Russian Journal of Electrochemistry, Vol. 38, No. 8, 2002, pp. 919–926. From Elektrokhimiya, Vol. 38, No.

8, 2002, pp. 1026–1033.

Original English Text Copyright © 2002 by Pourcelly.

Electrodialysis with Bipolar Membranes: Principles,

Optimization, and Applications*
G. Pourcelly
Institut European des Membranes, Universite Montpellier 2, CC 047, Place Eugene Bataillon,
34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
Received March 15, 2001

Abstract—This paper is an overview of the bipolar membrane technology. The process of electrodialysis with
bipolar membrane (EDBM) along with the different EDBM process configurations are presented. Some ways
of optimization of both the bipolar membranes and the EDBM technology are envisaged. Most of the applica-
tions relate to the production or recovery of organic acids while the first plant has been commissioned by 1986
at Washington Steel (USA) for the recovery of HF/HNO3 from waste pickling liquors. In the last few years,
there has been increasing interest in using bipolar electrodialysis stacks in chemical and agro industrial pro-
cesses to directly acidify or basify process streams without the addition of chemicals. This attractive feature of
this technology has contributed to the implementation of several plants in fermentation process for the produc-
tion of organic and amino acids.

INTRODUCTION
The conventional method for generating ç+ and
éç– ions from water utilizes electrolysis. Electrolysis
also generates é2 and ç2, and the overvoltage for this
generation consumes about half the electrical energy of
the process. Nowadays, special ion-exchange mem-
branes are available for splitting water directly into ç+
and éH– ions without generating gases. Membrane
water splitting technology is a general purpose unit
operation for converting water soluble salts to their cor-
responding acids and bases. The process uses bipolar
membranes (BPM) in conjunction with conventional
cation- and/or anion-exchange membranes (CEM and
AEM, respectively). The separation and rearrangement
of ions is effected by a direct current driving force. The
BPM electrodialysis (EDBM) is therefore an alterna-
tive method to electrolysis for the generation of ç+ and
éç– ions which can be used to generate acid and base
from salts without the production of oxygen and hydro-
gen gases.
PRINCIPLES
The principle of water splitting by a BPM is illus-
trated in Fig. 1. The diffusion of water from both sides
of the BPM allows its dissociation under the electrical
field to generate protons and hydroxyl ions which fur-
ther migrate from the junction layer through the cation-
and anion-exchange layers of BPM. As described in
[1], the water dissociation in BPM (1) is accelerated up
to 50 million times compared to the rate of water disso-
ciation in aqueous solutions. This acceleration is influ-
enced by the strong electric field across the transition
*This article was submitted by the author in English.
region. According to the authors, the main force for the
enhanced water dissociation is a reversible protonation
and deprotonation of the functional groups of the ion-
exchange membranes, especially of the tertiary amino
groups B of the anion-exchange layer according to (2)
and (3). The thickness of the transition region where the
water dissociation takes place is less than 10 nm [2]
2H2O H3O+ + OH–, (1)
B + H2O BH+ + OH–, (2)
BH+ + H2O B + H3O+. (3)
Note that BPM can be used not only for the dissoci-
ation of water but also for the splitting of other self-dis-
sociating liquids like methanol.
The application of BPM reduces the energy costs
associated with electrode polarization in the more con-
ventional electrolytic approach. The theoretical poten-
tial to achieve the water splitting capability is 0.83 V at
25°ë. The actual potential drop across a BPM is quite
close to this being in the range of 0.9–1.1 V for current
densities between 500 and 1500 A/m2, which is the
region of practical interest. The value of the membrane
potential drops equate to theoretical energy consump-
tion on the order of 600–700 kW h/ton of Noah. Of
course, the actual energy consumptions are signifi-
cantly higher because of the ohmic resistances in the
other cell stack components in practical operating units.
One classical application of BPM is the production
of an acid (HX) and a base (MOH) from a salt (MX)
through the reaction
MX + H2O HX + MOH. (4)
The basic configuration is illustrated by Fig. 2.

1023-1935/02/3808-0919$27.00 © 2002 åÄIä “Nauka /Interperiodica”

920 POURCELLY

Cation selective layer Anion selective layer

Transition region

H+ OH –

– +

Cathode Anode
H2O H2O

Bipolar membrane (BPM)

Fig. 1. Water splitting in a bipolar membrane.

