Glacial-interglacial history of the Skaftafell region,

southeast Iceland, 0–5 Ma

Johann Helgason*
Ekra Geological Consulting, Thorsgata 24, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
Robert A. Duncan*
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-5503, USA

ABSTRACT
Volcanic strata in the Skaftafell region, southeast Iceland, record a sequence of at least
16 glacial and interglacial intervals since 5 Ma. Two composite sections of 2 to 2.8 km
thickness have been constructed from multiple, overlapping, cliff profiles. The timing of
alternating sequences of subaerial lava flows, pillow basalts, and hyaloclastite deposits is
provided by magnetostratigraphic mapping and K-Ar radiometric dating. We find that
the frequency and intensity of glaciations increased significantly at ca. 2.6 Ma, and par-
ticularly since 0.8 Ma, amplifying topographic relief in this area from ,100 m to ;2 km.
These changes correlate with increases in global ice volume, ice-rafted debris, and devel-
opment from local to regional glacial conditions in the North Atlantic.

Keywords: subglacial volcanism, K-Ar age dating, paleomagnetism, relief amplification, iden-
tification of glacial and interglacial periods, lithology of subglacially erupted volcanic strata.

INTRODUCTION
The Skaftafell region, located ;50 km east
of the neovolcanic eastern rift zone in south-
east Iceland, is almost totally surrounded by
the Vatnajökull glacier, except in the south,
where the Skeiarársandur forms a gently slop-
ing coastal plain (inset, Fig. 1). Outlet glaciers
have carved the volcanic strata in this area
into a spectacular series of ridges and valleys
that have national park designation. Frequent
alternations of subaerially erupted lavas, sub-
glacially erupted volcanic strata, and glaciof-
luvial sedimentary rocks provide a lithologic
basis for tracing the glacial and interglacial
history of southeast Iceland and climate vari-
ability in the North Atlantic region over the
past 5 m.y.
Iceland owes its construction to the coin-
cidence of a mantle hotspot with the Mid-At-
lantic spreading ridge. Crustal sections that
form in rift zones from fissure eruptions and
central volcanoes subside as they move later-
ally and are normally deeply buried by later
volcanism (Palmason, 1980, 1986; Helgason,
1984, 1985). Older crustal sections are then
exposed in eastern and western Iceland
through isostatic uplift in response to removal
of overlying volcanic material by erosion. By
comparison, the strata exposed in Skaftafell,
located outside the axial rift but nearly directly
above the hotspot, have subsided slightly.
Therefore, the Skaftafell strata provide a near-
ly continuous history of the competing pro-
cesses of constructive volcanism and destruc-
*E-mail: Helgason—jhelgason@simnet.is; Dun-
can—rduncan@oce.orst.edu.
tive erosion. In this paper, we present
lithologic and paleomagnetic data and K-Ar
radiometric ages for two composite strati-
graphic successions. Together these provide
complementary information on the growing
intensity of glaciations and increasing topo-
graphic relief in southeast Iceland since 4.7
Ma.
FIELD AREA
Lava formations in Skaftafell can typically
be traced for only a few hundred meters, as
opposed to much larger distances (up to 60
km) for the older Tertiary strata of eastern Ice-
land. Erosional unconformities are common,
and in the lower part of the region, stratigraph-
ic markers are rare. We adopted the basic field
classification for rocks in Iceland (Walker,
1963), in which rock strata are divided into
formations on the basis of lava cooling units;
certain intercalated units of sedimentary ori-
gin, because of their climatic importance, are
described as independent formations. The sub-
aerially erupted basalt lavas, as well as the
subglacially formed volcanic cooling units
were divided (on the basis of composition)
into (1) coarse-grained olivine tholeiites, (2)
fine-grained aphyric tholeiites, (3) plagioclase
porphyritic units, and (4) thicker, fine-grained,
aphyric basaltic andesites. The subglacial stra-
ta were further divided into units on the basis
of lithologic characteristics that graded up-
ward from lobes, pillows, pillow breccia, hy-
aloclastite breccia, and primary hyaloclastite,
to reworked hyaloclastite.
