Project No.

: 67/1903/18
2017-2018

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the

ENGINEERING DEGREE FROM THE LEBANESE UNIVERSITY

BRANCH I
Major : Mechanical Engineering

By:

Al ATTAR Sufyan

________________________________________________

TRAFFICAR
Supervisors:
Dr. DIB Rabih
Dr. KARAMI Nabil
Defended on July 31, 2018 in front of the jury:

Dr. HALLAK Adel President

Dr. BERNARD Mouafac Member
Dr. HUSSEIN Hussein Member
Dedication
This book is dedicated to the greatest person on earth, my mother, my words will never be
sufficient to express my sincere gratitude and love for her. The only thing I can say is that may
Allah help me to become the person she always wanted me to be.
This book is also dedicated for lady Ahlam NASSER. A great person with a great heart who
helped me and supported my family in our darkest hours. I wouldn't be who I am today without
her. I thank her also for giving birth to my favorite human, my darling Z Fatima cheick, who has
been the greatest friend anyone could ask for. I wish her all the happiness in the world and the
peace of mind.
To my beloved sisters Sarah and Reem who always believed in me and encouraged me; and to my
backbone, my brother Kareem, ahead of whom I see a very bright future.
And finally to my friends and colleagues; Infinite love for them

i
Acknowledgements
Firstly, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. DIB Rabih, for the continuous
support, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped us in all
the time of preparing this project. Thank you for pushing us to always aim higher and for lifting
our confidence and self-esteem while emphasizing the respect of values and morals. Also, we
would like to thank Dr. KARAMI Nabil for his insightful comments and advices, for his
unconditioned and unlimited help and support and for the continuous encouragement
throughout each step of this project. And finally, we would like to take this opportunity to
express gratitude to all of our professors and colleagues for their support during these past five
years to help us become better persons and better engineers.

ii
Abstract
In this book we discussed the bad consequences associated with the Traffic. A problem
most cities and capital have, we focused the most on the ecological side. Beside the
conventional solution for traffic like public transport, new infrastructures (tunnels, bridges); we
introduced here TRAFFICAR, a new solution that may significantly reduce the emissions due
to the congestion. TRAFFICAR is an electric system inspired from the modern hybrid vehicles;
TRAFFICAR replaces the Internal Combustion Engine in the traffic, by letting an electric motor
move the car up to speed 30 Km /h. the type of motor is BLDC in-hub wheel motor that can be
fitted in the rim of the wheel, thus a very few modifications are needed on the car and it makes
TRAFFICAR more accessible, practical, suitable on most cars. The battery that powers the
motors is recharged by regenerative braking technology and the alternator of the car.
The supplier of the motors is QS motors – china; the controller is Kelly controller- china;
the battery; the boost converter and the control unit are supplied and made by Dr. Nabil
KARAMI workshop. TRAFFICAR costs around 2500$.
A typical citizen with a 2.0L engine spending an hour every day in Beirut road save x
kg emissions and y $ money. Every kilogram of co2 emitted melt 15 kg of ice in the poles.
Keywords: Trafficar, hybrid, electric, emissions, traffic, green Car.

Resumé
Dans ce livre, nous avons discuté des mauvaises conséquences associées au trafic. Un problème
que la plupart des villes et des capitaux ont, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le côté
écologique. Outre la solution conventionnelle pour le trafic comme les transports publics, les
nouvelles infrastructures (tunnels, ponts); Nous avons introduit ici TRAFFICAR, une nouvelle
solution qui peut réduire considérablement les émissions dues à la congestion. TRAFFICAR
est un système électrique inspiré des véhicules hybrides modernes; TRAFFICAR remplace le
moteur à combustion interne dans la circulation en laissant un moteur électrique faire avancer
la voiture à 30 km / h. le type de moteur est le ‘in hub wheel BLDC motor’ qui peut être monté
dans la jante de la roue, donc très peu de modifications sont nécessaires sur la voiture et rend
TRAFFICAR plus accessible, pratique et adapté à la plupart des voitures. La batterie qui
alimente les moteurs est rechargée par la technologie de freinage régénératif et l’alternateur de
la voiture.
Le fournisseur des moteurs est QS motors - Chine; le contrôleur est le contrôleur Kelly- Chine;
la batterie; le convertisseur élévateur et l'unité de contrôle sont fournis et fabriqués par l'atelier
Dr. Nabil KARAMI. TRAFFICAR coûte environ 2500 $.
Un citoyen avec une voiture de moteur de 2,0 litres qui passe une heure chaque jour sur la
route de Beyrouth économise x kg d'émissions et y $ d'argent. Chaque kilogramme de co2 émis
fait fondre 15 kg de glace dans les poteaux.

iii
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii
List of figures .............................................................................................................................x
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ xii
List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xiii
List of Symbols ........................................................................................................................xv
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1: Urban cycle in Lebanon ........................................................................................2
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Road Traffic in Lebanon .................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 on the ecological side ................................................................................................ 2
Air Pollutants Emissions: CO, NMVOCs, SO2, NOx ................................................... 2
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO2, CH4, N2O ............................................................... 4
1.2 Trends in Lebanon’s Emissions for The Transport Sector: 1994-2011 ........................... 5
1.3 The consequences of traffic on the economic .................................................................. 7
1.4 The consequences of traffic on the environment ............................................................. 7
1.5 The consequences of the traffic on human health ............................................................ 8
1.6 Example............................................................................................................................ 8
1.6.1 Measurement site ...................................................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Sensors ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Results and discussion .............................................................................................. 9
1.6.4 Traffic........................................................................................................................ 9
1.6.5 Average emission factors for each vehicle type classified by fuel type and the traffic
situations “fluid” and stop-and-go (“s-a-g”) ...................................................................... 9
1.7 Urban cycle in Lebanon ................................................................................................. 10
1.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2: Types of drivetrain structure for hybrid vehicles ............................................12
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Series hybrid .................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Weaknesses of series hybrid vehicles ..................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Advantages of series hybrid vehicles ...................................................................... 13
2.3 Parallel hybrid ................................................................................................................ 14

iv
 2.3.1 Operation modes ..................................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 Some typical modes for a parallel hybrid configuration ......................................... 15
2.3.3 Weaknesses of parallel hybrid vehicles .................................................................. 16
2.3.4 Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles ................................................................... 16
2.3.5 Exemples of PHEV ................................................................................................. 16
2.4 Combined hybrid ............................................................................................................ 16
2.4.1 Simplified structure of a combined hybrid electric vehicle .................................... 17
2.4.2 Weaknesses of combined hybrid vehicles............................................................... 18
2.4.4 Advantages of combined hybrid vehicles ............................................................... 18
2.4.5 Example of CHEV .................................................................................................. 18
2.5 Types by degree of hybridization ................................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Strong hybrid (= full hybrid) ................................................................................... 19
Examples ...................................................................................................................... 19
2.5.2 Medium hybrid (motor assist hybrid) ..................................................................... 19
Examples ...................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.3 Mild hybrid / micro hybrid (=start/stop systems with energy recuperation) .......... 20
Examples ...................................................................................................................... 21
2.5.4 Plug-in hybrid (grid connected hybrid / vehicle to grid V2G) ................................ 21
2.5.5 Fuel Cell EV ............................................................................................................ 22
Definition ..................................................................................................................... 22
Principle of operation ................................................................................................... 22
Examples ...................................................................................................................... 22
2.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 3: The Main Parts of the Electric System ..............................................................23
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 The electric motor .......................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2 The induction motors .............................................................................................. 23
Construction ................................................................................................................. 23
Operation ...................................................................................................................... 24
Performance and efficiency.......................................................................................... 24
Cost .............................................................................................................................. 24

v
 Examples of induction motors in HEV/Electric cars ................................................... 24
3.2.3 The PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor) ............................................. 24
Construction ................................................................................................................. 24
Operation ...................................................................................................................... 25
Performance and efficiency.......................................................................................... 25
Cost .............................................................................................................................. 26
Examples in HEV/Electric cars .................................................................................... 26
3.2.5 The BLDC motors ................................................................................................... 26
Construction ................................................................................................................. 26
Operation ...................................................................................................................... 27
Performance and efficiency.......................................................................................... 30
Examples in HEV/Electric cars .................................................................................... 30
3.2.6 The in hub wheel motor .......................................................................................... 30
Technology Functionality ............................................................................................ 30
Technology Configuration ........................................................................................... 31
3.2.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 33
3.3 The Inverter / Converter ................................................................................................. 33
3.3.1 DC-3AC inverters ................................................................................................... 33
3.3.2 DC-DC converters ................................................................................................... 33
3.4 The battery ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 34
3.4.2 Basic Terms of Battery Performance and Characterization .......................... 34
3.4.3 Battery Charging Methods and EV Charging Schemes .......................................... 36
3.4.4 Methods used to stop a charging process ................................................................ 37
3.4.5 Performance Comparison between NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries in PHEV ............. 38
3.4.6 EV Battery life ........................................................................................................ 40
3.4.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 41
3.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 4: vehicle power requirements and battery dimensioning. ..................................42
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 42
4.2 Power/ Torque required.................................................................................................. 42
Torque required ................................................................................................................ 43

vi
 4.3 Case study: Renault Megane II ...................................................................................... 43
4.3.1 Specifications .......................................................................................................... 43
Chassis ......................................................................................................................... 43
Engine .......................................................................................................................... 44
4.3.2 Assumptions ............................................................................................................ 44
4.4 Results ............................................................................................................................ 45
4.4.1 Force required ......................................................................................................... 45
4.4.2 Torque required ....................................................................................................... 45
4.4.3 Power required ........................................................................................................ 45
4.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 5: Regenerative braking ..........................................................................................46
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Energy Consumption in Braking.................................................................................... 46
5.3 Braking Power and Energy on Front and Rear Wheels ................................................. 47
5.4Types of powertrain used in regenerative braking .......................................................... 47
5.4.1 Serial regenerative braking ..................................................................................... 47
5.4.2 Parallel regenerative braking................................................................................... 47
5.5 Implementation of serial braking strategy...................................................................... 48
5.6 Implementation of parallel braking strategy .................................................................. 48
5.7 TRAFFICAR regenerative braking strategy .................................................................. 51
5.7.1 Definition ................................................................................................................ 51
TRAFFICAR regenerative braking strategy operation ................................................ 52
5.8 Energy balance ............................................................................................................... 52
5.8.1 Regenerative ratio ................................................................................................... 52
5.9 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 6: The Hybrid system architecture and ECU classification .................................54
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 54
6.2 Classification of Hybrid ECU ........................................................................................ 54
6.2.1 Rule based ............................................................................................................... 54
Deterministic Control ................................................................................................... 54
Fuzzy based .................................................................................................................. 54
6.2.2 Optimization based.................................................................................................. 54

vii
 Global Optimization ..................................................................................................... 54
Real time Optimization ................................................................................................ 54
6.3 Basic Principles of Rule Based Control Methods ...................................................... 55
6.3.1 Definition ................................................................................................................ 55
6.3.2 Deterministic Rule Based Strategies ....................................................................... 55
Power follower control ................................................................................................. 55
Modified power follower ............................................................................................. 56
State Machine Based .................................................................................................... 58
6.3.3 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System ................................................................. 59
Definition ..................................................................................................................... 59
Fuzzy Strategy.............................................................................................................. 59
Implementation of Fuzzy Logic ................................................................................... 61
Rule Base for Fuzzy Logic ........................................................................................... 62
Procedures and Results of Fuzzy Logic ....................................................................... 62
6.4 Our project hybrid system architecture .......................................................................... 63
6.4.1 The Hybrid Electronic Control ............................................................................... 64
Conditions required to detect a traffic scenario ........................................................... 64
What happen when a traffic scenario is detected ......................................................... 64
Conditions required to detect the end of traffic ........................................................... 64
Conditions required to activate Regenerative braking ................................................. 64
Emergency battery charging scenario .......................................................................... 64
Common modification on the petrol car (ignition) ...................................................... 64
The detection of signals ............................................................................................... 64
Flowchart of the electric system operation .................................................................. 66
Flowchart of the emergency alternator charging operation ......................................... 67
Block diagram of TRAFFICAR electronic control unit .............................................. 67
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter 7: TRAFFICAR parts suppliers and its costs .......................................................69
7.1 Electric motor ................................................................................................................. 69
7.1.1 Motor reference/ name/ description ........................................................................ 69
7.1.2 Motor Specification................................................................................................. 69
7.1.3 In hub wheel motor images ..................................................................................... 70

viii
 7.1.4 Motor drawing......................................................................................................... 71
7.1.5 Motor characteristic graph/ test ............................................................................... 71
7.2 BLDC motor controller .................................................................................................. 72
7.2.1 Controller reference /name ...................................................................................... 72
7.2.2 Controller specifications ......................................................................................... 72
7.2.3 Controller description.............................................................................................. 72
General functions ......................................................................................................... 72
Features ........................................................................................................................ 73
7.2.4 Controller image...................................................................................................... 74
7.3 battery............................................................................................................................. 74
7.3.1 Specifications and details ........................................................................................ 74
7.3.2 Product image.......................................................................................................... 75
7.4 Brakes disc/ actuator ...................................................................................................... 75
7.4.1 Product name........................................................................................................... 75
7.4.2 Brakes specifications............................................................................................... 75
7.4.3 Product image.......................................................................................................... 76
7.4.4 Installation scheme ...................................................................................................... 77
7.5 Cost of the project .......................................................................................................... 77
7.6 The total weight of all parts ....................................................................................... 77
7.7 Rate of return of TRAFFICAR ...................................................................................... 78
7.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 78
7.7.2 Calculation Procedure ............................................................................................. 78
7.7.3 Result and conclusion ............................................................................................. 79
Conclusion................................................................................................................................80
References: ...............................................................................................................................81

ix
List of figures
Figure 1.1 Contribution of the different vehicle categories to the indirect GHG pollutants for
2010 ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Figure 1.2 Evolution of NOx, CO, NMVOCs and SO2 from 2005 to 2011 .............................. 5
Figure 1. 3 Variation in % of the emissions for the road transport sector of CO2, CH4, and N2O
relative to the 1994 level ............................................................................................................ 6
Figure 1.4 Speed-acceleration frequency distribution in GBA ................................................ 11
Figure 2.1 series hybrid configuration ..................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.2 parallel hybrid configuration .................................................................................. 14
Figure 2.3 operation modes the parallel configuration ............................................................ 15
Figure 2.4 combined hybrid configuration............................................................................... 17
Figure 2.5 Combined hybrid drive modes ............................................................................... 18
Figure 2.6 Types by degree of hybridization and Overview of Hybrid-powertrain concepts . 19
Figure 2.7 Powertrain of a mild HEV ...................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.1 Exploded view of induction motor by general motors ........................................... 23
Figure 3.2 Torque vs RPM for indcution motors .................................................................... 24
Figure 3.3 Power vs RPM for induction motors ...................................................................... 24
Figure 3.4 exploded view of PMSM ........................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.5 Torque and Power vs RPM for PMSM .................................................................. 26
Figure 3.6 Exploded view of BLDC motor .............................................................................. 27
Figure 3.7 BLDC Motor operation .......................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.8 Electric Driver circuit of BLDC motor ................................................................... 28
Figure 3.9 BLDC motor transverse section with Hall sensors control .................................... 29

