 GHz
50
10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Range r (km)

Figure 10.
Figure Channel loss
10. Channel loss for
for different
different frequencies
frequencies as as sum
sum ofof free
free space
space path
path loss
loss (dashed
(dashed lines)
lines) and
and
the atmospheric
the atmospheric attenuation
attenuation according
according to to ITU
ITU standard
standard atmosphere
atmosphere (solid
(solid lines)
lines) for
for homogenous
homogenous
medium between
medium between transmitter
transmitter and
and receiver.
receiver. As
As reference
reference the
the properties
properties ofof aa geostationary
geostationary satellite
satellite for
for
broadcasting at Ku -band (12 GHz)
broadcasting GHz) with
with 36 000 km
36,000 kmtransmission
transmissionrange
rangewith
withapprox. 210 dB of210
approximately insertion
dB of
loss are highlighted.
insertion loss are highlighted.

162
As the
oxygen transmitter
(≈ 14.6 dB/km output power
and rain is limited,
attenuation thedB/km
(≈ 5.8 path loss
formust be compensated
medium by the
rain) for 60 GHz gain of the
transmission,
163
antenna.
accordingThe gainrecommendations
to ITU g of an antenna andforthe beam width
standard are connected
atmosphere [18,19]. by
As the transmitter output power is limited, the path4π loss must be compensated by the gain of the
antenna. The gain g of an antenna g= and D≈
η ·the η · width are connected by
beam (13)
HPBWaz · HPBWel

with the antenna’s efficiency η and 4πwidth HPBW and HPBW in azimuth
g =theη·D half-power
≈η· beam az el (13)
and elevation, respectively. Hence, to realize an antennaazwithHPBW · HPBW el
enough gain (g > 60 dB), the width of
the
withbeam gets withefficiency
the antenna’s values ofηless andthan 0.1◦ very narrow.
the half-power If youHPBW
beam width now want to establish a connection,
164 az and HPBWel in azimuth and
165
the antennas must be aligned in a precise way.
elevation, respectively. Hence, to realize an antenna with enough gain (g > 60 dB), the width of the
166 beam For thewith
gets alignment
valuesof ofantennas,
less than different
0.1◦ verymethods
narrow. can be used.
If you Among
now want the very common
to establish ones are
a connection, the
167
mechanically steered antennas, where
antennas must be aligned in a precise way. the antenna’s axes are motorized. This results in heavy systems
168
whichForadditionally require
the alignment of high maintenance
antennas differentefforts.
methodsBeside
canthis, electronically
be used. Very common steerable
areantennas have
mechanically
169
been developed
steered antennas, andwhere
exploredthe in the last centuries.
antenna’s These are based
axes are motorized. Thison the array
results concept
in heavy where which
systems many
170
antenna elements are combined with respect to phase and amplitude to synthesize
additionally require high maintenance efforts. Beside this, electronically steerable antennas have a steered antenna
171
beam pattern. For
been developed andhigh-frequency
explored in the high-bandwidth applications
last centuries. These are based as onindicated
the array byconcept
previous scenarios,
where many
172
analog beam-steering concepts are a low-cost alternative to fully digital systems.
antenna elements are combined with respect to phase and amplitude to synthesize a steered antenna Figure 11 gives an
173
overview on the most important implementations.
beam pattern. For high-frequency high-bandwidth applications as indicated by previous scenarios,
174
LCsbeam-steering
analog are the mostconcepts
promising are acandidates for applications
low-cost alternative to fully above
digital 15 GHz as
systems. their11dielectric
Figure gives an
175
loss is superior compared to other technologies
overview on the most important implementations. such as ferroelectrics [20–25] and ferrites [26–28].
176
A direct competitor are micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) [29,30],
LCs are most promising candidates for applications above 15 GHz as their dielectric loss is which utilize mechanical
177
changes
superioron the micro
compared scale technologies
to other to implementsuch phase shifter components
as ferroelectrics [20–25] required
and ferrites for [26–28].
array antennas.
A direct
178
Researchers around the world develop new materials which can be
competitor are micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) [29,30], which utilize mechanicalused for tunable devices.changes
Recent
179
examples are e.g., phase change materials [31,32] and electrochromic materials
on the micro scale to implement phase shifter components required for array antennas. Researchers [33]. These have a great
180
potential,
around the and should
world be monitored
develop consciously.
new materials which can be used for tunable devices. Recent examples are
181 e. g. phase change materials [31,32] and electrochromic materials [33]. These have a great potential,
182 and should be monitored consciously.
To describe the requirements and properties of LC based array antennas in more detail, the use
case of a Ka -band LEO satellite system is discussed. As the satellite is non-stationary, the antennas
 Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 11 of 26
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 11 of 27

Antenna Antenna
elements elements

Digital domain Analog domain

Down-
conversion
Complex
weighting
wmn D D D D A/D conversion
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ
A A A A

Combiner
network Complex
Digital domain Analog domain

w1 w2 w3 w4 weighting
Down- wmn
conversion

A A/D conversion
+ Summing
D

Receiver Receiver

(a) Analog beam steering (b) Digital beam steering

Figure 11.
Figure Possible implementation
11. Possible implementation of of the
the weighting
weighting functions
functions wwmn for array
mn for array antennas.
antennas. The
The block
block
diagrams are
diagrams are simplified
simplified in
in such
such aa way
way that
that all
all components
components and
and stages
stages not
not essential
essential for
for signal
signal weighting
weighting
are neglected.
are neglected.

mustTo describe
track the requirements
the satellite all time. Theand properties
orbit of LC-based
time of such a satellite array antennas
is around in more
120 min, so thedetail,
phase the use
shifters
case of a K -band LEO satellite system is discussed. As
◦ the satellite is non-stationary,
have to provide tuning speed of more than roughly 70 /min [34]. Hence, realization technology and
a the antennas
must track
material the satellite
properties all time.
must matchThe
theorbit time of such
requirements. a satellite
The change isinaround 120length
electrical min, so
ofthe
thephase
phaseshifters
shifter
have to provide to
tuning speed of more than roughly 70 of◦ /min
is proportional the dielectric contrast (anisotropy) the [34].
usedHence, realization
LC mixture. The technology
phase shift and
of a
material properties must match the requirements.
transmission line phase shifter is defined by The change in electrical length of the phase shifter
is proportional to the dielectric contrast (anisotropy) of the used LC mixture. The phase shift of a
√
transmission line phase shifter is defined by ϕ = β · l ∝ ε · l, (14)
√
with the physical line length l. The< differential l ∝ εshift
ϕ = β ·phase · l, is defined as (14)
  p √ 
with the physical line length
∆ϕ =l. The
ϕk −differential
ϕ⊥ = β k phase
− β ⊥ shift
· l ∝is defined
ε k − as
ε⊥ · l (15)
  p √ 
Hence LC mixtures with∆ϕ high k − ϕ⊥ = β
= ϕanisotropy, β ⊥ · l ∝ lossε kbut
k − dielectric
low − also · l viscosity are targeted.
ε ⊥ high (15)
Beside the material properties, the technological implementation is also challenging, as a hermetic
Hence, LC
liquid-proof mixtures
must with high
be realized anisotropy,
to prevent the LClowfrom
dielectric loss One
leaking. but also high viscosity
example are targeted.
for the realization of
Beside the material
fully integrated properties,
planar LC based the technological
array antennas has implementation
been published is also challenging,
in [35]. as a hermetic
Here, the phase shifters
liquid-proof
are implementedmustasbemeandered
realized to microstrip
prevent the LCphase
line from shifters
leaking.directly
One example
coupledforto the realization
an array of
of patch
fully integrated
antennas, planar
see Figure 12. LC-based array
While planar antennas has been
implementations published
are well inthe
suited at [35]. Here,
lower theofphase
end shifters
the frequency
are implemented as meandered microstrip line phase shifters directly coupled to an array
band, ohmic losses of the microstrip line topology increase with frequency. While the planar topology of patch
antennas, see Figure 12. While planar implementations are well suited at the lower end
is meanwhile followed by the company Alcan Systems, research is focusing on other implementations of the frequency
band,
such asohmic losses of the microstrip
high-performance line topology
rectangular waveguide increase
basedwith frequency. While
implementations. Tothe planar topology
compare different
is meanwhile followed by the company Alcan Systems Darmstadt,
implementations the phase shifter Figure of Merit (FoM) is defined as Germany, research is focusing
on other implementations such as high-performance rectangular waveguide based implementations.
To compare different implementations the phase ∆Φ
FoM =shifter Figure of Merit (FoM) is defined as (16)
max IL
∆Φ
183 which is the ratio of the maximally achievable FoMphase
= shift ∆Φ divided by the highest insertion loss(16) for
max IL
184 all tuning states max IL.
which is the ratio of the maximally achievable phase shift ∆Φ divided by the highest insertion loss for
all tuning states max IL.
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 12 of 27

Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 12 of 26

Figure 12. Planar Antenna with LC enabled beam steering. (Left) early demonstrator of an 2 × 2 array
published in [35] with (top left) the measured beam pattern at 17.5 GHz with a antenna gain of 6 dB
realized by phase shifters with a FoM of 90◦ /dB. (Right) prototype of an 8 × 8 sub-array realized in
thin film LC technology. The complete antenna consists of 16 panels and shows a gain of 30 dB with a
steering range of ±55◦ .

5. Metallic Rectangular Waveguides

Figure 12. Planar Antenna with LC enabled beam steering. (Left) early demonstrator of an 2 × 2 array
A very common
published approach
in [35] with at measured
(top left) the Ka -band beam
frequencies
pattern ataround
17.5 GHz30with
GHz for thegain
a antenna realization
of 6 dB of
tunable LC-based high-performance RF components
◦ is the dielectrically filled metallic
realized by phase shifters with a FoM of 90 /dB. (Right) prototype of an 8 × 8 sub-array realized inwaveguide.
The dielectric
thin film LCfilling contains
technology. Theacomplete
cavity, in whichconsists
antenna the tunable LC material
of 16 panels and showsis afilled.
gain ofHence, theacross
30 dB with
section of therange
steering rectangular
of ±55◦ . waveguide is (partially) filled with tunable LC, see Figure 13.

Brass Hostaphan Rexolite LC

Electrode connection terminal Biasing electrodes

Figure
Figure 13. Schematic cross section of the metallic rectangular waveguide LC phase shifter with partial
LC filling.
Figure 13. Schematic cross section of the metallic rectangular waveguide LC phase shifter with partial
LC filling.
185 5. Metallic Rectangular Waveguides
By controlling its effective permittivity, the electrical length of the waveguide can be varied,
186 A very common approach at Ka -band frequencies around 30 GHz for the realization of tunable LC
resulting in a tunable delay line. In combination with the intrinsic low ohmic loss of the waveguide,
187 based high-performance RF components is the dielectrically filled metallic waveguide. The dielectric
this leads to an easy realization of phase shifters with a high figure-of-merit (FoM) of more than
188 filling contains a cavity, in which the tunable LC material is filled. Hence, the cross section of the
120◦ /dB [36]. The LC orientation is controlled by means of six pairs of electrodes, which need to be
189 rectangular waveguide is (partially) filled with tunable LC, see Figure 13.
included into the waveguide, due to its electrical boundaries. A high complexity of these biasing
190 By controlling its effective permittivity, the electrical length of the waveguide can be varied,
electrodes is required for avoiding the propagation of parasitic stripline modes between the electrodes
191 resulting in a tunable delay line. In combination with the intrinsic low ohmic loss of the waveguide,
and the waveguide’s walls. An example for the parasitic modes as well as the biasing electrodes’
192 this leads to an easy realization of phase shifters with a high figure-of-merit (FoM) of more than
193 120 ◦ /dB [36]. The LC orientation is controlled by means of six pairs of electrodes, which need to be
194 included into the waveguide, due to its electrical boundaries. A high complexity of these biasing
195 electrodes is required for avoiding the propagation of parasitic stripline modes between the electrodes
196 and the waveguide’s walls. An example for the parasitic modes as well as the biasing electrodes’
197 complexity is given in Figure 14.The electrodes were processed on a thin Hostaphan film of 50 µm
198 thickness, being lead to the outside of the metallic waveguide for contacting to the voltage supply.
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 13 of 27

complexity is given in Figure 14. The electrodes were processed on a thin Hostaphan film of 13
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals
50ofµm
26
thickness, being lead to the outside of the metallic waveguide for contacting to the voltage supply.

Stripline mode
with high field components
max stub lines stepped impedance

line width ~60 µm

Waveguide mode
with low field components

Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 13 of 26

Figure 14. (Left)
(Left) Field
Field intensity
intensity ofof the
the guided
guided modes
modes within the dielectrically filled waveguide phase
shifter for the case of straight biasing electrodes. Most power is confined in the TEM stripline mode,
while nearly no power is inStripline
the fundamental
mode TE10 waveguide mode. (Right) Biasing electrodes with
with high field components
stepped-impedance structures and λ/4-stub lines for max strip mode suppression.
stub lines stepped impedance

Such phase shifters are used in Alightweight Aʹ horn0 antenna arrays for satellite communications.
Although the LC’s response time is comparatively LC high, it is already enough for specific applications,
such asl the tracking of a low earth orbit (LEO)
PTFE
Brass satellite from a geostationary (GEO) satellite, where a
◦
steering speed of maximum 73 /min is required [11,34,37].
A line width ~60 µm
The concept of a dielectrically filled rectangular waveguide Aʹ can also be adapted to W-band
frequencies around 100 GHz [38,39]. There,
Waveguide modethe waveguide was realized in split-block technology
with low field components
made of brass, where the bottom part has a u-shape, being sealed with a top lid, see Figure 15.
The waveguide is tapered
Figure 14. (Left) in width
Field intensity andguided
of the heightmodes
within the dielectrically
within filled
the dielectrically section
filled to still
waveguide provide
phase
a single mode
shifter propagation.
for the Thebiasing
case of straight tapering is doneMost
electrodes. by means
power of λ/4 transformer
is confined in the TEM steps. Themode,
stripline dielectric
h
while
cavity nearlyof
is made noPTFE
power(εisr in
= the
2.06fundamental
and tan δ TE waveguide
0.000
=w10 mode.
222 [40]), (Right)
being Biasing
tapered in aelectrodes
triangularwithshape.
stepped-impedance structures and lines for strip mode suppression.
The PTFE cavity is also designed in a u-shape, which is sealed by pressing the metallic lid on top.
λ/4-stub