We used compositional and paleomagnetic
data and K-Ar radiometric ages to correlate 70
cliff profiles that were separated by erosional
hiatuses and abrupt changes in lithology over
relatively short distances, and to provide a
precise time scale for alternating glacial and
interglacial successions. We constructed two
composite stratigraphic successions, referred
to as the Skaftafell and Hafrafell sections (Fig.
1). The Skaftafell section, composed of 35 for-
mations, is 2.8 km thick, and the 1.9-km-thick
section from the Hafrafell is composed of 30
formations. We drilled over 1000 core samples
for paleomagnetic directions from a total of
248 volcanic units. To obtain the freshest ma-
terial for K-Ar dating, we collected block
samples from the massive, jointed interiors of
lava flows. We examined samples in thin sec-
tion to select 23 of the best-crystallized and
least-altered material for age determinations.
Additional selection criteria were stratigraphic
position, K content, and loss-on-ignition
measurements.1
RESULTS
Brunhes-age glacial erosion and subglacial
volcanism in the Skaftafell region account for
deep incisions of valleys as well as accumu-
lation of subglacially formed strata that have
been added intermittently to the valley walls
at various levels. Underneath these discontin-
uous young strata is an older and more con-
tinuous stratigraphic succession made up of
1GSA Data Repository item 200120, Data on pa-
leomagnetic properties, K-Ar age, and stratigraphic
formations, is available on request from Documents
Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO
80301-9140, editing@geosociety.org, or www.
geosociety.org/pubs/ft2001.htm.

q 2001 Geological Society of America. For permission to copy, contact Copyright Clearance Center at www.copyright.com or (978) 750-8400.
Geology; February 2001; v. 29; no. 2; p. 179–182; 2 figures; Data Repository item 200120. 179
Figure 1. Skaftafell and Haf-
rafell volcano-stratigraphic
successions were compiled
from rock compositions,
lithologic characteristics,
magnetic polarities, and K-
Ar age determinations from
71 individual profiles. Inset
shows location of Skaftafell
study area.

subaerial lavas and subglacial volcanic strata
and sedimentary rocks, dating back into the
Tertiary. The lithologic diversity in the region
provides a high degree of stratigraphic reso-
lution despite erosional hiatuses of varying
intensity.
We present paleomagnetic correlations and
K-Ar age determinations from the two volca-
nic sections in Figure 1. In general, measured
ages conform with stratigraphic position, and
closely spaced samples produced concordant
ages. Abrupt age steps usually confirm ero-
sional hiatuses recognized in the field. Rocks
from the Skaftafell region are somewhat more
alkalic than the average Iceland axial-rift tho-
leiitic basalt (Prestvik, 1985), and higher K
contents have produced relatively high pro-
portions of radiogenic 40Ar and precise ages
(2%–5% uncertainty for samples older than 1
Ma). For low-K or very young samples, ana-
lytical uncertainties are larger. Concentrations
of 36Ar in all samples were low, however, in-
dicating that addition of atmospheric Ar dur-
ing alteration has not been a significant prob-
lem in the samples selected for dating.
Although there is evidence from the lower-
most units for shallow burial (chabazite to me-
solite zeolite zones), the ages determined here
appear to provide reliable estimates of the
time of crystallization—a conclusion reached
for much older, but carefully selected samples
from zeolite-grade Icelandic lava flows (Mc-
Dougall et al., 1976).
