CHAPTER II

REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

Botany of Ixora Coccinea Linn

According to the Medical Health Guide, Santan is a dense, multi-branched evergreen

shrub that is fairly small. It is an erect and smooth ornamental shrub, growing to a height of 2 to
3 meters. Leaves are stalkless or on very short stalks, oblong, 5 to 9 centimeters long, heart-
shaped or rounded at the base and blunt-tipped. Flowers are many, pink or red, and borne in
terminal, stalkless or shortly stalked, hairy cymes. Calyx teeth are short and pointed. Corolla-
tube is slender, 2.5 centimeters long; lobes are spreading and oblong, about half the length of the
tube. Fruit is reddish, almost round, about 5 millimeters in diameter

Ixora Coccinea Linn or Santan

As stated in Medical Health Guide, Santan (IxoraCoccinea Linn) is a species of flowering

plant in the Rubiaceae family. Santan or Jungle Flame is a common flowering shrub native to
Southern India, Sri Lanka but has long become a popular hedging plant in tropical and
subtropical regions such as in South Asia, Africa, Southern America such as in Florida and other
warmer climates.

Lead

According to the International Journal of Chemical Engineering Volume 2011, Lead

(Pb), with atomic number 82, atomic weight 207.19, and a specific gravity of 11.34, is a bluish
or silvery-grey metal with a melting point of 327.5°C and a boiling point at atmospheric pressure
of 1740°C. It has four naturally occurring isotopes with atomic weights 208, 206, 207 and 204
(in decreasing order of abundance). Despite the fact that lead has four electrons on its valence
shell, its typical oxidation state is +2 rather than +4, since only two of the four electrons ionize
easily. Apart from nitrate, chlorate, and chloride, most of the inorganic salts of lead2+ have poor
solubility in water. Lead (Pb) exists in many forms in the natural sources throughout the world
and is now one of the most widely and evenly distributed trace metals. Soil and plants can be
contaminated by lead from car exhaust, dust, and gases from various industrial sources. Pb2+ was
found to be acute toxic to human beings when present in high amounts. Since Pb2+ is not
biodegradable, once soil has become contaminated, it remains a long-term source of
Pb2+ exposure. Metal pollution has a harmful effect on biological systems and does not undergo
biodegradation.

Soil can be contaminated with Pb from several other sources such as industrial sites, from
leaded fuels, old lead plumbing pipes, or even old orchard sites in production where lead
arsenate is used. Lead accumulates in the upper 8 inches of the soil and is highly immobile.
Contamination is long-term. Without remedial action, high soil lead levels will never return to
normal.
In the environment, lead is known to be toxic to plants, animals, and microorganisms. Effects are
generally limited to especially contaminated areas. Pb contamination in the environment exists as
an insoluble form, and the toxic metals pose serious human health problem, namely, brain
damage and retardation. (Tangahu B.V. et al, 2011)

Lead in the Environment

Lead occurs naturally in the environment. However, most lead concentrations that are found in
the environment are a result of human activities. Due to the application of lead in gasoline an
unnatural lead-cycle has consisted. In car engines lead is burned, so that lead salts (chlorines,
bromines, oxides) will originate.These lead salts enter the environment through the exhausts of
cars. The larger particles will drop to the ground immediately and pollute soils or surface waters,
the smaller particles will travel long distances through air and remain in the atmosphere. Part of
this lead will fall back on earth when it is raining. This lead-cycle caused by human production is
much more extended than the natural lead-cycle. It has caused lead pollution to be a worldwide
issue as stated in Lenntech, 1993.

Effect of lead

Lead can have serious consequences for the health of children. At high levels of exposure,
lead attacks the brain and central nervous system to cause coma, convulsions and even death.
Children who survive severe lead poisoning may be left with mental retardation and
behavioural disorders. At lower levels of exposure that cause no obvious symptoms, and that
previously were considered safe, lead is now known to produce a spectrum of injury across
multiple body systems. In particular lead can affect children’s brain development resulting in
reduced intelligence quotient (IQ), behavioral changes such as reduced attention span and
increased antisocial behavior, and reduced educational attainment. Lead exposure also causes
anemia, hypertension, renal impairment, immunotoxicity and toxicity to the reproductive
organs. The neurological and behavioral effects of lead are believed to be irreversible (“Lead
poisoning and health”,2012)

Information about Lead Air Pollution

A. How does lead get in the air?

Sources of lead emissions vary from one area to another. At the national level, major sources of
lead in the air are ore and metals processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded
aviation fuel. Other sources are waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers.
The highest air concentrations of lead are usually found near lead smelters.
As a result of EPA's (Environmental Protection Agency) regulatory efforts including the removal
of lead from motor vehicle gasoline, levels of lead in the air decreased by 98 percent between
1980 and 2014.