x
Figure 3.10 Variable reluctance sensor operation in BLDC motor control ............................. 29
Figure 3.11 basic spring mass system accelerometer operation in BLDC control .................. 29
Figure 3.12 BLDC motor efficiency map ................................................................................ 30
Figure 3.13 Comparison between a conventional and an in hub wheel motor hybrid
configuration ............................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.14 Difference in left and right torque when cornering using in hub wheel motor instead
of mechanical differential ........................................................................................................ 32
Figure 3.15 Exploded View of In-hub wheel motor ................................................................ 32
Figure 3.16 Configuration of Electric Vehicle ......................................................................... 33
Figure 3.17 Typical Li-ion cell charge profile ......................................................................... 37
Figure 3.18 Solid electrolyte interface (SEI) ........................................................................... 40
Figure 3.19 Cycle Life versus Depth of Discharge curve ........................................................ 41
Figure 4.1 Forces applied on a vehicle..................................................................................... 43
Figure 5.1 Coasting time, Speed and Distance ........................................................................ 46
Figure 5.2 Parallel (left) and serial regenerative (right) braking control respectively ............. 47
Figure 5.3 flowchart of serial regeneration operation .............................................................. 49
Figure 5.4 Flowchart of parallel regeneration braking operation ............................................ 50
Figure 5.5 Trafficar regenerative braking strategy operation .................................................. 52
Figure 6.1 efficiency map of ICE ............................................................................................. 55
Figure 6.2 efficiency map of ICE showing upper and lower boundaries for EM operation .... 55
Figure 6.3 Efficiency map for hot ICE .................................................................................... 57
Figure 6.4 Flow chart for modified power follower controller strategy .................................. 58
Figure 6.5 Drive train control................................................................................................... 60
Figure 6.6 Memebership functions for Wice, Acc. K' ............................................................. 61
Figure 6.8 Graphical representation of rule base ..................................................................... 63
Figure 6.9 Flowchart of the electric system operation ............................................................. 66
Figure 6.10 Flowchart of the emergency charging operation .................................................. 67
Figure 6.11 block diagram of Trafficar electronic control unit ............................................... 67
Figure 7.1 BSFC of 1.9 l engine .............................................................................................. 78

xi
List of tables
Table 1.1 Air Pollutants Emissions from road transport in Lebanon ......................................... 3
Table1.2 Transport sector GHG emissions in 2011 from road transport in Lebanon ................ 5
Table 1.3 Variation of the different greenhouse gases from 1994 to 2011 ................................ 6
Table 1.4 Transportation-related externality costs for gasoline and diesel oil in Lebanon ....... 7
Table1.4 Average emission factors for each vehicle type classified by fuel type and the traffic
situations “fluid” and stop-and-go (“s-a-g”) ............................................................................ 10
Table 3.1 Comparison of HEV batteries from volume production ......................................... 39
Table 4.1 Renault megane II (case study) speciications .......................................................... 44
Table 4.2 assumptions taken to calculate the required power of the electric motors............... 45
Table 4.3 force and power required from the electric motors .................................................. 45
Table 6.1 States of operations in HEV ..................................................................................... 59
Table 6.2. Rule base for Fuzzy logiv ....................................................................................... 62
Table 7.1: Motor test results under different scenario ............................................................. 71

xii
List of abbreviations
BLDC Brushless Dc Motor
BMS Battery Management System
CB Center Bore
CHEV Combined hybrid electric vehicle
DOD Depth of Discharge
DTCO Delta Temperature Cut Off
DV Voltage Drop
ECU Electronic Control Unit
EFC Engine Fuel Consumption
ELPI Electrical Low Pressure Impactor
ESCU Electric System Control Unit
EV Electric Vehicle
FEA Finite Element Analysis
GBA Great Beirut Area
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gazes
HDCV Heavy Duty Commercial Vehicle
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IMA Integrated Motor Assist
IMs Induction Motors
IPT Issa Petrol Trade
KERS Kinetic Energy
LDCV Light Duty Commercial Vehicle
MoE Minister Of Economy
NiMH nickel metal hydrate

xiii
PCD Pitch Circle Diameter
PHEV Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle
PMAC Permanent magnet Alternative Current Motor
PMSM Permanent magnet synchronous motor
PWM Pulse with Modulation
RPM Round per Minute
SEI Solid Electrolyte Interface
SOC State Of Charge
SOH State Of health
SRM Switch Reluctance Motor
TCO Temperature Cut Off
TMS Thermal management system
UNDP United Nations Development
URC UNEP Risoe Center
USABC U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium
VR Variance reluctance wheel speed sensor
VUE Compact SUV vehicle from SATURN company

xiv
List of Symbols
∑𝐹𝑟 Total Resistive Force
µ Deceleration of the Vehicle
𝛼 Acceleration
𝐴 Frontal Area of the car
𝐶 Torque required on the wheel
𝐶𝑑 Aerodynamic drag Coefficient
𝐶𝑟𝑟 Rolling Coefficient
𝐹 Force required
𝐹𝑏 Braking Force
𝑓𝑚 Mass factor
𝐹𝑡 Traction force
𝑔 Gravitational acceleration
𝑀 Vehicle weight
𝑃 Power Required
𝑃𝑏 Braking Power
𝑅𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 Wheel radius
𝑉 Vehicle Velocity
𝑣𝑜𝑐 Open Circuit Voltage
𝜃 Slope Angle
𝜌 Density of Air
𝑊𝑟𝑝𝑚 Angular speed of the wheel

xv
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Introduction
One billion was the number of cars estimated by the automotive ward’s journal in
2010, now (2018) this number has overcome 1.2 billion and it would become 2 billion by
the end of 2032. These increasing numbers are due first to the overpopulation, and secondly
to advance of technology that has eased us to manufacture huge number of cars every year;
that what led to a problem the most citizens are living it at a daily basis especially in the
cities and the capitals, the problem is traffic. While the ideal solution is to build a new
infrastructure able to contain all the cars or organize public transport. These solutions could
take years of planning and centuries of execution especially in the third world countries, one
of them is Lebanon. We can also mention that most roads especially in the capitals can’t be
changed, even in the most advanced countries.
The increasing numbers of vehicles had caused and increasing in the air pollution
and emissions that cause greenhouse effect and increases the global warming, beside that
the demand on fossil fuel has increased sharply which put one of the most important earth
sources into extinction. That’s why the huge cars manufactures have shifted from the
conventional cars into hybrid and electric cars; these vehicles offer huge advantages such
as saving a lot of fuel (500 km/ 20 L for PRIUS 2018) and most importantly decrease the
emissions by making the car runs on electric power at low speeds which include traffic
scenario of course. But this great solution has a devastating backwards, first most hybrid
and electric cars need an external charging source, in other words it need a country who has
an equipped infrastructure and cheap electricity of course which is not available neither in
Lebanon or most third world countries. Second Hybrid and electric vehicles are expensive
in general and totally new to the people. Thus, hybrid and electric vehicles are still
unpopular and undesired in the third world countries.
In this book we introduced a relatively cheap solution that may significantly reduce
the consequences in traffic. The solution is TRAFFICAR, an electric system (motors-
battery) that can be installed on almost every car; this system replaces the internal
combustion engine in traffic. Thus, there will be no emissions, no fuel consumption, not
even noise; only the sound of Electric motors moving the car in the traffic up to speed of 30
km/h. TRAFFICAR does not need any external source to recharge the battery, instead the
battery is recharge using the regenerative braking technology by converting the kinetic
energy lost in downhills into useful electric power.
In what follows seven chapters are introduced to discuss this subject. Chapter 1
discuss the urban cycle in Lebanon and presents studies conducted by BLOMbank and IPT
energy group showing the amount of emissions in Lebanon caused by the transportation
sector and by the traffic to prove that we absolutely need an solution for the current situation;
next in Chapter 2 an overview about hybrids powertrain is presented to give the reader a
general view about hybrid system available in the market and to eventually inspire our
project model from it, Chapter 3 comes to discuss the main parts the electric system
(trafficar) is made of; in Chapter 4 we took RENAULT Megane II as an example car and
we did the calculations of the power/ torque required to eventually choose the motor,
controller and the battery; Chapter 5 explain what regenerative braking is, the types of
powertrains implemented in hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), to eventually choose or make
the convenient regenerative braking strategy/ powertrain for our project; Chapter 6 discuss
how the architectures used by the electronic control unit (ECU) to minimize emissions and
maximize performance; and finally in Chapter 7 we cite the suppliers of the main parts and
how much the project costs.

1
Chapter 1: Urban cycle in Lebanon
1.1 Introduction
This chapter discuss the urban cycle in Lebanon especially the capital Beirut, it shows
how the Traffic is strongly related to the toxic emissions; a Blombank survey show the
emissions of the greenhouse gases of the transportation sector, after that a survey by IPT
group shows how much every vehicle category is responsible in the emissions, in the end
an experiment is conducted at a two-lane road in the city center of Münster, Germany
showing the amount of emissions emitted during 60 days of the experiment and the periods
when traffic occurs.
Lebanon suffers from a chronic traffic problem that dates back to the 1990s, when
the 15-Year Lebanese civil war finally ended. Since then, the situation has aggravated due
to the deteriorating condition of the road network, the absence of a reliable public
transportation system. Economically speaking, the development of any nation remains
extremely challenging and hard to achieve in the presence of a poor infrastructure and a frail
road network. In fact, the cost of road congestion is estimated at $2 billion/year (near 4% of
GDP).
The aggravating situation is not only related to the poor road network but also to the
absence of a reliable public transportation system. Inefficiency and lack of organization
characterize the current system of public transport in Lebanon.
One of the most perceptible repercussions of the nonfunctional public transport is the
reliance of most of the population on their own cars to commute. In fact, only one quarter
of the population is relying on public transportation, while around three quarters are using
their private cars to commute.
As a result, road congestion is directly linked to the substantial dependency on
private cars, which reached alarming levels across Lebanon. Estimates reveal that there are
around 1.75 million registered vehicles in Lebanon, of which 85% are cars. As a matter of
fact, the total number of registered new cars has been increasing at an average yearly rate
of 13% between 2007 and 2016. Besides the considerable number of cars in the capital,
Beirut witnesses the entry and exit of almost 500,000-600,000 daily vehicles from its three
main arteries (Tripoli road, Damascus road, and Saida - Tyre road). This also means that
there is one car for almost every 3 individuals, which is a very high ratio when compared to
different countries like Turkey and China, where the ratios stand at one vehicle for every 7
persons and 12 persons, respectively

1.2 Road Traffic in Lebanon

1.2.1 on the ecological side
These facts suggest that a proportionately higher percentage of emissions are
released into the atmosphere per vehicle-kilometer or vehicle-hour of congestion than in
more developed countries. Moreover, it is predicted that the rate of congestion in major
urban centers will increase significantly. This increase in congestion as well as in the
number and average lengths of vehicle trips will lead to the release of additional emissions
into the atmosphere [1].
Air Pollutants Emissions: CO, NMVOCs, SO2, NOx
The transport sector is responsible for the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2) among other gases.

2
 In 2011, the emissions from road transport in Lebanon were 51.79 Gg NOx, 358.37
Gg CO, 72.34 Gg NMVOCs and 5.34 Gg SO2 (Table 1).
Transport contributes more than half of the national NOx emissions (62%) and the majority
of total national CO emissions (99%). Emissions per vehicle category are dominated by
passenger cars as presented in Figure 1.1. HDV contribution to SO2 emissions is
considerable despite their relatively low number as HDV uses diesel fuel with higher
sulphur content than gasoline used for PC [2].
NOx CO NMVOCs SO2
Emissions Gg 51.79 358.37 72.34 5.34
Share of national emissions 62% 99% 63% 4.8%

Table 1.1 Air Pollutants Emissions from road transport in Lebanon

CO
0.97%
0.04%
NOx
4.38%

34.27%, 48.33%,
31.4%
63.25%

17.31%,

PC LDV HDV MOTORCYCLES PC LDV HDV MOTORCYCLES

3
 NMVOCs
3.07%
4.59%

25.65%

66.69%

PC LDV HDV MOTORCYCLES

SO2
0.23%

38.21%

50.33%

11.81%

PC LDV HDV MOTORCYCLES

Figure 1.1 Contribution of the different vehicle categories to the indirect GHG pollutants for 2010

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: CO2, CH4, N2O

The transport sector is the second consumer of fossil fuel in Lebanon after energy
production. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from transport account for 23.6% of the total
national GHG emissions and include emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O).

4
 Indeed, in 2011, transport in Lebanon was responsible for around 5,813.43 Gg
CO2eq. The emissions per gas were 5,645.42 Gg for CO2, 25.41 Gg CO2eq. Of CH4 and
142 Gg CO2eq. Of N2O (Table 1.2) [2].
CO2 CH4 (CO2eq.) N2O (CO2eq.) Total GHGs
Emissions Emissions (CO2eq.)

Emissions Gg 5,645.42 25.41 142.60 5,813.43

Share of national 27% 0.88% 15% 23.6%
emissions

Table1.2 Transport sector GHG emissions in 2011 from road transport in Lebanon
1.2 Trends in Lebanon’s Emissions for The Transport Sector:
1994-2011
During the last 10 years, and due to an increase in population, urbanization and consumption
patterns, an increase by at least a factor of 2 was observed for air pollutants from transport
Figure 1.2 presents the evolution of NOx, CO, NMVOCs and SO2 from 2005 to 2011.

Figure 1.2 Evolution of NOx, CO, NMVOCs and SO2 from 2005 to 2011

The emissions variations of the three main GHGs normalized to the 1994 level
are presented in Figure 1.3. The results show that carbon dioxide has the highest greenhouse
impact in Lebanon’s transport sector as it shares 97.8% of the total GHG emissions in 2005
(MoE/UNDP/GEF, 2015b). CO2 emissions from the transport sector increased by a factor
of 1.46 compared to the 1994 level i.e. from 3,957.12 to 5,645.14 Gg while methane
emissions have increased by a factor of 1.08 i.e. from 1.12 Gg to 1.21 Gg. This is mainly
due to the remarkable growth in the vehicle fleet number. Similarly, nitrous oxide has also
increased in 2011 by a significant factor of 15.33 compared to the 1994 level, i.e. from 0.03
Gg to 0.46 Gg. This is due to the fact that vehicles equipped with technologies for emission
control are suspected to emit higher amounts of nitrous oxide. Consequently, a yearly

5
increase of 20% for CO2, 14% for CH4 and 60% for N2O are observed (MoE/UNDP/GEF,
2015b). These results are summarized in Table 1.3 [2].

Figure 1. 3 Variation in % of the emissions for the road transport sector of CO2, CH4, and N2O relative to
the 1994 level

1994 2011 % change Yearly % change

CO2 3957.12 5645.14 146% 20%

CH4 1.12 1.21 108% 14%

N2O 0.03 0.46 1533% 60%

Table 1.3 Variation of the different greenhouse gases from 1994 to 2011

6
 1.3 The consequences of traffic on the economic
Congestions cost Lebanese government every year 2 billion dollar. As for the
individuals according to the same IPT study, the citizen pays 43% (47.07/109.6) more due
to traffic, this number is obviously increased [2].

Table 1.4 Transportation-related externality costs for gasoline and diesel oil in Lebanon
1.4 The consequences of traffic on the environment
Each car emits 1.6 tons of carbon dioxide per year; to offset the emissions from a
single vehicle, at least 160 two-year-old trees would need to be planted each year (Wadvalla,
2011).
The unabated increase in motorized transport and the concentration of vehicles in urban
areas has critically affected the air quality in several cities. The transport sector accounts for
22% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, of which 85% is attributed to in-land
transportation. Nevertheless, being highly dependent on fossil fuels, transport is responsible
for about 27% of the current energy use worldwide, as it accounts for about 50% of the
global oil demand. In fact, energy supply is a critical concern for the transport sector.
Vehicle emissions are a function of many factors including (MoE, 2005):
- Roadway congestion
- Vehicle kilometers traveled
- Vehicle age and class
- Engine tuning and condition
- Pollution reduction technology
- Fuel type/quality and characteristics
- Ambient and engine temperatures
- Operating altitudes
- Road inadequate maintenance and
- Upkeep
- Road low safety and enforcement
- Strong reliance on private
- passenger cars
Vehicular emissions are correlated with the car speed. In a study by H. Sbayti et al. it
was found that HC, CO and NMVOCs emission factors generally decrease with increasing
speeds up to 50 mph, rapidly at first then more slowly. However, the NOx emission factors,
which are less sensitive to speed changes, follow a parabolic path and tend to decrease to
30 mph and then increase [2].