DISCUSSION
Recognition of Glacial and Interglacial
Conditions
The stratigraphic formations (Fig. 1) are
identifiable as either glacial or interglacial in-

180 GEOLOGY, February 2001

tervals. A glacial interval is defined as a pe-
riod when the region was covered with thick
ice under which volcanism built up discontin-
uous pillow-basalt ridges. Thus, subaqueously
formed volcanic rocks, composed mainly of
pillow basalt, hyaloclastic sedimentary rocks,
and breccias, are the main indicators of glacial
intervals. By contrast, interglacial intervals
are periods in which more continuous, sub-
aerial lava flows and thin volcaniclastic sedi-
mentary beds alone make up the volcanic sec-
tion. The two composite sections extend over
a lateral distance of 20 km in a direction
roughly perpendicular to strike and are cor-
relatable for the period of ca. 4 to 0.8 Ma.
Our correlations suggest that three glacial
intervals in Hafrafell (G7, G8, and G9) are not
seen in Skaftafell. Likewise, five glacial inter-
vals in Skaftafell (G3, G4, G5, G10, and G11)
are not found in Hafrafell. However, eight gla-
cial intervals occur in both sections. Thus, 16
intervals are recorded in one or both sections.
An additional interval in Skaftafell is possibly
of glacial origin—i.e., G0, at the base of the
section between units VG2 and VG1, dated at
4.6 to 4.7 Ma. Strata representing the interval
of 3 to 2.4 Ma are missing, presumably
through erosion, from the Hafrafell section. In
Skaftafell this interval includes glacial inter-
vals G3 to G5. Although the same number of
glacial intervals occurs in both of the com-
posite sections for certain periods, the exact
correlation between individual glacial inter-
vals has so far not been completed. If one or
more of these intervals occurred in only one
of these sections, then the total number of in-
tervals recorded would be increased.
An important advance of this study is direct
radiometric dating of subglacial strata, in ad-
dition to subaerial lava flows that bracket gla-
cial intervals. Examples are glacial intervals
G3 at 2.82 (60.04) Ma and G5 at 2.52
(60.10) Ma. The more numerous age deter-
minations of subaerial lavas in this study pro-
vide tighter limits on the timing of interglacial
periods. With increasing stratigraphic height,
individual formations are more limited in lat-
eral extent, and greater variability exists in
thickness between time horizons, determined
from paleomagnetic boundaries and radiomet-
ric ages.
Growth of Local Topographic Relief
The regional topography of Iceland is a
broad shield, rising from sea level to ;700 m
along the central rift axis. Maximum elevation
is displaced to the southeast, in the vicinity of
the hotspot. From examination of the volcanic
record preserved in the Skaftafell area, we ob-
serve that local topographic relief has been su-
perimposed on the regional pattern largely as
a result of glacial conditions developing over
the past 5 m.y. As illustrated in Figure 2, we
GEOLOGY, February 2001
Figure 2. Local topographic relief at Skafta-
fell has been amplified since 5 Ma as sub-
glacially erupted ridges and deepening val-
leys developed under thickening ice.
conclude that local topographic relief was less
than ;100 m until 3 Ma, was probably less
than 600 m during the period from 3 until 0.8
Ma, but is now up to 2000 m.
Accumulation of snow from year to year to
form glaciers depends on many factors, but
most important are regional temperature, pre-
cipitation, and local elevation. It is unlikely
that the low local relief in the Skaftafell area
prior to ca. 0.8 Ma could have sustained gla-
ciers through interglacial intervals such as the
present, given that local glaciers today survive
only at elevations above ;1000 m. The recent
and drastic relief changes in Skaftafell have
thus elevated the region to an altitude where
temperature and precipitation favor glacier
formation.
There remains some uncertainty as to when
the deep valleys in the region formed. We see
no evidence for valleys exceeding 1 km depth
in the Skaftafell region until quite recently
(since 0.8 Ma). This finding suggests that lo-
cal glaciers, comparable to the present glaciers
in Iceland, may not have survived through in-
terglacial intervals until Brunhes time. We
link the growing local topographic relief to in-
tensification of glaciations (i.e., increasing ice
thickness) over the past 5 m.y. as follows.
