1

CHAPTER 3
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS ON CULVERTS

3.1. General

The purpose of the hydraulic design of box culvert is to provide a drainage

facility or system that will adequately and economically provide for the estimated
flow through out of the design life without unreasonable risks to the roadway
structure or nearby property.
The hydraulics of culverts is extremely complex and the concept of inlet
control and outlet control is commonly used to simplify the analysis. Inlet and outlet
control culverts have a barrel capacity larger and smaller than the capacity of the
culvert entrance, respectively. The methodology of hydraulic design of culvert is in a
clear, usable format. To better understand the design of the culverts, the basic design
parameters must be carefully studied. The headwater, outlet velocity, and tailwater are
factors of significant importance.

3.2. Culvert
A culvert is a conveyance conduit for surface water drainage beneath a
driveway, street, highway, railroad, canal, or other embankment. Culvert conveyance
capacity is a function of both inlet and discharge flow conditions.
The most critical aspect of culvert design is to determine stable and
predictable performance for all expected flow levels. The design of a culvert is
influenced by cost, hydraulic efficiency, purpose, and the topography at the proposed
culvert site.
The general purpose of culverts is to transmit water flowing in natural streams
or collected on the high side of the right-of-way from one side of the highway to the
other. Culverts are constructed from a variety of materials and available in many
different shapes and inlet configurations. Culverts selection factors include roadway
profiles, channel characteristics, design discharge, construction and maintenance costs
and estimates of service life [78Ano].
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3.2.1. Materials
The selection of a culvert material may depend upon structural strength,
hydraulic roughness, durability, and corrosion and abrasion resistance. The three most
common culvert materials are concrete and nonreinforced, corrugated aluminum, and
corrugated steel. Culverts may also be lined with other materials to inhibit corrosion
and abrasion, or to reduce hydraulic resistance.

3.2.2. Types
Culverts are available in various cross-sectional shapes. The most commonly
used shapes are circular, box (or) rectangular, elliptical, pipe-arch, and arch as shown
Figure 3.1. The shape selection is based on the cost of construction, the limitation on
upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height, and hydraulic
performance.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 3.1. Culvert Shapes (a) Circular, (b) Box, (c) Elliptical,
(d) Pipe Arch, (e) Metal Box and (f) Arch [04Lar]
 21

3.2.3. Inlets
A multitude of different inlet configurations are utilized on culvert barrels.
These include both prefabricated and constructed-in-place installations. Commonly
used inlet configurations include projecting culvert barrels, cast-in-place concrete
headwalls, precast or prefabricated end sections, and culvert ends mitered to conform
to the fill slope. The typical inlet configurations are shown in Figure 3.2.
The hydraulic capacity of a culvert may be improved by appropriate inlet
selection. Since the natural channel is usually wider than the culvert barrel, the culvert
inlet edge represents a flow contraction and may be the primary flow control. The
provision of a more gradual flow transition will lessen the energy loss and thus create
a more hydraulically efficient inlet condition as shown in Figure 3.3. Beveled edges
are therefore more efficient than square edges. Side-tapered and slope-tapered inlets,
commonly referred to as improved inlets, further reduce the flow contraction.
Depressed inlets, such as slope-tapered inlets, increase the effective head on the flow
control section, thereby further increasing the culvert efficiency. Figures 3.4 and 3.5
depict a side-tapered and a slope-tapered inlet respectively.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3.2. Four Standard Inlet Types: (a) Projecting Barrel, (b) Cast-in-place
Concrete (Headwall and wingwall), (c) Precast End Section, and
(d) End Mitered to the Slope [04Lar]
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Contraction of Flow Reduces Minimum Flow

Effective Barrel Size Contraction

Square Edge Curve Edge

Entrance Entrance

Figure 3.3. Entrance Contraction [87Wri]

Face Section Face Section

Bevel

Throat Section Bevel

S0 Throat Section
S1
Fall D
S D

Elevation S

Elevation

Wingwalls Taper D Taper

Wingwalls D

Plan Plan

Figure 3.4. Side-tapered Inlet Figure 3.5. Slope-tapered Inlet

[87Wri] [87Wri]

t
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3.2.4. Culvert Location

A culvert should be located in the existing channel bed to minimize costs
associated with structural excavation and channel work.
A proper location is important because it affects hydraulics, the adequacy of
the opening, maintenance of culvert and possible washout of the roadway.
Culvert location involves the horizontal and vertical alignment of the culvert
with respect to both the stream and the highway.
The culvert location affects hydraulic performance of the culvert, stream and
embankment stability, construction and maintenance costs, and safety and integrity of
the highway.

