ABE International College of Business and Economics

Main Campus
Legarda, Manila

GE231A
Computer Fundamentals w/ MS Application

Compiled by:

Paolo H. Codon
 Course Outline

PRELIM PERIOD
1. An Overview of the Computer System
1.1. The Parts of a Computer System
1.1.1. What is a Computer?
1.1.2. Hardware
1.1.3. Software
1.1.4. Data
1.1.5. Users
1.2. Looking Inside the Machine
1.2.1. Types of Hardware
1.2.2. The CPU
1.2.3. Memory
1.2.4. How Memory is measured
1.2.5. Input and Output Devices
1.2.6. Storage Devices
1.3. Classifications of Computers
1.4. Standard Methods of Input
1.5. Software: Bringing the Machine to Life
1.6. Computers in Society
2. Introduction to Microsoft Word
2.1. The parts of Microsoft Word Interface
MIDTERM PERIOD

1. Transforming Data into Information

1.1. How Computers Represent Data
1.2. Number System
1.2.1. Binary System
1.2.2. Decimal System
1.2.3. Octal
1.2.4. Hexadecimal
1.3. How Computers Represent Data - Bits and Bytes
1.4. How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes
1.5. How Computers Process Data
1.5.1. Factors Affecting Processing Speed
1.5.2. Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices

PRE-FINAL PERIOD

1. Flowcharting
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Meaning of A Flowchart
1.4. Guidelines for Drawing a Flowchart
1.5. Advantages of Using Flowcharts
1.6. Limitations of Using Flowcharts

2
 1.7. Examples of Flowcharts

FINAL PERIOD

1. Introduction to Data Communications

2. Introduction to Graphics and Multimedia

PRELIM PERIOD

Lesson 1 - An Overview of the Computer System

1.1 The Parts of a Computer System

1.1.1 What is a Computer?

1.1.2 Hardware
1.1.3 Software
1.1.4 Data
1.1.5 Users

1.1.1 What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device used to process data. It can convert data

into information that is useful to people. A complete computer system includes
four distinct parts:
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• User

1.1.2 Hardware
A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see
and touch. The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the
computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc.

1.1.3 Software
• Software – also called programs – consists of organized
sets of instructions for controlling the computer.

• Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it

manage its own tasks and devices.

• Other programs exist for the user, and enable the

computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating documents.

3
1.1.4 Data
• Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can manipulate
and process into information that is useful to people.
• Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has been reduced
to digits, or numbers. The computer stores and reads all data as
numbers.
• Although computers use data in digital form, they convert data
into forms that people can understand, such as text, numerals, sounds,
and images.
1.1.5 Users
• People are the computer's operators, or users.

• Some types of computers can operate without much intervention

from people, but personal computers are designed specifically for use
by people.

1.2 Looking Inside the Machine

1.2.1 Types of Hardware

A computer's hardware devices are categorized as follows:
• Processor
• Memory
• Input and output (I/O) devices
• Storage devices

1.2.2. The CPU

• The processor is also called the central processing unit (CPU). It
manages all devices and performs the actual processing of data.
• The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information
is called processing. This function is divided between the computer's
processor and memory.
• The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the
computer's main circuit board (the motherboard).

1.2.3. Memory
• Memory also consists of chips attached to the
motherboard.

• Memory holds data and program instructions as the CPU

works with them. This memory is called Random Access
Memory (RAM).

• The CPU can find any piece of data in RAM, when it

needs it for processing.

• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data only when the

power is on. When the power is off, RAM's contents are lost.

1.2.4. How Memory is Measured

4
 • The smallest usable unit of measure for memory is the byte –
the amount of memory required to hold one character, like the letter A
or the numeral 2.

• Computers work with larger chunks of data, measured in

multiple bytes, as shown below:

Unit Approx. Value Actual Value

(bytes) (bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 1,048,576
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 1,073,741,824
Terabyte (TB) 1,000,000,000,000 1,099,511,627,776

1.2.5.Input and Output Devices

• Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from
another computer system. The keyboard and mouse are examples of
input devices.