Feed (salt solution) MX

Recirculated acid Recirculated base

Electrode rinse C Ä BPM C Ä

Electrode rinse

X– å–
H+ OH –
å+ X–
H+ +
– OH –
Anode
Cathode X–
å+

Acid: HX Base: MOH

Diluted salt solution

Fig. 2. Conversion of a salt into its respective acid and base by electrodialysis with bipolar membranes.

EDMB PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS an anion, a bipolar and a cation-exchange membrane as

The configuration of the EDBM process depends on
the application. Typical use of BPM is in the treatment
of concentrated salt solutions MX to produce HX and
MOH (for example Na2SO4 from the chemical industry
to produce H2SO4 and NaOH). A cell system consists of
a repeating unit. In this case the configuration is a three-
compartment EDBM (Fig. 3a). This elementary cell is
repeated and placed between two electrodes. The MX
solution flows between the CEM and AEM. When a
direct current is applied, water will dissociate in BPM
to form equivalent amounts of ç+ and éç– ions. The

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38 No. 8 2002

 ELECTRODIALYSIS WITH BIPOLAR MEMBRANES 921

Salt
(a) solution
(MX)

– + – + – +
H2 O H2O
+ –
– + – M X + – +
Cathode Anode
– + – + – +
– H+ OH – H+ +
– + – + – +
OH –
– + – + – +

Bipolar Bipolar
membrane membrane

Diluate
Base (åéç) Acid (çï)

Cation exchange Anion exchange

membrane (CEM) membrane (AEM)

(b) (c)
H2O Me +X – Me +X – H2O
BIP CEM BIP BIP AEM BIP
– + – – + – + + – +
– + – – + – + + – +
– + – Me + – + – + X– + – +
– + – – + – + + – +
– + – – + – + + X– – +
–
... – + Me + – – + ...
+ – ... – + + – + ... +
– + – – + – + OH +
– – +
– + OH – – H+ – + – + + H+ – +
H + – + – – + OH – H + – + + – + OH –
ëÓθ/ÍËÒÎÓÚ‡
Salt/Acid ëÓθ/ÍËÒÎÓÚ‡
Salt/Base

Me +OH – HX + Me +X – MeOH + Me +X – H +X –

(d) (e)
H2O Me +X – HX + Me +X – MeOH + Me +X – Me +X – H2O
BIP CEM CEM BIP BIP AEM AEM BIP
– + – – Me + – + – + + Me + + – +
– + – – – + – + X– + + – +
– + – Me + – X– – + – + + + – +
– + – – – + – + Me + + X +– – +
– – + – X– – – + + – – + + + – + +
...
– + Me + – – – + ...
... – + + + X– – + ...
– + – – H+ – + – + OH – + Me + + – +
– + + H +
OH –– – – + – + + – +
OH –
H+ – + – HX – X– – + OH – H + – + Me + + OH – + – +

Me +OH – H +X–

Fig. 3. Different cell configurations for BPM applications (from [3]).

ç+ ions permeate through the cation-exchange side of
the BPM and form HX with the sulfate ions provided by
the MX solution from the adjacent cell. The éç– ions
permeate the anion-exchange side of the BPM and form
MOH with the sodium ions permeating into the cell
from the MX solution through adjacent CEM. The final
result is the production of MOH (NaOH) and HX
(H2SO4) from MX (Na2SO4) at a significantly lower
cost than by other methods.
There are applications where high purity of both
acid and base is not possible to obtain or even may gen-
erate problems during the process, e.g. when producing
organic acids or bases from the corresponding salts that
reveal low dissociation tendency and therefore low con-

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38 No. 8 2002

922 POURCELLY

BIP
K AK A

– +– +
å+ OH – H+ X– 1
– +– +
– X– +– +
– å+ 2
+– +
– +– +
+ –
MX – MOH +– HX + MX
Anode Cathode
– +– +
OH – Base Acid H+ 3
– +– +
– +– +
MOH HX
– +– + 4

Fig. 4. Factors limiting the EDBM efficiency.