Preglacial Period (Before 4 Ma, ,10 m
Local Relief). No evidence for bedrock ero-
sion is observed in the lowest sedimentary ho-
rizon in Skaftafell (stage I-1), dated at ca. 4.6
Ma. Erosion associated with the oldest glacial
horizon (G-1), dated both in Skaftafell and
Hafrafell at ca. 4 Ma, is expressed by striated
surfaces on the underlying lava flow. During
this stage, lavas accumulated with rare sedi-
mentary interbeds, and we see no example of
lavas thinning out because of erosion.
Early Landscape-Forming Period (4 to 3
Ma, 100 m Local Relief). In the 3.2 to 3.5
Ma part of the Hafrafell section, for example,
we observe, in cliff profiles only 500 m apart,
that a 40-m-thick formation of interglacial la-
vas has been removed by erosion from the first
but not the second and a 90-m-thick lava for-
mation is present in the second but not the
first. There is evidence in some outcrops for
minor subglacial volcanic activity.
Main Landscape-Forming Period (3 to
0.8 Ma, 400 to 600 m Local Relief). The old-
est subglacial volcanic ridge of significant
positive relief (200 m) found in the area is
dated at 2.8 Ma (G3), but younger ridges from
this period are up to 400 m in height. Such
topographic highs have probably led to chan-
neling of ice since ca. 3 Ma and thus to deep-
ening of the valleys through glacial erosion of
the underlying lava flows. An example of this
is in Jokulfell (5 km west of Skaftafell) where
a 140 m thickness of volcanic section has been
removed. From stratigraphic relationships, it
is clear that this erosion took place prior to
2.5 Ma but after 3.35 Ma. The combination of
positive relief produced by subglacially
formed volcanic ridges (up to ;400 m) and
negative relief caused by deepening valleys
(100 to 200 m) led to a total local relief of as
much as 600 m during this period.
Present Period (Since 0.8 Ma, 2000 m Re-
lief). At some point, the main ice flow from the
highland ice sheet eroded deep and wide val-
leys that could no longer be refilled by volcanic
activity during interglacial stages. These val-
leys thus became permanent channels for ice
flow during successive glacial intervals. They
became progressively deeper and wider, as in-
dicated by a cap of Brunhes-age volcanic strata
extending sporadically from valley floors to
ridge crests of the Skaftafell region. Hence, the
record of glacial and interglacial intervals is far
less complete than for earlier times. Precise dat-
ing of the onset of this period is not possible
with the present data, but it cannot be older
181
than about 1 Ma. It is most likely that there
was a progressive increase in relief throughout
the Brunhes chron. The present difference in
height from the top of the volcanic section to
the valley floor in Skaftafell and Hafrafell is
1800 m and 1200 m, respectively. The corre-
sponding relief for the Öræfajökull area, 15 km
to the east and the highest elevation in Iceland,
is at least 2000 m.
Skaftafell in Relation to the Ice Sheet and
Volcanic Centers
In Borgarfjordur of western Iceland, Mc-
Dougall et al. (1977) studied volcanic strata
of similar age to that of the Skaftafell sections,
and observed a complete magnetic polarity re-
cord for this period (i.e., no major erosional
hiatuses). They did not, however, find subgla-
cially formed volcanic material comparable to
the accumulations we observe in the Skaftafell
region. They reported only seven glacial in-
tervals and made no note of subglacially
formed volcanic ridges. The explanation for
the lithologic differences between these re-
gions appears to be that the Skaftafell area
has, since 2.8 Ma, been more elevated and
much closer to the center of the ice sheet that
formed during glacial intervals and thus has
developed a much greater local topographic
relief. Another consideration is that the strata
in western Iceland probably subsided at a fast-
er rate within an accreting axial rift zone, so
that any subglacially formed volcanic ridges
might now be buried below sea level.
Our results conform with the initiation of
continental glacial conditions in other parts of
the Northern Hemisphere by 2.8 Ma, followed
by a second amplification at ca. 0.8 Ma (e.g.,
Pisias and Moore, 1979; Clark et al., 1999).