3.2.5. Culvert Slope

In general, drainage structures should be built to the same slope as the
streambed in the vicinity.
The pipe is set on a minimum slope of 0.005 from this upstream invert
elevation. This provides a low point at the end of the pipe to facilitate draining should
it become necessary.
A too flat culvert slope causes reduction in velocity of flow, thereby reducing
the available capacity. Conversely, a culvert slope greater than that of the streambed
may cause increased velocities high enough to erode and undermine the structure.

3.2.6. Culvert Elevation

Ordinarily, a culvert should be installed with the invert at streambed elevation
not lower. It should be remembered that a culvert will not pass more water than that
can be carried further downstream [78Ano].

3.3. Data Requirement for Hydraulic Culvert Design

To design the culverts, site data, waterway data, roadway data, allowable
headwater and outlet velocity are required.

3.3.1. Site Data

The hydraulic design of a culvert installation requires the evaluation of a large
amount of data including culvert location, waterway data, roadway data, and the
design headwater. All data are important for the design of culvert.
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3.3.2. Waterway Data

The installation of a culvert to convey surface water through a highway
embankment significantly constricts the flood plain. To predict the consequences of
this alteration, accurate preconstruction waterway data must be collected. These data
include cross-sectional information, stream slope, the hydraulic resistance of the
stream channel and floodplain, any condition affecting the downstream water surface
elevation, and the storage capacity upstream of the culvert. Photographs of site
conditions are often beneficial.

3.3.2.1. Cross sections

Stream cross sectional data acquired from a field survey at the site are highly
desirable. At least three cross sections should be taken to establish the stream slope,
the culvert inlet, the culvert outlet, and the configuration of the natural channel as
shown in Figure 3.6. Sections should be taken: (1) about 30 m (100 ft) upstream from
the crossing, (2) at the centerline of the roadway, and (3) about 30 m (100 ft)
downstream from the crossing. The natural streambed width and side slopes, and the
floodplain width may be obtained from these cross-sections. The cross-sectional data
will also help to verify the accuracy of existing topographic maps. If significant
ponding is likely, additional sections may be necessary to determine the storage
capacity upstream of the culvert. Likewise, additional downstream sections may be
necessary to establish downstream water level (tailwater) conditions.

Channel

Cross
of Highway
Sections

Cross
Proposed Section
Culvert

Figure 3.6. Cross Section Locations [78Ano]

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3.3.2.3. Stream slope

The longitudinal slope of the existing channel in the vicinity of the proposed
culvert should be defined in order to properly position the culvert in vertical profile
and to define flow characteristics in the natural stream. Often, the proposed culvert is
positioned at the same longitudinal slope as the streambed. Cross sections will
provide streambed elevations at the deepest point of the stream. From these elevations
and the distances between the cross-sections the stream slope may be calculated.

3.3.2.4. Resistance
The hydraulic resistance coefficient of the natural channel must be evaluated
in order to calculate preproject flow conditions. This resistance coefficient is usually
taken to be the Manning’s n value. Various methods are available to evaluate
resistance coefficients for natural streams.

3.3.2.5. Tailwater
Culvert performance is likely to be affected by the downstream water surface
elevation or tailwater. Therefore, conditions which might promote high tailwater
elevations during flood events should be investigated. Downstream impoundments,
obstructions, channel constrictions, tidal effects, and junctions with other
watercourses should be investigated, based on field observations and maps, in order to
evaluate their impact on the resultant tailwater elevation. Lacking these conditions,
tailwater elevations should be based on water surface elevations in the natural
channel. These elevations can be accurately determined from water surface elevation
calculations or estimated using simplified approximations of water depth. For most
culvert installations, an approximation is sufficient [78Ano].

3.3.2.6. Upstream storage

The storage capacity available upstream from a culvert may have an impact
upon its design. Upstream storage capacity can be obtained from large scale contour
maps of the upstream area, but a 0.5 m (2-foot) contour interval map is desirable. If
such maps are not available, a number of cross sections should be obtained upstream
of the proposed culvert. These sections must be referenced horizontally as well as
vertically. The length of upstream channel to be cross-sectioned will depend on the
headwater expected and the stream slope. The cross sections can be used to develop
 26

contour maps or the cross sectional areas can be used to compute storage. The
topographic information should extend from the channel bed upward to an elevation
equal to at least the design headwater elevation in the area upstream of the culvert.

3.3.3. Roadway Data

The proposed or existing roadway affects the culvert cost, hydraulic capacity,
and alignment. Roadway profile and the roadway cross section information can be
obtained from preliminary roadway drawings or from standard details on roadway
sections. When the culvert must be sized prior to the development of preliminary
plans, a best estimate of the roadway section can be used, but the culvert design must
be checked after the roadway plans are completed.