• Output devices return processed data back to the user or to

another computer system. The printer and monitor are examples.

• Communications devices (such as modems and network

interface cards) perform both input and output, allowing computers to
share information.

1.2.6. Storage Devices

• Storage devices hold data not currently being used by the CPU.
Data is commonly stored on a magnetic or optical disk. Each type uses
a special medium for storing data on its surface.

• A disk drive is a device that reads data from and writes data to a
disk. Most new computers feature a floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive,
and an optical disk drive.

• The most common optical storage devices are CD-ROM and

DVD-ROM drives.

1.3.Classification of Computers

Supercomputers

• Supercomputers are the most powerful computers. They are used for
problems requiring complex calculations

5
 • Because of their size and expense, supercomputers are relatively rare.

• Supercomputers are used by universities, government

Mainframe Computers

• Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of users,

handling massive amounts of input, output, and storage.

• Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many

users need access to shared data and programs.

• Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers, handling

transactions over the Internet.

Minicomputers

• Minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but larger than

microcomputers.

• Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.

• Minicomputers may be used as network servers and Internet servers.

Workstations

• Workstations are powerful single-user computers.

• Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of number-
crunching power, such as product design and computer animation.

• Workstations are often used as network and Internet servers.

6
Micro-computers or Personal Computers (PC)

• Microcomputers are more commonly known as personal computers.

The term "PC" is applied to IBM-PCs or compatible computers.

• Full-size desktop computers are the most common type of PC.

• Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who need the power
of a desktop system, but also portability.

• Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a desktop or

notebook PC, but offer features for users who need limited functions and
small size.

7
1.4.STANDARD METHODS OF INPUT

The Keyboard
• The Standard Keyboard Layout
• Ergonomic Keyboards
• How a Keyboard Works

Standard Keyboard Layout

• A standard computer keyboard has about 100 keys.

• Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named for the first six
keys in the top row of letters.

Most keyboards have keys arranged in five groups:

1. Alphanumeric keys
2. Numeric keypad
3. Function keys
4. Modifier keys
5. Cursor-movement keys

Ergonomic Keyboards

• Long periods of keyboard use can cause injuries.

• An ergonomically correct keyboard can help you avoid injuries.
• You also can avoid injuries by adopting correct keyboarding practices.

8
How a Keyboard Works

When you press a key:

1. The keyboard controller detects the keystroke.

2. The controller places a scan code in the keyboard buffer,
indicating which key was pressed.
3. The keyboard sends the computer an interrupt request, telling
the CPU to accept the keystroke.

9
The Mouse

What is a Mouse?

 The mouse is a pointing device. You use it to move a

graphical pointer on the screen.
 The mouse can be used to issue commands, draw, and
perform other types of input tasks.

Mouse Techniques

Using the mouse involves five techniques:

• Pointing; Move the mouse to move the on-screen pointer.

• Clicking; Press and release the left mouse button once.

• Double-clicking; Press and release the left mouse button twice.

• Dragging; Hold down the left mouse button as you move the
pointer.

• Right-clicking; Press and release the right mouse button.

Variants of the Mouse

• Trackballs
• Trackpads
• Integrated Pointed Devices

Trackballs

• A trackball is like a mouse turned upside-down.

• Use your thumb to move the exposed ball and your fingers to
press the buttons.
• Many styles of trackball are available.

10
 Track pads

• A trackpad is a touch-sensitive pad that provides the

same functionality as a mouse.
• To use a trackpad, you glide your finger across its
surface.
• Trackpads provide a set of buttons that function like
mouse buttons.