Figure 15. Split-block design of the magnetically

A Aʹbiased W-band rectangular waveguide phase shifter
based on LC. The dimensions of the split-block are (l × w × h) = 31.6 mm × 30.0 mm × 33.0 mm.
LC

l PTFE
Brass

199 Such phase shifters are used in lightweightAhorn antenna arrays for satellite communications.
200 Although the LC’s response time is comparatively high, itAʹis already enough for specific applications,
201 such as the tracking of a low earth orbit (LEO) satellite from a geostationary (GEO) satellite, where a
202 steering speed of maximum 73 ◦ /min is required [11,34,37].
203 The concept of a dielectrically filled rectangular waveguide can also be adapted to W-band
h
204 frequencies around 100 GHz [38,39]. There, the waveguide was realized in split-block technology
205 made of brass, where the bottom part has a u-shape, w being sealed with a top lid, see Figure 15. The
206 waveguide is tapered in width and height within the dielectrically filled section to still provide a single
207 mode propagation. The tapering is done by means of λ/4 transformer steps. The dielectric cavity is
Figure 15.
Figure Split-block design
15. Split-block design of
of the
the magnetically
magnetically biased
biased W-band
W-band rectangular
rectangular waveguide
waveguide phase
phase shifter
shifter
208 made of PTFE (ε r = 2.06 and tan δ = 0.000 222 [40]), being tapered in a triangular shape. The PTFE
based on LC. The dimensions of the split-block are ( l × w × h ) = 31.6 mm × 30.0
based on LC. The dimensions of the split-block are (l × w × h) = 31.6 mm × 30.0 mm × 33.0 mm. mm × 33.0 mm.
209 cavity is also designed in a u-shape, which is sealed by pressing the metallic lid on top.
210 After sealing, the LC is filled into the dielectric cavity through filling holes on the top part of
211
199 the split-block.
Such phaseWith the help
shifters of a syringe
are used the LC is
in lightweight flushed
horn through
antenna arraysthefor
cavity, by which
satellite the amount
communications.
212
200 of air bubbles within the RF path can be significantly reduced, see Figure 16. The
Although the LC’s response time is comparatively high, it is already enough for specific applications, LC section within
213
201 the dielectric
such cavity of
as the tracking hasa alow
width
earthoforbit
1.0 mm(LEO)a height
satelliteof 0.6 mm
from and a length of
a geostationary 14.6 mm,
(GEO) providing
satellite, where a
phase shift of more than 36073 ◦ according to the simulation
214
202 steering speed of maximum ◦ /min is required [11,34,37]. carried out with CST Studio Suite. This
215
203 demonstrator
The concept canofonly be biased magnetically,
a dielectrically since no
filled rectangular biasing electrodes
waveguide can also can be included
be adapted to this
to W-band
216
204 design. Hence,
frequencies rare-earth
around 100 GHzmagnets wereThere,
[38,39]. placedthe
outside
waveguidethe split-block duringinthe
was realized measurements.
split-block They
technology
217
205 are generating
made of brass, awhere
magnetic field of part
the bottom aroundhas0.7 T. The measurements
a u-shape, being sealed with wereacarried
top lid,out
seeusing
Figure an15.
Aritsu
The
218
206 37397C vector
waveguide network
is tapered in analyzer
width and(VNA)heightcombined
within thewith two 3740A-EW
dielectrically extensions
filled section for
to still frequencies
provide in
a single
207 mode propagation. The tapering is done by means of λ/4 transformer steps. The dielectric cavity is
208 made of PTFE (ε r = 2.06 and tan δ = 0.000 222 [40]), being tapered in a triangular shape. The PTFE
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 14 of 27

After sealing, the LC is filled into the dielectric cavity through filling holes on the top part of the
split-block, see Figure 16. With the help of a syringe the LC is flushed through the cavity, by which
the amount of air bubbles within the RF path can be significantly reduced. The LC section within
the dielectric cavity has a width of 1.0 mm a height of 0.6 mm and a length of 14.6 mm, providing a
differential phase shift of more than 360◦ according to the simulation carried out with CST Studio Suite.
This demonstrator can only be biased magnetically, since no biasing electrodes can be included to this
design. Hence, rare-earth magnets were placed outside the split-block during the measurements, see
Figure 16. They are generating a magnetic field of around 0.7 T. The measurements were carried out
using an Aritsu 37397C vector network analyzer (VNA) combined with two 3740A-EW extensions
for frequencies in the extended W-band. These first proof-of-concept measurements revealed a good
matching of −10 dB over an 8 % bandwidth. This limitation in bandwidth is due to the narrow-banded
quarter-wave transformer steps. A differential phase shift between 300◦ to 330◦ was achieved, being
60◦ to 100◦ less than simulated. This is due to the flexible PTFE material which makes an exact
processing of the LC cavity difficult. Further, the press-fit sealing causes a narrowing of the LC section.
Accompanied with an insertion loss of less than 3 dB, this results in a phase shifter FoM between
105◦ /dB to 148◦ /dB from 90 GHz to 107 GHz, as can be seen from Figure 17. The deviation of the
insertion loss has its origin in the interruption of the current walls, due to a non-perfectly closed
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals
split-block. 14 of 26

Rare-earth m
agnet

filling holes
1.0

0.6
8.3 14.6 8.3
Port 1 Port 2
15.0
split-block bottom WR10 feeding lines

Figure16.
Figure (Left)Cross
16.(Left) Crosssection
sectionand
and(Right)
(right) measurement
measurementsetup
setupfor
forthe
themagnetically
magneticallybiased
biasedW-band
W-band
rectangular waveguide phase shifter.
rectangular waveguide phase shifter.

219 However,W-band.
the extended it is veryThese
challenging to implement an
first proof-of-concept electrical biasing
measurements system
revealed due to
a good the limited
matching of −space
10 dB
220 as wellanas8 the
over electrical boundary
% bandwidth. conditions.
This limitation Within theislimited
in bandwidth due to space of 1.6 mm in width
the narrow-banded for the
quarter-wave
221 dielectrically
transformer steps. filled section,
A phase several pairs of electrodes
shift between 300◦ to 330need
◦ wastoachieved,
be placedbeing
on the60substrate
◦ to 100◦ material,
less than
222 including
simulated. stepped
This is impedance structures
due to the flexible formaterial
PTFE striplinewhich
modemakes
suppression.
an exact processing of the LC cavity
223 Simulations
difficult. Further,with the the in-house
press-fit director
sealing dynamics
causes simulation
a narrowing of thetool
LC SimLCwg [8] proved, that
section. Accompanied withtwoan
224 pairs of electrodes
insertion loss of less arethan
sufficient butresults
3 dB, this not ideal
in afor a proper
phase LCFoM
shifter alignment,
betweenas105 shown
◦ /dBin to Figure
148 ◦ /dB 18 [41].
from
225 There
90 GHz it can be seen,
to 107 GHz,that a small
as can region
be seen fromwith a perpendicular
Figure LC alignment
17. The deviation will stillloss
of the insertion be left
hasinits
the center
origin in
226 ofthe
theinterruption
waveguide of when
the the LC iswalls,
current supposed
due totoabenon-perfectly
aligned parallel.
closedHowever, an odd number of pairs of
split-block.
227 electrodes is notitpossible,
However, since the centered
is very challenging fillingan
to implement system of the
electrical split-block
biasing systemindue
combination withspace
to the limited the
228 press-fit
as well sealed PTFE container
as the electrical boundaryshould be kept inWithin
conditions. the design. Also, the
the limited limited
space of 1.6space combination
mm in width for the
229 with lithography
dielectrically challenges
filled section, are limiting
several theofrealization
pairs electrodesofneedmoretothan three pairs
be placed on theof substrate
electrodes.material,
230 including stepped impedance structures for stripline mode suppression.
231 Simulations with the in-house director dynamics simulation tool SimLCwg [8] proved, that two
232 pairs of electrodes are sufficient but not ideal for a proper LC alignment, as shown in Figure 18 [41].
233 There it can be seen, that a small region with a perpendicular LC alignment will still be left in the center
234 of the waveguide when the LC is supposed to be aligned parallel. However, an odd number of pairs of
235 electrodes is not possible, since the centered filling system of the split-block in combination with the
236 press-fit sealed PTFE container should be kept in the design. Also, the limited space in combination
237 with lithography challenges are limiting the realization of more than three pairs of electrodes.
238 The substrate material on which the electrodes were processed had to be as thin as possible.
239 By this, the impedance of the parasitic microstrip line consisting of the biasing electrodes and the
240 waveguide walls is decreased. Hence, the excitation of the unintended stripline modes is suppressed.
241 For a first proof, a 20 µm thin PET film was used. As metallization, chromium was evaporated on the
Version
Version August
August 24,
24, 2018
2018 submitted
submitted to
to Crystals
Crystals 15
15 of
of 26
26
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 15 of 27