ductivity in the protonated form. In such cases, a two-
compartment cell is recommended as depicted in
Fig. 3b (for acidification) or in Fig. 3c (for the genera-
tion of the corresponding base). Moreover, when a
higher ratio of acid and base with respect to the product
salt content is required, a configuration with two
homopolar membranes of the same type can be applied.
The outlet of the middle loop is recycled again into the
acidic loop next to the BPM for a more efficient
exchange between protons and cations (Fig. 3d), or
between éç– ions and anions (Fig. 3e).
LIMITING PHENOMENA OF EDBM
However, and as for all the processes, EDBM pre-
sents limits [4]. The first are closely related to the mem-
i, A/m2
3000
iop Uop
1000
~ ~
~ ~ JOH–
JOH+
20
10 i lim
JM + + |JX– |
0 ous media, the current efficiency increases with the
Udiss 1 Um, V
Fig. 5. Current–voltage curve of BPM in a salt environment:
iop is the operating current density, and ilim is the limiting-
current density due to the salt leakage though BPM.
brane performances (both bipolar and homopolar), the
second are related to the stack technology.
The performances of a water splitter are controlled
by the permselectivities of the ion-exchange mem-
branes (homopolar and bipolar) and by diffusive trans-
port. Figure 4 illustrates various processes which con-
tribute to the overall current efficiency. Zone 1 concerns
the specific process which generates acid and base from
salt and water. Competing with this are the undesirable
processes which reduce the current efficiency. Zone 2
represents the loss of permselectivity of each homopo-
lar layers of the BPM which affects the purity of the
acid and base obtained. Zone 3 represents the loss of
permselectivity of the associated homopolar mem-
branes which affects the efficiency of the EDBM pro-
cess. Zone 4 concerns the diffusional losses due to the
concentration gradients which significantly occur for
poorly ionized small molecules (e.g. HF, NH3, SO2,
etc.). Apart from these limits, which are mainly due to
the loss of permselectivity or/and diffusion, consider-
ation must also be paid to water transport through mem-
branes which generally limits the concentration level of
the acid and base produced. The analysis of factors lim-
iting the use of BPM is presented in [5]. Among this
first set of limits, the main concerns the permselectivity
of the associated homopolar membranes and specially
that of the AEM towards protons. Despite this point
having been thoroughly investigated [6–11], typical
standard-grade AEMs show proton transport numbers
between 0.30 and 0.70, this value increasing with the
poly-acidity (HCl < H2SO4 < H3PO4). Therefore, due to
the specific mechanism of the proton transport in aque-
temperature [12].
There are also other factors which affect the effi-
ciency of a water splitter. For instance, the installation
of feedback control systems is difficult due to nonlinear