7
 1.5 The consequences of the traffic on human health
Research has also proved that exposure to traffic can lead to heart attack. In fact,
constant exposure to traffic can affect not only to your mental health but also physical health.
The most commonly observed effects of traffic on human health include stress, headache,
cough, frustration and so on. It is quite difficult to live near heavily travelled roads; since, it
develops number of health issues. Exposure to pollution from gases and unburned
hydrocarbons may lead to negative impact on people’s lungs and arteries. While talking
about traffic side effects on human health, we should also consider that, pollution that we
are exposed to that take place through number of vehicles such as bikes, cars, trucks, buses.
However, diseases associated with traffic are life threatening.
Effects of traffic on human health
1. Increases the problems of aches and pains
2. Raises issues of heart diseases
3. Increases the risk of respiratory problems
4. Research has found that components of air pollution emitted through vehicles are
not only entering the human body but also altering one’s DNA. This condition may
lead to mental or psychological problems or permanent ailments in future
generation.
5. Frequent exposure to harmful pollutants may contribute to vitiated brain capacity
and risk of brain damage.
6. Lack of memory, poor concentration, low IQ, brain lesions, blurry vision, epilepsy,
and migraines are some of the negative effects of pollutants that emitted through
vehicles on your central nervous system.
7. Prolonged exposure to neurotoxins emitted from vehicles leads to degeneration. In
addition, in severe cases, causes to permanent damage to the central nervous system.
8. Problems of anxiety, fatigue and irritability are also commonly observed while
travelling for long period.
9. Exposure to high volume traffic develops the risk of Alzheimer’s diseases at some
extent, autism among children, and brings mental and physical exhaustion.
10. While dealing everyday with strangers in traffic, you might lose your patience as
well. You might feel like agitated and anxious while travelling and may increase
your stress level, if traffic is for long period of time [2].

1.6 Example
(Real-world vehicle emissions as measured by in situ analysis of exhaust plumes).
1.6.1 Measurement site
We operated a measuring container at a two-lane road in the city center of
Münster, Germany (51° 57′ 51.4″ N, 7° 37′ 47.2″ E) from May 3 to July 3, 2016. The road
is an important east-west connection and within of the low-emission zone of Münster. The
site is close to two crossroads and a major local bus station, which is served by 19 public
bus lines (Stadtwerke Münster 2016a). Approximately 16,700 vehicles passed the
measuring container per day.
The environmental protection agency of the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia
(LANUV NRW) observes the NO2 concentration near the bus stop by using a passive
sampler. The yearly means of NO2were below 55 μg m−3 during the past 7 years with a

8
continuously decreasing trend over the past 5 years (LANUV NRW 2016). The annual
average NO2 concentration for the year 2016 was 43 μg m−3. An inductive-loop traffic
detector has been in operation since June 1, 2016 and was located near the measuring
container on the same road.
1.6.2 Sensors
The measuring container was located on a pedestrian sidewalk at a distance of 4.5
m from the road. The sensors for CO2, temperature, humidity, and wind were installed at a
height of 4 m above sidewalk level. The inlets of the intake tubes for the analytical sensors
inside the container were also installed 4 m above sidewalk level. All sensors recorded at a
frequency of 10 Hz.
1.6.3 Results and discussion
During 60 days of measurement, the data availability was 84% for carbon dioxide,
93% for nitrogen oxides, and 79% for ozone. For the (Electrical Low Pressure Impactor)
ELPI+ particle spectrometer, which had to be cleaned frequently, 38 days of data could be
analyzed. A total number of 71,376 peak integrals (exhaust plumes) of CO2, NOx, NO,
NO2, and O3 passed the quality control and were used for further calculation. For particle
data, 9687 peak integrals could be used for further analysis.
1.6.4 Traffic
On an average working day, the station was passed by about 16,700 motor vehicles,
including 1000 buses, 1000 LDCV, and 330 HDCV (Heavy Duty Commercial Vehicle). On
Sundays, the total traffic was reduced by 30%, particularly the numbers of HDCV and
LDCV were lower by about 60%. On every working day, the rush-hour traffic started at
06:00 h and increased from 230 to 1100 vehicles per hour until 08:00 h the number of
vehicles stayed above 1000 vehicles per hour throughout the day until 19:00 h. Then, the
traffic volume dropped rather steadily through the night to reach a minimum of 50 vehicles
per hour at 04:00 h. On Sundays, a traffic minimum of about 100 vehicles per hour occurred
around 08:00 h, and then the traffic intensity rose to a maximum of 900 vehicles per hour
by 18:30 h. A secondary maximum occurred during the night between 00:00 and 01:00 h.
Overall, the site is characterized by a large number of public buses with two bus stops
nearby, traffic lights, and by motor traffic that tends to be congested during the busy times
of the working days. On Sundays and during the nights, the traffic flows rather
unrestrictedly.
1.6.5 Average emission factors for each vehicle type classified by fuel type and
the traffic situations “fluid” and stop-and-go (“s-a-g”)
The table 1.4 below show how dramatically that in stop and go pattern the emissions
are multiplied per 12 for motorbikes, per 2.06 for passenger cars and per 1.8 for the total
fleet. These numbers are scary, and formerly we can reduce it to 0 using TRAFFICAR [3] .

9
Table1.4 Average emission factors for each vehicle type classified by fuel type and the traffic situations
“fluid” and stop-and-go (“s-a-g”)
1.7 Urban cycle in Lebanon
Based on collected data from on-road measurements in the GBA with a GPS-guided
survey of typical driver habits, the driving patterns in 2011 can be characterized by a
relatively low driving range with a high rate of congestion and frequent stops at short time
intervals. In fact, it was found that 50% of trips have a distance lower than 5 km, 25% of
stops are below 2 seconds and the total stop time per trip corresponds to more than 15% of
travel time. Moreover, the speed acceleration frequency distribution presented in Figure 1.4
shows that the acceleration rates are significant at very low speed, which reflects the
continuous stop-and-go driving patterns, therefore resulting in the inefficient operation of
internal combustion engines, and a high rate of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions as
a result [2].

10
 Figure 1.4 Speed-acceleration frequency distribution in GBA

1.8 Conclusion
Given the congestion problem in Lebanon, passengers frequently have to drive on a
minimal speed which leads to higher emissions. Also, the high rate of car ownership is
estimated to be 3.7 individuals per car (MoE/ UNDP, 2015a) with low vehicle occupancy,
counting 1.2 passengers per car (MoE/URC/GEF, 2012). The latter fleet characteristics,
high vehicle ownership and low occupancy rate, create heavy congestions during peak
hours, especially on entries and exits of Beirut. This high car ownership, at the given GDP
level, suggests that a very considerable part of the household income has to be spent on
transport.
In this chapter we showed the emissions in the atmosphere due to the transportation
sectors and also the amount of traffic in the cities and how much this traffic increases the
air pollution, and the last experiment in Germany confirm that even in the most advanced
countries traffic happen and it is an unavoidable problem. Beside that the citizen consume
more fuel due to the congestion. The solution is to use the electric power that replace the
internal combustion engines, the emitters of these gazes, In the next chapter we are going to
introduce the types of hybrid cars to eventually propose at the end our solution to the traffic
in Lebanon.

11
Chapter 2: Types of drivetrain structure for
hybrid vehicles
2.1 Introduction
The first chapter has confirmed that an alternative of the combustion engine is
mandatory, and this alternative is the hybrid and the electric vehicle since they are free of
emissions. This chapter discus the all types of powertrain of hybrid vehicles, the degree of
hybridization to choose at the end the right type/degree of our project.
2.2 Series hybrid
In a series hybrid system, the combustion engine drives an electric generator (usually
a three-phase alternator plus rectifier) instead of directly driving the wheels. The electric
motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels. The generator both charges a
battery and powers an electric motor that moves the vehicle. When large amounts of power
are required, the motor draws electricity from both the batteries and the generator.in the
pictures below you may see the series hybrid configuration.

12
Figure 2.1 series hybrid configuration

Series hybrids can be assisted by ultracaps (or a flywheel: KERS=Kinetic Energy

Recuperation System), which can improve the efficiency by minimizing the losses in the
battery. They deliver peak energy during acceleration and take regenerative energy during
braking. Therefore, the ulracaps are kept charged at low speed and almost empty at top
speed. Deep cycling of the battery is reduced, the stress factor of the battery is lowered.
A complex transmission between motor and wheel is not needed, as electric motors
are efficient over a wide speed range. If the motors are attached to the vehicle body, flexible
couplings are required.
Some vehicle designs have separate electric motors for each wheel. Motor
integration into the wheels has the disadvantage that the unsprung mass increases,
decreasing ride performance. Advantages of individual wheel motors include simplified
traction control (no conventional mechanical transmission elements such as gearbox,
transmission shafts, differential), all wheel drive, and allowing lower floors, which is useful
for buses. Some 8x8 all-wheel drive military vehicles use individual wheel motors.
2.2.1 Weaknesses of series hybrid vehicles
- The ICE, the generator and the electric motor are dimensioned to handle the full
power of the vehicle. Therefore, the total weight, cost and size of the powertrain
can be excessive.
- The power from the combustion engine has to run through both the generator
and electric motor. During long-distance highway driving, the total efficiency is
inferior to a conventional transmission, due to the several energy conversions
2.2.2 Advantages of series hybrid vehicles
- There is no mechanical link between the combustion engine and the wheels. The
engine-generator group can be located everywhere.
- There are no conventional mechanical transmission elements (gearbox,
transmission shafts). Separate electric wheel motors can be implemented easily.
- The combustion engine can operate in a narrow rpm range (its most efficient
range), even as the car changes speed.
- Series hybrids are relatively the most efficient during stop-and-go city driving.

13
 2.3 Parallel hybrid
Parallel hybrid systems have both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor in parallel connected to a mechanical transmission.

Figure 2.2 parallel hybrid configuration

Most designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often
located between the combustion engine and the transmission, replacing both the
conventional starter motor and the alternator (see figures above). The battery can be
recharged during regenerative breaking, and during cruising (when the ICE power is higher
than the required power for propulsion). As there is a fixed mechanical link between the
wheels and the motor (no clutch), the battery cannot be charged when the car isn’t moving.
When the vehicle is using electrical traction power only, or during brake while
regenerating energy, the ICE is not running (it is disconnected by a clutch) or is not powered
(it rotates in an idling manner).

14
2.3.1 Operation modes
The parallel configuration supports diverse operating modes:

Figure 2.3 operation modes the parallel configuration

2.3.2 Some typical modes for a parallel hybrid configuration

PE = Power electronics
TX = Transmission
a) Electric power only: Up to speeds of usually 40 km/h, the electric motor works with
only the energy of the batteries, which are not recharged by the ICE. This is the usual
way of operating around the city, as well as in reverse gear, since during reverse gear
the speed is limited.

b) ICE power only: At speeds superior to 40 km/h, only the heat engine operates. This
is the normal operating way at the road.
c) ICE + electric power: if more energy is needed (during acceleration or at high speed),
the electric motor starts working in parallel to the heat engine, achieving greater
power
d) ICE + battery charging: if less power is required, excess of energy is used to charge
the batteries. Operating the engine at higher torque than necessary, it runs at a higher
efficiency.

e) Regenerative breaking: While braking or decelerating, the electric motor takes profit
of the kinetic energy of the he moving vehicle to act as a generator.

15
 f) Sometimes, an extra generator is used: then the batteries can be recharged when the
vehicle is not driving, the ICE operates disconnected from the transmission. But this
system gives an increased weight and price to the HEV.

2.3.3 Weaknesses of parallel hybrid vehicles

- Rather complicated system.
- The ICE doesn’t operate in a narrow or constant RPM range, thus efficiency
drops at low rotation speed.
- As the ICE is not decoupled from the wheels, the battery cannot be charged at
standstill.
2.3.4 Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles
- Total efficiency is higher during cruising and long-distance highway driving.
- Large flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power
- Compared to series hybrids, the electromotor can be designed less powerful than
the ICE, as it is assisting traction. Only one electrical motor/generator is
required.

2.3.5 Exemples of PHEV

- Honda Civic. Honda's IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) uses a rather traditional
ICE with continuously variable transmission, where the flywheel is replaced
with an electric motor.
- Influence of scale: a Volvo 26 ton truck (12 ton own weight, 14 ton max load)
equipped with 200 kg of batteries can drive on pure electric power for 2 minutes
only! Because of space constraints, it is not possible to build in more batteries.
- BMW 7Series ActiveHybrid.

2.4 Combined hybrid

Combined hybrid systems have features of both series and parallel hybrids. There is
a double connection between the engine and the drive axle: mechanical and electrical. This
split power path allows interconnecting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in
complexity.
Power-split devices are incorporated in the powertrain. The power to the wheels can
be either mechanical or electrical or both. This is also the case in parallel hybrids. But the
main principle behind the combined system is the decoupling of the power supplied by the
engine from the power demanded by the driver.

16
Figure 2.4 combined hybrid configuration

2.4.1 Simplified structure of a combined hybrid electric vehicle

In a conventional vehicle, a larger engine is used to provide acceleration from
standstill than one needed for steady speed cruising. This is because a combustion engine's
torque is minimal at lower RPMs, as the engine is its own air pump. On the other hand, an
electric motor exhibits maximum torque at stall and is well suited to complement the
engine's torque deficiency at low RPMs. In a combined hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and
highly efficient engine can be used. It is often a variation of the conventional Otto cycle,
such as the Miller or Atkinson cycle. This contributes significantly to the higher overall
efficiency of the vehicle, with regenerative braking playing a much smaller role.
At lower speeds, this system operates as a series HEV, while at high speeds, where
the series powertrain is less efficient, the engine takes over. This system is more expensive
than a pure parallel system as it needs an extra generator, a mechanical split power system
and more computing power to control the dual system.

17
Figure 2.5 Combined hybrid drive modes

2.4.2 Weaknesses of combined hybrid vehicles

- Very complicated system, more expensive than parallel hybrid.
- The efficiency of the power train transmission is dependent on the amount of
power being transmitted over the electrical path, as multiple conversions, each
with their own efficiency, lead to a lower efficiency of that path (~70%)
compared with the purely mechanical path (98%).
2.4.4 Advantages of combined hybrid vehicles
- Maximum flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power
- Decoupling of the power supplied by the engine from the power demanded by
the driver allows for a smaller, lighter, and more efficient ICE design.
2.4.5 Example of CHEV
- Toyota Prius, Auris,
- Lexus CT200h,
- Lexus RX400h.

2.5 Types by degree of hybridization

Parallel and combined hybrids can be categorized depending upon how balanced the
different portions are at providing motive power. In some cases, the combustion engine is
the dominant portion; the electric motor turns on only when a boost is needed. Others can
run with just the electric system operating.

18
 η ~17% η ~50%
Efficiency

Int. Combustion Engine

Electr. Motor
Con- Micro- Medium/ Full-HEV Plug-In Electric
ventional HEV mild-HEV HEV Vehicle
Vehicle

Figure 2.6 Types by degree of hybridization and Overview of Hybrid-powertrain concepts

2.5.1 Strong hybrid (= full hybrid)

A full hybrid EV can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of
both. A large, high capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation.
Examples
The Toyota Prius, Auris and Lexus are full hybrids, as these cars can be moved
forward on battery power alone. The Toyota brand name for this technology is Hybrid
Synergy Drive. A computer oversees operation of the entire system, determining if engine
or motor, or both should be running. The ICE will be shut off when the electric motor is
sufficient to provide the power.
2.5.2 Medium hybrid (motor assist hybrid)
Motor assist hybrids use the engine for primary power, with a torque-boosting
electric motor connected in parallel to a largely conventional powertrain. EV mode is only
possible for a very limited period of time, and this is not a standard mode. Compared to full
hybrids, the amount of electrical power needed is smaller, thus the size of the battery system

19
can be reduced. The electric motor, mounted between the engine and transmission, is
essentially a very large starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be
turned over, but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. The
electric motor may also be used to re-start the combustion engine, deriving the same benefits
from shutting down the main engine at idle, while the enhanced battery system is used to
power accessories. The electric motor is a generator during regenerative breaking.
Examples
Honda's hybrids including the Civic and the Insight use this design, leveraging their
reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated
Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel
the vehicle solely on electric power during medium speed cruising.
A variation on this type of hybrid is the Saturn VUE Green Line hybrid system that
uses a smaller electric motor (mounted to the side of the engine), and battery pack than the
Honda IMA, but functions similarly.
Another variation on this type is Mazda's e-4WD system, offered on the Mazda
Demio sold in Japan. This front-wheel drive vehicle has an electric motor which can drive
the rear wheels when extra traction is needed. The system is entirely disengaged in all other
driving conditions, so it does not enhance performance or economy.