Integrated Pointing Devices

• An integrated pointing device is a small joystick built into the

keyboard.
• To use an integrated pointing device, you move the joystick.
• These devices provide a set of buttons that function like mouse
buttons

11
ALTERNATIVE METHODS
OF INPUT

:This lesson includes the following sections

1. Devices for the Hand
2. Optical Input Devices
3. Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices

Devices for the Hand - 1

• Pens

• Touch Screens

• Game Controllers

Pens

• With a pen-based system, you use an electronic pen to write on

the screen and choose commands.

• Pens are common input devices for handheld computers, like

“personal digital assistants (PDAs).”

• Pens are handy for making notes or selecting commands, not

for inputting a lot of text.

12
 .The user can point, tap, draw and write on the computer’s screen with a pen

Touch Screens
• Touch-screen systems accept input directly through the
monitor.

• Touch screens use sensors to detect the touch of a finger. They

are useful where environmental conditions prohibit the use of a
keyboard or mouse.

• Touch-screen systems are useful for selecting options from

menus.

13
Game Controller

• The two primary types of game controllers are joysticks and

game pads.

• Game pads usually provide controls for each hand.

• Joysticks are popular for flight simulator and driving games.

Optical Input Devices - 2

• Bar Code Readers

• Image Scanners and OCR

Bar Code Readers

• Bar code readers can read bar codes—patterns of printed bars.

• The reader emits light, which reflects off the bar code and into a
detector in the reader. The detector translates the code into numbers.

• Flatbed bar code readers are commonly found in supermarkets.

Courier services often use handheld readers.

14
 Bar code readers commonly track sales in retail stores
Image Scanners and OCR
• Image scanners digitize printed images for storage and
.manipulation in a computer

• A scanner shines light onto the image and interprets the

reflection.

• Optical character recognition (OCR) software translates

scanned text into editable electronic documents.

Document
being
scanned

Converts
diode signal
to numbers
15

To computer
Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices - 3
• Microphones and Speech Recognition

• Video Input

Microphones and Speech Recognition

• Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone

requires a sound card in the PC.

• A sound card can digitize analog sound signals, and convert

digital sound signals to analog form.

• With speech recognition software, you can use your

microphone to dictate text, navigate programs, and choose
commands.

16
 (Video Input (part of Audio-Visual (Multimedia) Input Devices
• PC video cameras digitize full-motion images.

• Digital cameras capture still images.

• These cameras break images into pixels and store data about
each pixel.

• Video images may be compressed to use less memory and

storage space.
Monitors and Sound Systems

This lesson includes the following sections:

• Monitors
• PC Projectors
• Sound Systems
Monitors
• Categories of Monitors

• CRT Monitors

• Flat-Panel Monitors

• Comparing Monitors

• Video Controllers

Monitors - Categories of Monitors

Monitors are categorized by the technology they use:

• Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors

• Flat-panel displays
And by the way they display colors:
• Monochrome – One color on a black background

• Grayscale – Shades of gray on a white or off-white background

• Color – From 16 to 16 million unique colors

- CRT Monitors
• In CRT monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots on
the screen.

• The dots are grouped into pixels, which glow when struck by
electrons.

17
 • In color CRTs, each pixel contains a red, green, and blue dot.
These glow at varying intensities to produce color images.

- Flat-Panel Monitors

• Most flat-panel monitors use liquid crystal display (LCD)

technology.

• Passive matrix LCD uses a transistor for each row and column
of pixels.

• Active matrix LCD uses a transistor for each pixel on the screen.

• Thin-film transistor displays use multiple transistors for

each pixel.

- Comparing Monitors
When comparing monitors, consider four features:
• Size

• Resolution

• Refresh rate

• Dot pitch
- Size
• A monitor's size is the diagonal measurement of its face, in
inches.

18
 • For years, 15" monitors (13"viewing area) were standard.

• Today, 17" monitors (15" viewing area) are common.

• Larger monitors are available, but can be expensive.

- Resolution
• Resolution is the number of pixels on the screen,
expressed as a matrix (such as 600x800).

• A 17" monitor offers resolutions from 640x480 up to 1280x1024.