3.3.3.1. Cross section

The roadway cross section normal to the centerline is typically available from
highway plans. However, the cross section needed by the culvert designer is the
section at the stream crossing. This section may be skewed with reference to the
roadway centerline. For a proposed culvert, the roadway plan, profile, and cross-
sectional data should be combined as necessary to obtain this desired section. A
schematic roadway plan and section with important elevations is shown in Figure 3.7.

Channel

Shoulder
Elevation Elevation
Pavement
Elevation
SE
Proposed Upstream
Culvert Invert

Section A.A

c of Highway

Figure 3.7. Roadway Cross Section and Culvert Length [78Ano]

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3.3.3.2. Culvert Length

Important dimensions and features of the culvert will become evident when
the desired roadway cross section is measured or established. The dimensions are
obtained by superimposing the estimated culvert barrel on the roadway cross section
and the streambed profile shown in Figure 3.7. This superposition establishes the inlet
and outlet invert elevations. These elevations and the resulting culvert length are
approximate since the final culvert barrel size must still be determined [78Ano].

3.3.4. Allowable Headwater

Energy is required to force flow through a culvert. This energy takes the form
of an increased water surface elevation on the upstream side of the culvert. The depth
of the upstream water surface measured from the invert at the culvert entrance is
generally referred to as headwater depth.
The headwater of a culvert is a function of several parameters, including the
culvert geometric configuration. The culvert geometric configuration is primarily
based on the allowable headwater. This geometric configuration consists of the
number of barrels, barrel dimensions, length, slope, entrance characteristics, and
barrel roughness characteristics.
Culvert headwater study should include verification that watershed divides are
higher than design headwater elevations. If the divides are not sufficiently high to
contain the headwater, culverts of lesser depths can be used. In flat terrain, watershed
divides are often undefined or nonexistent.

3.3.5. Outlet Velocity

Since a culvert usually constricts the available channel area, flow velocities in
the culvert are likely to be higher than in the channel. The culvert sometimes requires
energy dissipaters and velocity protection devices to avoid excessive scour at the
outlet. When a culvert is operating under inlet control and the culvert barrel is not
operating at capacity, it is often beneficial to flatten the barrel slope or add a
roughened section to reduce outlet velocities.
The two basic culvert design criteria are allowable headwater and allowable
velocity. Similar to the allowable headwater, the allowable outlet velocity is a design
criterion that is unique to each culvert site. Allowable headwater usually governs the
overall configuration of the culvert. However, the allowable outlet velocity is the
 28

governing criterion in the selection and application of various downstream fixtures

and appurtenances. The types and characteristics of soil can vary considerably from
site to site.

3.4. End Treatment

End treatments serve several different purposes but typically act as a retaining
wall to keep the roadway embankment material out of the culvert opening. Culverts
are commonly constructed with headwalls and wingwalls shown in Figure 3.8.
Headwall end treatments are very common structures standardized with
construction details and are economical and practical. Materials most commonly used
for headwalls and wingwalls are concrete, masonry (stone or rubble), and metal.
Headwalls maintain the fill and reduce erosion of the embankment slope. Headwalls
also provide structural protection to inlets and outlets. Wingwalls can be used to get
hydraulic advantage for box culverts by maintaining the approach velocity and
alignment, and improving the inlet edge configuration.

Wingwall wingwall

(b)

Headwall
Bevel

Box Culvert

Figure 3.8. End Treatment [87Wri]

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3.5. Culvert Flow

An exact theoretical analysis of culvert flow is extremely complex because the
flow is usually nonuniform with regions of both gradually varying and rapidly varying
flow. An exact analysis involves backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and
momentum balance, and application of the results of hydraulic model studies. The
various types of flow are classified and analyzed on the basis of control section. A
control section is a location where there is a unique relationship between the flow rate
and the upstream water surface elevation. Many different flow conditions exist over
time, but at a given time the flow is either governed by the inlet geometry (inlet
control); or by a combination of the culvert inlet configuration, the characteristics of
the barrel, and the tailwater (outlet control). Figure 3.9 shows one typical inlet control
flow condition.