State
State II measured
measured simulated
simulated
State
State II
II measured
measured simulated
simulated
Differential
Differential measured
measured simulated
simulated
00 00

−10
− 10
(dB)

(dB)
11|| (dB)

21|| (dB)
−22
−
||SS11

||SS21
−20
− 20
−44
−

−30
− 30
90 95 90 95
90 95 100
100 105
105 110
110 90 95 100
100 105
105 110
110
Frequency ff (GHz)
Frequency (GHz) Frequency ff (GHz)
Frequency (GHz)
250
∆ϕ ((◦◦))

/dB)
450 250

FoM ((◦◦/dB)
450
shift ∆ϕ

400 200
200
400
phase shift

Merit FoM
150
150
Differential phase

350
350 of Merit

100
Differential

100
Figure of

300
300
Figure

250 50
5090
25090 95 100 105 110 90 95
95 100
100 105
105 110
110
90 95 100 105 110
Frequency ff (GHz)
Frequency (GHz) Frequency ff (GHz)
Frequency (GHz)

Figure 17. Measured

Figure 17. Measured (solid)
(solid) and
and simulated
simulated (dashed)
(dashed) results
results of
of the
the magnetically
magnetically biased
biased W-band
W-band
rectangular
rectangular waveguide
waveguide phase
phase shifter
shifter based
based on
on LC.
LC.

VVB -- VVB --
B +
+ B +
+

Figure 18. Simulated

Figure 18. Simulated field
field distribution
distribution of
of the
the electrically
electrically biased
biased W-band
W-band rectangular
rectangular waveguide
waveguide phase
phase
shifter
shifter based
based on
on LC.
LC.

The substrate material

Biasing
Biasing on which the electrodes were
electrodes
electrodes processed
Contact
Contact pads had to be asBias
pads thin
Bias as possible.
terminal
terminal
By this, the impedance of the parasitic microstrip line consisting of the biasing electrodes and the
waveguide walls is decreased. Hence, the excitation of the unintended stripline modes is suppressed.
For a first proof, a 20 µm thin PET film was used. As metallization, chromium was evaporated on the
PET film. After this, the electrodes including their stepped impedance structures are processed on the
substrate by means of lithography steps. Further, the split-block design was changed in the way that
the electrodes can be guided to the outside. There, the voltage source can be connected to the biasing
lines with the help of spring-probe-pins. The design of the PTFE container was changed as well. Due to
the mounting of the electrodes, the taper was chosen as discrete taper instead of a triangular taper.
The processed biasing electrodes, the re-designed split-block as well as PTFE container are given in
Figure 19.
λ/4
λ/4 transformer
transformer steps
steps PTFE
PTFE container
container

Figure 19. Split-block

Figure 19. Split-block design
design of
of the
the electrically
electrically biased
biased W-band
W-band rectangular
rectangular waveguide
waveguide phase
phase shifter
shifter
based
based on
on LC.
LC.
 Figure 18. Simulated field distribution of the electrically biased W-band rectangular waveguide phase
Crystalsshifter 355 on LC.
2018, 8,based 16 of 27

Biasing electrodes Contact pads Bias terminal

λ/4 transformer steps PTFE container

Figure 19. Split-block

Figure19. Split-blockdesign
designof
ofthe
theelectrically
electricallybiased
biasedW-band
W-bandrectangular
rectangularwaveguide
waveguidephase
phaseshifter
shifter
based
basedononLC.
LC.

However, it was not possible to characterize the electrically biased phase shifter, since the
electrodes did not work properly. A microscopical investigation of the electrodes revealed cracks
within the metallization as well as the substrate material itself, as can be seen in Figure 20. These cracks
are originating both from the expansion during the evaporation process as well as the lithography
treatments, e.g., etching. The high chromium vacuum melting temperature of 1920 ◦C caused an
expansion of the substrate as well as a shrinking while cooling after the evaporation. Hence,
microscopic cracks are occurring and no continuous electrical contact could be provided all over
the biasing lines. Additionally, the thin PET substrate cannot withstand the contacting of the
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 16 of 26
spring-probe-pins, which are damaging the substrate irreversibly.

Figure 20. Microscopic

Figure 20. Microscopic view
view on
on an
an evaporated
evaporated as
as well
well as
as photolithographically
photolithographically processed
processed Chromium
Chromium
electrode on a 20 µm thick PET substrate.
electrode on a 20 µm thick PET substrate.

At least the simulations can give an State I

insight simulated
into the possible functionality of the electrically biased
State II simulated
LC metallic waveguide phase shifter in Differential
split-block technology,
simulated see Figure 21. The matching could be
improved compared
0 with the simulation results of the magnetically
0 biased phase shifter in Figure 17.
However, the insertion loss is increased by 1 dB due to the biasing system, resulting in a phase shifter
FoM of around 115◦ /dB. This still includes the ideal LC alignment assumed by CST Studio Suite.
−10
|S11 | (dB)

|S21 | (dB)

In a real measurement, the alignment would not be ideal −2 anymore and the phase shift, and therefore,
the phase shifter FoM would degrade.
−20
−4

−30
90 95 100 105 110 90 95 100 105 110
Frequency f (GHz) Frequency f (GHz)
250
Differential phase shift ∆ϕ (◦ )

Figure of Merit FoM (◦ /dB)

450

400 200

350 150

300 100

250 50
90 95 100 105 110 90 95 100 105 110
Frequency f (GHz)
 CrystalsFigure 355Microscopic view on an evaporated as well as photolithographically processed Chromium
2018, 8,20. 17 of 27
electrode on a 20 µm thick PET substrate.

State I simulated
State II simulated
Differential simulated
0 0

−10
|S11 | (dB)

|S21 | (dB)
−2

−20
−4

−30
90 95 100 105 110 90 95 100 105 110
Frequency f (GHz) Frequency f (GHz)
250
Differential phase shift ∆ϕ (◦ )

Figure of Merit FoM (◦ /dB)

450

400 200

350 150

300 100

250 50
90 95 100 105 110 90 95 100 105 110
Frequency f (GHz) Frequency f (GHz)

21. Simulated
Figure 21.
Figure SimulatedS-parameter
S-parameterresults of the
results electrically
of the biased
electrically W-band
biased metallic
W-band waveguide
metallic phase
waveguide
shifter.shifter.
phase