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38 No. 8 2002

 ELECTRODIALYSIS WITH BIPOLAR MEMBRANES
functions of the controlled variables at high concentra-
tions such as conductivity and pH values, feasible mod-
ules and spacers including the sealings have to be pro-
duced from chemically and mechanically stable mate-
rials to achieve sufficient stabilities in concentrated
acids and bases at temperatures ranging from 50 to
80°ë, or current leakages may occur through the ports
which are provided in the membranes for solution sup-
ply to and from the electrodialyzer compartments
rather than through the membranes themselves. All
these points have been widely developed in [3].
Besides, salts solution used in EDBM may contain
suspended and colloidal matter, polyelectrolytes,
organic anions or di- or multivalent ions. These compo-
nents can cause a severe membrane fouling due to pre-
cipitation on the membrane surfaces or by partial pene-
tration into the membranes. A pretreatment of the feed
solution which guarantees the total removal of the mul-
tivalent ions (less than 1 ppm) is therefore necessary for
a trouble-free process operation [13].
OPTIMIZATION OF EDBM
For an electrodialysis stack operated at constant
applied voltage, the current density should not exceed
the limiting current density which is given by the diffu-
sion rate of water into the interphase of the BPM [14].
For commercial BPM, this limiting phenomenon
occurs from 2000 to 3000 kA/m2. Besides, co-ions are
responsible for the nonideal behavior of me mem-
branes. Salt ion leakage through BPM results in impu-
rities and is evidenced in current–voltage curves
recorded in a neutral salt solution as shown in Fig. 5
(from [15]). The proton flux (or the hydroxyl ion flux)
is given by the expression
i op – i lim
J H+ = -----------------
-, (5)
F ters have to be respected. First, the purity of the effluent
and the salt cation flux by
actual i lim
J M+ = t M+ -----------. (6)
z M+ F
In order to reduce ilim, Wilhelm [15] synthesized a
BPM composed of a cation-permeable layer which is a
blend of S-PEEK (sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone))
and PES (poly(ethersulfone)), and a commercial AEM
(AMX from Tokuyama Soda) or R4030 (from Pall Gel-
man), as anion-permeable layer. The increase of the
thickness of the cation-permeable layer significantly
reduces the value of the salt limiting current ilim. He
showed that with a suitable asymmetric membrane
design, the purity of one of the products, preferably the
base, could be improved. For a very high purity of one
product, the purity of the other product may have to be
sacrificed to allow for sufficient water transport to the
interface. For a high base purity that translates into
thick and selective cation-exchange layers.
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38
923
Inlet: Inlet:
make-up water make-up water
EDBM
module(s)
~
~ ~
~ ~
~
Outlet: Outlet:
base product acid product
Inlet:
brine salt solution
Fig. 6. The single-pass continuous flow configuration.
The minimization of parasitic currents (through the
manifold and feeding channels) is also a key issue in the
design of an EDBM cell. Ideally, small cross-sections
and long feeding channels should be considered. Para-
sitic currents can also be minimized by reductions of
both number of elementary cells and an increase of the
membrane area [3].
SCALING-UP AND EXPLOITATION
PARAMETERS OF THE BPM TECHNOLOGY
To optimize a BPM process, the following parame-
to be treated, as organic pollution and multivalent cat-
ions must be avoided: (i) IEM and BPM swell in the
presence of aromatic compounds and (ii) metallic
hydroxides precipitate in the membranes when the
divalent-cation concentrations reach 1 ppm. A pre-
treatment of solutions is therefore often necessary. Sec-
ond, the concentrations of the products. Due to the pro-
ton leakage through associated AEMs, the maximum
concentration of mineral acid products is 2–3 N and
5 N for organic acids. Due to the hydroxide ion leakage
through the associated CEMs, the maximum concentra-
tion of the base produced is 4.5 N. Third, the voltage
drop per elementary cell has to be maintained in the
range 1.5–3 V for 1000 A/m2. The applied current den-
sity is in the range 500–1000 A/m2. Fourth, the minimal
conductivity of the salt loop is 20 mS/cm at 40°ë. And
finally, the conversion ratio for organic salts is in the
range 95–98%.
Taking into account the previous recommendations,
scale-up of EDBM is really quite simple. In most cases,
No. 8 2002
924 POURCELLY

Some technology applications of EDBM (from [4])

I. Pollution control/ressource recovery
HF/mixed acid recovery
Sulfate recovery
Nitrate recovery
Amine recovery
Pulp & Papers
Flue gas desulfurization
Organic acid production recovery
Ion exchanger regeneration
Potassium and mineral processing
Sodium methoxide production
Methanesulphonic acid production
High-purity water production
Stainless cteel pickle liquor recovery
HF/NaOH recovery from spent aluminium potlinings
Fluorosilicic acid conversion to HF, SiO2
Fluoride emission control in chemical processing
Battery acid recovery
Waste sodium sulfate conversion
Sodium sulfate conversion in rayon manufacture
Ammonium nitrate conversion from the uranium proccessing
KNO3 conversion
Recovery of a catalyst used to cure epoxy resins in Al coating moulds
Sodium alkali recycling in pulping and bleaching operations
SoxalÚÏ process SO2 recovery
Dry sodium scrubbling alkali recovery
II. Chemical processing
Acetic, formic, acetylsalicilic, and organi acids
Aminoacids
Production of highly regenerated ion exchange resins
KCl conversion
Solution mining of trona and subsequent sodium alkali production
Sodium alkali production from natural brines and solid trona
EDBM in methanolic solutions
EDBM of sodium methanesulphonate
Continuous electrodeionization for high purity water production