• The Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard is 640x480. Super

VGA (SVGA) monitors provide resolutions of 800x600, 1024x768 or
higher.

- Refresh Rate
• Refresh rate is the number of times each second that the
electron guns scan the screen's pixels.

• Refresh rate is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second.

• Look for a refresh rate of 72 Hz or higher. A slower

rate may cause eyestrain.

19
Fast scanning = Quick refresh (less flicker)

- Dot Pitch
• Dot pitch is the distance between the phosphor dots that make
up a single pixel.

• In color monitors, three dots (red, green, and blue) comprise

each pixel.

• Look for a dot pitch no greater than .28 millimeter.

Fine dot pitch = Crisp displays

Monitors - Video Controllers B+G R+B

• The video controller is an interface between the monitor and the
CPU.

20
 • The video controller determines many aspects of a monitor's
performance, such as resolution or the number of colors displayed.

• The video controller contains its own on-board processor and

memory, called video RAM (VRAM).

Video Contro
with Monito

PC Projectors Graphic intensive app

• A PC projector connects to a PC and is used to project images
on a large screen. as games require plen
21
 • Many PC projectors provide the same resolutions and color
levels as high-quality monitors.

• Digital light processing (DLP) projectors use a microchip

containing tiny mirrors to produce very sharp, bright images.
• Projected Screen

Figure - Projected Screen

Sound Systems

22
Review
• List the two most commonly used types of computer monitors.

• Explain how a CRT monitor displays images.

• Identify two types of flat-panel monitors and explain their

differences.

• List four characteristics you should consider when comparing

monitors.

• Explain how a computer outputs sound.

1.6. Software: Bringing the Machine to Life

• What is Software?

• System Software

• Application Software

What is Software?
• Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells the
computer how to do certain tasks. A set of instructions is often
called a program.

• When a computer is using a particular program, it is said

to be running or executing the program.

• The two most common types of programs are system

software and application software.

23
System Software
• System software exists primarily for the computer itself, to help
the computer perform specific functions.

• One major type of system software is the operating system

(OS). All computers require an operating system.

• The OS tells the computer how to interact with the user and its
own devices.

• Common operating systems include Windows, the Macintosh

OS, OS/2, and UNIX.

- Applications
• Application software tells the computer how to accomplish tasks
the user requires, such as creating a document or editing a graphic
image.
• Some important kinds of application software are:
• Word processing programs- for creating text-based
documents such as newsletters or brochures.
• Spreadsheet software- for creating numeric-based
documents such as budgets or balance sheets.
• Database management software for building and
manipulating large sets of data.
• Presentation programs for creating and presenting
electronic slide shows.
• Graphics programs for designing illustrations or
manipulating movies, photographs or animation.

• Web design tools and browsers and other Internet

applications such as email programs.

24
Computers in Society.1.6

• More impact than any other invention

– Changed work and leisure activities
– Used by all demographic groups
• Computers are important because:
– Provide information to users
– Information is critical to our society
– Managing information is difficult

• Computers at home
– Many homes have multiple computers
– Most homes have Internet
– Computers are used for
• Business
• Entertainment
• Communication
• Education
• Computers in education
– Computer literacy required at all levels
• Computers in small business
– Makes businesses more profitable
– Allows owners to manage
• Computers in industry
– Computers are used to design products
– Assembly lines are automated
• Computers in government
– Necessary to track data for population
• Police officers
• Tax calculation and collection
– Governments were the first computer users
• Computers in health care
– Revolutionized health care
– New treatments possible
– Scheduling of patients has improved
– Delivery of medicine is safer

Lesson 1 review
• List the four parts of a computer system.

• Identify four types of computer hardware.

• List five units of measure for computer memory and storage.

• Provide two examples of input and output devices.

• Name and describe three types of storage devices.

• Differentiate the two main categories of computer software.

