Chapter 7

Hydro-Acoustic Performance

Abstract  The propulsor is the most important noise source. Low rotational speed and
low tip speed are generally considered advantageous from a hydro-acoustic point of
view. Hydroacoustic noise generated directly by a propulsor can be categorized into:
cavitation noise; narrowband, (or tonal), noise; and broadband noise. It is noted that
if cavitation occurs it will dominate all other sources of noise. Cavitation Inception
Speed is the lowest speed at which cavitation will occur. Four different operating
regimes can be identified: ultra-quiet operation at low speed; normal operation at patrol
speed; high speed operation; and operation close to the surface when snorkeling.

Keywords  Hydroacoustic noise  ·  Cavitation noise  ·  Narrowband noise  · Broadband

noise  ·  Rotor rotational speed  ·  Machinery noise

7.1 General

The propulsor is the most important hydrodynamic noise source, because the noise
generation processes are speed-dependent, and the propeller or rotor blades are
generally the fastest moving components in contact with the water. Thus, low rotor
rotational speed (rpm) and low propulsor diameter (to reduce the rotor tip speed)
are generally considered to be advantageous from a hydro-acoustic point of view.
The hydro-acoustic noise generated directly by a propulsor can be categorised
into one of the following three categories:
(a) cavitation noise;
(b) narrowband (or tonal), noise; and
(c) broadband noise.
Cavitation is caused by the water pressure being lowered to below the vapour pres-
sure. The collapse of the cavitation bubbles causes significant noise, and if this
occurs it will dominate all other sources of noise. Cavitation Inception Speed
(CIS) is the lowest speed at which cavitation will occur. For a submarine CIS will
depend on depth, being higher at deeper depths.

© The Author(s) 2015 147

M. Renilson, Submarine Hydrodynamics, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16184-6_7
148 7  Hydro-Acoustic Performance

Generally, submarine propulsors are designed to avoid cavitation, which is

possible for deeply submerged submarines due to the additional head of water
above the propulsor. However, cavitation may occur when the submarine is oper-
ating close to the surface, and/or in an “off-design” condition, such as when
manoeuvring.
In general, cavitation margins are defined by inception of (Anderson et al.
2009):
(a) suction-side cavitation;
(b) suction-side tip-vortex cavitation;
(c) pressure-side cavitation;
(d) pressure-side tip-vortex cavitation; and
(e) hub-vortex cavitation.
Strategies to ensure that each of these cavitation mechanisms is avoided are
adopted in the design of a submarine propeller. These include: ensuring adequate
blade area; thicker blades; and reducing the loading at the blade tip and the hub. In
addition, the tip speed is reduced if possible, and the gap between the rotor tip and
the duct in a pumpjet minimised.
Narrowband noise occurs at the blade passing rate, and at harmonics of this. It
is caused by the blades passing through the non-uniform wake generated by the
hull and appendages ahead of the propulsor. Therefore the design of the hull and
appendages ahead of the propulsor has a dominating influence on the character-
istics of the narrowband noise generated by the propulsor. As noted in Chap. 5,
the number of rotor blades is usually a prime number to reduce the effect of
harmonics.
Broadband noise is generated by direct turbulent interactions, and it cannot be
predicted by the use of existing numerical techniques because the relevant pro-
cesses are represented by approximate forms, rather than modelled in their own
right. Broadband noise is generated by turbulent fluctuations of the boundary layer
on the blade, and is more directly associated with flow turbulence than narrow-
band noise.
In addition to noise generated directly by the propulsor, the fluctuating forces
on the propulsor can set up resonances in the submarine, which in turn can gener-
ate radiated acoustic noise.
Low frequency noise travels further than high frequency noise. Thus, for sub-
marine detection low frequency noise is far more critical.
At low speed very little hydrodynamic noise is produced. Machine noise may
dominate, and cavitation is very unlikely. At intermediate speeds hydrodynamic
flow noise will be important, both broadband and narrowband. At high speeds,
particularly when running close to the surface, cavitation may occur, and when it
does this dominates all noise sources.
Thus, it is clear that the relative importance of the various noise sources differs
depending on the speed and operating depth of the submarine. However, detailed
information about this is highly classified and not generally available in the public
domain.
7.1 General 149

Four different operating regimes can be identified:

(a) ultra-quiet operation at low speed;
(b) normal operation at patrol speed;
(c) high speed operation; and
(d) operation close to the surface when snorkelling.
(a) Ultra-Quiet Operation at Low Speed
In the ultra-quiet mode a submarine will be travelling below about four knots. At
this speed hydrodynamic noise is minimal, and machinery noise will normally be
the most important noise source (Miasnikov 1995).
(b) Normal Operation at Patrol Speed
At speeds between about eight knots and fifteen knots the hydrodynamic flow
noise will dominate. For well-designed deeply submerged submarines cavitation
should not be an issue. Hence, the broadband and narrowband noise generated by
the propulsor are the important issues for this speed range.
(c) High Speed Operation
As hydrodynamic flow noise is proportional to speed raised to the sixth power,
above about fifteen knots hydrodynamic noise from the propulsor becomes very
significant. Submarines operating at these speeds will be significantly more noisy
than those operating at speeds below this, with the hydrodynamic noise from the
propulsor being critical (Miasnikov 1995).
At these higher speeds, the fluctuating forces from the propulsor can hit hull struc-
tural modes, which may cause increased radiated acoustic noise from the submarine.
An example of this is the first ‘accordion mode’, where the stern and the bow vibrate.
This is far less likely to be an issue at speeds below around fifteen knots.
For a deeply submerged submarine cavitation should not be an issue until
speeds of the order of twenty to twenty five knots. Above this speed, cavitation
noise may dominate (Miasnikov 1995).
In addition, at speeds above about fifteen knots the hydrodynamic noise on the
hull is also an issue, which may make it difficult to operate hull borne sonar.
(d) Operation Close to the Surface when Snorkelling
When an SSK is snorkelling it will generate increased machinery noise. Also it is
possible that cavitation will occur due to: the reduction in static head; the increase
in drag due to the presence of the free surface and the drag on the masts resulting
in increased thrust required; and the activation of the hydroplanes to control the
boat close to the surface, particularly in waves.
Hydrodynamic flow noise is unlikely to be an important issue in this operating
regime.
As the critical noise source depends on the operating regime, the mitigation pro-
cesses to reduce noise for a particular submarine will depend on which regimes it
operates in. For example, SSKs are generally not able to operate at speeds greater
than about fifteen knots, so measures to reduce noise for submarines operating in
the high speed regime are not applicable. Equally, SSNs are not required to snorkel
close to the surface, so measures to reduce noise for submarines operating in this
regime may not be applicable to them.