2.5.3 Mild hybrid / micro hybrid (=start/stop systems with energy recuperation)
Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with oversized starter motors,
allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet
restart quickly and cleanly. During restart, the larger motor is used to spin up the engine to
operating rpm speeds before injecting any fuel. That concept is not unique to hybrids;
Subaru pioneered this feature in the early 1980s, and the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one
example of a conventional vehicle that shuts off its engine when at a stop.
As in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture
energy. But there is no motor-assist, and no EV mode at all. Therefore, many people do not
consider these to be hybrids, since there is no electric motor to drive the vehicle, and these
vehicles do not achieve the fuel economy of real hybrid models.
Some provision must be made for accessories such as air conditioning which are
normally driven by the engine. Those accessories can continue to run on electrical power
while the engine is off. Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion engines
are inherently least effective immediately after the engine starts; since it is upon startup that
the majority of engine wear occurs, the frequent starting and stopping of such systems
reduce the lifespan of the engine considerably. Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the
engine's ability to operate at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's efficiency.

20
Figure 2.7 Powertrain of a mild HEV

Examples
BMW succeeded in combining regenerative braking with the mild hybrid "start-stop"
system in their current 1-series model.
Citroën proposes a start-stop system on its C2 and C3 models. The concept-car C5
Airs cape has an improved version of that, adding regenerative breaking and traction
assistance functionalities, and supercapacitors for energy buffering.
2.5.4 Plug-in hybrid (grid connected hybrid / vehicle to grid V2G)
All the previous hybrid architectures could be grouped within a classification of charge
sustaining: the energy storage system in these vehicles is designed to remain within a fairly
confined region of state of charge (SOC). The hybrid propulsion algorithm is designed so
that on average, the SOC of energy storage system will more or less return to its initial
condition after a drive cycle.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a full hybrid, able to run in electric-only mode,
with larger batteries and the ability to recharge from the electric power grid. Their main
benefit is that they can be gasoline-independent for daily commuting, but also have the
extended range of a hybrid for long trips.
Grid connected hybrids can be designed as charge depleting: part of the “fuel” consumed
during a drive is delivered by the utility, by preference at night. Fuel efficiency is then
calculated based on actual fuel consumed by the ICE and its gasoline equivalent of the kWh
of energy delivered by the utility during recharge. The "well-to-wheel" efficiency and
emissions of PHEVs compared to gasoline hybrids depends on the energy sources used for
the grid utility (coal, oil, natural gas, hydroelectric power, solar power, wind power, nuclear
power).
In a serial Plug-In hybrid, the ICE only serves for supplying the electrical power via a
coupled generator in case of longer driving distances. Plug in hybrids can be made multi-
fuel, with the electric power supplemented by diesel, biodiesel, or hydrogen. The Electric
Power Research Institute's research indicates a lower total cost of ownership for PHEVs due
to reduced service costs and gradually improving batteries. Some scientists believe that
PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry. Plug-in vehicles which use
batteries to store electric energy outperform cars which use hydrogen as carrier for the
energy taken from the grid [4].

21
2.5.5 Fuel Cell EV
Definition
Fuel cell vehicles use hydrogen gas to power an electric motor. Unlike conventional
vehicles which run on gasoline or diesel, fuel cell cars and trucks combine hydrogen and
oxygen to produce electricity, which runs a motor. Since they’re powered entirely by
electricity, fuel cell vehicles are considered electric vehicles or hybrid electric vehicles.
Converting hydrogen gas into electricity produces only water and heat as a
byproduct, meaning fuel cell vehicles don’t create tailpipe pollution when they’re driven.
Producing the hydrogen itself can lead to pollution, including greenhouse gas emissions, but
even when the fuel comes from one of the dirtiest sources of hydrogen, natural gas, today’s
early fuel cell cars and trucks can cut emissions by over 30 percent when compared with
their gasoline-powered counterparts.
For typical driving cycles, the achieved efficiencies are lower. The battery powered
EV achieves efficiencies in the range of 50 to 60%. The hydrogen powered EV has a total
efficiency of about 13% only at those drive cycles.
Principle of operation
Fuel cells operate through electrochemical conversion process, which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy. Input reactants (fuel and oxidant) are fed into a cell where the
reaction occurs in the presence of an electrolyte, and electricity is generated as output. It is
a zero emission system because it does not emit any exhaust gas, and only produce water
and heat as wastage of the reactions. Different types of fuel cells take different types of fuel
as input, but the chemical reaction that takes place in the fuel cell is similar. The reaction
happens between oxygen from air and hydrogen from the fuel, and forms water. The reaction
is given in Eq. (3.1) [5].
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2O + energy (electricalpower + heat) (3.1)

Examples
- Mercedes BlueZERO E-CELL PLUS (concept car): series HEV.
- Opel Ampera: series HEV.
- The Plug-in-Hybrid Volvo C30 (concept car) is a series HEV. It has a 1,6 liter
gasoline/bio-ethanol ICE. A synchronous generator charges the Li-polymer
battery (ca. 100 km autonomy) when the battery SoC is lower than 30%. There
are four electric wheel-motors .

2.6 Conclusion
In this chapter we’ve discussed the type of powertrain, the degree of hybridization
to eventually inspire the right powertrain for our system. After introducing what hybrid
means and the main types it is necessary to know the main parts that any hybrid system is
composed of, and this what chapter 3 discuss.

22
Chapter 3: The Main Parts of the Electric
System
3.1 Introduction
Any hybrid vehicle is composed of these the main parts:
- The electric motor
- The battery
- The inverter /converter
- The huge capacitors
In this chapter, we are going to discuss each one and cite all the available types in the
market, make a fair comparison, and choose what is convenient for our project.

3.2 The electric motor

3.2.1 Introduction
In this section we are going to discuss the all types of electric motors used by the
most hybrid and electric manufactures worldwide, mention their main characteristics from
construction, cost, advantages, disadvantages, operation, performance and efficiency… And
finally choose what is right for our purpose. We are going elaborate more about the type of
motor chosen and its control if it existed.
3.2.2 The induction motors
Construction
The torque producing materials found in IMs are copper wires wrapped around stator
laminations and rotor laminations with insulated copper or aluminum bars inserted into the
rotor laminations. Other mechanical parts are needed to complete the finished package, like
housing, bearings, cooling, etc.

Figure 3.1 Exploded view of induction motor by general motors

23
Operation
Induction motors work on the principle that a voltage entering the motor windings
creates current flow that produces a magnetic field. This field flows through the rotor at the
same point. As the motor controller switches the voltage from one winding to the next
winding, this magnetic field also changes location. As the voltage continues to flow around
the diameter of the motor, the magnetic field also changes location and the rotor follows.
Performance and efficiency
The constraints of the induction motor FEA (Finite Element analysis) simulation
were set to run the motor at its maximum efficiency at all torque-speed points. This resulted
in the induction motor being run at its maximum voltage condition.
The following chart shows the intermittent (red line) and continuous (blue line) output
torque for the FEA generated induction motor:

Figure 3.2 Torque vs RPM for indcution motors

Figure 3.3 Power vs RPM for induction motors

Cost
The cost of the induction motor is perhaps the strongest benefit. Traditional IM
motors are readily available and have large global usage. Vehicle rated motors are not as
available and have some higher costs due to more strenuous testing and environmental
requirements. The active materials, however, remain the same between the two
Examples of induction motors in HEV/Electric cars
Induction motors are used in TESLA electric cars, like Tesla roadster.
3.2.3 The PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor)
Construction
Permanent magnet (PM) motors have not been around nearly as long as IMs. There
are a couple variations of PM motors – brushed DC and brushless AC.
Brushed DC motors are readily available and have been built for a long time. They are found
in everything from small toys to industrial equipment. DC motors have copper windings on

24
the rotor and magnets in the stator. They are not a typical choice for vehicle applications –
though they are found.
Brushless PMAC motors are built with copper windings wrapped around individual
laminations. These copper wire assemblies make up the diameter of the stator. Further info
is mentioned BLDC type below. There are many different configurations of the rotor for
PMAC motors. But, one can see that the magnets are positioned within the rotor core
(laminations) in a similar manner as the IM. The advantage is that the magnet has its own
permanent magnetic field and does not require any additional current to generate the field.
This characteristic is the reason for many of the PMAC advantages.

Figure 3.4 exploded view of PMSM

Operation
Brushless PMAC motors work on a similar principle as the IM, however, there is an
energy savings because the magnets have a permanent field at the rotor, where IMs require
the electronics to push additional energy into the copper bars of the rotor to generate the
field. The motor controller is connected to the motor and pumps voltage and current into the
copper windings. As the voltage and current change in the windings, so also are the north
and south poles. They switched from one stator “tooth” to the other, and the rotor is attracted
to the moving magnetic stator field. This causes the torque and rotation of the PMAC motor.
The brushless PMAC motor is very compact due to the magnets in the rotor. The reduction
of both mass and volume is an attractive feature when space is a premium.
Performance and efficiency
The following figure3.5 outline the torque and power capabilities of the brushless PMAC
motor. Continuous torque is shown in blue and intermittent torque in red. This motor
maintains a very flat torque profile with speed. Because of this, the peak and continuous
power exceed the original target values by significant margins.

25
Figure 3.5 Torque and Power vs RPM for PMSM

Cost
The components used in the PMAC motor are very similar to those used in the
induction motor: Copper wire, stator laminations and rotor laminations. However, instead
of the copper bars in the rotor, the PMAC motor has permanent magnets. These magnets are
made of rare earth materials that are more expensive than copper. This adds cost to the motor
but is the responsible component for the reduced size and added efficiency.
Examples in HEV/Electric cars
The Toyota used the PMSM in the Prius and Camry series, in addition Honda Accord
used also the PMSM, and also Ford in the fusion serie [6] .
3.2.5 The BLDC motors
The BLDC motor is widely used in applications including appliances, automotive,
aerospace, consumer, medical, automated industrial equipment and instrumentation. The
BLDC motor is electrically commutated by power switches instead of brushes. Compared
with a brushed DC motor or an induction motor, the BLDC motor has many advantages:
- Higher efficiency and reliability
- Lower acoustic noise
- Smaller and lighter
- Greater dynamic response
- Better speed versus torque characteristics
- Higher speed range
- Longer life
Construction
BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on
the stator windings, these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase
motors. However, three-phase BLDC motors with permanent magnet rotor are most
commonly used. The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase
induction motor as well as conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as
like all other motors.

26
Figure 3.6 Exploded view of BLDC motor

Operation
Motor operation is based on the attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles.
Using the three-phase motor shown in Figure 3.7, the process starts when current flows
through one of the three stator windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the
closest permanent magnet of the opposite pole. The rotor will move if the current shifts to
an adjacent winding. Sequentially charging each winding will cause the rotor to follow in a
rotating field. The torque in this example depends on the current amplitude and the number
of turns on the stator windings, the strength and the size of the permanent magnets, the air
gap between the rotor and the windings, and the length of the rotating arm.

Figure 3.7 BLDC Motor operation

Brushless DC motors control:

Switch Configuration and PWM
Brushless DC motors use electric switches to realize current commutation, and thus
continuously rotate the motor. These electric switches are usually connected in an H-bridge
structure for a single-phase BLDC motor, and a three-phase bridge structure for a three-
phase BLDC motor shown in Figure 3.8. Usually the high-side switches are controlled using
pulse-width modulation (PWM), which converts a DC voltage into a modulated voltage,
which easily and efficiently limits the startup current, control speed and torque. Generally,
raising the switching frequency increases PWM losses, though lowering the switching

27
frequency limits the system’s bandwidth and can raise the ripple current pulses to the points
where they become destructive or shut down the BLDC motor driver.

Figure 3.8 Electric Driver circuit of BLDC motor

Electronics Commutation Principles

Three types of electronics commutation exist:
- Hall- effect sensors
- Variable reluctance (VR)wheel speed sensors
- Accelerometers
In the following we are owing to explain each one of these and choose the best for the
project.
1- Hall- Effect Sensors
Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled
electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor the stator windings should be energized in a
sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding
will be energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using
Hall-effect sensors embedded into the stator.
Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors inside the stator on the non-driving end of
the motor. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors they give a
high or low signal indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the
combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can
be determined. Figure 3.9 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that
has alternate N and S permanent magnets. Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary
part of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator is a complex process
because any misalignment in these Hall sensors with respect to the rotor magnets will
generate an error in determination of the rotor position. To simplify the process of
mounting the Hall sensors onto the stator some motors may have the Hall sensor magnets
on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor magnets. Therefore, whenever the rotor rotates
the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets. The Hall sensors are
normally mounted on a printed circuit board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the non-
driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete assembly of Hall sensors to align
with the rotor magnets in order to achieve the best performance.

28
Figure 3.9 BLDC motor transverse section with Hall sensors control

2- Variable reluctance (VR) wheel speed sensors

This kind of sensor is used to measure position and speed of moving metal components
and is often referred as a passive magnetic sensor because it does not need to be powered.
It consists of a permanent magnet, a ferromagnetic pole piece, a pickup coil, and a rotating
toothed wheel, as Figure 3.10 illustrates

Figure 3.10 Variable reluctance sensor operation in BLDC motor control

. Each passing discontinuity in the target causes the VR sensor to generate a pulse. The
cyclical pulse train or a digital waveform created can be interpreted by the BLDC motor
controller.
3- Accelerometers
When the accelerometer experiences
acceleration, the mass is displaced to the
point that the spring is able to accelerate the
mass at the same rate as the casing. The
displacement is then measured to give the
acceleration.

Figure 3.11 basic spring mass system

accelerometer operation in BLDC control

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Performance and efficiency
The figure below can express in general the efficiency of the BLDC motor, as you can see
the efficiency of BLDC motor is high on a very wide range, which makes it suitable to
replace the ICE when its efficiency is low at low speeds.

Figure 3.12 BLDC motor efficiency map

Examples in HEV/Electric cars

The in hub-wheel motor is one of most obvious example used by Elaphe, Proteus companies.
Beside Toyota Prius use the BLDC motor in its powertrain. We are going to discuss more
[7].
3.2.6 The in hub wheel motor
The in-hub wheel motor is not a new type of motor, it is a BLDC motor type. But
because we are going to use this motor in our project, we specialize this section to talk more
in details.

Technology Functionality
The in-wheel motor is a type of EV/ HEV drive system. Conventional EV/HEVs feature a
design where the gasoline engine is substituted with an electric motor. The in-wheel motor
EV, though, installs motors right around each of the driving wheels to directly power the
wheels.
In addition to good accelerator responsiveness, an advantage of EV/HEVs, the in-wheel
motor makes the behavior of the car more in tune with the steering by independently
controlling the left and right wheels. When accelerating or cornering, the car moves
intuitively in the way the driver wants.

30
Technology Configuration

Figure 3.13 Comparison between a conventional and an in hub wheel motor hybrid configuration

In conventional EV models, the motor is installed in the position of the engine in

gasoline engine vehicles, and it transfers power to the wheels via a drive shaft. This method
allows EVs to make use of the automotive technology already existing in cars with engines,
and excels in terms of sound and vibration.
In the conventional design, when the power of the motor is transferred to the wheels,
power is added to the long drive shaft, which is rotated and then after this is transmitted to
the wheels. With the rotation, though, there is a very slight time lag.
However, with an in-wheel motor, motors are installed close to each of the drive
wheels, and are moving the wheels through extremely small drive shafts. Since the drive
shafts are so small, the time lag that arises with the rotation all but disappears, and motor
power is transmitted to the wheels instantaneously, making it possible to control the wheels
very precisely.
An in-wheel motor drives the left and right wheels by separate motors, so left and
right torque can be controlled independently. For example, when a driver turns left, the
right-hand torque can be controlled greater than the left in accordance with how much the
driver is steering, and this allows the driver to generate the power to steer the car to the left.
(see figure Below) There are already similar technologies for controlling brakes
independently on the left and the right, but with an in-wheel motor, not only is the torque
reduced, it can also control the increasing of torque, broadening the range of control and
attaining a more liberated driving experience [8].

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Figure 3.14 Difference in left and right torque when cornering using in hub wheel motor instead of mechanical
differential

Figure 3.15 Exploded View of In-hub wheel motor

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3.2.3 Conclusion
In this section we have discussed all the types of motors that can be installed and used
in hybrid and electric vehicles, we have seen the main advantages and disadvantages, and
we can deduce that then hub wheel motor is the best type for our case since it does require
a few mechanical modification.