25
List four specific types of application software.

MIDTERM PERIOD

Transforming Data into Information

This lesson includes the following sections:

• How Computers Represent Data
• How Computers Process Data
• Factors Affecting Processing Speed
• Extending the Processor's Power to Other
Devices

How Computers Represent Data

• Binary Numbers
• The Binary Number System
• Bits and Bytes
• Text Codes
How Computers Represent Data
– Binary Numbers
• Computer processing is performed by transistors, which are
switches with only two possible states: on and off.

• All computer data is converted to a series of binary numbers– 1

and 0. For example, you see a sentence as a collection of letters, but
the computer sees each letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.

26
 • If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has a value
of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors can be switched on and off
millions of times each second.

The Binary Number System

• To convert data into strings of numbers, computers use the
binary number system.

• Humans use the decimal system (“deci” stands for “ten”).

• The binary number system works the same way as the decimal
system, but has only two available symbols (0 and 1) rather than ten
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

A. binary2 -> decimal

11012 -> decimal

27
First write 2 to the power of the numbers 0,1,2,3,...

23 22 21 20

Now change them to their real values.

8421

Now put the binary number underneath the other numbers and multiply the
top number by the number beneath it and put the answer underneath the
other 2 with + between each number and add the bottom row together to get
your final answer.

8421
1101
8+4+0+1 = 13

11012 -> 13

B. binary2 -> octal8

10102 -> octal8

001 010
421 421
0+0+1 = 1; 0+2+0 = 2

10102 -> 128

C. binary2 -> hexadecimal16

101112 -> hexadecimal16

First separate the binary number into groups of 4 digits. If the number at the
front has less than 4 digits then add 0s to the front of it.

0001 0111

Now use the numbers 8421 and multiply each time and add the results
together for each group to get the answer.

0001 0111
8421 8421
0+0+0+1 = 1; 0+4+2+1 = 7

101112 -> 1716

Decimal

28
We count in what is called the decimal counting system. Decimal has 10 digits
which are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Decimal is also called base 10 because it has
10 digits. The reason why people started counting in decimal is because it has
10 digits and we have 10 fingers and people used to use their fingers for
counting.

A. decimal -> binary2

5 -> binary2

First write a few 2s(because it's base 2) to the power of the numbers
0,1,2,3,...

23 22 21 20

Next calculate the values of these numbers.

8421

The highest number must be greater than the number you want to convert.

Now divide the number to be converted by the number starting on the left.
Write how many times the number divides into it underneath the number and
then write your remainder on top of the next number to be divided. You then
divide by the remainder each time after that.

5511
8421
0101

The bottom line of numbers is the binary number. Make sure to leave out all
leading 0s

5 -> 1012

B. decimal -> octal8

This time we use 8 to the power of those numbers because we are working
with base 8.

12 -> octal8

82 81 80

12 12 4
64 8 1
014

12 -> 148

29
C. decimal -> hexadecimal16

Decimal to hexadecimal works in the same way except that you use 16 to the
power of those numbers since that is the base this time.

26 -> hexadecimal16

162 161 160

26 26 10
256 16 1
0 1 10

Before we write the answer we must change all numbers greater than 9 to
their hexadecimal equivalents.

1 10
1A

26 -> 1A16

Octal

Octal uses 8 digits which are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and is also called base 8. We use
a subscripted 8 to show that a number is octal:

2758

A. octal8 -> binary2

268 -> binary2

2 6
421 421
010 110

268 -> 101102

B. octal8 -> decimal

258 -> decimal

81 80

81
25
16+5 = 21

158 -> 21

30
C. octal8 -> hexadecimal16

278 -> hexadecimal16

First convert the octal number to binary.

2 7
421 421
010 111

Make groups of 4 and then convert to hexadecimal.