HW
dc TW
W.S.
Control Section W.S.
HW - Headwater
TW - Tailwater
W.S. - Water Surface
dc - Critical Depth

Figure 3.9. Typical Inlet Control Flow Condition [78Ano]

3.5.1. Inlet Control

Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of conveying more flow
than the inlet will accept. Inlet control is possible when the culvert slope is
hydraulically steep (dc > dn). The control section of a culvert operating under inlet
control is located just inside the entrance. When free surface flow is in the barrel,
critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow regime immediately
downstream is supercritical. Depending on conditions downstream of the culvert inlet,
a hydraulic jump may occur in the culvert. Under inlet control, hydraulic
characteristics downstream of the inlet control section do not affect the culvert
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capacity. Upstream water surface elevation and inlet geometry are the major flow
controls. Inlet geometry includes barrel shape, cross-sectional area, and inlet edge.

3.5.2. Outlet Control

Outlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as
much flow as the inlet opening will accept. Outlet control is likely only when the
hydraulic grade line inside the culvert at the entrance exceeds critical depth.
Therefore, outlet control is most likely when the culvert is on a mild slope (dn > dc). It
is also possible to experience outlet control with a culvert on a steep slope (dn < dc)
and a high tailwater such that subcritical flow or full flow exists in the culvert. For
practical purposes, when a culvert is under outlet control, the headwater can be
adjusted by modifying culvert size, shape, and roughness. Figure 3.10 shows two
typical outlet control flow conditions.

Water Surface

H W.S.
HW
Control
TW Section
Downstream
A. Submerged

W.S.
HW H

B. Unsub-
HW - Headwater
merged TW - Tallwater dc (Control Section)
W.S. - Water Surface
H - Losses Through Culvert

Figure 3.10. Typical Outlet Control Flow Conditions [78Ano]

To determine the headwater, inlet control and outlet control are considered.
Table 3.1 provides summary conditions likely to control the culvert headwater.
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Table 3.1. Conditions likely to Control Culvert Headwater [78Ano]

Description Likely Condition
Hydraulically steep slope, backwater does not submerge
Inlet control
critical depth at inside of inlet
Hydraulically steep slope, backwater submerges
Outlet control
critical depth at inside of inlet
Hydraulically steep slope, backwater close to critical Oscillate between inlet
depth at inlet and outlet control.
Hydraulically mild slope Outlet control

3.6. Improved Inlet Culverts

An improved inlet may be economical if the culvert is operating under inlet
control. An improved inlet serves to funnel the flow into the culvert to remove the
point of control from the face of the inlet to a throat located downstream from the
face. The normal contraction of flow is included in the transition from the face to the
throat of the inlet. If the culvert is operating under outlet control, improved inlets are
not effective.

3.6.1. Side-tapered Inlets

Side-tapered inlets involve a widening of the face area of the culvert by
tapering the sidewalls. Such inlets have two possible control sections: the face and the
throat, Figure 3.11. Control maintains at the throat for the design discharge in order to
realize significant cost savings in the culvert barrel. This type of improvement is
similar in operation to the flared inlet for pipes.
Face Section

Throat
Section
Plan
Elevation

Figure 3.11. Side Tapered Inlet [87Wri]

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3.6.2. Slope-tapered Inlet

The slope-tapered inlet incorporates the efficient flow characteristics of side-
tapered inlets with a concentration of more of the total available culvert fall at the
throat control section. A slope-tapered inlet is shown in Figure 3.12. Generally, slope-
tapered improvements are not practical for pipe culverts because of their complexity.

Face Section
Throat Section

Figure 3.12. Slope Tapered Inlet [87Wri]

3.6.3. Beveled Inlet Edges

Beveled inlets edges can be useful in the circumstances of outlet control.
Beveled edges are commonly used with box culverts and headwall structures. They
effectively reduce the contraction downstream of the culvert face, resulting in a more
efficient conveyance of water by the available barrel area shown Figure 3.13.
Generally, gaining the hydraulic advantage of beveled edges requires little or no
enlargement of the culvert inlet. Thus, structural problems are minor.

0.083 D 1
0.042 D 1

D = Barrel Depth

Figure 3.13. Beveled Entrance [87Wri]

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3.7. Roadway Overtopping

Overtopping will begin when the headwater rises to the elevation of the
roadway shown in Figure 3.14. The overtopping will usually occur at the low point of
a sag vertical curve on the roadway. The flow will be similar to flow over a broad
crested weir.

HW

TW

Figure 3.14. Culvert with Overtopping Flow [78Ano]

3.8. Performance Curves

A performance curve is a plot of flow rate versus headwater depth or elevation
for a culvert. Because a culvert has several possible control sections (inlet, outlet,
throat), a given installation will have a performance curve for each control section and
one for roadway overtopping.
In addition to these individual performance curves, an overall culvert
performance curve can be constructed by the controlling portions of the individual
performance curves for inlet, outlet, and overtopping [04Lar].