B. What are the effects of lead on human health?

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency once taken into the body, lead
distributes throughout the body in the blood and is accumulated in the bones. Depending on the
level of exposure, lead can adversely affect the nervous system, kidney function, immune
system, reproductive and developmental systems and the cardiovascular system. Lead exposure
also affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The lead effects most commonly
encountered in current populations are neurological effects in children and cardiovascular effects
(e.g., high blood pressure and heart disease) in adults. Infants and young children are especially
sensitive to even low levels of lead, which may contribute to behavioral problems, learning
deficits and lowered IQ.
C. What are the effects of lead on ecosystems?
United States Environmental Protection Agency stated that Lead is persistent in the environment
and can be added to soils and sediments through deposition from sources of lead air pollution.
Other sources of lead to ecosystems include direct discharge of waste streams to water
bodies and mining. Elevated lead in the environment can result in decreased growth and
reproductive rates in plants and animals, and neurological effects in vertebrates.

Plants as Phytoremediators

According to the study “Phytoremediation: A Green Technology to Remove Environmental

Pollutants” the principal application of phytoremediation is for lightly contaminated soils and
waters where the material to be treated is at a shallow or medium depth and the area to be treated
is large. This will make agronomic techniques economical and applicable for both planting and
harvesting. In addition, the site owner must be prepared to accept a longer remediation period.
Plants that are able to decontaminate soils does one or more of the following: 1) plant uptake of
contaminant from soil particles or soil liquid into their roots; 2) bind the contaminant into their
root tissue, physically or chemically; and 3) transport the contaminant from their roots into
growing shoots and prevent or inhibit the contaminant from leaching out of the soil. (Sigua G.C.
et al, 2012)

Phytoremediation Research in the Tropics

Most of the environmental contaminants are chemical by-products such as Pb. Lead released into
the environment makes its way into the air, soil and water. Lead contributes to a variety of health
effects such as decline in mental, cognitive, and physical health of the individual. An alternative
way of reducing Pb concentra-tion from the soil is through phytoremediation. Phytore-mediation
is an alternative method that uses plants to clean up contaminated area. Hence, Paz-Alberto et al.
conducted a study in the Philippines entitled “Phytoremediation of Lead Contaminated Soils”.
The objectives of this study were 1) to determine the survival rate and vegetative characteristics
of three grass species such as vetiver grass, cogon grass, and carabao grass grown in soils with
different Pb levels; and 2) to determine and compare the ability of three grass species as potential
phytoremediators in terms of Pb accumulation by plants. The three test plants: vetiver grass
(Vetiveria zizanioides L.); cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica L.); and carabao grass (Paspalum
conjugatum L.) were grown in different individual plastic bags containing soils with 75 mg·kg−1
(37.5 kg·ha−1) and 150 mg·kg−1 (75 kg·ha−1) of Pb, re-spectively. The Pb contents of the test
plants and the soil were analyzed before and after experimental treatments using an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer. This study was laid out following a 3 × 2 factorial experiment in a
completely randomized design. Results of the study revealed that on the vegetative
characteristics of the test plants, vetiver grass registered the highest whole plant dry matter
(33.85 - 39.39 Mg·ha−1).

A field survey was conducted by Bautista to identify phytoremediators present in the selected
cities in the province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. The plants found in the heavy traffic area of
Cabanatuan City were the “balite” (Ficusbengalensis) and the “espada” (Sanasaviera
trifasciata). In the heavy traffic area of San Jose City the most common plants are the
Bougainvillea (Bougainvillea sp.) and the Cherry Pink plant. The Indian tree (Polyalthia
longifolia) and the bougainvillea (Bougainvillea sp.) were the most common plants found along
the traffic islands of the Science City of Muñoz. In Caba-natuan City, the balite absorbed 2.822
ppm of Pb, while espada absorbed 2.352 ppm of Pb; in San Jose City, the cherry pink plant
absorbed 4.803 ppm, while the bougainvillea absorbed 1.521 ppm of Pb; and in the Science City
of Muñoz, the Indian tree absorbed 0.217 ppm, and the bougainvillea absorbed 0.528 ppm,
respectively. Results of the chemical analysis proved that all of the plants along the traffic
islands of the three selected cities of Nueva Ecija were phytoremediators of Pb. They were the
most effective phytoremediator of Pb among the plants in the traffic area within the three
selected cities.