256 overHence, it is obvious

the biasing that the realization
lines. Additionally, the thinof PET
a metallic waveguide
substrate based W-band
cannot withstand LC phase shifter
the contacting of the
257
isspring-probe-pins,
challenging. Further, the integration of a biasing system
which are damaging the substrate irreversibly. into the dielectrically filled waveguide is
258
always introducing additional loss. Thus, a new technology needed to be found to easily
At least the simulations can give an insight into the possible functionality of the electrically biased overcome all
259
these challenges.
LC metallic This technology
waveguide phase shifterwas in
found in the realization
split-block technology,ofsee
tunable
Figure dielectric
21. The waveguides
matching couldbasedbe
260
on LC, being discussed in the following.
improved compared with the simulation results of the magnetically biased phase shifter in Figure 17.
261
Not only
However, the that the realization
insertion of the by
loss is increased biasing
1 dB dueelectrodes is very system,
to the biasing challenging and their
resulting integration
in a phase shifter
262
into
FoM of around 115 /dB. This still includes the ideal LC alignment assumed by CST Studio Suite.slits
metallic waveguides
◦ introduces additional losses, but also RF leakage due to unintended In a
263
in themeasurement,
real split-block design is playingwould
the alignment a dominant
not berole.
idealIfanymore
the metallic
andinterconnections
the phase shift, and are therefore,
not perfectly
the
264
sealed in the areas where the
phase shifter FoM would degrade. wall currents are flowing perpendicularly to these slits, RF leakage occurs.
265
This effect
Hence, asitwell as the additional
is obvious losses from
that the realization of athe integrated
metallic biasingbased
waveguide electrodes
W-band playLCanphase
increasing,
shifter
266
non-negligible role with increasing frequency. Further, the higher the frequency, the
is challenging. Further, the integration of a biasing system into the dielectrically filled waveguide higher the impactis
267
of the skin
always depth lossadditional
introducing of metallic components.
loss. Thus, a new technology needed to be found to easily overcome all
268 these challenges. This technology was found in the realization of tunable dielectric waveguides based
6. Dielectric Waveguides
269 on LC, being discussed in the following.
Dielectric waveguides are predestinated to overcome aforementioned drawbacks of metallic
rectangular waveguides. They offer a low-cost fabrication and low-loss propagation. For example,
3D-printing or injection molding fabrication can be used, and no metallic component is required for the
waveguide itself. In addition, the design of LC-based dielectric waveguides is comparatively simple.
Due to their electrically unshielded design, electrodes can be placed around the dielectric waveguide
without disturbing the propagating wave. Their guiding characteristic can be approximated by the
geometrics approach, see Figure 22. Assuming a dielectric slab with a core material, ε 1 surrounded by
a cladding material ε 2 , with ε 1 > ε 2 . Internal reflections at the boundary layer of core and cladding
occur according to Snell’s law if the angle θ is below the critical angle
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 18 of 27

Crystals 2018, 8, 1 18 of 27
ε2
.cos θC = (17)
ε1
With
With the
the internal
internal reflections,
reflections, the
the propagating
propagating wave
wave isis confined
confined in
in the
the dielectric
dielectric core.
core. Two
Two types
types
of
of dielectric waveguides are the most prominent ones, the step-index fiber and subwavelength fiber,
dielectric waveguides are the most prominent ones, the step-index fiber and subwavelength fiber,
see
see Figure
Figure 22.
22.

ε0

ε2
ε0

ε1 Θ ε1 ε1
ε2
ε2
|E| |E|

Figure 22.
Figure (Left) Schematic
22. (Left) Schematic cross-section
cross-section ofof aa DW
DW used
used for
for the
the geometric
geometric approach,
approach, with
with εε11 > > εε00..
> εε22 >
Cross-section of
Cross-section of two
two common
common dielectric
dielectric waveguide
waveguide types:
types: (Center)
(Center) Step-index
Step-index fiber
fiber with
with εε11 > and
> εε22 and
(Right) Subwavelength
(Right) Subwavelength fiber.
fiber. The
The principle
principle E-field
E-field distributions
distributions for
for both
both types
types are
are depicted.
depicted.

Whereas the subwavelength fiber consists of only one single dielectric material, the step-index
fiber comprises of two dielectrics. In both cases, evanescent fields are propagating outside the dielectric
core. Since the subwavelength fiber only consists of one single dielectric core, the evanescent field
propagates outside the waveguide in air, which leads to a low-loss propagating. On the other hand,
these fields are sensitive to discontinuities or external influences, such as metallic structures. Using a
cladding as for the step-index fiber, all evanescent fields are already decaying inside the dielectric
waveguide. These two characteristics are very important for LC LC-based tunable dielectric
based tunable dielectric waveguides,
waveguides,
which will be discussed in the following.
The
Version design
August of asubmitted
24, 2018 tunable step-index
to Crystals fiber designed for W-band frequencies which has been recently
18 of 26
published in [42] is shown in Figure 23.
44 m

mmmm
m
1.1. µm
5555mm

mm
m
µ

2 20 µ0 µ
5555mm
mm
00

Rogers 3003
3003 Rexolite LC core
core LC filling
filling hole
hole Electrodes
22

Rogers Rexolite LC LC Electrodes

35 mm 1.6 mm
35 mm 1.6 mm
550 µm
mm

550 µm
6.5mm

1.6 mm 1.8 mm 2.2 mm

1.6 mm 1.8 mm 2.2 mm
6.5

550 µm
550 µm
ey ey 1.6 mm
ey 19 mm 6.28 mm ey 1.6 mm
ez 19 mm 6.28 mm ex
ez ex
6.5 mm
6.5 mm

Figure 23.
Figure Cross section
23. Cross section of
of the
the step-index
step-index fiber
fiber phase
phase shifter
shifter with
with the
the LC
LC cavity
cavity highlighted
highlighted in
in red.
red.

The presented design uses Rogers 3003 as non-tunable core material with a permittivity of ε = 3
The presented design uses Rogers 3003 as non-tunable core material with a permittivity of ε rr = 3
and dissipation factor of tan δ ≤ 0.05. As cladding material Rexolite 1422 from C-Lec Plastics Inc.,
and dissipation factor of tan δ ≤ 0.05. As cladding material Rexolite 1422 from C-Lec Plastics Inc. is
Philadelphia, PA, USA is used, with ε = 2.53 and tan δ = 0.000 66. To achieve tunability, LC is used
used, with ε r = 2.53 and tan δ = 0.000r66. To achieve tunability, LC in used as core material instead
as core material instead of Rogers 3003. The core is untunable and still manufactured from Rogers
of Rogers 3003 which is used as core taper, see Figure 23. The phase constant of the propagating
3003, see Figure 23. The phase constant of the propagating wave can now be adjusted by means of
wave can now be adjusted by means of the LCs permittivity. As the perpendicular permittivity is
the LCs permittivity. As the perpendicular permittivity is below the permittivity of the surrounding
below the permittivity of the surrounding cladding, RF leakage would occur, as the propagation
cladding, RF leakage would occur, as the propagation condition is not fulfilled anymore. To prevent
condition is not fulfilled anymore. To prevent RF leakage, air gaps are included in the cladding to
RF leakage, air gaps are included in the cladding to reduce its effective permittivity. With this design
reduce its effective permittivity. With this design step, the propagation condition is still fulfilled, even
for the lowest LC permittivity, and the evanescent fields are still decaying inside the effective cladding.
LC
The main advantage of the step-index fiber is that electrodes can be directly attached on the cladding.
Rogers 3003 Copper adhesive electrodes

Figure 24. Fabricated phase shifter and measurement setup of the step-index phase shifter. Two of four
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 19 of 27

step, the propagation condition is still fulfilled, even for the lowest LC permittivity, and the evanescent
fields are still decaying inside the effective cladding. The main advantage of the step-index fiber is that
electrodes can be directly attached on the cladding. Therefore, the design of the biasing electrodes can
be kept very simple. For characterization purposes, transitions were designed to provide a smooth
mode conversion from the fundamental TE10 mode of the rectangular metallic waveguide to the Ey11
mode of the dielectric waveguide and vice versa [42,43]. Several tapers, such as for the cladding and
core are used to achieve mode matching and for keeping losses due to radiation on a low level.
The measurement setup is depicted in Figure 24. It consists of the fabricated dielectric phase
shifter including two WR10-to-subwavelength fiber transitions for connection to a VNA. The phase
shifter was fabricated in two parts milled out of Rexolite, being glued together by using an UV glue.
By this, LC leakage can be easily avoided and two filling holes are left for later LC filling. To show
the simplicity of the biasing system, adhesive copper tape was used, being directly stuck on the
cladding. Furthermore, a voltage of ±550 V was applied to the parallel plate biasing configurations.
The achieved S-parameters as well as the phase shift and FoM are given in Figure 25. It can be
observed that the phase shifter is well matched with |S11 | < −15 dB over the whole frequency range.
The insertion loss is in a range of 3 dB to 5 dB. In comparison to the simulation, a deviation can be
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 18 of 26
observed. The reason was found in the splice, which was not included in the simulation. Further,
the dielectric loss of the glue itself was unknown at the time of the simulation, but it is expected to
be higher than that of Rexolite. Nevertheless, with the LC GT5-26001 an FoM of around 90◦ /dB was