the operating conditions in laboratory-scale EDBM can
be reproduced on a commercial scale.
EDBM PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS
Taking into account all the previous parameters,
there are three common process configurations which
are widely in use:
Batch-mode configuration. Running in batch
means that a given volume of salt solution is driven in
close cycle through the membrane stack until the
desired product concentration is obtained. The advan-
tage is a process which is easily adjusted to individual
demands with respect to product concentration and
flow. The disadvantage is a high expenditure for buffer
tanks, tubing, and process control. This mode concerns
medium and large scale applications.
Feed & bleed mode. Similar to the batch-mode, in
this configuration a concentration or depletion of the
process stream is carried out but in a continuous man-
ner. The main part of the process solution is recycled
and only a small part of this stream is bled off. The
advantage is a continuous production and steady-state
operation. The advantage and the scale of applications
are that of the batch-mode configuration.
Single-pass continuous flow. Typically, maximum
salt removal for any hydraulic stage is 55–60% with
standard design values of 40–50%. To increase the
amount of salt removed in an EDBM, two types of stag-
ings are used: (i) hydraulic staging (adding more stacks
in series, as depicted in Fig. 6), or (ii) electrical staging
(adding electrode pairs to the membrane stack). The
advantages are a continuous production, a low expendi-
ture of buffer tanks, tubing, and control instrumentation
and a low energy consumption. The disadvantage is a
later adjustment of unit to altered process conditions
which is difficult.
APPLICATIONS OF EDBM TECHNOLOGY
A large number of applications have been identified.
These are classified under broad categories of pollution
control/resource recovery and chemical processing in
Table 1 [4].
The oldest industrial application of EDBM in pollu-
tion control/resource recovery is the recovery of HF
and HNO3 from a stream containing KF and KNO3 gen-
erated from a pickling bath in a steel plant. This first
commercial use of BPM began operations in 1987 at
Washington Steel in Pennsylvania. Figure 7a illustrates

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38 No. 8 2002

 ELECTRODIALYSIS WITH BIPOLAR MEMBRANES 925

(a) Diluate
Electrodialysis
Depleted stack
salt solution
Concentrate

HF/HNO3
äéç
Bipolar
electrodialysis stack
Steel

Salts

Pickling Neutralization Filtration

bath Acid + tank pH 9 Wash solids

M(OH)n
(b)

Starch Chemical Glucose

Fermentation
reactor

0.9 å sodium lactate +

salts

2 å NaOH for
Conventional

pH control
electrodialysis

2 å sodium lactate

Ion exchange Bipolar

electrodialysis
2å lactic acid 1.98 å lactic acid +
0.02 å sodium lactate

H2O

Fig. 7. (a) Process for recycling HF/HNO3 steel pickling solution using EDBM (from [16]) and (b) scheme of production of lactic
acid from fermentation broth using both conventional ED and EDBM (from [16]).

the process. Spent pickling acid is neutralized with
KOH to precipitate the heavy metals which are then
removed by filtration. The remaining neutral solution of
KF + KNO3 is then treated in a three-compartment
EDBM cell in which the salts are split to form KOH
which is directed to the neutralization tank and the
mixed acids (HF + HNO3) which are directed to the
pickling operation. The dilute salt solution from the salt
compartment of the EDBM process is then reconcen-
trated by conventional electrodialysis and returned to
the bipolar stack, the diluate is used to rinse the filter
cake.
The main application of EDBM in chemical pro-
cessing is the recovery of organic acids which can be
recovered from fermentations. The performance of fer-
mentations is better when the pH is slightly higher than
the pKa of the organic acid to be produced. This condi-
tion requires addition of a base to maintain this elevated
pH. So, the product of the fermentation is a dilute salt
of the organic acid. For example, in the case of the lac-
tic acid production, the conventional process requires a
lot of different ion-exchange steps, resulting in a high
volume of waste water and organic solvents that have to
be recovered. On top of that, possible losses of product
and a potential contamination of the product have to be
taken into account. The recovery of lactic acid from fer-
mentation broth can also be performed by use of two
electrodialysis steps. In the first, the dilute sodium lac-
tate solution is concentrated by a conventional two-
compartment ED. This step also purifies the product
because only the ionized components of the broth are
redirected to the fermentation reactor. In the second
step, the concentrated sodium lactate is split in a two-
compartment bipolar ED with a CEM (configuration of