0001 0111
8421 8421
0+0+0+1 = 1; 0+4+2+1 = 7

278 -> 1716

Hexadecimal

The word hexadecimal is made up of 2 parts which are hex(6) and

decimal(10). If you add 6 and 10 together you get 16 and that is how many
digits there are in hexadecimal. Hexadecimal is sometimes called hex or base
16. To get 16 digits we have to use letters of the alphabet and those 16 digits
are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F. Hexadecimal is often used instead of
binary numbers because just 2 hexadecimal digits can make the same
numbers as 8 binary digits which in turn make up a byte. A subscripted 16 is
used to show that a number is hexadecimal:

7F16

A. hexadecimal16 -> binary2

2C16 -> binary2

First write the number as decimals.

2 12

Now divide each number by the numbers 8 4 2 1.

2 12
8421 8421
0010 1100

Take the leading 0s away and you have your answer.

31
2C16 -> 1011002

B. hexadecimal16 -> decimal

Once again you use 16 instead of 2.

1F16 -> decimal

161 160

16 1
1F
16+F = 16 + 15 = 31

1F16 -> 31

C. hexadecimal16 -> octal8

We do not convert directly from hexadecimal to octal but instead first convert
to binary and then to octal.

4516 -> octal8

First convert the hexadecimal number to binary.

4 5
8421 8421
0100 0101

Now make groups of 3 digits and then convert to octal.

001 000 101

421 421 421
0+0+1 = 1; 0+0+0 = 0; 4+0+1 = 5

4516 -> 1058

How Computers Represent Data - Bits and Bytes

• A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1 or 0.

• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping them to

represent larger pieces of data, such as letters of the alphabet.

• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of memory

needed to store one alphanumeric character.

• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256 different
symbols or characters.
How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes

32
 • A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s and 0s) to
represent characters understood by humans (letters and numerals).

• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-bit codes,

but is used primarily in older mainframe systems.

• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each character

consists of eight bits (one byte) of data. ASCII is used in nearly all
personal computers.

• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of 16 bits

(two bytes) of data.
Code Character
00110000 0

00110001 1

00110010 2

00110011 3

00110100 4

00110101 5

01000001 A

01000010 B

01000011 C

01000100 D

01000101 E
Figure - Examples from the ASCII Text Code

How Computers Process Data

Where Processing Occurs:

• The Control Unit

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit

• Machine Cycles

• The Role of Memory in Processing

• Types of RAM

33
How Computers Process Data –
Where Processing Occurs
• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing
unit (CPU).

• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in

processing data.

• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the system's

motherboard, which connects all the computer's devices
together, enabling them to communicate.

How Computers Process Data –

The Control Unit

The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU)

• The control unit directs the flow of data through the CPU,
and to and from other devices.

• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which

contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can perform.

34
How Computers Process Data –
The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the ALU.

• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic operations.

• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small memory

areas in the CPU, which hold data and program instructions while they
are being processed.

ALU Operations List

Arithmetic Logical
Operations Operations
+ Add = , ≠ equal to, not equal to

− Subtract >, > greater than, not greater

than
x Multiply <, < less than, not less than
÷ Divide ≥ , ≥ greater than or equal to,
not greater than or equal
to
^ Raise by a power ≤ , ≤ less than or equal to,
not less than or equal to
How Computers Process Data –
Machine Cycles
• The CPU follows a set of steps-called a machine
cycle-for each instruction it carries out.

35
 • By using a technique called pipelining, many CPUs
can process more than one instruction at a time.

• The machine cycle includes two smaller cycles:

 During the instruction cycle, the CPU

"fetches" a command or data from memory and
"decodes" it for the CPU.

 During the execution cycle, the CPU carries

out the instruction, and may store the instruction's
result in memory.
How Computers Process Data –
The Role of Memory
• RAM stores data and program code needed by the CPU. The
contents of RAM change rapidly and often.

• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or permanent). It

holds instructions that run the computer when the power is first turned
on.

• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a unique

number, called the memory address.

How Computers Process Data - Types of RAM

There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged

with electricity very frequently, or they will lose their
contents.

• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be

recharged
as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.

• Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its

contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used in digital
cameras to store pictures.

36
Factors Affecting Processing Speed
• Registers

• RAM

• The System Clock

• The Bus

• Cache Memory

Factors Affecting Processing Speed – Registers

• The CPU contains a number of small memory areas, called
registers, which store data and instructions while the CPU processes
them.

• The size of the registers (also called word size) determines the
amount of data with which the computer can work at a one time.

• Today, most PCs have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU can
process four bytes of data at one time. Register sizes are rapidly
growing to 64 bits.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed – RAM
• The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on the system's
speed.

• The more RAM a PC has, the more program instructions and

data can be held in memory, which is faster than storage on
disk.

• If a PC does not have enough memory to run a program, it must

move data between RAM and the hard disk frequently. This
process, called swapping, can greatly slow a PC's performance.

37
Figure - More RAM = Better Performance!

Factors Affecting Processing Speed –

The System Clock
• The computer's system clock sets the pace for the CPU by using
a vibrating quartz crystal.

• A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn a

transistor off and back on. This is called a clock cycle.

• Clock cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz), a measure of cycles

per second. If a computer has a clock speed of 300 MHz, then its
system clock "ticks" 300 million times every second.

38
 • The faster a PC's clock runs, the more instructions the PC can
execute each second.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed –
The Bus
• A bus is a path between the components of a computer. Data
and instructions travel along these paths.

• The data bus' width determines how many bits can be

transmitted between the CPU and other devices.

• The address bus runs only between the CPU and RAM, and
carries nothing but memory addresses for the CPU to use.

• Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an expansion

bus.

Factors Affecting Processing Speed –

Cache Memory
• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the most
recent data and instructions that have been loaded by the CPU.

• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU and

RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.

• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache. External cache

is called Level-2 (L2) cache.

39
 • The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact on the
computer's speed.

Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices

• Ports

• Expansion Slots and Boards

Extending the Processor's Power to Other Devices – Ports

• External devices—such as those used for input and output—are

connected to the system by ports on the back of the computer.

40
 • PCs feature a number of built-in ports, which are ready to accept
devices such as a printer, mouse, keyboard, phone line, microphone
and speakers, and others.

• Most computers come with a serial port and a parallel port. A

serial port transmits one bit of data at a time; a parallel port transmits
data one byte at a time.
Adding Other Devices –
Expansion Slots and Boards

• If the PC does not have a port for an external device, you can
install an expansion board into one of the empty expansion slots.

• A board provides the correct port for the new device, and
connects the device to the CPU by way of the computer's
expansion bus.

• Newer bus technologies such as Universal Serial Bus (USB)

and IEEE 1394 enable many devices to be connected to one port.

• Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an older standard

for extending the bus to multiple devices through a single port.

Review
• List two reasons why computers use the binary number system.
• List the two main parts of the CPU and explain how they work
together.
• Explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
• Identify two RAM technologies used in PCs.
• List three hardware factors that affect processing speed.
• Identify four connections used to attach devices to a PC.

41
PRE-FINALS

1. Flowcharting

FLOWCHARTING

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The flowchart is a means of visually presenting the flow of data through an

information processing systems, the operations performed within the system
and the sequence in which they are performed. In this lesson, we shall
concern ourselves with the program flowchart, which describes what
operations (and in what sequence) are required to solve a given problem. The
program flowchart can be likened to the blueprint of a building. As we know a
designer draws a blueprint before starting construction on a building.
Similarly, a programmer prefers to draw a flowchart prior to writing a computer
program. As in the case of the drawing of a blueprint, the flowchart is drawn
according to defined rules and using standard flowchart symbols prescribed
by the American National Standard Institute, Inc.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to understand:
-the meaning of flowchart
-the basic parts of the flowchart such as flowchart symbols and the flow lines
connecting these symbols.
-the advantages and limitations of flowchart

1.3 MEANING OF A FLOWCHART

A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of
operations to be performed to get the solution of a problem. Flowcharts are
generally drawn in the early stages of formulating computer solutions.
Flowcharts facilitate communication between programmers and business
people. These flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem
and are quite helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy
problems. Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program
in any high level language. Often we see how flowcharts are helpful in
explaining the program to others. Hence, it is correct to say that a flowchart is
a must for the better documentation of a complex program.