1. µm

m m
55 mm
55 m

m
2 0µ
achieved between ◦ ◦
3003 94 GHz to 105 GHz, accompanied with a differential
Electrodesphase shift of 220 to 420 , see

m
0
4
Rogers Rexolite LC core LC filling hole

2
Figure 25. It is noticeable, that the simulated phase shift was not achieved in the measurement. This is
35 mm 1.6 mm
due to fabrication tolerances in the milling process. With a precision of 30 µm, the fabricated LC cavity
550 µm

6.5 mm
is slightly reduced, resulting in a reduced phase shift. Furthermore,
1.6 mm
the glue
1.8 mm
used in the assembling
2.2 mm
can flow into the cavity and can further decrease the LC volume. In addition, the LC might 550not
µm be
1.6 mm
perfectly
e
y
aligned. However, both 19 insertion
mm loss and phase 6.28 shift
mm show the same behavior independence
ye
e e
of the biasing concept. This is an outstanding result for tunable devices based on 6.5LC,
mm especially for
z x

in comparison to metallic waveguides. Here, electrical biasing systems always introduce additional
losses Figure 23. Cross
and could section
not align of LC
the the as
step-index
properly fiber phase
than shifter
for the with thebiasing.
magnetic LC cavity highlighted in red.

LC
Rogers 3003 Copper adhesive electrodes

Figure 24. Fabricated phase shifter and measurement setup of the step-index phase shifter. Two of four
electrodes are removed to enable a view of the LC core.

291 The presented design uses Rogers 3003 as non-tunable core material with a permittivity of ε r = 3
292 and dissipation factor of tan δ ≤ 0.05. As cladding material Rexolite 1422 from C-Lec Plastics Inc. is
293 used, with ε r = 2.53 and tan δ = 0.000 66. To achieve tunability, LC in used as core material instead of
294 Rogers 3003 which is used as core taper, see Figure 23. The phase constant of the propagating wave
295 can now be adjusted by means of the LCs permittivity. As the perpendicular permittivity is below
296 the permittivity of the surrounding cladding, RF leakage would occur, as the propagation condition
297 is not fulfilled anymore. To prevent RF leakage, air gaps are included in the cladding to reduce its
298 effective permittivity. With this design step, the propagation condition is still fulfilled, even for the
299 lowest LC permittivity, and the evanescent fields are still decaying inside the effective cladding. The
300 main advantage of the step-index fiber is that electrodes can be directly attached on the cladding.
301 Therefore, the design of the biasing electrodes can be kept very simple. For characterization purposes,
 Crystals
Version2018, 8, 355
August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 20
19of
of27
26

Simulation Magnetic Biasing Electric Biasing

−10 −2

−15 −3
|S11 | (dB)

|S21 | (dB)
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 19 of 26
−20 −4

−25 −5
Simulation Magnetic Biasing Electric Biasing
10
−30
− −62
−
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
−15 Frequency f (GHz) −3 Frequency f (GHz)
| (dB)

|S21 | (dB)
(◦ )

Figure of Merit FoM (◦ /dB)

200
−20
500 −4
|S11∆ϕ
phase shift

−25 −5
150
400

−30 −6
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 100 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
300
Differential phase shift ∆ϕDifferential

Frequency f (GHz) Frequency f (GHz)

(◦ )

Figure of Merit FoM (◦ /dB)

20075 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

50075 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Frequency f (GHz) Frequency f (GHz)
150
400
25. Measured
Figure 25.
Figure Measured(solid)
(solid)and
andsimulated (dashed)
simulated results
(dashed) of the
results step-index
of the phase
step-index shifter.
phase For
shifter.
simplification, s-parameter plots show perpendicular orientation
For simplification, S-parameter plots show perpendicular only.
100orientation only.
300

Rexolite LC core
With the design of the step-index fiber, a high-performance
26 mm75 80
but85bulky
90
phase shifter was presented,
95 100 105 110
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
which also allows a feasible phase shifter design for terahertz 0.6 mmfrequencies.
Frequency f (GHz) for the integration
However,
Frequency f (GHz)
of a dielectric waveguide phase shifter, e.g., in phased arrays, a more compact design is needed.
1.8 mm
As shown in 25.
Figure Figure 26, a subwavelength
Measured fiber is(dashed)
(solid) and simulated well suited for of
results such
thean application,
step-index due
phase to its smaller
shifter. For
dimensions. In [43] a phase shifter design was presented.
simplification, s-parameter plots show perpendicular orientation only.

Figure 26. Cross-section of the phase shifter designed as subwavelength fiber as presented in [43].
Rexolite LC core
26 mm
0.6 mm
315 found in the splice, which was not included in the simulation. Further, the dielectric loss of the glue
316 itself
1.8 mmwas unknown at the time of the simulation, but it is expected to be higher than that of Rexolite.
317 Nevertheless, with the LC GT5-26001 an FoM of around 90 ◦ /dB was achieved between 94 GHz to
318 105 GHz, accompanied with a differential phase shift of 220◦ to 420◦ , see Figure 25. It is noticeable, that
319 the simulated
Figure26.
Figure phase
26. shift was
Cross-section
Cross-section not
ofofthe achieved
thephase
phaseshifter indesigned
shifter the measurement.
designed This isfiber
assubwavelength
as subwavelength dueas
fiber to fabrication
aspresented
presented tolerances
inin[43].
[43].
320 in the milling process. With a precision of 30 µm, the fabricated LC cavity is slightly reduced, resulting
in a The
reduced phase shift. Furthermore, the glue usedisin the assembling can flow
The into the cavity and
found incross-section of the presented phase shifter depicted in Figurethe 26.dielectric
mainlosspart ofconsists
321
315 the splice, which was not included in the simulation. Further, the glue
can
of a further
quadratic decrease
Rexolite thefiber
LC volume.
with In addition,
an edge lengthbut the
of 1.8LC might nottunability,
be perfectly aligned. However,
it ismm. For a than
0.6 mmthatcircular LC
322
316 itself was unknown at the time of the simulation, expected to be higher of Rexolite.
both
core insertion
is included. loss and
Like phase shift show the same behavior independent of the biasing concept. This
thethe LCstep-index
GT5-26001design, metal plates 90 were usedwasfor the electric biasing, being
323 ◦ /dB
317 Nevertheless, with an FoM of around achieved between 94 GHz to
324 is an outstanding
placed in a large result distance
enough for tunable to devices
the fiber, based
to not on LC,◦ the
disturb especially
evanescent
◦ for infields.
comparison
The to metallic
measurement
318 105 GHz, accompanied with a differential phase shift of 220 to 420 , see Figure 25. It is noticeable, that
waveguides.
setup, including Here,
theelectrical
electric biasingsystem
biasing systems always introduce additional losses and ofcould not align
not achieved is in shown in Figure 27. With a distance the electrodes
325
319 the simulated phase shift was the measurement. This is due to fabrication tolerances
the
of LC as properly than for the magnetic biasing.
in3the
mm from the edgeWithof the Rexolite body, the the
metallic platesLC are not disturbing the propagating
326
320 milling process. a precision of 30 µm, fabricated cavity is slightly reduced, resulting
327
wave. With
To the design
ensure a properof the step-index
position, Rohacellfiber, a high-performance
31HF, from Evonik but bulky
Industries, phase shifter
Darmstadt, Germany was be
is
321 in a reduced phase shift. Furthermore, the glue used in the assembling can flow into the cavity and
presented,
acan
special which also
highdecrease
performanceallows a
foam feasible
suitablephase shifter design
for high frequency for terahertz
applications. frequencies. However,
Its permittivity for the
aligned. isHowever,
around
328
322 further the LC volume. In addition, the LC might not be perfectly
329 integration
1.05 with a of a dielectric
dissipation waveguide
factor of 0.01 phase
at 27 shifter,
GHz. As e.
LC, g. GT5-26001
in phased arrays,
was a more
used. Forcompact design is
characterization,
323 both insertion loss and phase shift show the same behavior independent of the biasing concept. This
needed.
the same As shown in Figure 26, a subwavelength
WR10-to-subwavelength fiber transition fiber is well suited for such an application, due to its
basedwere used as introduced before. The measured
330
324 is an outstanding result for tunable devices on LC, especially for in comparison to metallic
smaller
S-parametersdimensions. In [43] a phase shifter design was presented.
waveguides. are shown in Figure 28. It can be always
noticed,introduce
that the phase shifterlosses
is welland
matched
could over the
331
325 Here, electrical biasing systems additional not align
332
whole The cross-section of the presented phase shifter is depicted in Figure 26. The main part consists
W-band.
326 the LC as properly than for the magnetic biasing.
333 of a quadratic Rexolite fiber with an edge length of 1.8 mm. For tunability, a 0.6 mm circular LC core
327 With the design of the step-index fiber, a high-performance but bulky phase shifter was be
328 presented, which also allows a feasible phase shifter design for terahertz frequencies. However, for the
329 integration of a dielectric waveguide phase shifter, e. g. in phased arrays, a more compact design is
330 needed. As shown in Figure 26, a subwavelength fiber is well suited for such an application, due to its
331 smaller dimensions. In [43] a phase shifter design was presented.
332 The cross-section of the presented phase shifter is depicted in Figure 26. The main part consists
 Crystals August
Version 3552018 submitted to Crystals
2018, 8, 24, 21 of 26
20 27