In response to periods of thick ice cover, local
topographic relief increased dramatically after
0.8 Ma, from less than 600 m to at least 2000
m, but how fast this increase happened is still
unresolved. We suggest that up until ca. 2.8
Ma the Iceland shield reached maximum ele-
vations of ;700 m, the current elevation of
the rift axis nearest the hotspot, and glacier
ice did not survive through interglacial inter-
vals except perhaps on local stratovolcanoes.
Cooler temperatures then allowed the buildup
of sufficiently thick ice that subglacial volca-
nic ridges began to form and increased the lo-
cal topographic relief enough to sustain small
glaciers through interglacial intervals. These
higher elevations survived in Skaftafell be-
cause the region does not subside as fast as
crust created at the axial rifts. The formation
of subglacial volcanic ridges and valley deep-
ening continued to amplify local topographic
relief through Brunhes time and caused south-
east Iceland to be partly covered with a thick
ice sheet (Vatnajökull) during recent intergla-
cial intervals (i.e., since 0.8 Ma).
182
Skaftafell in a Regional and Global
Context
Eiriksson et al. (1990), Eiriksson and Geirs-
dottir (1991), and Geirsdottir and Eiriksson
(1994) have investigated the temporal and re-
gional distribution of evidence for glaciations
in Iceland back to ca. 9 Ma. They concluded
that well over 20 glacial intervals have oc-
curred in this period. Because these events have
been dated by interpolation between magnetic
polarity boundaries only, their timing is uncer-
tain, as is the correlation between studied sec-
tions and the significance of possible erosional
hiatuses. Hence, an increase in glacial activity
since ca. 3 Ma is apparent, but quantification
of discrete events (such as timing and distri-
bution) was not possible from their data. Geirs-
dottir and Eiriksson (1994) proposed that the
Skaftafell area has been covered with ice since
late Miocene time, but our evidence shows per-
manent ice only in Brunhes time.
Evidence for the onset and intensification of
Northern Hemisphere glaciations since Late
Pliocene time has come from variations in
d18O recorded in benthic foraminifers (e.g.,
Mix et al., 1995), which represent continental
ice-volume changes. The gradual increase to
more positive d18O after ca. 3.5 Ma reflects
slow global ice buildup, whereas the larger-
amplitude changes beginning ca. 1 Ma indi-
cate swings from glacial to interglacial con-
ditions. Studies of ice-rafted debris found in
deep-sea drilling cores from the North Atlan-
tic (Jansen et al., 1990; Jansen and Skoholm,
1991) provide additional evidence that inter-
mittent sea ice existed from ca. 6–7 Ma along
the Norwegian and East Greenland margins
(Larsen et al., 1994). However, significant in-
creases in ice-rafted debris at 2.6 Ma probably
indicate the onset of true continental glacia-
tions. The growth of topographic relief in
southeast Iceland beginning at 2.5 to 3 Ma and
intensification at about 0.8 Ma is consistent
with this glacial history for the North Atlantic.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Helgason was supported by the Icelandic Science
Fund and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
(Germany). Duncan was supported by the National
Science Foundation (USA) and a travel grant from
the Oregon State University Research Foundation.
We thank Leo Kristjansson for generous use of his
paleomagnetic laboratory; the late Ragnar Stefans-
son and his family at Skaftafell and later Freysnes
for their invaluable assistance and hospitality; and
John T. Andrews and Nicholas Eyles for construc-
tive reviews.
REFERENCES CITED
Clark, P.U., Alley, R.B., and Pollard, D., 1999,
Northern Hemisphere ice-sheet influences on
global climate change: Science, v. 286,
p. 1104–1111.
Eiriksson, J., and Geirsdottir, A., 1991, A record of
Pliocene and Pleistocene glaciations and cli-
matic change in the North Atlantic based on
variations in volcanic sedimentary facies in
Iceland: Marine Geology, v. 101, p. 147–159.