1.4 GUIDELINES FOR DRAWING A FLOWCHART

Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols; however, some
special symbols can also be developed when required. Some standard
symbols, which are frequently required for flowcharting many computer
programs are shown in Fig. 1 :

42
Start or end of the program

Computational steps or processing

function of a program

Input or output operation

Decision making and branching

Connector or joining of two parts of

program

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Disk

Off-page connector

Flow line

43
 Annotation

Display

Fig.1 Flowchart Symbols

The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:

In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary requirements should be listed out
in logical order.
The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There should not be
any room for ambiguity in understanding the flowchart.
The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from left to right or
top to bottom.
Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

or
Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or three flow lines,
one for each possible answer, should leave the decision symbol.

Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.

44
Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use the
annotation symbol to describe data or computational steps more clearly.

If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector symbols to

reduce the number of flow lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want
to make it more effective and better way of communication.
Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish.
It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing through it with a
simple test data.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF USING FLOWCHARTS

The benefits of flowcharts are as follows:

1. Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a

system to all concerned.
2. Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in
more effective way.
3. Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation, which is needed for various purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the
systems analysis and program development phase.
5. Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6. Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program
becomes easy with the help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put
efforts more efficiently on that part

1.6 LIMITATIONS OF USING FLOWCHARTS

1. Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that

case, flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
2. Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart may
require re-drawing completely.
3.Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of
flowchart becomes a problem.
The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of
how it is done.

1.7 EXAMPLES ON FLOWCHARTING

Now we shall present few examples on flowcharting for proper understanding
of this technique. This will help in student in program development process at
a later stage.
Example 1
Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.
Answer: The required flowchart is given in Fig. 1

45
Fig. 1 Sum of first 50 natural numbers
Fig 1 Flowchart for computing the sum of first 50 natural numbers.
Example 2
Draw a flowchart to find the largest of three numbers A,B, and C.
Answer: The required flowchart is shown in Fig 2.

46
Fig 2 Flowchart for finding out the largest of three numbers

Example 3
Draw a flowchart for computing factorial N (N!)
Where N! = 1 ´ 2 ´ 3 ´ …… N .
The required flowchart has been shown in fig 3

47
Answer:

Fig 3 Flowchart for computing factorial N

ASSESSMENT 1:
Fill in the blank.
A program flowchart indicates the_________ to be per formed and the
__________ in which they occur.
A program flowchart is generally read from _____________ to
________________
Flowcharting symbols are connected together by means of
___________________
A decision symbol may be used in determining the ____________ or
___________ of two data items.
__________ are used to join remote portions of a flowchart
____________ connectors are used when a flowchart ends on one page and
begins again on other page
A ________ symbol in used at the beginning and end of a flowchart.
The flowchart is one of the best ways of ________ a program.
To construct a flowchart, one must adhere to prescribed symbols provided by
the __________ .
The programmed uses a ____________ to aid him in drawing flowchart
symbols.

Answers:

48
Operations, sequence
Top, down
Flow line
Equality, inequality
connectors
Off -page
Terminal
documenting
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
Flowcharting template

ASSESSMENT 2:
1. Define Flowcharting.
2. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Draw a flowchart to read a number N and print all its divisors.
Draw a flowchart for computing the sum of the digits of any given number
Draw a flowchart to find the sum of given N numbers.
Draw a flowchart to computer the sum of squares of integers from 1 to 50
Draw a flowchart to arrange the given data in an ascending order.

49