WR10 transition

Electrode

Figure 27. Measurement setup of the subwavelength fiber phase shifter.

Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals 21 of 26

334
The achieved
is included. Like theFoM is in a design,
step-index range ofmetal 60◦ /dB,
platesaswere
the phase
used for shifter reachesbiasing,
the electric a differential phase
being placed
shift between 90 ◦ to 160 ◦ accompanied with an insertion loss of 1.5 dB to 2.9 dB. Again, the results
335 in a large enough distance to the fiber, to not disturb the evanescent fields. The measurement setup,
336
for magnetic
including the and electric
electric biasing
biasing system areisinshown
a goodinagreement
Figure 27. which
With a again
distancehighlights the advantage
of the electrodes of 3 mmof
337
this technology.
from the edge of the Rexolite body, the metallic plates are not disturbing the propagating wave. To
338 ensure a proper position, Rohacell 31HF, from Evonik Industries was used as spacer material. It is a
339 special high performance foam suitable Simulation Magnetic
for high Biasing applications.
frequency Electric Biasing
Its permittivity is around 1.05
340 with a dissipation
−10 factor of 0.01 at 27 GHz. As LC, GT5-26001 0 was used. For characterization, the same
341 WR10-to-subwavelength fiber transition were used as introduced before. The measured S-parameters
−15 −1
342 are shown in Figure 28. It can be noticed, that the phase shifter is well matched over the whole W-band.
|S11 | (dB)

|S21 | (dB)

343 The achieved ◦

FoM is in a range of 60 /dB, as the phase shifter reaches a phase shift between 90◦
−20 −2
344 to 160◦ accompanied with an insertion loss of 1.5 dB to 2.9 dB. Again, the results for magnetic and
345 electric biasing −25are in a good agreement which again highlights −3 the advantage of this technology.
346 Another application could be the integration of the subwavelength fiber phase shifter in a fully
−30 −4
347 dielectric phased 75 array.
80 In 85 [44],
90 a first
95 fully dielectric
100 105 110 antenna
75 array85was90presented,
80 95 100 see 105Figure
110 29 . It
348 consists of four dielectricFrequency f (GHz)which is also fed by a special
rod antennas, Frequency f (GHz)interference (MMI)
multimode
power divider. Within this divider, multimode propagation is used to provide power splitting in
Differential phase shift ∆ϕ (◦ )

Figure of Merit FoM (◦ /dB)

349

350 one single step. Multiple maxima are formed due to the 100superposition and the different propagation
150
351 constants of all propagable modes inside the waveguide. This interference phenomenon is visualized
80
352 in Figure 30.
353 With the input position on the left, the interference60phenomenon occurs in the broad waveguide
100
354 section. It can be seen, that multiple field maxima are formed, with each single maximum feeding a
355 rod antenna. This power divider allows a very compact40design, where power splitting is achieved in
356 one single step.75On 80 one side,
85 this reduces
90 95 100 the 105 dielectric
110 75 and
loss, 80 further,
85 90parasitic
95 100 105 110The next
radiation.
Frequency f (GHz)
357 step will be the integration of LC based subwavelength fiber phase shifters in the presented antenna
Frequency f (GHz)
358 array design. For this, LC can be directly inserted in the waveguide section before the rod antennas,
Measured (solid)
(solid) and
359
Figure 28.
Figure
see Figure 28. Measured
29. Although the LCand simulated (dashed)
simulated
integration (dashed) results
can results of
be realized of the
quitethe subwavelength
subwavelength fiber
easily, the main fiber phase shifter.
phase
challenge shifter.
will be the
For
For simplification,
simplification, s-parameter
S-parameter plots
plots show
show perpendicular
perpendicular orientation
orientation only.
only.
360 integration of the required biasing electrode as they can disturb the propagating electromagnetic wave.
361 Furthermore, high permittivity plastics are in the focus of research for minimization of the antenna.
Another application could be the integration of the subwavelength fiber phase shifter in a fully
362 7. Conclusion
dielectric phased array. In [44], a first fully dielectric antenna array was presented, see Figure 29 .
363
It consists
In this of paper
four dielectric rod antennas,
a comprehensive whichonis latest
review also fed by a special multimode
development of microwave interference (MMI)
liquid crystal
364
power divider. Within this divider, multimode propagation is used
technology has been given. Starting from the material properties and their characterization, to provide power splitting in
365
one single step.for
requirements Multiple
mmWave maxima are formed due
communication to the have
systems superposition and the different
been introduced. From propagation
these basic
366 considerations the necessity for electronic steerable antennas systems is derived. isAn
constants of all propagable modes inside the waveguide. This interference phenomenon visualized
energy
367
in Figure 30.
efficient and high performance realization uses liquid crystals as tunable dielectric. Above 60 GHz
16.4 mm 15 mm
12.25 mm
 Crystals 2018, 8, 355 22 of 27

16.4 mm 15 mm

12.25 mm
LC
1.8×1.8 mm² Multimode interference Rod antennas Dielectric
power divider Electrode

Fullydielectric
Figure 29. Fully dielectricantenna
antenna array
array presented
presented in [44].
in [44]. a) It (Left) It of
consists consists of antennas
four rod four rod which
antennas
are
which
fed by are
a fed by
multimode a multimode interference
interference power
Version August 24, 2018 submitted to Crystals power
divider. b) divider;
Further (Right)
developmentFurther development
could be the could
integration be
of the
22 of 26
integration of the
subwavelength subwavelength
fiber phase shifter.fiber phase shifter.