Eiriksson, J., Gudmundsson, A.I., Kristjansson, L.,
and Gunnarsson, K., 1990, Palaeomagnetism
of Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments and lava
flows on Tjornes and Flatey, North Iceland:
Boreas, v. 19, p. 39–55.
Geirsdottir, A., and Eiriksson, J., 1994, Growth of
an intermittent ice sheet in Iceland during the
late Pliocene and early Pleistocene: Quater-
nary Research, v. 42, p. 115–130.
Helgason, J., 1984, Frequent shifts of the volcanic
zone in Iceland: Geology, v. 12, p. 212–216.
Helgason, J., 1985, Shifts of the plate boundary in
Iceland: Some aspects of Tertiary volcanism:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 90,
p. 10,084–10,092.
Jansen, E., and Skoholm, J., 1991, Reconstruction
of glaciation over the past 6 Myr from ice-
borne deposits in the Norwegian Sea: Nature,
v. 349, p. 600–603.
Jansen, E., Skoholm, J., Bleil, U., and Erichsen, A.,
1990, Neogene and Pleistocene glaciations in
the Northern Hemisphere and late Miocene-
Pliocene global ice volume fluctuations: Evi-
dence from the Norwegian Sea, in Bleil, U.,
and Thiede, J., eds., Geological history of the
polar oceans: Arctic versus Antarctic: London,
Kluwer, p. 677–705.
Larsen, H.C., Saunders, A.D., Clift, P., Beget, J.,
Wei, W., Spezzaferri, S., and Scientific and
Shipboard Party, Ocean Drilling Project Leg
152, 1994, Seven million years of glaciation
in Greenland: Science, v. 264, p. 952–955.
McDougall, I., Watkins, N.D., Walker, G.P.L., and
Kristjansson, L., 1976, Potassium-argon and pa-
leomagnetic analysis of Icelandic lava flows:
Limits on the age of Anomaly 5: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 81, p. 1505–1512.
McDougall, I., Saemundsson, K., Johannesson, H.,
Watkins, N.D., and Kristjansson, L., 1977, Ex-
tension of the geomagnetic polarity time scale
to 6.5 m.y.: K-Ar dating, geological and pa-
leomagnetic study of a 3,500-m lava succes-
sion in western Iceland: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 1–15.
Mix, A.C., Pisias, N.G., Rugh, W., Wilson, J., Mor-
ey, A., and Hagelberg, T.K., 1995, Benthic
foraminifer stable isotope record from Site
849 (0–5 Ma): Local and global climate
changes, in Pisias, N.G., et al., Proceedings of
the Ocean Drilling Project, Scientific Results,
Volume 138: College Station, Texas, Ocean
Drilling Program, p. 371–412.
Palmason, G., 1980, A continuum model of crustal
generation in Iceland: Kinematic aspects:
Journal of Geophysics, v. 47, p. 7–18.
Palmason, G., 1986, Model of crustal formation in
Iceland, and application to submarine mid-
ocean ridges, in Vogt, P.R., and Tucholke,
B.E., eds., The western Atlantic region: Boul-
der, Colorado, Geological Society of America,
Geology of North America, v. M, p. 87–97.
Pisias, N.G., and Moore, T.C., Jr., 1979, The evo-
lution of Pleistocene climate: A time series ap-
proach: Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
v. 52, p. 450–458.
Prestvik, T., 1985, Petrology of Quaternary volcanic
rocks from Oraefi, southeast Iceland: Trond-
heim, Norway, Geologisk Institutt, Norges
Tekniske Hojskole, Report 21, 81 p.
Walker, G.P.L., 1963, The Breiddalur central vol-
cano, eastern Iceland: Quaternary Journal of
the Geological Society of London, v. 119,
p. 29–63.
Manuscript received August 2, 2000
Revised manuscript received November 6, 2000
Manuscript accepted November 7, 2000
Printed in USA
GEOLOGY, February 2001