3.3 The Inverter / Converter

We are not going to talk about electrical details this section, instead we are going to
define and explain why do we need each of these following inverters/converters in our
vehicle. The converters and inverters are:
- DC-DC converters
- DC-3AC

Figure 3.16 Configuration of Electric Vehicle

3.3.1 DC-3AC inverters

The in hub wheel motor which is happen to be an brushless dc motor, must be
powered by a three phase alternative current, and that’s why we need the inverter to
transform the direct current provided by the battery pack into an alternative current (ac).
Choosing the size and the type of the inverter depend on every case study. (Every car will
has its own motors and batterydifferent inverters). We are not going to discuss how
inverters are done, neither their operation, because it’s not our subject and it is actually lies
under electrical engineering.
3.3.2 DC-DC converters
After converting the AC into DC, one problem remains; the voltage created is
absolutely different than the voltage of the battery pack, in our case the voltage is going to
be less than 48 V witch is the voltage for the battery pack because the BLDC is attached to
the wheel directly, and that’s mean that the speed of rotation of the BLDC motor/generator
won’t be high enough to produce 48 V or more. This why we need the boost converter. The
boost converter increases the voltage produced to match the voltage of the battery pack
(simple description), by this way we will be able to recharge the battery from the BLDC
motors/generators even at low RPM [9].

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 3.4 The battery
3.4.1 Introduction
Various battery chemistries have been proposed as the energy source to power
electrical vehicles since the 1990 California Zero Emission Vehicle was mandated, which
required 2 and 10% of the automobiles sold to be zero emission in 1998 and 2003,
respectively. These battery chemistries included improved lead–acid, nickel–cadmium,
nickel–zinc, NiMH, zinc–bromine, zinc–chlorine, zinc–air, sodium–sulfur, sodium–metal
chloride, and, later, Li-ion batteries, with each of these chemistries having its own
advantages and disadvantages. Towards the end of the last century, the competition between
battery chemistries was resolved with General Motor’s choice of NiMH for its EV-1 pure
electrical vehicles. In the following decade, the technology of the HEV developed by Toyota
and Honda matured and gained popularity through its combination of fuel economy,
acceptable pricing, and clean safety record. Up to this date of 2011, the leading battery
chemistry in these HEVs remains NiMH. As the concerns over greenhouse gas emissions
and fossil energy shortages grow in the recent years, the development target has shifted from
HEV to PHEV, with the eventual target being a purely battery-powered EV. The
requirement of a higher energy density in PHEVs and EVs reopens the discussion for
automobile battery technologies, giving Li-ion battery chemistry another chance at entering
the electric car battery market. In this section, the underlying principles, the current market
status, and the future developmental trends of NiMH and Li-ion batteries are discussed.
3.4.2 Basic Terms of Battery Performance and Characterization
Various terms have been defined for batteries to characterize their performance.
Commonly used terms are summarized in the following as a quick reference.
 Cell, Module, and Pack A single cell is a complete battery with two current
leads and separate compartment holding electrodes, separator, and
electrolyte. A module is composed of a few cells either by physical
attachment or by welding in between cells. A pack of batteries is composed
of modules and placed in a single containing for thermal management. An
EV may have more than one pack of battery situated in a different location
in the car.
 Ampere-hour Capacity Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity is the total charge that
can be discharged from a fully charged battery under specified conditions.
 The Rated Ah capacity is the nominal capacity of a fully charged new battery
under the conditions predefined by the manufacturer. A nominal condition,
for example, can be defined as 20○C and discharging at 1/20 C-rate. People
also use Wh (or kWh) capacity to represent a battery capacity. The rated Wh
capacity is defined as:
Rated Wh Capacity = Rated Ah Capacity * Rated Battery Voltage (3.1)
 C-rate. C (nominal C-rate) is used to represent a charge or discharge rate equal to
the capacity of a battery in one hour. For a 1.6 Ah battery, C is equal to charge or
discharge the battery at 1.6 A. Correspondingly, 0.1C is equivalent to 0.16 A, and
2C for charging or discharging the battery at 3.2 A.
 Specific Energy Specific energy, also called gravimetric energy density, is used to
define how much energy a battery can store per unit mass. It is expressed in Watt-
hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) as:
Specific Energy = Rated Wh Capacity*Battery Mass in kg (3.2)

34
 Specific energy of a battery is the key parameter for determining the total
battery weight for a given mile range of EV.
 Specific Power Specific power, also called gravimetric power density of a
battery, is the peak power per unit mass. It is expressed in W/kg as:
Specific Power = Rated Peak Power*Battery Mass in kg (3.3)
 Energy Density Energy density, also referred as the volumetric energy
density, is the nominal battery energy per unit volume (Wh/l).
 Power Density Power density is the peak power per unit volume of a battery
(W/l).
 Internal Resistance Internal resistance is the overall equivalent resistance
within the battery. It is different for charging and discharging and may vary
as the operating condition changes.
 Peak Power According to the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium
(USABC)’s definition, the peak power is defined as
2𝑉𝑜𝑐 2
𝑃= (3.4)
9𝑅
Where Voc is the open-circuit voltage and R is the internal resistance of battery.
The peak power is actually defined at the condition when the terminal voltage is 2/3
of the open-circuit voltage.
 Cut-off Voltage Cut-off voltage is the minimum allowable voltage defined by
the manufacturer. It can be interpreted as the “empty” state of the battery.
 State of Charge (SOC) SOC is defined as the remaining capacity of a battery
and it is affected by its operating conditions such as load current and
temperature.
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑂𝐶 = (3.5)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

If the Ah capacity is used, the change of SOC can be expressed as:

1 𝑡
∆𝑆𝑜𝑐 = 𝑆𝑂𝐶(𝑡) − 𝑆𝑂𝐶(𝑡0) = 𝐴ℎ 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∫𝑡0 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 (3.6)

SOC is a critical condition parameter for battery management. Accurate gauging of SOC is
very challenging, but the key to the healthy and safe operation of batteries.
 Depth of Discharge (DOD) DOD is used to indicate the percentage of the total
battery capacity that has been discharged. For deep-cycle batteries, they can be
discharged to 80% or higher of DOD.
𝐷𝑂𝐷 = 1 − 𝑆𝑂𝐶 (3.7)
 State of Health (SOH) SOH can be defined as the ratio of the maximum charge
capacity of an aged battery to the maximum charge capacity when the battery was
new. SOH is an important parameter for indicating the degree of performance
degradation of a battery and for estimating the battery remaining lifetime.
𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑂𝐻 = (3.8)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

35
  Cycle Life (number of cycles) Cycle life is the number of discharge–charge cycles
the battery can handle at a specific DOD (normally 80%) before it fails to meet
specific performance criteria. The actual operating life of the battery is affected by
the charging and discharging rates, DOD, and other conditions such as temperature.
The higher the DOD, the shorter the cycle life. To achieve a higher cycle life, a larger
battery can be used for a lower DOD during normal operations.
 Calendar Life Calendar life is the expected life span of the battery under storage or
periodic cycling conditions. It can be strongly related to the temperature and SOC
during storage.
 Battery Reversal Battery reversal happens when the battery is forced to operate
under the negative voltage (voltage of positive electrode is lower than that in the
negative electrode). It can happen on a relatively weak cell in a serially connected
battery string. As the usable capacity of that particular weak cell runs out, the rest of
batteries in the same string will still continue to supply the current and force the
weak cell to reverse its voltage. The consequence of battery reversal is either a
shortening cycle life or a complete failure.
 Battery Management System (BMS) BMS is a combination of sensors, controller,
communication, and computation hardware with software algorithms designed to
decide the maximum charge/discharge current and duration from the estimation of
SOC and SOH of the battery pack.
 Thermal Management System (TMS) TMS is designed to protect the battery pack
from overheating and to extend its calendar life. Simple forced-air cooling TMS is
adopted for the NiMH battery, while more sophisticated and powerful liquid cooling
is required by most of the Li-ion batteries in EV applications.
3.4.3 Battery Charging Methods and EV Charging Schemes
The safety, durability, and performance of batteries are highly dependent on how
they are charged or discharged. Abuse of a battery can significantly reduce its life and can
be dangerous.
For EV batteries, there are the following common charging methods:
1. Constant Voltage Constant voltage method charges battery at a constant voltage.
This method is suitable for all kinds of batteries and probably the simplest charging
scheme. The battery charging current varies along the charging process. The
charging current can be large at the initial stage and gradually decreases to zero
when the battery is fully charged. The drawback in this method is the requirement
of very high power in the early stage of charging, which is not available for most
residential and parking structures.
2. Constant Curent In this charging scheme, the charging voltage applied to the
battery is controlled to maintain a constant current to the battery. The SOC will
increase linearly versus time for a constant current method. The challenge of this
method is how to determine the completeness of a charge with SOC =100%. The
cut-off can be determined by the combination of temperature raise, temperature
gradient raise, voltage increase, minus voltage change, and charging time.
3. The combination of constant voltage and constant current methods during the
charging process of a battery, normally both the methods will be used. Figure 3.13
shows a charging profile of a Li-ion cell. At the initial stage, the battery can be pre-
charged at a low, constant current if the cell is not pre-charged before. Then, it is

36
 switched to charge the battery with constant current at a higher value. When the
battery voltage (or SOC) reaches a certain threshold point, the charging is changed
to constant voltage charge. Constant voltage charge can be used to maintain the
battery voltage afterward if the DC charging supply is still available.

Figure 3.17 Typical Li-ion cell charge profile

For EVs, it is important for batteries to be able to handle random charging due to
regenerative braking the braking power of regenerative braking can be at the level of
hundred kilowatts. Safety limitation has to be applied to guarantee the safe operation of
batteries. Mechanical braking is usually used to aid regenerative braking in EVs as a
supplementary and safe measure.
It is also critical to know when to stop charging a battery. It would be ideal if the
battery SOC can be accurately gauged so that we can stop charging a battery when SOC
reaches a preset value (e.g., 100%). it has been a very challenging task to accurately estimate
SOC. Even if the SOC of a battery can be exactly identified, it is also needed to have some
other backup methods to stop charging. The following are some typical methods currently
used to stop a charging process.
3.4.4 Methods used to stop a charging process
1. Timer It is the most typical stopping method, which can be used for any types of
battery. When a preset timer expires, the charging process is stopped.
2. Temperature Cut Off (TCO) The charging will be stopped if the absolute
temperature of battery rises to a threshold value.
3. Delta Temperature Cut Off (DTCO) When the delta change in battery temperature
exceeds the safety value, the charging will be terminated.
4. Temperature change rate dT/dt. If the temperature change rate is over the safety
threshold value, the charging process will be terminated.

37
 5. Minimum Current (Imin) When the charging current reaches the lowest limit Imin,
the charging process stops. This method is normally incorporated with a constant
voltage charging scheme.
6. Voltage Limit When the battery voltage reaches a threshold value, the charging
process will be terminated. This method normally goes together with a constant
current charging method.
7. Voltage Change Rate dV/dt the charging process stops if the battery voltage does
not change versus time, or even if it starts to drop (a negative value of dV/dt).
8. Voltage Drop (DV) In NiMH battery, upon completion of the charge process (SOC
= 100%), the temperature of the cell starts to increase due to the recombination of
hydrogen and hydroxide ions and causes the cell voltage to drop. The charging will
be terminated if a preset value of the voltage drop is reached.
3.4.5 Performance Comparison between NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries in PHEV
While many exciting results are being presented on the performance of emerging
battery technologies, the majority of them come from laboratory reports based on small-
scale test runs. In order to fairly compare the performances of NiMH and Li-on, the batteries
currently in mass production by two reputable manufacturers were selected. Key
performance statistics from the NiMH battery by PRIMEARTH EV Energy Co. and the Li-
ion battery by Hitachi Vehicle Energy Ltd. are listed in Table 3.1.
Two types of NiMH batteries, plastic and metal-cased, are shown here. The latter
was introduced to trade 10% of the energy and power densities for a 40% improvement in
cooling efficiency. A quick glance through the data reveals that the advantages of Li-ion are
obvious: higher specific energy and output power. However, with a closer look at the
comparison of specific energies, the superiority of Li-ion is limited at the current
development stage. At the cell level, the specific energy of Li-ion is about 20% higher than
that of NiMH. However, after taking the two batteries’ cooling mechanisms into
consideration, the air-cooled NiMH may have a higher specific energy at the system level
since, in order to optimize its service life, the Li-ion battery requires a powerful liquid-
cooling structure that adds the weights of the coolant, compressor, evaporator, and controller
to the system weight. Moreover, the battery management system for NiMH is on the system
level, making it simpler and lighter than Li-ion’s management system, which demands
precise control at the cell level. An additional concern is that Li-ion needs to be
overdesigned to overcome its short calendar life issue (as seen in the GM Volt where only
50–70% of its energy is “usable” to ensure it has an acceptable calendar life), while NiMH
does not. From the more practical perspective of looking on the car level, the current Li-ion
(battery pack) does not necessarily provide a higher specific energy. This observation
explains the difference in driving range between the recently developed Li-ion batteries
powered Nissan Leaf EV (80–100 miles) and the fifteen-year-old NiMH battery powered
EV-1 (180 miles). Another point that needs to be addressed is the comparison in power
performance.
The data shown in the table compare the two batteries’ output power, which assists
the engine in PHEV during acceleration. As for input power, both NiMH and Li-ion batteries
have the same impedance during charge and discharge, as opposed to the lead–acid battery,
which has a charging impedance three times higher than its discharge impedance.
Theoretically, a Li-ion battery should be able to take in 3,000 W/kg power during braking.
However, in the modern Li-ion battery management systems, a safety factor of 3 is normally
applied in order to reduce the risk of Li-dendrite formation and excessive heating of the
battery. Therefore, in real cases, the maximum input power for Li-ion is limited to 1,000

38
W/kg at the cell level, with that number being further decreased after considering the added
weight from the cooling system and controller.

Table 3.1 Comparison of HEV batteries from volume production

39
3.4.6 EV Battery life
What makes lithium batteries last a long time? Let’s turn that upside down. What shortens
lithium battery life?
1. Overcharging or high voltage.
2. Deep discharges or low voltage.
3. High discharges or charge current.
4. High temperatures
When a lithium battery is charged, its voltage goes up slowly. When it reaches full
charge, battery voltage is highest, and will not go up much more. The max voltage (V) varies
with lithium cell chemistry. (Lithium-cobalt blends have terminal voltages around 3.9 to
4.2V. Lithium-titanate batteries charge to 2.85V. Lithium-iron-phosphate batteries charge
to about 3.65V.
Lithium battery voltage must be prevented from exceeding this voltage because it not only
ruins battery life; it can lead to battery destruction or overheating and fire in some lithium
batteries. Battery management systems (BMS) are used to control charging voltage so that
the max charging voltage and temperature is never exceeded.
High voltage also leads to another limit, called calendar life. When foreign matter builds
up, it prevents the flow of ions at the electrodes. Lithium-ion batteries contain electrodes,
conductors through which current enters or leaves the cell. In between the electrodes is an
electrolyte, a solution used to conduct current between the cells. Conduction is achieved
through exchange of ions between electrodes and through the electrolyte. The chemical
interaction within the battery is called a redox reaction.
When a lithium-bearing electrolyte comes in contact with the electrode, it forms a layer.
The interface where the exchange of ions happens between the electrode and electrolyte is
called the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) and this forms an SEI layer.
Buildup of material blocks the flow of ions at the SEI layer at the end of calendar life.

Figure 3.18 Solid electrolyte interface (SEI)

The SEI layer contributes to internal resistance. Battery manufacturers are aware of this and
keep their batteries at states of charge of as low as 40% to maintain battery capacity during
storage and shipment. To increase cell calendar life, overvoltage and high temperatures must
be avoided. At the other end of cell voltage and charge, for maximum cycle life, deep
discharge must be avoided.
The Figure below describes the relation between DOD and the Life cycle and compare the
three types (lead-acid/ Lithium), as we can see when the DOD increase life cycle
decrease.

40
Figure 3.19 Cycle Life versus Depth of Discharge curve

We now have real-world evidence that controlling conditions in this way can result
in long battery life. The Tesla Roadster achieves long battery life with lithium-cobalt
batteries by controlling all four of the factors listed: temperature, maximum voltage or full
charge, minimum voltage or depth of discharge, and C rate. A cursory analysis of electric
vehicle mileage based on 100% discharge cycles yields an erroneous result because it does
not consider the effect of reduced depth of discharge. With a range of over 200 miles, and
an average daily mileage of about 30 miles, cycle life and mileage is extended. Daily charge
defaults to 80% charge, limiting maximum voltage and extending calendar life. Calendar
life increases by controlling pack temperature and limiting maximum charge to a short
period of time because trips are taken soon after full charge. C rates are reduced and
controlled because the pack current capability is large relative to charge and discharge rate.
All those controlled conditions contribute to longer battery life and mileage.
3.4.7 Conclusion
Many factors can influence the battery life; overvoltage, high current, high
temperature, high DOD… to control these factors a BMS is used. In our case the BMS is
going to be integrated in the Motor controller, more information is below in the chapter 7
[10].