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY Vol. 38 No. 8 2002

926 POURCELLY
Fig. 3a) to generate lactic acid and NaOH. The acid
stream, still containing Na+ ions is then purified by a
cation-exchange resin, while caustic soda is recycled to
the fermenter for pH control. For economical reasons in
the bipolar ED step, the conversion rate of sodium lac-
tate is kept at 95%, but almost 100% could be easily
achieved. A simplified scheme of this process is
reported in Fig. 7b.
Analyzing the development of the EDBM technol-
ogy, it is clear now that BPM will be involved in
organic-acid production, organic-acid recovery, or
amino-acid production (chemical processing) rather
than in pollution control or resource recovery. In this
area of application, a typical EDBM process for acids
& amino acids production/recovery necessarily
involves the following steps: (i) a clarification (centri-
fuges or microfiltration); (ii) a concentration/purifica-
tion (electrodialysis, nanofiltration, physicochemical
treatments); (iii) divalent cation removal (chelating res-
ins); (iv) conversion (EDBM); and (v) polishing (ion-
exchange resins). Of course, all these pre- and post-
treatments increase the cost of the overall EDBM pro-
cess and explain why EDBM is applied rather in rela-
tivity high-cost products.
CONCLUSIONS
The technical feasibility of applying EDBM to vari-
ety of commercially interesting processes has been
demonstrated. Special BPMs have been elaborated
showing a reduced salt leakage. For improvement of
most of BPM applications, research is now mainly
focused on the membrane processes themselves. After
15 years of commercialization, if BPMs are of a great
scientific interest, few commercial plants are in opera-
tion. EDBM must be considered as part of a complete
process and not as a single technology. In this case, it
represents a very good opportunity for organic/amino
acids production or recovery.
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the European Commu-
nity (Thematic Network on Bipolar Membrane Tech-
nology, contract BRRT-CT97-5038), all the partners of
the Thematic Network contributing to the Handbook on
Bipolar Membrane Technology, (Kemperman, A.J.B.,
Ed.); the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
France (program PECO/CEI no. 8768); and the Eurodia
Company.
REFERENCES
1. Strathmann, H., Kroll, J.J., Rapp, H.-J., and Eigenber-
ger, G., J. Membr. Sci., 1997, vol. 125, p. 123.
2. Rapp, H.-J., PhD Thesis, University of Stuttgart, 1995.
3. Bauer, B., Holdik, H., and Velin, A., in Handbook on
Bipolar Membrane Technology, Kemperman, A.J.B., Ed.
(in press).
4. Mani, K.N., J. Membr. Sci., 1991, vol. 58, p. 117.
5. Gineste, J.L., Pourcelly, G., Lorrain, Y., et al., J. Membr.
Sci., 1996, vol. 112, p. 199.
6. Cohen, T., Daggard, P., Molenat, J., et al., J. Electroanal.
Chem., 1986, vol. 210, p. 329.
7. Pourcelly, G., Boudet-Dumy, M., Lindheimer, A., and
Gavach, C., Desalination, 1991, vol. 80, p. 193.
8. Raucq, D., Pourcelly, G., and Gavach, C., Desalination,
1993, vol. 91, p. 163.
9. Tugas, I., Pourcely, G., and Gavach, C., J. Membr. Sci.,
1993, vol. 85, p. 183.
10. Pourcelly, G., Tugas, I., and Gavach, C., J. Membr. Sci.,
1993, vol. 85, p. 195.
11. Pourcelly, G., Tugas, I., and Gavsch, C., J. Membr. Sci.,
1994, vol. 97, p. 99.
12. Lorrain, Y., Pourcelly, G., and Gavach, C., J. Membr.
Sci., 1996, vol. 110, p. 181.
13. Strathmann, H., in Handbook on Bipolar Membrane
Technology, Kemperman, A.J.B., Ed. (in press).
14. Strathmann, H., Krol, J.J., Rapp, H.J., and Eigenber-
ger, G., J. Membr. Sci., 1997, vol. 125, p. 123.
15. Wilhelm, F.G., PhD Thesis, University of Twente, 2001.
16. Davies, T.A., Genders, J.D., and Pletcher, D., Ion Perme-
able Membranes, London: Alresford, 1997.
Vol. 38 No. 8 2002