3.9. Design Procedures of Culvert

The culvert design procedures for both the inlet and outlet control culverts
must consider some important factors (AASHTO, 1990) namely,
(1) Establishment of hydrology
(2) Assumption of a trial configuration
(3) Computation of inlet control headwater
(4) Computation of outlet control headwater at inlet
(5) Evaluation of the controlling headwater
(6) Computation of discharge over the roadway and then the total discharge
(7) Computation of outlet velocity and normal depth
(8) Comparison of headwater to limiting values [04Lar].
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3.9.1. Inlet Control Headwater

The inlet control headwater depth can be computed by the following equation.

M
K Q
for 
HWi Q 
 K  u 0.5  0.5 
≤ 3.5 (3.1)
D  AD   AD 

 Q 
2
HWi  Q  ≥4
 c 0.5 
 Y  0.5S 2 for  0.5 
(3.2)
D  AD   AD 
Where,
Q = Discharge (ft3/s)
A = Cross-sectional area of culvert barrel (ft2)
S = Stream slope (ft/ft)
HWi = Headwater depth above inlet invert (ft)
K, M,c,Y = Constants varied according to inlet edge condition
Ku = Constant for inlet control = 1

3.9.2. Outlet Control Headwater

The outlet control headwater depth can be computed by the following
equation.
HWo =H +ho-SoL (3.3)
Where,
HWo = Outlet control headwater depth above outlet invert (ft)
H = Total losses (ft)
 K u n 2L  v
2
H = 1  K e  1.33  (3.4)
 R  2g

Where,
Ke = Entrance loss coefficient
Ku = Constant for outlet control = 29
n = Manning ̍ roughness coefficient
L = Length of culvert barrel (ft)
R = Hydraulic radius of culvert barrel (ft)
A = Cross-sectional area of culvert barrel (ft2)
P = Perimeter of the barrel (ft)
 35

v = Velocity in the barrel (ft/s)

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 (ft/s2)
ho = Outlet depth
ho = (dc+D)/2(ft) (3.5)
S = Stream slope (ft/ft)

q2
dc = Critical depth(ft)= 3 (3.6)
g
q = Unit discharge
D = Culvert barrel depth (ft)
Once the inlet control headwater, HWi and the outlet control headwater, HWo
are computed, the controlling headwater is determined by comparing HWi and HWo,
if HWi > HWo , the culvert is inlet control;
if HWo>HWi , the culvert is outlet control.
Tailwater depth can be computed by using the following equation.
TW=HWo-H (3.7)
Where,
TW = Tailwater depth (ft)
HWo = Outlet control headwater depth above outlet invert (ft)
H = Total losses (ft)

3.9.3. Discharge of Roadway Overtopping

Roadway overtopping discharge can be computed by using the following
equation. The discharge coefficient for roadway overtopping is shown in Figure 3.15.
Qr = Cd L(HWr )1.5 (3.8)

Where,
Qr = Overtopping flow rate (ft3/s),
Cd = Overtopping discharge coefficient = k t Cr,
Cr = The discharge coefficient and
Kt = The submergence factor (TW is higher than allowable HW)
L = Length of roadway crest, (ft),
HWr = The upstream depth, measured above the roadway crest, (ft)
The depth over the roadway can be computed by the following.
HWr= HWc – hc (3.9)
 36

Where,
HWr = The depth over the roadway
HWc = Controlling headwater
hc = Design headwater depth
=shoulder elevation- stream bed elevation at culvert face

Cr

HWr(ft)

(a)

kt

Cr

HWr(ft)
ht/HWr
(b) (c)

Figure 3.15. Discharge Coefficient for Roadway Overtopping

(a) Discharge Coefficient for HWr/Lr > 0.15
(b) Discharge Coefficient for HWr/Lr ≤ 0.15
(c) Submergence Factor [04Lar]

3.9.4. Determination of Outlet Velocity and Normal Depth

Normal depth for the culvert can be obtained by trial and error of Manning's
equation.
A 2/3 1/2
Q  1.49 R S (3.10)
n
 37

Where,
Q = Discharge (ft3/s)
A = Cross sectional area of fluid in culvert
n = Manning ̍ roughness coefficient =0.012
R = Hydraulic radius
P = Wetted perimeter
S = Stream slope (ft/ft)
The outlet velocity can be computed by the following.
Q
Vo= (3.11)
Wd n
Where,
Q = Discharge (ft3/s)
W = Culvert width (ft)
dn = Normal depth (ft)
The downstream channel velocity can be determined by the following
equation.
Q
V= (3.12)
WTW
Where, Q = Discharge (ft3/s)
W = Culvert width (ft)
TW = Tailwater depth (ft)