3.5 Conclusion
For our project we choose the In hub wheel motor a type of BLDC motor as shown
above because of the accessibility, no need to make any modification on the car (except
braking), the motor controller that include the inverter/ converter is going to be
recommended by the EM supplier (chapter 7), the type of battery is lithium because it is
more available in the market, and less heavier that other batteries. To choose the right EM
a procedure of calculation is made in the next chapter (chapter 4) to eventually get the power
required from the EM and from the battery.

41
Chapter 4: vehicle power requirements and
battery dimensioning.
4.1 Introduction
In chis chapter a procedure is shown to calculate the power required from the battery
and from the motor, another procedure is shown to calculate the right torque at the wheels
(since we are using in hub wheel motors). These procedures help us choose the right motor
and to dimension the size of the battery. Of course, we had to choose a car to make the study
on, we had chosen a front wheel car drive (Renault Megane II 2004), we have chosen this
car because we had so experiences concerning the maintenance of Renault and PSA vehicles
which makes any modification required or taking any required signal form the car sensors
or ECU much easier on us.

4.2 Power/ Torque required

The acceleration of a vehicle is determined by all the forces applied on it, which is
given by Newton’s second law as
𝑓𝑚 𝑀𝛼 = 𝐹𝑡 − ∑𝐹𝑟 (4.1)
Where:
- M is the overall mass of the vehicle, a is the vehicle acceleration
- fm is the mass factor that converts the rotational inertias of rotating components into
equivalent translational mass
- Ft is the total traction force to the vehicle
- ∑Fr is the total resistive force. The resistive forces are normally the rolling resistance
between tires and road surface, aerodynamic drag, and uphill grading resistance.
The total resistance can be estimated as
1
∑𝐹𝑟 = 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑟𝑟𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 2 𝜌𝐶𝑑(𝑉 − 𝑉𝑤)2 + 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (4.2)

Where:
- g is the acceleration of gravity
- Crr is coefficient of rolling resistance between tires and road surface,
- 𝜌 is the density of the ambient air
- A is the vehicle frontal area
- Cd is the aerodynamic drag coefficient
- V is the vehicle speed

42
 - Vw is the wind speed in the vehicle moving direction
- 𝜃 is the slope angle

Figure 4.1 Forces applied on a vehicle

The total propulsion force can then be expressed as

1
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑓𝑚 𝑀𝛼 + 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 2 𝜌𝐶𝑑(𝑉 − 𝑉𝑤)2 + 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (4.3)

The power to drive the vehicle at speed V is then

1
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑡𝑉 = 𝑓𝑚 𝑀𝛼𝑉 + 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑟𝑟𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜌𝐶𝑑𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑉𝑤)2 + 𝑀𝑔𝑉𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (4.4)
2
In the procedure of regenerative braking, the electric propulsion motor in an EV
works as a generator to convert the kinetic energy of vehicle motion into electrical energy
and charge battery. The braking power can be expressed as
1
𝑃𝑏 = 𝐹𝑏𝑉 = 𝑓𝑚 𝑀µ𝑉 − 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑟𝑟𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 2 𝜌𝐶𝑑𝑉(𝑉 − 𝑉𝑤)2 − 𝑀𝑔𝑉𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (4.5)

Where:
- Pb is the braking power
- Fb is the braking force
- µ is the deceleration of the vehicle
Torque required
𝐶 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑅𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 (4.6)
Where:
- F: propulsion force calculated in procedure 1
- C: Torque required on the wheel
- Rwheel: radius of the wheel [10].

4.3 Case study: Renault Megane II

4.3.1 Specifications
Chassis
Weight 1600 kg
Length 4209 mm

43
 wheelbase 2625 mm
Front track 1518 mm
Rear track 1514 mm
Kerb weight 1175 kg
Max weight (loaded) 1725 kg
Wheel rims size 195/65 R15

Engine
Displacement 1.6 16v
Maximum power 85 kW @ 6000RPM
Acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h 10.9 s
Maximum torque 152 Nm @ 2500RPM
Fuel consumption (economy) -urban 9,1 L/ 100km
Fuel consumption (economy) – extra 5.7L/100km
urban
CO2 emissions 164 g/km

Table 4.1 Renault megane II (case study) speciications

4.3.2 Assumptions
Drag coefficient
In this day and age of obsessions with fuel efficiency and saving the planet, one of the largest
factors found to affect consumption figures is the drag force on a car. As an object moves
through air, the air being displaced by the object's movement interacts with the body,
causing an opposing force to take hold. More resistance opposing a car while in motion will
mean that it takes more effort to accelerate, straining the powertrain and increasing fuel
consumption. This is why car companies these days often state a value for how
aerodynamically efficient their cars are, known as the drag coefficient, to show off their
handywork.
Denoted in engineering terminology as 'Cd', the drag coefficient takes into account
numerous factors governing the aerodynamic abilities of a car, producing a nice neat number
at the end to compare with other models.
It is calculated using the following equation:

2𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = (4.7)
𝜌𝐴𝑉 2
So the drag coefficient is a function of the drag force on the car (Fd), the density of the air
(ρ), the frontal area of the car (A) and the speed that the car is travelling (V). The aim is to
get the value for drag coefficient as small as possible, making the front profile of the car a
key design aspect on which to apply an engineer's aerodynamic knowledge.

44
The worst drag coefficient of production cars is for hummer H2 0.57
The best drag coefficient of production cars is for Volkswagen XL1 0.19

𝐶𝑟𝑟 0.02
Aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.5
𝜌 1.225 kg/m3
A 2 m2
𝜃 0 (coast)
Vw 0
fm 1,05
Acceleration 0.5 m/s2
Velocity 30 km/h =8.3 m/s

Table 4.2 assumptions taken to calculate the required power of the electric motors
4.4 Results
According to the formulas cited before we can have the results as follow

4.4.1 Force required 1171 N

4.4.2 Torque required 112 N.m

4.4.3 Power required 9719.3 KW

Table 4.3 force and power required from the electric motors
4.5 Conclusion
In this chapter we have deduced that we need 10 KW power for in hub wheel motor,
and for the battery we add the auxiliary power required by lights beam, radio, steering
device, ABS pump… which are equivalent to 2 KW. Because the Electricity fee in some
countries is expensive, and the lack of the accessibility make the plug-in hybrid vehicle an
unwanted choice that’s why a lot of hybrid vehicle use the regenerative braking technology
that allows to recharge the battery form the lost kinetic energy. More info is presented in the
next chapter.

45
Chapter 5: Regenerative braking
5.1 Introduction
Regenerative braking allows hybrid electric vehicles to use the motor as a generator
when the brakes are applied, to pump vehicle energy from the brakes into an energy storage
device. Regenerative braking is an effective approach to extend the driving range of HEV
and can save from 8% to as much as 25% of the total energy used by the vehicle, depending
on the driving cycle and how it was driven. Generally, the regenerative braking torque
cannot be made large enough to provide all the required braking torque of the vehicle. In
addition, the regenerative braking system may not be used under many conditions, such as
with a high state of charge (SOC) or a high temperature of the battery. In these cases, the
conventional hydraulic braking system works to cover the required total braking torque.
Thus, cooperation between the hydraulic braking system and the regenerative braking
system is a main part of the design of the EV and HEV braking control strategy and is known
as torque blending. This torque blending strategy helps to avoid the driveline disturbances.
In this chapter two type of powertrain are discussed for regenerative braking
implementation, and after that Trafficar regenerative braking strategy is proposed.
5.2 Energy Consumption in Braking
A significant amount of energy is consumed by braking. Braking a 1500 kg vehicle
from 100 km/h to zero speed consumes about 0.16 kWh of energy (0.5 * Mv * V2) in a few
tens of meters. If this amount of energy is consumed in coasting by only overcoming the
drags (rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag) without braking, the vehicle will travel
about 2 km, as shown in Figure 5.1. When vehicles are driving with a stop-and-go pattern
in urban areas, a significant amount of energy is consumed by frequent braking, which
results in high fuel consumption. The braking energy in typical urban areas may reach up to
more than 25% of the total traction energy. In large cities, such as New York, it may reach
up to 70%. It is concluded that effective regenerative braking can significantly improve the
fuel economy of EVs and HEVs.

Figure 5.1 Coasting time, Speed and Distance

46
 5.3 Braking Power and Energy on Front and Rear Wheels
Braking power and braking energy consumed by the front and rear wheels are
closely related to the braking forces on the front and rear wheels. A full understanding of
the braking force, braking power, and braking energy consumed by the front and rear wheels
in typical drive cycles is helpful in the design of regenerative braking systems.

5.4Types of powertrain used in regenerative braking

Two types of regenerative braking used in vehicle:
- Serial regenerative braking
- Parallel regenerative braking
In what follow we are going to explain each one.

5.4.1 Serial regenerative braking

Serial regenerative braking is based on a combination of friction-based adjustable
braking system with a regenerative braking system that transfers energy to the electric
motors and batteries under an integrated control strategy. The overall design is to estimate
the deceleration required by the driver and distribute the required braking force between the
regenerative braking system and the mechanical braking system. Serial regenerative braking
could give an increase of 15-30% in fuel efficiency. It requires a brake by-wire system and
has more consistent pedal feel due to good torque blending capability.
5.4.2 Parallel regenerative braking
Parallel braking system is based on a combination of friction-based system and the
regenerative braking system, operated in tandem without an integrated control. The
regenerative braking force is added to the mechanical braking force which cannot be
adjusted. The regenerative braking force is increasing with the mechanical braking force.
The beginning pedal travel is used to control the regenerative braking force only, the normal
mechanical braking force is not changed. The regenerative torque is determined by
considering the motor capacity, battery state of charge SOC, and vehicle velocity. The
regenerative braking force is calculated from the brake control unit by comparing the
demanded brake torque and the motor torque available. The wheel pressure is reduced by
the amount of the regenerative braking force and that supplied from the hydraulic brake
module. Parallel regenerative braking could give an increase of 9-18% in fuel efficiency. It
can be added onto a conventional braking systems. However it could compromise the pedal
feel and hence requires more work in achieving good torque blending.

Figure 5.2 Parallel (left) and serial regenerative (right) braking control respectively

47
 5.5 Implementation of serial braking strategy
Once the brake pedal is pressed and depending on the level of depression, a brake
torque is sent. Now this brake torque passes into the brake control strategy block. Here,
firstly it is checked if battery state-of-charge is below 80% which is set as the maximum
permissible level of charge. If that condition is satisfied, then the battery is recharged. The
brake torque requested is compared to the maximum regenerative torque limit of the motor-
generator. If the overall brake torque requested is less than or equal to the maximum
regenerative torque, then the vehicle brakes purely on regenerative torque and the battery is
charged. The amount of charge ultimately put in depends also on the motor-generator
operation efficiency and the battery charging efficiency. If the overall brake torque
requested is greater than what the motor-generator can provide, then the friction brakes kick-
in. Now since the vehicle is front driven, it is checked if the total brake torque requested
from front is less than or equal to maximum regenerative torque capability of motor-
generator.
5.6 Implementation of parallel braking strategy
Once the brake pedal is applied and a desired overall brake torque request is sent
from the driver block. This brake torque on passing through the brake control strategy gets
divided between regeneration and friction braking at all times. The strategy is so modeled
with the comfort and brake pedal feel in mind. As a parallel regenerative braking is an add-
on to the conventional systems, it is devoid of any integrated control. So to make the
transition and co-performance of regenerative braking with friction smooth, it is assigned in
such a way that, there is a clear division between the amount of brake torque that will be
achieved from regeneration and friction braking [11].

48
Figure 5.3 flowchart of serial regeneration operation

49
Figure 5.4 Flowchart of parallel regeneration braking operation

50
 5.7 TRAFFICAR regenerative braking strategy
5.7.1 Definition
Our project consists of adding an electric system on a petrol car, to make it hybrid
only in traffic. This operation is not simple as it looks especially when we decide to
implement a regenerative braking technology in the system because as you’ve seen above
regenerative braking is a part of the braking system, it works in parallel or in series with the
braking system. The manufactures design the whole car and the braking system based on
this principle, the whole friction braking will be different than the conventional car. That’s
why adding a regenerative braking with the friction braking will cause a safety concern we
don’t have neither the technology nor the enough knowledge to take a responsibility of. And
this is why we decided that the regenerative braking will work with the conventional friction
braking at the same time if the battery level is under a certain limit (10% in our case) and in
the downhill only i.e the regenerative braking system will never take the whole braking or
any partial in any case, he will be an additive braking on the original friction braking, thus
in any case that this system malfunction, the car will work perfectly on the original friction
braking. There’s no danger at all. The only difference the driver will find that there’s some
negative torque (friction ) coming from this system, the driver will have to adapt with this
new torque by pressing differently on the pedal (pressing less than the conventional system,
but we also know that negative torque coming from the generator is different depending on
the speed of the car, so the driver will have to press differently on the brake every time to
get the desired torque, which can make the driver uncomfortable ( the car will stop early, or
after wards than expected from the pressed pedal), and that’s why we decided to limit the
regeneration braking to only in the downhill case. A flowchart will show the operation of
this simple strategy.

51
TRAFFICAR regenerative braking strategy operation

Figure 5.5 Trafficar regenerative braking strategy operation

5.8 Energy balance

Within the bounds of the present research the question of qualitative
evaluation of regenerative power during electric vehicle braking is of fundamental
importance. Estimation of recovered energy is very important at the design stage since it
helps to find out which scheme is more effective for a particular type of vehicle. An
indication of effectiveness of regenerative braking for various regenerative strategies is
estimated by the following method.

5.8.1 Regenerative ratio

In the braking process on a flat road, the vehicle’s kinetic energy and regenerative
electrical energy are calculated by the following:
∑𝐸
𝜖 = ∑ 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑡 (5.1)
𝑘𝑖𝑛

1
With, kinetic energy:𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) , (5.2)
2

52
 𝑡=𝑒𝑛𝑑
Electrical energy 𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑡 = ∫𝑡=0 (𝐸𝑘 − 𝐼 (𝑡)𝑅 (𝑡))𝐼(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (5.3)
Where:
- Ek is the battery voltage,
- I(t) is the battery current,
- R(t) is the charging resistance,
- V1 is the initial velocity,
- V2 is the final velocity.
In order to improve the effectiveness of regeneration, it is preferable that the
majority of braking at high speeds be regenerative. The reasoning behind this strategy is that
higher generator torque is necessary for braking at higher speeds, which conveniently allows
for higher battery charging efficiencies. At lower speeds, relatively little current is being
produced by the generator to ensure desirable battery recharge efficiencies. Therefore, at
these speeds, the frictional brakes are applied to decrease electrical cycling through the
generator and batteries. It has been implied in the literature that the life of the electrical
system, especially the batteries, is adversely effected by this ’micro-cycling’ process where
the battery pack is subjected to short-term charge and discharge cycles, thereby reducing
life and efficiency.

5.9 Conclusion
Theoretically, the serial strategy has the highest energy recovery of all types of
regenerative braking; this strategy is designed for city cycle situations; only electric motor
braking is applied until the motor reaches its maximum capacity. At this intersection point,
the mechanical brake starts to involve. However, its safety and degree of comfort must be
considered. As motor braking independently occurs when the brake demand is less than the
motor maximum capability, a wheel-lock situation may occur on a low-friction road. A
vehicle may lose its steering ability and undergo “oversteering” and “understeering”.
Nevertheless, the motor controller offers the regen option with minimal safety issue as they
promised, but we cannot compromise the safety of our costumers especially in the few first
protypes we do; thus, we have decided that for its best regen braking is used only in
downhills. The control of the motor/ generator, the braking regeneration require a
sophisticated ECU, especially the type of control that give the best performance with the
minimum toxic emissions. In the next chapter we are going to discuss all the algorithm and
system architecture used in most hybrid vehicles, to eventually choose or make the
architecture that suits our system (TRAFFICAR).