10 mm max

E-Field
0 V/m

Multimode interference Rod antennas

power divider

Figure 30. Field

Figure 30. Field plot
plot of
of the
the fully
fully dielectric
dielectric antenna
antenna array.
array.

With the inputTable 3. Comparison

position on the left, of the
different phase shifter
interference technologies
phenomenon at W-band.
occurs in the broad waveguide
section. It can be seen, that multiple field maxima are formed, with each single maximum feeding a
rod antenna. This power divider allows a very compact design, f where ∆ϕ power IL FoM
splitting is achieved
Technology Implementation REF in
(GHz) (◦ ) (dB) (◦ /dB)
one single step. This reduces the dielectric loss, and further, parasitic radiation. The next step will be
GaN
the integration 2-bit RTPS
of LC-based subwavelength fiber phase shifters 80 in the82.5
presented 3.7antenna
17 array[47]
design.
4-bit loaded line 60 250 3 83 [48]
For this, LC can be directly inserted in the waveguide section before the rod antennas, see Figure 29.
MEMS Waveguide MEMS 106 47 3.4 13 [49]
Although the LC integration can be realized
3-bit switched line quite easily, the77main challenge
315 will
5.7 be the
55 integration
[45] of
the required
MEMS &biasing
CMOSelectrode as they0.18
RTPS (CMOS canµm)disturb the propagating
65 electromagnetic
144 3.2 wave.
42 Furthermore,
[50]
Ridged
high permittivity plastics are inwaveguide 96
the focus of research for minimization 500 of the antenna.
7.2 70 [51]
Metallic waveguide (magnetic bias) 100 309 2.3 135 [39]
LC
7. Conclusions Subwavelength fiber 103 140 2.3 60 [43]
Step-index fiber 103 390 3.9 100 [42]
In this
LC paper, a comprehensive
& MEMS Loaded line review of the latest developments
93 190 in microwave
4.5 42 liquid[52]
crystal
technology has been given. Starting from the material properties and their characterization,
requirements for mmWave communication systems have been introduced. From these basic
368 metallic rectangular
considerations, waveguide
the necessity forcomponents can usually
electronic steerable providesystems
antennas highest performance.
is derived. An Dueenergy
to the
369 implementation of biasing electrodes, the performance degrades substantially. To
efficient and high-performance realization uses liquid crystals as tunable dielectric. Above 60 GHzovercome this
370 problem,rectangular
metallic the dielectric waveguidecomponents
waveguide technology, commonly
can usuallyknown from
provide optics,
highest is adapted toDue
performance. millimeter
to the
371 waves. With this, an easy integration of biasing electrodes is possible. The first demonstrators
implementation of biasing electrodes, the performance degrades substantially. To overcome presented
this
372 in this paper show promising results. Table 3 shows an overview on different phase shifter
problem, the dielectric waveguide technology, commonly known from optics, is adapted to millimeter realizations
373 at W-band. The high potential of LC-based devices is obvious.
374 All given phase shifters are line phase shifter, which make them operate in a wide frequency
375 band. Usually, MEMS and semiconductor phase shifters have response times in the range of µs, as
376 exemplarily 15 µs in [45]. LC devices are suffering from comparatively high response times, as for
377 example 340 ms in the best case for a loaded CPW line [46] and approx. 1 min for the presented
378 dielectric waveguide phase shifters. Further work includes optimization of components based on
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 23 of 27

waves. With this, an easy integration of biasing electrodes is possible. The first demonstrators presented
in this paper show promising results. Table 3 shows an overview on different phase shifter realizations
at W-band. The high potential of LC-based devices is obvious.
All given phase shifters are line phase shifter, which make them operate in a wide frequency
band. Usually, MEMS and semiconductor phase shifters have response times in the range of µs,
as exemplarily 15 µs in [45]. LC devices are suffering from comparatively high response times, as for
example 340 ms in the best case for a loaded CPW line [46] and approximately 1 min for the presented
dielectric waveguide phase shifters. Further work includes optimization of components based on
dielectric waveguides. Specific focus is on the fabrication of the devices and on LC integration. Here,
modern additive manufacturing techniques can be implemented.

Table 3. Comparison of different phase shifter technologies at W-band.

f ∆ϕ IL FoM
Technology Implementation REF
(GHz) (◦ ) (dB) (◦ /dB)
GaN 2-bit RTPS 80 82.5 3.7 17 [47]
4-bit loaded line 60 250 3 83 [48]
MEMS Waveguide MEMS 106 47 3.4 13 [49]
3-bit switched line 77 315 5.7 55 [45]
MEMS & CMOS RTPS (CMOS 0.18 µm) 65 144 3.2 42 [50]
Ridged waveguide 96 500 7.2 70 [51]
Metallic waveguide (magnetic bias) 100 309 2.3 135 [39]
LC
Subwavelength fiber 103 140 2.3 60 [43]
Step-index fiber 103 390 3.9 100 [42]
LC & MEMS Loaded line 93 190 4.5 42 [52]

The tunable dielectric waveguide technology is one example for research beside LC material
engineering. Material optimization is ongoing [9] and will stay a major task in future. The development
of new tunable structures is the second major field of research. Recently, planar structures utilizing
plasmonic or slow wave effects have been presented [53–55]. These structures show a huge potential,
as they faciitate integration. Unfortunately, these types of components usually show high insertion
losses. The main advantages compared to metallic rectangular and dielectric waveguides are much
faster response times of the components. This is due to a much thinner LC layer which can be tuned
faster with lower voltages. Also, substrate integrated waveguides (SIW) [56,57] will probably play
a significant role in the future. The right technology has always to been chosen based on a tradeoff.
Researchers in academia and industry are working hard iso that LC-based devices can manifest their
large potential in many applications.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: H.M., M.J., R.R. and E.P.; Investigation: M.J., R.R. and E.P.; Writing:
H.M., M.J. and R.R.; Review & Editing, M.N., E.P. and R.J.; Supervision, H.M. and R.J.; Funding Acquisition, H.M.
and M.J.
Funding: This research was partially funded by DFG grants JA921/68-1, MA6281/4-1, JA921/29-2 and
BMWi/DLR under contract 50YB1113.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge Merck KGaA and CST AG for supplying Liquid Crystal
mixtures and CST Microwave Studio, respectively. We acknowledge support by the German Research Foundation
and the Open Access Publishing Fund of Technische Universität Darmstadt.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Crystals 2018, 8, 355 24 of 27

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

5G System for Mobile Communication of the 5th generation

D Displacement field
DC Direct current
DW Dielectric waveguide
E Electric field
ε eff effective permittivity
εk effective permittivity of an LC volume for parallel alignment
ε⊥ effective permittivity of an LC volume for perpendicular alignment
FoM Figure of Merit
GEO geostationary orbit (satellite)
HPBW Half-power beam width
IL Insertion loss (IL = −|S21 |)
IP3 Third-order intercept point
ITU International Telecommunication Union
Ka -band Communications band from 26.5 GHz to 40 GHz
Ku -band Communications band from 12 GHz to 18 GHz
LC Liquid Crystal
LCD Liquid crystal display
LEO low earth orbit (satellite)
MMI Multimode interference
mmWave Millimeter wave
OLED Organic LED
PIM Passive intermodulation
PET Polyethylenterephthalat
PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene (Teflon)
RF Radio frequency
SIW Substrate integrated waveguide
TDS time-domain spectroscopy
TN twisted nematic
UV Ultra violet
VNA Vector network analyzer
W-band Communications band from 75 GHz to 110 GHz
WRC World Radio Conference

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