53
Chapter 6: The Hybrid system architecture
and ECU classification
6.1 Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
- Function of Control System in HEVs and EVs
- Elementary of Control Theory
- Overview of Control System: The Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
- Control Area Network
- Control Variables

6.2 Classification of Hybrid ECU

The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is also known
energy management strategy (EMS). The EMS can be classified into following broad
categories:
6.2.1 Rule based
The Rule Based strategies consist of following subcategories:
Deterministic Control The deterministic controllers are subdivided into
- State Machine
- Power follower
- Thermostat Control.
Fuzzy based the fuzzy based control strategies are of three types
- Predictive,
- Adaptive
- Conventional
6.2.2 Optimization based
The Optimization based strategies are of following types:
Global Optimization The global optimization methods are
- Linear programming methods
- Dynamic Programming
- Stochastic Dynamic Programming
- Genetic Algorithms
Real time Optimization The real time optimization techniques are of following
types:
- EFC (Engine Fuel Consumption) minimization
- Robust control
- Model predictive
- Decoupling Control

54
6.3 Basic Principles of Rule Based Control Methods
6.3.1 Definition
Rule based control strategies can cope with the various operating modes of HEV.
The rule-based strategies are developed using engineering insight and intuition, analysis of
the ICE efficiency charts shown in Figure 6.1 and the analysis of electrical component
efficiency charts.

Figure 6.1 efficiency map of ICE

Figure 6.2 efficiency map of ICE showing upper and lower boundaries for EM operation

An example of developing rule-based strategy can be explained using the ICE efficiency
map shown in Figure 6.2. The lines, which are drawn using engineering insight and intuition,
divide the map into three regions: A, B, and C. the rules for operation of ICE in these three
regions are:
- In the region A only, EM is used because in this region the fuel efficiency of the ICE
is poor.
- In region B only, ICE is used since this the region of high fuel efficiency.
- In region C both ICE and EM are used.
6.3.2 Deterministic Rule Based Strategies
Heuristics based on analysis of power flow in HEV drivetrain, ICE efficiency
map and human experiences are utilized to design deterministic rules. These rules are
generally implemented using lookup tables to split requested power between the ICE and
EM. The most commonly used strategies are:
- Thermostat (on/off) control
- Power follower control
- Modified power follower
- State Machine based controller
Power follower control
In this strategy the ICE is the primary source of power and the EM is used to
provide additional power when needed by the vehicle. Care is always taken to maintain the
SOC of batteries within safe limits. The rule base is generally used is:
I. Below a certain minimum vehicle speed, only the EM is used.
II. If the demanded power is greater than the maximum power that the ICE can
produce at its operating speed, the EM is used to produce excess power.
III. The EM charges the batteries by regenerative braking.

55
 IV. The ICE shuts off when the power demand falls below a limit at the operating
speed. This is done to prevent inefficient operation of ICE.

This is a very simple and effective strategy but the major disadvantage is that the efficiency of
the entire drivetrain is not optimized.
Modified power follower
In order to improve the power follower controller a cost function is introduced. The
role of this cost function is to strike a balance between fuel consumption and emissions at all
operating points of HEV. The rule base for the proposed strategy is as follows: Define the
range of operating points: The range of operating points (distribution of ICE and EM torques)
is represented by the range of acceptable motor torques for the current torque request. The
relation between the ICE, EM and requested torque is given by:
𝑇𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡 − 𝐾𝑇𝑒𝑚 (Equation 1)
Where k= motor to ICE gear ratio
The greatest possible positive motor torque defines one extreme of the operating point range:
This value is the minimum of three values
a. The driver’s torque request
b. The maximum rated positive torque of the motor at the current speed
c. Maximum available positive torque from the EM, according to the limits imposed
by the capability of the batteries

The greatest possible negative EM torque defines the other extreme of the operating point range.
This value is the maximum of
a. The difference between the driver’s torque request and the maximum positive
torque available from the ICE
b. The maximum rated negative torque of the EM at the current speed
c. The maximum available negative torque from the EM, according to limits imposed
by the capability of the battery.

For each candidate operating point, calculate the constituent factors for optimization:
The following steps are involved in this step:
a. Calculate the fuel energy that would be consumed by the ICE. The actual fuel energy
consumed for a given ICE torque is affected by two things:
- Hot, steady state ICE fuel maps
- Temperature correction factors

For a given torque request and motor torque, equation 1 sets the ICE torque. At this torque
and given speed, the ICE map provides the fuel consumed by the ICE when it is hot (Figure
6 3). A cold ICE uses more fuel than a hot ICE. A cold ICE correspondingly produces more
emissions than a hot ICE. The outputs of the ICE for cold and hot operation are given by
95−𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑘2
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 𝐻𝑜𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒 (𝐾1 + ( ) ) (6.1)
75

95−𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 3.1
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙ℎ𝑜𝑡 (𝐾1 + ( ) ) (6.2)
75

56
Where
- cold consumption of output
- Hot_use: hot,steady state variable output
- Tempice : temperature of ICE coolant [C]
- K1: a constant that varies with output
- K2: a constant that varies with output

b. Calculate the effective fuel energy that would be consumed by EM for a time
interval, for example 1 second using the following steps:
- Find fuel energy versus EM torque
- Find ΔSOC versus EM torque, accounting for gain due to regenerative braking
- Combine the curves obtained in above steps
- Determine the equivalent energy by evaluating the curve from step3
c. Calculate total energy that would be consumed by the vehicle
d. Calculate the emissions that would be produced by the ICE.

Figure 6.3 Efficiency map for hot ICE

Normalize the constituent factors for each candidate operating point: The goals of
minimizing energy and minimizing emissions can conflict with each other. The most
efficient operating point will likely produce more pollution than less efficient operating
points. Moreover, minimizing the amount of one pollutant can increase the amount of
another. Hence, a second goal of the strategy is to allow prioritization of the relative
importance of minimizing the fuel use and each of the pollutants. This prioritization is
described in Steps 4 and 5 below.
Apply user weighting KUSER to the results from step iii. The relative importance of
each of the normalized metrices is determined by two weighing factors. The first is a user
weighing fore energy and the emissions. This is basically a Boolean switch for the user to
toggle if he/she chooses to ignore certain emissions.

57
 Apply target performance weighting KTAREGET: The target performance weighing
factor is applied to result from step iv. The factor KTAREGET is given by
max 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐾𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 = (6.3)
𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Compute overall impact factor, which is a composite of results of step iii to step v
for all operating points, that is
∑(𝐾𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 ∗𝐾𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 )
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑡 = ∑(𝐾𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 ∗𝐾𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 )
(6.4)

Figure 6.4 Flow chart for modified power follower controller strategy

The final operating point is the operating point with the minimum impact factor.
This strategy improves the overall performance of the HEV drivetrain but is computationally
expensive.
State Machine Based
The state machine dictates the operating mode of the HEV such:
i. Engine (ice propelling the vehicle)
ii. Boosting (both ice and em propelling the vehicle)
iii. Charging (ICE propelling the vehicle and charging the battery)
The transition between the operating modes is decided based on:
i. the change in driver demand
ii. a change in vehicle operating condition
iii. a system or a subsystem fault.
The various states involved in the control strategy are listed in Table 6.1

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Table 6.1 States of operations in HEV
Implementation of a vehicle controller through state machines facilitates fault resilient
supervisory control of the whole system.
6.3.3 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System
Definition
Fuzzy logic is an extension of the conventional rule-based methods and has following
advantages over them:
- Robustness: It is inherently robust because it does not require precise, noise free
inputs and the output is a smooth function despite a wide range of input variations.
- Adaptation: Since FLC processes user defined rules governing the system, it can be
modified easily to improve or drastically alter system performance.
- Flexibility: FLC is not limited to a few feedback inputs and one or two outputs and
it is not necessary to measure or compute rate-of-change of parameters.
Fuzzy Strategy
The FLC, explained in this section, satisfies the following objectives:
- minimize NOx emissions
- sustain battery SOC
- achieve desired torque requested by the driver

The inputs to this FLC are:

- Acceleration pedal stroke (Acc)
- EM speed
The configuration of the drive train is shown in Figure 6.5. An induction motor (IM)
used in the drivetrain and the IM is directly coupled to the ICE. Since the IM is directly
coupled to the diesel ICE, it will be in the field weakening region in most of the ICE
operating, the generating torque decreases as the ICE speed increases. Hence, it is required

59
to describe the required torque as a ratio defined as K to the rated torque at a rotational
speed. The positive K means that the IM acts as a powering source and negative K means
that the IM acts as a generator. Once K is determined, the torque command becomes
Torque Command = K ∗ rated torque at a rotational speed (1) (6.5)

Some basic principles of generating the torque command from the acceleration pedal
stroke and ICE rotational speed in the HEV can be described as follows:
 Low ICE Speed: When the ICE rotational speed is low, it generates pollutant
emissions with low efficiency. Hence, in this operating condition, the torque
assistant control by the IM should be performed. Assistant torque is commanded to
increase in proportion to the acceleration pedal stroke as in the conventional ICE
vehicle, that is
𝐾 ∗ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 (6.6)

 Medium ICE Speed: When the diesel ICE’s speed is medium, it can supply
sufficient torque to the hybrid drive train. Hence, battery recharging control is
performed instead of torque assistance control when acceleration pedal stroke is
below some extent. The torque assistance of the IM should be should be achieved to
satisfy the driver’s acceleration need if the acceleration pedal is pressed beyond
some extent. Since, the diesel ICE torque is subjected to saturation beyond 80% of
the pedal acceleration pedal stroke; the motoring action of the IM is made to begin
from that point.
 High ICE Speed: When the diesel ICE speed is high, the torque assistance control
is performed as that of the medium speed range. In battery recharging control the
IM’s output power is kept constant. Now since the ICE can produce more power
than in the medium speed range, the factor K should be made to be negatively greater
in order to supply more power to the batteries than that of the medium speed range.
As the speed increases, the ratio of the power capability of the ICE to that of the IM
increases. Hence, it is beneficial to recharge the battery at high speed, rather than at
medium speed.

Figure 6.5 Drive train control

60
Implementation of Fuzzy Logic
Based on the three principled of operation of ICE, discussed above, the fuzzy rule base can
be developed. The development of the FLC is described in the following subsections. Input
/ Output Membership Functions for Fuzzy Logic For the considered example, there are
two input variables namely:
- the acceleration pedal stroke Acc
- The IM rotational speed Wrpm
The ranges of the input variables are set as follows:
- The Accis set to zero when the driver does not press the acceleration pedal at all and
set to a 100 when the driver presses the acceleration pedal completely.
- The Wrpm can vary from the diesel ICE’s idling speed to its maximum speed.
The output is the normalized ratio of the torque command to rated torque at a speed. The
inputs and the outputs are normalized between zero and one. The input and the output
membership functions are shown in figure 6.6

Figure 6.6 Memebership functions for Wice, Acc. K'

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Rule Base for Fuzzy Logic
The rule base for the torque control and battery recharging control are given in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2. Rule base for Fuzzy logiv

Procedures and Results of Fuzzy Logic
In fuzzificiation process, the normalized crisp inputs x for Acc and y for Wrpm are
transformed to fuzzy values in singletons.The singletons are fuzzy sets which have a
membership’s value of 1 for the given inputs and 0 for all other values:
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥0
µ𝐴0 (𝑥) = {
0 𝑖𝑓𝑥 ≠ 𝑥0
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑦0
µ𝐵0 (𝑦) = {
0 𝑖𝑓𝑦 ≠ 𝑦0
Where x0 and y0 are normalized operating points for Acc and Wrpm respectively. The truth
values for the ith input membership function for and the input membership function for x
can the jth be input membership function for y, wij can be obtained as
𝑤𝑖𝑗 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛{𝜇𝐴𝑖 (𝑥) 𝜇𝐵𝑗 (𝑦)} where i=1,2,3lj=1,2,3
Using Wij and Kth output membership function according to each rule, µ𝐶𝑘 (𝑧) ( ), fuzzy
output value, µ𝐶𝑖𝑗 (𝑧) can be calculated as

𝜇𝑖𝑗 (𝑧) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛{𝜇𝑖𝑗 𝜇𝐶𝑘 (𝑧)} where k=1,2,3,4,5

Finally, the fuzzy set for output z, µCO (z) can be calculated using the union operator
𝜇𝐶𝑂 (𝑧) = max{𝜇𝑐11 (𝑧) 𝜇𝑐12 (𝑧) … … . 𝜇𝐶42 (𝑧)𝜇𝑐43 (𝑧)]}
Inference results are transformed into crisp value through centre of gravity method
∫ 𝜇𝐶𝑂 (𝑧).𝑧𝑑𝑧
𝐾′ = (6.7)
∫ 𝜇𝐶𝑂 (𝑧).𝑑𝑧

K’ varies from 0 to 1 [12] .

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Figure 6.8 Graphical representation of rule base

6.4 Our project hybrid system architecture

We have talked above about the architecture used in hybrid vehicle to optimize
consumption or reduce emissions as possible as it can or increase performance as possible
as it can. But in our project, we are targeting the traffic area only, it means the ICE and the
EM won’t work together in parallel, instead the electric motors will be responsible in a
certain range of speed (expected 30 km/hr see chapter power requirements), thus we
designed the proper architecture system, this architecture discusses these topics:
- BMS battery management system (explained in chapter: main part pf the electric
systembattery)
- The hybrid electronic unit: it is responsible of detecting the traffic scenario and also
the regenerative braking scenario.
In this sector we are going to elaborate the relations between these modules, the
conditions required to activate or deactivate, beside how to detect and gets all the signals

63
and information we need from the car. And in the end of this sector we are going to develop
a flowchart showing the relation between all modules allowing the reader to understand the
architecture more easily and making the coding of the system easier.
6.4.1 The Hybrid Electronic Control
Conditions required to detect a traffic scenario
1- 0<speed<15 km/h
2- 0<α<100 (alpha is the butterfly angle)
What happen when a traffic scenario is detected
1- Turn of the internal combustion engine
2- Turn on the electric system (motors, digital screen)
3- While 0<α<400
Conditions required to detect the end of traffic
1- Speed>15 km/h
2- 𝛼 > 400 and the speed variation of the angle of the butterfly valve should be high,
the value will be chosen depending on a real experiment.
Conditions required to activate Regenerative braking
1- SOC of the battery provided by the BMS should be above 50% and below 90%
2- Speed>20km/hr
3- α>0o
4- Brake contact closed (driver requesting negative torque (pressing brakes))
Eventually in a downhill these conditions must be satisfied but we will add a gyroscope
sensor to detect the downhill scenario.
Emergency battery charging scenario
In case the SOC of the battery get below 50%, the battery is going to be recharged
by the car alternator itself, but only in a rpm range from 1500-2500, this is the range when
the ICE efficiency is at its best.
Common modification on the petrol car (ignition)
Beside the modification that’s going to happen on the chassis. The ignition must be
automated (keyless) because in most case the ignition must be on, so automating the ignition
will decrease the confusion of the driver.
The detection of signals
The digitals and the analogue signals are going to be provided to the electric system
control unit that by its turn is going to control the motor/generator depending on the case.
In a hybrid vehicle manufactured by huge industries such as TOYOTA, HUNDAI... the
control unit of the petrol engine and the electric system are combined in a one control unit,
it acts as a normal ecu with the typical input signals (throttle position sensor, knock sensor,
pressure sensor, oxygen sensor, water temperature sensor and many others) and the typical
output signals (injector timing, ignition advance, fan motion, motorized throttle body
control.) and to the typical input/output signals it adds up the signals needed for the electric
system (chapter 4). In our case we are adding the electric system thus we have also to make
the control unit itself of the electric system, in the end we will having three separates control
units:
- The ECU (engine control unit (already exist))

64
 - The ESCU (electric system control unit)
The conditions mentioned above can be detected by these ways:
- Downhillgyroscope sensor to detect the inclination of the car (θ angle)
- Butterfly closed (α angle) measured by the throttle position sensor already
available in the any car
- The speed of the carcomputed already by ABS ecu, or the engine ECU (V)
- The cut-off signal granted by the ecu, or UCH (fuse box)
- SOC provided by the BMS (we are going to buy the BMS)
- The RPM signal is provided by the crankshaft sensor.

65
Flowchart of the electric system operation

Figure 6.9 Flowchart of the electric system operation

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Flowchart of the emergency alternator charging operation

Figure 6.10 Flowchart of the emergency charging operation

Block diagram of TRAFFICAR electronic control unit

Figure 6.11 block diagram of Trafficar electronic control unit

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 Conclusion
In this chapter we have seen multiple architecture for optimizing the consumption
and minimizing the emissions, and we introduced at the end the architecture that
TRAFFICAR control unit system is going to use. In the next chapter we are going to choose
the suppliers of our main parts.

68
Chapter 7: TRAFFICAR parts suppliers and
its costs
We’ve contacted many companies that can provide in- hub wheel motors, and BLDC
controllers. The main companies were:
- Elaphe motors located in Slovenia
- Protean Motors located in UK
- QS motors located in china
The best quotation we get is from QS motors thus in what follow we are going to elaborate
about the Electric motors and theirs specifications and also about their controller.

7.1 Electric motor

7.1.1 Motor reference/ name/ description
273 Car Hub Motor (50H) 5000W V2 Type. 273 Single Shaft Car Hub Motor specially
designed for Electric Car or 4-wheel electric
7.1.2 Motor Specification
1. Motor Type: BLDC Hub Motor with Permanent Magnet
2. Motor design: Single axle out without rim
3. PCD for rim installation: 4 x100mm, 5×114.3mm
4. CB:60MM/70MM
5. Magnet Height:45MM
6. of Pole Pairs: 28 pairs
7. Rated Power: 8000W V2
8. Peak Power: 16000W
9. Rated Voltage: 72V( 60V-144V Can be optional)
10. Speed: 100km/h (40-100km/h can be customized)
11. Max No-load RPM: 1000RPM
12. Max Torque: 250N.M
13. Max Efficiency: 88%
14. Continuous current:88A
15. Max current:120A (Peak 170A in short time)
16. Brake type: Disc brake
17. Winding Core material: Aluminum
18. Cross Section of Phase wire: 16 mm2
19. Hall sensor phasing angle: 120 degree
20. Temperature Sensor: Optional
21. Working Temperature: 70 degree, Peak 120 degree
22. Waterproof Grade: IP54
23. Color: Black
24. W./ G..W. : 25kgs /26kgs
25. Package Size: 44*43*34CM [13].

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7.1.3 In hub wheel motor images

70
7.1.4 Motor drawing

225
146.5
107.5

7.1.5 Motor characteristic graph/ test

C N.m

Table 7.1: Motor test results under different scenario

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 7.2 BLDC motor controller
We had difficulties choosing the right controller, because there’s many; square
waves, sinusoidal waves … so we asked the QS motor company to recommend a controller
for its motors. The recommendation was Kelly Controllers Company. The products details
are below.
7.2.1 Controller reference /name
KLS7275H,24V-72V,500A, SEALED SINUSOIDAL Wave BLDC Motor Controller
7.2.2 Controller specifications
1. Frequency of Operation: 10 KHZ or 20 kHz.
2. Standby Battery Current: < 0.5mA.
3. 5V or 12V Sensor Supply Current: 40mA.
4. Controller supply voltage range: PWR, 18V to 90V for controllers rated equal or
lower than 72V.
5. Supply Current, PWR, 30mA Typical.
6. Configurable battery voltage range, B+. Max operating range: 18V to 1.25*Nominal
Voltage.
7. Standard Throttle Input: 0-5 Volts(3-wire resistive pot), 1-4 Volts(hall active
throttle).
8. Throttle Input: 0-5 Volts. Can use 3-wire pot to produce 0-5V signal.
9. Main Contactor Coil Driver<2A.
10. Full Power Operating Temperature Range: 0℃ to 70℃(MOSFET temperature).
11. Operating Temperature Range: -40℃ to 100℃ (MOSFET temperature).
12. Motor Current Limit, 30 seconds: 500A, depending on the model.
13. Motor Current Limit, continuous: 200A, depending on the model.
14. Max Battery Current: Configurable.
7.2.3 Controller description
General functions
1. Extended fault detection and protection. Customers can read the error code in PC
software or Android Tablet also.
2. Monitoring battery voltage. It will stop driving if the battery voltage is too high and
it will progressively cut back motor drive power as battery voltage drops until it cuts
out altogether at the preset "Low Battery Voltage" setting.
3. Built-in current loop and over current protection.
4. Configurable motor temperature protection range.
5. Current cutback at low temperature and high temperature to protect battery and
controller. The current begins to ramp down at 90℃ case temperature, shutting down
at 100℃.
6. The controller keeps monitoring battery recharging voltage during regen braking.
7. Maximum reverse speed and forward speed can be configured between 20% and
100% respectively and separately.
8. A 4pin connector to RS232 port and a Z-TEK USB to RS232 cable allows for
configuration, programming and software upgrades using the tablet which must be
based on Android OS now. People can do the same things on PC software by using
a standard USB to RS232 cable instead.
9. Provision of a +5 volt and +12-volt output to supply various kinds of hall sensors.
10. 5 switch inputs which are activated by connection to 12V. Default to throttle switch,
brake switch, reversing switch, and forward switch and Boost switch.

72
 11. 3 analog 0-5V inputs that default to throttle input, Brake analog input and motor
temperature input
12. Copy signal of one of hall sensors.
13. Configurable boost switch. Enables the maximum output power achievable if the
switch is turned on. The effect is the same as full throttle position even if you don't
turn throttle at all.
14. 12V brake switch input used different port from motor temperature sensor.You can
use both brake switch and motor temperature sensor functions at the same time on
the latest version. Pin 25 is 12V brake switch input port.Pin1 is motor temperature
sensor input port.
15. Optional joystick throttle. A bi-symmetrical 0-5V signal for both forward and
reversing.
16. Configurable motor over-temperature detection and protection with the
recommended thermistor KTY84-130/150 or KTY83-122.
17. 3 hall position sensor inputs. Open collector, pull up provided.
18. Brake analog regen mode. This regen mode doesn't need brake switch to support any
more. Only available from software version 0106 or advanced version’s controller
cannot support reflating firmware by default.
19. Enhanced regen brake function. A novel ABS technique provides powerful and
smooth regen.The regen can happen at any speeds until zero speed.
20. KLS-H controller included the fuse on the case. Not shunt is attached.
21. Cruise control.Only can be activated in reversing direction.
22. KLS-H can support Broadcast type CAN Bus function. It is 250Kbps.CAN bus is
not included in KLS-D controller by default.CAN bus is only an optional function
for KLS-H.
23. Bluetooth function. Required a small Bluetooth converter which needs to be
purchased in addition from our website. This small converter is only useful for KLS
controller.

Features
1. Intelligence with powerful microprocessor.
2. Synchronous rectification, ultra-low drop, fast SVPWM and FOC to achieve very
high efficiency.
3. Electronic reversing.
4. Voltage monitoring on 3 motor phases, bus, and power supply.
5. Voltage monitoring on voltage source 12V and 5V.
6. Current sense on all 3 motor phases.
7. Current control loop.
8. Hardware over current protection.
9. Hardware over voltage protection.
10. Configurable limit for motor current and battery current.
11. Low EMC.
12. Battery protection: current cutback, warning and shutdown at configurable high and
low battery voltage.
13. Rugged aluminum housing for maximum heat dissipation and harsh environment.
14. Rugged high current terminals, and rugged aviation connectors for small signal.
15. Thermal protection: current cut back, warning and shutdown on high temperature.
16. Controller can do auto_Identification angle for different degrees of hall sensors.

73
 17. Configurable high pedal protection: the controller will not work if high throttle is
detected at power on.
18. Current multiplication: Take less current from battery, output more current to motor.
19. Easy installation: 3-wire potentiometer will work.
20. Standard PC/Laptop computer to do programming. There is one more choice for
customers to program KLS controller. Standard Tablet with Android OS to do
programming. Need a Z-TEK USB TO RS232 cable for connecting the controller to
App program in Tablet.
21. User program provided. Easy to use. No cost to customers.
22. Support motors with any number of poles.
23. Up to 70,000 electric RPM standard. (Electric RPM = mechanical RPM * motor pole
pairs; Motor pole pairs=Motor poles/2).
24. Dust and water protected under sealed condition, IP66 [14].
7.2.4 Controller image

7.3 battery
7.3.1 Specifications and details
1. Place of Origin: Guangdong, China (Mainland)
2. Brand Name: GEB
3. Model Number: Lithium battery pack
4. Type: Li-Ion
5. Voltage: 48V
6. Weight: 5.5kg
7. Nominal Capacity: 15Ah
8. Application : Electric Vehicle, electric scooter, etc
9. Certification : CE ROHS

74
 10. Warranty: 1 year
11. Certification : CE/ROSH/UL/MSDS/UN38.3
12. Product Name: Lipo Battery Pack
13. Battery type: Lifepo4/lithium Battery
14. Color: Blue
15. Cycle life: 2000 Cycles
16. Operating temperature: - 20 °C to 60 °C
17. Charge temperature: 0 °C to 45 °C
18. Storage temperature: -20 °C to 45 °C
19. Operating humidity:5% to 90%
20. battery pack Net Weight:4.0kg
Alloy Charger Specification
1. Output:54.6V DC 2A
2. Input: 100- 240V AC (As your country's standard)
3. charger Net Weight:1.2kg
7.3.2 Product image

7.4 Brakes disc/ actuator

Because the in-hub wheel motor is going to be fitted in the rear rim wheel, it’s going to
replace then the drum brake thus no brake, wo solve this problem the in hub wheel motor is
equipped with discs, and the company has recommended a brake actuator.
7.4.1 Product name
Dayang caliper 1 tow 3 disc brake assembly by foot with mechanical parking brake
7.4.2 Brakes specifications
1. One main master cylinder with three calipers
2. Dayang caliper with mechanical parking brake (in grey), 38mm plunger, pitch of
mounting 80 & 10mm
3. Foot brake master cylinder
4. Hoses 240cm + 80cm X2
5. Mechanical parking brake cable 100cm
6. 220mm disc brake plate and screws (PCD 3*80mm, CB58mm, thickness 4mm)

75
 7. N.W. 6 kg (without brake disc) [15].
7.4.3 Product image

76
 7.4.4 Installation scheme

7.5 Cost of the project

Price/ unit Number of units Total price
Motors 450 $ 2 900$
Controller 200$ 2 400$
Battery 200$ 6 1200$
Brakes 100$ 1 100$
ECU 100$ 1 100$
2700$
Ps: ECU is made in Lebanon at Dr. Nabil Karami workshop.
7.6 The total weight of all parts
weigh/ unit Number of units Total price
Motors 20 kg 2 40 kg
Controller 5 kg 2 10 kg
Battery 4 kg 6 24 kg
Brakes 6 kg 1 6 kg
80 kg

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 7.7 Rate of return of TRAFFICAR
7.7.1 Introduction
In this chapter we are going to calculate in how long would it takes for a normal
citizen to return the investment Of TRAFFICAR if he stayed 30 minutes per day in
traffic for 25 days per month.

7.7.2 Calculation Procedure

We define first the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) as a parameter that
reflects the efficiency of a combustion engine which burns fuel and produces
rotational power (at the shaft or crankshaft). In automotive applications, BSFC is
used to evaluate the efficiency of the internal combustion engines (ICE). The
keyword “brake” is related to the use of a dynamometer (electrical brake) to
measure the engine parameters (fuel mass flow rate, torque, etc.).
2𝜋𝑛𝑟 𝑚𝑓
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = (9.1)
𝑉𝑑 𝑛𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑒

Where:
- nr: number of crankshaft rotations for a complete engine cycle (for 4-stroke engine
nr = 2)
- vd: cylinder displacement (m3)
- pme: mean effective pressure (Pa)
- nc: number of cylinders
- mf : fuel mass flow (kg/s)
- we :engine speed (rad/s)
We aim to calculate mf. In order to calculate the flow rate we should use the BSFC graph.
(Figure Bellow)

Figure 7.1 BSFC of 1.9 l engine

78
This figure describe the relation between the mean pressures in the cylinder and the speed
of the engine in function of BSFC.
In what follow we are going to take a 1.9l engine and calculate the mass flow according to
figure 7.1, we are considering a traffic scenario that’s mean low rpm average and low
pressure.

Engine data
Number of cylinder nc 4
nr 2
Vd 1.9012 L
Traffic scenario
RPM 1000
mean effective pressure 2.5 Bar
From the figure 7.1 we can deduce that BFSC = 300g/kWh.
From equation 7.1 we can calculate mf.

7.7.3 Result and conclusion

Mf= 2.6 kg/h 3.574 l/h
Concerning 25 days per month the driver can save 90 l fuel equivalent to 83$.

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Conclusion
In this book we showed how much traffic is a major problem for the world and for
Lebanon especially. Traffic cost Lebanon around $2 billion dollars/year and increases the
GHG emissions that are correlated with the car speed. Studies showed that HC, CO emission
increase when speeds decreases below 50MPH, and that the stop and go pattern will increase
by 2.06 the emissions of passenger cars (160 g/km to 330 g/km for CO2, 0.078 g/km to 0.15
g/km for NOx).
Next we introduced a solution (Trafficar) inspired from the modern hybrid vehicles,
modified to be suitable and practical for our conditions concerning price and weight by
adding an electric system that includes two in hub wheel motors (BLDC motor) 5 KW each
that provides the necessary power to move a 1600kg car (Renault Megan II), a 48V Li-Ion
battery, a controller, an ECU and other accessories (sensors), after that we used the
regenerative braking technology in downhill to recharge the battery, and we put an
architecture for the electronic control unit; and finally we contacted suppliers and get
quotations for the parts of the system. The whole system will cost about 2700$ and will
weigh about 80kg.
TRAFFICAR could save up to 43 % fuel consumption depending on the driver urban
cycle, beside emissions can be reduced to half thus decreasing the global warming and
decreasing the health issues caused by these emissions.
TRAFFICAR could be upgraded to much more green system, by increasing the
amount of the power that can be harnessed using regenerative braking and also by designing
a wide range of in hub wheel motor that have high torque- low speed to decrease their weigh
and increase their efficiency (TRAFFICAR speed reach only 30KPH). The system can also
be upgraded to detect a traffic scenario much faster. Beside that the air conditioner cannot
work during the operation of TRAFFICAR (ICE off), to solve this problem an electric motor
need to connected to the compressor rather than the mechanical connection (belts through
the crank shaft), this will cost more but also it will increase the efficiency of the ICE.
TRAFFICAR can also be upgraded by using the CAN bus available in the controller, when
you use this bus a communication can be established between the ABS ECU and the motor
controller, that’s mean an enhancement of the regenerative braking ratio without putting any
risk on the line; using the CAN bus will definitely increases the efficiency of the system. A
new study must be conducted to have more accurate number about the delays in Beirut due
to traffic and the fuel consumption since our number are from study done in 2015.
Save money, save the planet, save yourself; use TRAFFICAR.

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References:
[1] Road Traffic in Lebanon: A Structural Problem that Needs Immediate
Intervention-BLOMINVEST BANK, August 10, 2017.
[2] Road Transport Sector and Air Pollution Case of Lebanon 2016-IPT Energy
Center.
[3] Real-world vehicle emissions as measured by in situ analysis of exhaust
plumes - Environ Sci Pollut Res.
[4] Hybrid Electrical Vehicles PDF
(http://www.ae.pwr.wroc.pl/filez/20110606094057_HEV.pdf)
[5] Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A review on power conditioning units and
topologies - Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310,
Malaysia
[6] Comparing AC Induction with Permanent Magnet motors in hybrid vehicles
and the impact on the value proposition-Parker Hannifin 2013.
[7] Brushless DC Motor Fundamentals Application Note - Jian Zhao/Yangwei
Yu July 2011.
[8] https://www.nissanglobal.com/EN/TECHNOLOGY/OVERVIEW/in_wheel_
motor.html
[9] DC-AC Inverter for EV and HEV Applications - NPTEL – Electrical
Engineering – Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
[10] Electric Vehicle Battery Technologies - R. Garcia-Valle and J.A. Pec¸as
Lopes (eds.), Electric Vehicle Integration into Modern Power Networks.
[11] Benchmarking of Regenerative. Braking for a Fully Electric Car - B. J.
Varocky Report No. D&C 2011.002-January 2011.
[12] Control Systems for the HEV and EVs – NPTEL – Electrical Engineering –
Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles.
[13] www.qsmotors.com
[14] www.kellycontroller.com
[15] http://www.gebattery.com.cn/

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